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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thickening_agent
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Thickening agent
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["1 Types","1.1 Starches","1.2 Other polymers","1.3 Gelling agents","1.4 Flours","2 In cooking","3 Mechanical and thixotropic agents","4 Cosmetics","5 Paint and printing thickeners","6 Petrochemistry","7 Flame fuel thickening compounds","8 See also","9 References","10 External links"]
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Increases the viscosity of a liquid without altering its other properties
"Thickening" redirects here. For the separation process, see gravity separation.
Potato starch slurry
Roux
A thickening agent or thickener is a substance which can increase the viscosity of a liquid without substantially changing its other properties. Edible thickeners are commonly used to thicken sauces, soups, and puddings without altering their taste; thickeners are also used in paints, inks, explosives, and cosmetics.
Thickeners may also improve the suspension of other ingredients or emulsions which increases the stability of the product. Thickening agents are often regulated as food additives and as cosmetics and personal hygiene product ingredients. Some thickening agents are gelling agents (gellants), forming a gel, dissolving in the liquid phase as a colloid mixture that forms a weakly cohesive internal structure. Others act as mechanical thixotropic additives with discrete particles adhering or interlocking to resist strain.
Thickening agents can also be used when a medical condition such as dysphagia causes difficulty in swallowing. Thickened liquids play a vital role in reducing risk of aspiration for dysphagia patients.
Many other food ingredients are used as thickeners, usually in the final stages of preparation of specific foods. These thickeners have a flavor and are not markedly stable, thus are not suitable for general use. However, they are very convenient and effective, and hence are widely used.
Different thickeners may be more or less suitable in a given application, due to differences in taste, clarity, and their responses to chemical and physical conditions. For example, for acidic foods, arrowroot is a better choice than cornstarch, which loses thickening potency in acidic mixtures. At (acidic) pH levels below 4.5, guar gum has sharply reduced aqueous solubility, thus also reducing its thickening capability. If the food is to be frozen, tapioca or arrowroot are preferable over cornstarch, which becomes spongy when frozen.
Types
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Food thickeners frequently are based on either polysaccharides (starches, vegetable gums, and pectin), or proteins.
Starches
This category includes starches as arrowroot, cornstarch, katakuri starch, potato starch, sago, wheat flour, almond flour, tapioca and their starch derivatives.
A flavorless powdered starch used for this purpose is a fecula (from the Latin faecula, diminutive of faex, "dregs").
Other polymers
Other sugar polymers include vegetable gums such as pectin from Citrus peel, guar gum from the guar bean, and locust bean gum from the carob bean.
Agar, alginin and carrageenan are polysaccharides extracted from algae, xanthan gum is a polysaccharide secreted by the bacterium Xanthomonas campestris, and carboxymethyl cellulose is a synthetic gum derived from cellulose. Proteins used as food thickeners include collagen, egg whites, and gelatin. Other thickening agents act on the proteins already present in a food; for example sodium pyrophosphate, which acts on casein in milk during the preparation of instant pudding.
Gelling agents
Gelling agents are food additives used to thicken and stabilize various foods, like jellies, desserts and candies. The agents provide the foods with texture through formation of a gel. Some stabilizers and thickening agents are gelling agents.
Typical gelling agents are based on polysaccharides such as natural gums, starches, pectins and agar-agar or proteins such as gelatin.
Examples are:
Alginic acid (E400), sodium alginate (E401), potassium alginate (E402), ammonium alginate (E403), calcium alginate (E404) - polysaccharides from brown algae
Agar (E406, a polysaccharide obtained from red algae)
Carrageenan (E407, a polysaccharide obtained from red seaweeds)
Locust bean gum (E410, a natural gum polysaccharide from the seeds of the carob tree)
Pectin (E440, a polysaccharide obtained from apple or citrus-fruit)
Gelatin (E441, made by partial hydrolysis of animal collagen)
Commercial jellies used in East Asian cuisines include the glucomannan polysaccharide gum used to make "lychee cups" from the konjac plants, and aiyu or ice jelly from the Ficus pumila climbing fig plant.
Agar-agar produces a very clear gel with light residual taste. Gelatin sheets disperse easily with no residual taste, but powdered form may have some taste. Kappa carragreenan may include potassium chloride to improve the gelling process and produces a clear product with very little aftertaste. Iota carrageenan contains sodium chloride which improves gel formation. Sodium alginate produces a medium viscosity gel but may have some aftertaste. High-methoxy pectin is one of the most widely used gelling agents in food processing. It reacts with some sugars and acids and sometimes includes minerals to improve gelling process. Low-methoxy pectin reacts with calcium, and is used for the preparation of low sugar jams.
Flours
Functional flours are produced from specific cereal variety (wheat, maize, rice or other) conjugated to specific heat treatment able to increase stability, consistency and general functionalities. These functional flours are resistant to industrial stresses such as acidic pH, sterilisation, freeze conditions, and can help food industries to formulate with natural ingredients. For the final consumer, these ingredients are more accepted because they are shown as "flour" in the ingredient list.
Flour is often used for thickening gravies, gumbos, and stews. The most basic type of thickening agent, flour blended with water to make a paste, is called whitewash. It must be cooked in thoroughly to avoid the taste of uncooked flour. Roux, a mixture of flour and fat (usually butter) cooked into a paste, is used for gravies, sauces and stews. Cereal grains (oatmeal, couscous, farina, etc.) are used to thicken soups. Yogurt is popular in Eastern Europe and Middle East for thickening soups. Soups can also be thickened by adding grated starchy vegetables before cooking, though these will add their own flavour. Tomato puree also adds thickness as well as flavour. Egg yolks are a traditional sauce thickener in professional cooking; they have rich flavor and offer a velvety smooth texture but achieve the desired thickening effect only in a narrow temperature range. Overheating easily ruins such a sauce, which can make egg yolk difficult to use as a thickener for amateur cooks. Other thickeners used by cooks are nuts (including rehan) or glaces made of meat or fish.
In cooking
Many thickening agents require extra care in cooking. Some starches lose their thickening quality when cooked for too long or at too high a temperature; on the other hand, cooking starches too short or not hot enough might lead to an unpleasant starchy taste or cause water to seep out of the finished product after cooling. Also, higher viscosity causes foods to burn more easily during cooking. As an alternative to adding more thickener, recipes may call for reduction of the food's water content by lengthy simmering. When cooking, it is generally better to add thickener cautiously; if over-thickened, more water may be added but loss of flavour and texture may result.
Food thickening can be important for people facing medical issues with chewing or swallowing, as foods with a thicker consistency can reduce the chances of choking, or of inhalation of liquids or food particles, which can lead to aspiration pneumonia.
Mechanical and thixotropic agents
Fumed silica and similar products form stiff microscopic chains or fibers which interlock or agglomerate into a mass, holding the associated liquid by surface tension, but which can separate or slide when sufficient force is applied. This causes the thixotropic or shear-thinning property (also frequently exhibited by gels), where the viscosity is non-Newtonian and becomes lower as the shearing force or time increases; their usefulness is primarily that the resulting increase in viscosity is large compared to the quantity of silica added. Fumed silica is generally accepted as safe as a food additive and is frequently used in cosmetics. Additives such as precipitated silica, fine talc, or chalk also meet the definition of thickening agent in that they increase viscosity and body while not affecting the target property of a mixture.
Cosmetics
Thickening agents used in cosmetics or personal hygiene products include viscous liquids such as polyethylene glycol, synthetic polymers such as carbomer (a trade name for polyacrylic acid) and vegetable gums. Some thickening agents may also function as stabilizers when they are used to maintain the stability of an emulsion. Some emollients, such as petroleum jelly and various waxes may also function as thickening agents in an emulsion.
Paint and printing thickeners
One of the main use of thickeners is in the paint and printing industries, which depend heavily on rheology modifiers, to prevent pigments settling to the bottom of the can, yielding inconsistent results. Water based formulas would be nearly impossible with the exception of India ink and the few other water-soluble pigments, but these would have very little coverage and at best would stain wood slightly. All modern paints and inks will have some pigment added at the factory for opacity and to control the specularity of the finish, from matte to high gloss, dependent on thickener used, but more so on the size of the particles added as opacity modifier. Particle sizes of 1 μm and below will be the limit of high gloss, probably confined to luxury automotive coatings, and about 100 μm particulates will make a bumpy surface on the microscopic scale, which scatters light and makes the surface appear matte.
Rheology modifiers in common use:
Polyurethanes, acrylic polymers, latex, styrene/butadiene,
PVA - polyvinyl alcohol, not polyvinylacetate which is used in adhesives such as wood glue. PVA monomers are dispersed in the paint or ink liquid at an early stage in the mix, as it does not affect rheology unless the pH is low. Boric acid is usually used to initiate polymerization after the pigment is added (the pigment "grind" stage) and dispersed, the mixture is thickened while stirring to maintain homogeneous consistency. Often this stage is problematic since air is entrained by all but the lowest shear impellers, which are inadequate for this purpose, instead antifoam additives are used to control air bubbles, which continue to be a benefit during paint application. Air entrainment during mixing is not unique to PVA—in fact hardly a formula for paint exists that doesn't at least require some care in mixing.
Clays - attapulgite which also disperses suspensions, bentonite (both flocculating and non-flocculating), and other montmorillonite clays. Usually clays, when dry, exist as a very fine powder, facilitating dispersion and compatibility with other ingredients. Clays generally make matte surfaces, in spite of their fine particulate nature. Not only paints and inks, but other industries such as pharmaceutical, construction, and cosmetics, especially hair styling aids and facial detoxifying masks increasingly favor bentonite and attapulgite clays over other rheology modifiers, dispersion aids, opacifying fillers, antifoam, and numerous niche uses which exploit the numerous inherent qualities which have drawn artisans to this material. Clays are sustainably sourced and do not involve any egregious environmental damage, which were among the cheapest bulk materials until recently, when the pricing went up steadily, following the upsurge in its use pattern.
Cellulosics - CMC, HMC, HPMC, and others, are chemically substituted cellulose macromolecules. The hydroxyl groups are substituted by other functional groups, such as methyl or propyl. The amount of substitution and molecular weight determine viscosity of the solution, assuming concentration stays the same; adding more also increases viscosity.
Sulfonates - Sodium or calcium salts, good water retention, versatile, and highly efficient.
Gums - guar, xanthan, cellulose, locust bean, and acacia are the main ones.
Saccharides - carrageenan, pullulan, konjac, and alginate, sometimes called hydrocolloids, these thickeners are extremely versatile and specific in function—each has a series of grades or types which behave differently, for example kappa carrageenan will form strong gels (potassium activated) but iota carrageenan will not form gels and only thickens.
Proteins - Casein, collagen, and sometimes albumin.
Modified castor oil - much like cellulose, castor oil has hydroxyl groups, unlike other oils which at most have double bonds, which castor oil also has, but most substitutions occur at the hydroxyl moieties, allowing exotic derivatives with myriad properties. The most recent advances in rheology modifiers have been in this category. The BASF corporation has a new line based on castor oil derivatives, for example.
Organosilicones - Silicone resins, dimethicones, and modified silicones simplify formulation somewhat, a borrowing from cosmetics.
All of the above rheology modifiers are used in the 0.2% to 2.0% range
Petrochemistry
In petrochemistry, gelling agents, also called solidifiers, are chemicals capable of reacting with oil spills and forming rubber-like solids. The gelled coagulated oil then can be removed from the water surface by skimming, suction devices, or nets. Calm or only moderately rough sea is required.
Flame fuel thickening compounds
Napalm gel concentration and rheology - Napalm thickener is an impure hydroxyaluminum di-soap.
Various materials are used to convert liquid explosives to a gel form. Nitrocellulose and other nitro esters are often used. Other possibilities include nitrated guar gum.
Many fuels used in incendiary devices require thickening for increased performance. Aluminium salts of fatty acids are frequently used. Some formulations (e.g. Napalm-B) use polymeric thickeners. Thickened pyrophoric agent, a pyrophoric replacement of napalm, is a triethylaluminium thickened with polyisobutylene.
Fuel thickeners are mostly composed of the same thickeners as polar liquids (water), due to the fact that they are "bipolar", that is, they have a polar and an apolar group. The only change is in the orientation of these groups. In the non-polar medium reverse micelle formation occurs.
Because the hydrocarbon-hydrocarbon type intermolecular interactions are the weakest, the reverse micelle is much more unstable than the normal micelle. The main gelled fuel precursors are commonly derived from weak acids and strong or weak bases.
Calcium acetate
Soap
Poly(methyl methacrylate)
Polystyrene
Paraffin wax
Silicon dioxide (some grades)
Natural rubber
Sulfur (polysulfides)
Polybutadiene
Asphalt
Bentonite clay
Metallic soaps
Cellulose derivatives
Carbomer
Alginate
See also
Chemistry portalFood portal
Mucilage
References
^ Glassburn, Devon L.; Deem, Jodelle F. (1998). "Thickener Viscosity in Dysphagia Management: Variability among Speech-Language Pathologists". Dysphagia. 13 (4): 218–222. doi:10.1007/PL00009575. PMID 9716753. S2CID 37019709.
^ Alicia Foundation (2014). A Chef's Guide to Gelling, Thickening, and Emulsifying Agents. Boca Raton: CRC Press. doi:10.1201/b17614. ISBN 9780429083310.
^ "The Science of Thickening Agents — The Culinary Pro". Theculinarypro.com. Retrieved 2022-05-08.
^ "Fumed Silica MSDS". Cabot Corporation. Retrieved 20 June 2016.
^ "Hydrolyzed Collagen". Yahoo. Retrieved 19 June 2016.
^ Jadhav, S. R.; Vemula, P. K.; Kumar, R.; Raghavan, S. R.; John, G. (2010). "Sugar-Derived Phase-Selective Molecular Gelators as Model Solidifiers for Oil Spills". Angew. Chem. 122 (42): 7861–7864. Bibcode:2010AngCh.122.7861J. doi:10.1002/ange.201002095. PMID 20632425.
External links
Cook's Thesaurus: Thickeners
Authority control databases: National
Germany
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Others act as mechanical thixotropic additives with discrete particles adhering or interlocking to resist strain.Thickening agents can also be used when a medical condition such as dysphagia causes difficulty in swallowing. Thickened liquids play a vital role in reducing risk of aspiration for dysphagia patients.[1]Many other food ingredients are used as thickeners, usually in the final stages of preparation of specific foods. These thickeners have a flavor and are not markedly stable, thus are not suitable for general use. However, they are very convenient and effective, and hence are widely used.Different thickeners may be more or less suitable in a given application, due to differences in taste, clarity, and their responses to chemical and physical conditions. For example, for acidic foods, arrowroot is a better choice than cornstarch, which loses thickening potency in acidic mixtures. At (acidic) pH levels below 4.5, guar gum has sharply reduced aqueous solubility, thus also reducing its thickening capability. 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The agents provide the foods with texture through formation of a gel. Some stabilizers and thickening agents are gelling agents.Typical gelling agents are based on polysaccharides such as natural gums, starches, pectins and agar-agar or proteins such as gelatin.Examples are:Alginic acid (E400), sodium alginate (E401), potassium alginate (E402), ammonium alginate (E403), calcium alginate (E404) - polysaccharides from brown algae\nAgar (E406, a polysaccharide obtained from red algae)\nCarrageenan (E407, a polysaccharide obtained from red seaweeds)\nLocust bean gum (E410, a natural gum polysaccharide from the seeds of the carob tree)\nPectin (E440, a polysaccharide obtained from apple or citrus-fruit)\nGelatin (E441, made by partial hydrolysis of animal collagen)Commercial jellies used in East Asian cuisines include the glucomannan polysaccharide gum used to make \"lychee cups\" from the konjac plants, and aiyu or ice jelly from the Ficus pumila climbing fig plant.Agar-agar produces a very clear gel with light residual taste. Gelatin sheets disperse easily with no residual taste, but powdered form may have some taste. Kappa carragreenan may include potassium chloride to improve the gelling process and produces a clear product with very little aftertaste. Iota carrageenan contains sodium chloride which improves gel formation. Sodium alginate produces a medium viscosity gel but may have some aftertaste. High-methoxy pectin is one of the most widely used gelling agents in food processing. It reacts with some sugars and acids and sometimes includes minerals to improve gelling process. Low-methoxy pectin reacts with calcium, and is used for the preparation of low sugar jams.[2]","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"flours","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flour"},{"link_name":"wheat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheat"},{"link_name":"maize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maize"},{"link_name":"rice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rice"},{"link_name":"natural ingredients","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_foods"},{"link_name":"gravies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravy"},{"link_name":"gumbos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gumbo"},{"link_name":"stews","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stew"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Roux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roux"},{"link_name":"sauces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sauce"},{"link_name":"oatmeal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oatmeal"},{"link_name":"couscous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Couscous"},{"link_name":"farina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farina_(food)"},{"link_name":"soups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soup"},{"link_name":"Yogurt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yogurt"},{"link_name":"Egg yolks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egg_yolk"},{"link_name":"nuts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nut_(fruit)"},{"link_name":"rehan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocimum_tenuiflorum"},{"link_name":"glaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demi-glace"},{"link_name":"meat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meat"},{"link_name":"fish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fish_(food)"}],"sub_title":"Flours","text":"Functional flours are produced from specific cereal variety (wheat, maize, rice or other) conjugated to specific heat treatment able to increase stability, consistency and general functionalities. These functional flours are resistant to industrial stresses such as acidic pH, sterilisation, freeze conditions, and can help food industries to formulate with natural ingredients. For the final consumer, these ingredients are more accepted because they are shown as \"flour\" in the ingredient list.Flour is often used for thickening gravies, gumbos, and stews. The most basic type of thickening agent, flour blended with water to make a paste, is called whitewash.[3] It must be cooked in thoroughly to avoid the taste of uncooked flour. Roux, a mixture of flour and fat (usually butter) cooked into a paste, is used for gravies, sauces and stews. Cereal grains (oatmeal, couscous, farina, etc.) are used to thicken soups. Yogurt is popular in Eastern Europe and Middle East for thickening soups. Soups can also be thickened by adding grated starchy vegetables before cooking, though these will add their own flavour. Tomato puree also adds thickness as well as flavour. Egg yolks are a traditional sauce thickener in professional cooking; they have rich flavor and offer a velvety smooth texture but achieve the desired thickening effect only in a narrow temperature range. Overheating easily ruins such a sauce, which can make egg yolk difficult to use as a thickener for amateur cooks. Other thickeners used by cooks are nuts (including rehan) or glaces made of meat or fish.","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"simmering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simmering"},{"link_name":"chewing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chewing"},{"link_name":"swallowing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swallowing"},{"link_name":"choking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choking"},{"link_name":"aspiration pneumonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspiration_pneumonia"}],"text":"Many thickening agents require extra care in cooking. Some starches lose their thickening quality when cooked for too long or at too high a temperature; on the other hand, cooking starches too short or not hot enough might lead to an unpleasant starchy taste or cause water to seep out of the finished product after cooling. Also, higher viscosity causes foods to burn more easily during cooking. As an alternative to adding more thickener, recipes may call for reduction of the food's water content by lengthy simmering. When cooking, it is generally better to add thickener cautiously; if over-thickened, more water may be added but loss of flavour and texture may result.Food thickening can be important for people facing medical issues with chewing or swallowing, as foods with a thicker consistency can reduce the chances of choking, or of inhalation of liquids or food particles, which can lead to aspiration pneumonia.","title":"In cooking"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fumed silica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fumed_silica"},{"link_name":"surface tension","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_tension"},{"link_name":"thixotropic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thixotropic"},{"link_name":"non-Newtonian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-Newtonian"},{"link_name":"generally accepted as safe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GRAS"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"precipitated silica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precipitated_silica"},{"link_name":"talc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talc"},{"link_name":"chalk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalk"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Fumed silica and similar products form stiff microscopic chains or fibers which interlock or agglomerate into a mass, holding the associated liquid by surface tension, but which can separate or slide when sufficient force is applied. This causes the thixotropic or shear-thinning property (also frequently exhibited by gels), where the viscosity is non-Newtonian and becomes lower as the shearing force or time increases; their usefulness is primarily that the resulting increase in viscosity is large compared to the quantity of silica added. Fumed silica is generally accepted as safe as a food additive[4] and is frequently used in cosmetics. Additives such as precipitated silica, fine talc, or chalk also meet the definition of thickening agent in that they increase viscosity and body while not affecting the target property of a mixture.[citation needed]","title":"Mechanical and thixotropic agents"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"polyethylene glycol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyethylene_glycol"},{"link_name":"carbomer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbomer"},{"link_name":"polyacrylic acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyacrylic_acid"},{"link_name":"vegetable gums","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetable_gum"},{"link_name":"stabilizers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stabilizer_(chemistry)"},{"link_name":"emulsion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emulsion"},{"link_name":"emollients","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emollient"},{"link_name":"petroleum jelly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum_jelly"},{"link_name":"waxes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wax"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Thickening agents used in cosmetics or personal hygiene products include viscous liquids such as polyethylene glycol, synthetic polymers such as carbomer (a trade name for polyacrylic acid) and vegetable gums. Some thickening agents may also function as stabilizers when they are used to maintain the stability of an emulsion. Some emollients, such as petroleum jelly and various waxes may also function as thickening agents in an emulsion.[citation needed]","title":"Cosmetics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"rheology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rheology"},{"link_name":"India ink","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_ink"},{"link_name":"μm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micrometre"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Polyurethanes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyurethane"},{"link_name":"styrene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Styrene"},{"link_name":"butadiene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butadiene"},{"link_name":"polyvinyl alcohol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyvinyl_alcohol"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Cellulosics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cellulosics&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"cellulose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulose"},{"link_name":"hydroxyl groups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroxyl_group"},{"link_name":"carrageenan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrageenan"},{"link_name":"pullulan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pullulan"},{"link_name":"konjac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konjac"},{"link_name":"alginate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alginate"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"castor oil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castor_oil"}],"text":"One of the main use of thickeners is in the paint and printing industries, which depend heavily on rheology modifiers, to prevent pigments settling to the bottom of the can, yielding inconsistent results. Water based formulas would be nearly impossible with the exception of India ink and the few other water-soluble pigments, but these would have very little coverage and at best would stain wood slightly. All modern paints and inks will have some pigment added at the factory for opacity and to control the specularity of the finish, from matte to high gloss, dependent on thickener used, but more so on the size of the particles added as opacity modifier. Particle sizes of 1 μm and below will be the limit of high gloss, probably confined to luxury automotive coatings, and about 100 μm particulates will make a bumpy surface on the microscopic scale, which scatters light and makes the surface appear matte.[citation needed]Rheology modifiers in common use:Polyurethanes, acrylic polymers, latex, styrene/butadiene,\nPVA - polyvinyl alcohol, not polyvinylacetate which is used in adhesives such as wood glue. PVA monomers are dispersed in the paint or ink liquid at an early stage in the mix, as it does not affect rheology unless the pH is low. Boric acid is usually used to initiate polymerization after the pigment is added (the pigment \"grind\" stage) and dispersed, the mixture is thickened while stirring to maintain homogeneous consistency. Often this stage is problematic since air is entrained by all but the lowest shear impellers, which are inadequate for this purpose, instead antifoam additives are used to control air bubbles, which continue to be a benefit during paint application. Air entrainment during mixing is not unique to PVA—in fact hardly a formula for paint exists that doesn't at least require some care in mixing.\nClays - attapulgite which also disperses suspensions, bentonite (both flocculating and non-flocculating), and other montmorillonite clays. Usually clays, when dry, exist as a very fine powder, facilitating dispersion and compatibility with other ingredients. Clays generally make matte surfaces, in spite of their fine particulate nature. Not only paints and inks, but other industries such as pharmaceutical, construction, and cosmetics, especially hair styling aids and facial detoxifying masks increasingly favor bentonite and attapulgite clays over other rheology modifiers, dispersion aids, opacifying fillers, antifoam, and numerous niche uses which exploit the numerous inherent qualities which have drawn artisans to this material. Clays are sustainably sourced and do not involve any egregious environmental damage, which were among the cheapest bulk materials until recently, when the pricing went up steadily, following the upsurge in its use pattern.[citation needed]\nCellulosics - CMC, HMC, HPMC, and others, are chemically substituted cellulose macromolecules. The hydroxyl groups are substituted by other functional groups, such as methyl or propyl. The amount of substitution and molecular weight determine viscosity of the solution, assuming concentration stays the same; adding more also increases viscosity.\nSulfonates - Sodium or calcium salts, good water retention, versatile, and highly efficient.\nGums - guar, xanthan, cellulose, locust bean, and acacia are the main ones.\nSaccharides - carrageenan, pullulan, konjac, and alginate, sometimes called hydrocolloids, these thickeners are extremely versatile and specific in function—each has a series of grades or types which behave differently, for example kappa carrageenan will form strong gels (potassium activated) but iota carrageenan will not form gels and only thickens.\nProteins - Casein, collagen,[5] and sometimes albumin.\nModified castor oil - much like cellulose, castor oil has hydroxyl groups, unlike other oils which at most have double bonds, which castor oil also has, but most substitutions occur at the hydroxyl moieties, allowing exotic derivatives with myriad properties. The most recent advances in rheology modifiers have been in this category. The BASF corporation has a new line based on castor oil derivatives, for example.\nOrganosilicones - Silicone resins, dimethicones, and modified silicones simplify formulation somewhat, a borrowing from cosmetics.All of the above rheology modifiers are used in the 0.2% to 2.0% range","title":"Paint and printing thickeners"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"oil spills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_spill"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"In petrochemistry, gelling agents, also called solidifiers, are chemicals capable of reacting with oil spills and forming rubber-like solids.[6] The gelled coagulated oil then can be removed from the water surface by skimming, suction devices, or nets. Calm or only moderately rough sea is required.","title":"Petrochemistry"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Napalm_gel_concentration_and_rheology.png"},{"link_name":"liquid explosives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_explosive"},{"link_name":"Nitrocellulose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrocellulose"},{"link_name":"nitro esters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrate"},{"link_name":"guar gum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guar_gum"},{"link_name":"incendiary devices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incendiary_device"},{"link_name":"fatty acids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatty_acid"},{"link_name":"Napalm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napalm"},{"link_name":"Thickened pyrophoric agent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thickened_pyrophoric_agent"},{"link_name":"pyrophoric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrophoric"},{"link_name":"triethylaluminium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triethylaluminium"},{"link_name":"polyisobutylene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyisobutylene"},{"link_name":"bipolar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detergent"},{"link_name":"reverse micelle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micelle"},{"link_name":"intermolecular interactions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermolecular_force"},{"link_name":"Calcium acetate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_acetate"},{"link_name":"Soap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soap"},{"link_name":"Poly(methyl methacrylate)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poly(methyl_methacrylate)"},{"link_name":"Polystyrene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polystyrene"},{"link_name":"Paraffin wax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraffin_wax"},{"link_name":"Silicon dioxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_dioxide"},{"link_name":"Natural rubber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_rubber"},{"link_name":"Sulfur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur"},{"link_name":"Polybutadiene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polybutadiene"},{"link_name":"Asphalt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitumen"},{"link_name":"Bentonite clay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bentonite"},{"link_name":"Metallic soaps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallic_soap"},{"link_name":"Cellulose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulose"},{"link_name":"Carbomer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyacrylic_acid"},{"link_name":"Alginate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alginic_acid"}],"text":"Napalm gel concentration and rheology - Napalm thickener is an impure hydroxyaluminum di-soap.Various materials are used to convert liquid explosives to a gel form. Nitrocellulose and other nitro esters are often used. Other possibilities include nitrated guar gum.Many fuels used in incendiary devices require thickening for increased performance. Aluminium salts of fatty acids are frequently used. Some formulations (e.g. Napalm-B) use polymeric thickeners. Thickened pyrophoric agent, a pyrophoric replacement of napalm, is a triethylaluminium thickened with polyisobutylene.Fuel thickeners are mostly composed of the same thickeners as polar liquids (water), due to the fact that they are \"bipolar\", that is, they have a polar and an apolar group. The only change is in the orientation of these groups. In the non-polar medium reverse micelle formation occurs.Because the hydrocarbon-hydrocarbon type intermolecular interactions are the weakest, the reverse micelle is much more unstable than the normal micelle. The main gelled fuel precursors are commonly derived from weak acids and strong or weak bases.Calcium acetate\nSoap\nPoly(methyl methacrylate)\nPolystyrene\nParaffin wax\nSilicon dioxide (some grades)\nNatural rubber\nSulfur (polysulfides)\nPolybutadiene\nAsphalt\nBentonite clay\nMetallic soaps\nCellulose derivatives\nCarbomer\nAlginate","title":"Flame fuel thickening compounds"}]
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[{"image_text":"Potato starch slurry","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Potato_starch_slurry.jpg/220px-Potato_starch_slurry.jpg"},{"image_text":"Roux","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Roux_bianco.JPG/220px-Roux_bianco.JPG"},{"image_text":"Napalm gel concentration and rheology - Napalm thickener is an impure hydroxyaluminum di-soap.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Napalm_gel_concentration_and_rheology.png/220px-Napalm_gel_concentration_and_rheology.png"}]
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[{"reference":"Glassburn, Devon L.; Deem, Jodelle F. (1998). \"Thickener Viscosity in Dysphagia Management: Variability among Speech-Language Pathologists\". Dysphagia. 13 (4): 218–222. doi:10.1007/PL00009575. PMID 9716753. S2CID 37019709.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2FPL00009575","url_text":"10.1007/PL00009575"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9716753","url_text":"9716753"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:37019709","url_text":"37019709"}]},{"reference":"Alicia Foundation (2014). A Chef's Guide to Gelling, Thickening, and Emulsifying Agents. Boca Raton: CRC Press. doi:10.1201/b17614. ISBN 9780429083310.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1201%2Fb17614","url_text":"10.1201/b17614"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780429083310","url_text":"9780429083310"}]},{"reference":"\"The Science of Thickening Agents — The Culinary Pro\". Theculinarypro.com. Retrieved 2022-05-08.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theculinarypro.com/the-science-of-thickening-agents","url_text":"\"The Science of Thickening Agents — The Culinary Pro\""}]},{"reference":"\"Fumed Silica MSDS\". Cabot Corporation. Retrieved 20 June 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cabotcorp.com/modals/documentation-download/?type=msds&prodCode=TS530","url_text":"\"Fumed Silica MSDS\""}]},{"reference":"\"Hydrolyzed Collagen\". Yahoo. Retrieved 19 June 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://finance.yahoo.com/news/perfect-hydrolyzed-collagen-named-best-173500454.html","url_text":"\"Hydrolyzed Collagen\""}]},{"reference":"Jadhav, S. R.; Vemula, P. K.; Kumar, R.; Raghavan, S. R.; John, G. (2010). \"Sugar-Derived Phase-Selective Molecular Gelators as Model Solidifiers for Oil Spills\". Angew. Chem. 122 (42): 7861–7864. Bibcode:2010AngCh.122.7861J. doi:10.1002/ange.201002095. PMID 20632425.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010AngCh.122.7861J","url_text":"2010AngCh.122.7861J"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fange.201002095","url_text":"10.1002/ange.201002095"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20632425","url_text":"20632425"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disaster_draft
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Disaster draft
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["1 Background","2 Special procedures","2.1 Major League Baseball","2.2 National Basketball Association","2.3 National Football League","2.4 National Hockey League","2.5 Major League Soccer","2.6 Kontinental Hockey League","3 References"]
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Disaster recovery plan for professional sports teams
A disaster draft or contingency draft is a disaster recovery plan developed by professional sports leagues to rebuild a team's roster if many players are disabled or killed.
Background
Further information: List of accidents involving sports teams
Since the advent of modern mass transportation, there have been accidents that killed all or nearly all members of various sports teams. The 1949 Torino Football Club had only one survivor following a plane crash. Two teams in the Canadian Football League lost players, returning from an all-star game, in the 1956 crash of Trans-Canada Air Lines Flight 810.
Other incidents since then have involved the 1958 Manchester United football team, 1960 Cal Poly football team, 1961 United States figure skating team, 1970 Wichita State University football team, 1970 Marshall University football team, 1977 University of Evansville basketball team, 1980 United States boxing team, 1993 Zambia national football team, 2011 Lokomotiv Yaroslavl ice hockey team, 2016 Associação Chapecoense de Futebol team (Brasil), and the 2018 Humboldt Broncos ice hockey team.
As a result of these accidents, some professional sports leagues have developed disaster recovery plans should such an incident befall one or more of their teams.
Special procedures
An affected team is expected to replace players using the minor leagues and by signing free agents. Each league, however, has established procedures to decide whether an accident is of sufficient scale to activate contingency plans to help rebuild an affected team's roster, typically involving a special draft.
Major League Baseball
Major League Baseball's disaster plan is covered in Rule 19 of The Official Professional Baseball Rules Book. The plan is triggered by an event causing the death, dismemberment, or permanent disability of at least five players from a team's active, injured, or suspended roster during a season (including the playoffs), or at least six players during the off-season. Major League Baseball's commissioner will decide if the disabled club can continue play, in consultation with the MLB Players' Association and the club.
If the commissioner decides that the disabled club will continue to play, the commissioner may hold a Restocking Draft to allow the disabled club to select as many players as it lost, with the restriction that no more than one player can be selected from each team. Each of the non-disabled teams makes five players available for the draft taken from its active list (or if during the off-season, from its reserve list), composed of one pitcher, one catcher, one outfielder, one infielder, and one more player of any position, subject to adjustments by the commissioner based on the players lost by the disabled club. If a team has fewer than three eligible catchers, it does not have to provide a catcher to the draft. The non-disabled teams also are required to make available as many players with 60 or more days of Major League service time as of 31 August of the season preceding such draft as the number of such players lost by the disabled team.: Section 19(b)(3)(A)(iii) Any player with no-trade rights with regards to the disabled team may not be made available unless the player waives the right.
If the commissioner decides that the disabled club cannot continue play, the commissioner will cancel the disabled club's season. The commissioner and Players' Association can also agree upon other appropriate relief for a disabled club. Major League Baseball's first expansion drafts of the early 1960s were based largely on the procedures first set out for the disaster draft.
National Basketball Association
The National Basketball Association (NBA) contingency plan activates if five or more players on a team "die or are dismembered". A special "disaster draft" would be held in which other NBA teams could only protect five players, so that quality sixth men would be available. No more than one player would be drafted from a team.
National Football League
The National Football League (NFL)'s contingency plan provides for both a "near-disaster" and a "disaster". A "near-disaster" is defined as fewer than 15 players on a team being disabled, and a "disaster" is 15 or more.
No special draft would be held for a "near-disaster"; the team would instead get preferential rights on any waivers until the end of the season. If a quarterback is among the fewer than 15 lost, the team would be able to draft up to two quarterbacks from all NFL teams with three available. Each team would be able to protect two, and the drafted quarterbacks would return to their original teams in the following season.
For a "disaster", the commissioner would determine whether to cancel the team's schedule for the season. If the team's season is canceled, the team would have the first pick in the next regular draft; a special draft would also be held in which each team would be able to protect 32 players. If not canceled, the "near-disaster" procedures would be used.
National Hockey League
The National Hockey League (NHL) contingency plan activates if five or more players on a team "are killed or disabled". The team would select players from other NHL teams, paying with funds from a special insurance fund. Once its roster has one goaltender and 14 other players, a special draft involving the teams unaffected by the earlier selection could be held, with each team able to protect one goaltender and 10 other players.
Major League Soccer
Within its roster regulations, Major League Soccer has what it refers to as an "extreme hardship" provision, which can be used if "a team has less than 15 available players". However, this is a mechanism intended to be used on a "game-by-game basis", and any contingency plans that may exist for a disaster draft scenario are not public.
Kontinental Hockey League
The Kontinental Hockey League (KHL) contingency plan was implemented after the 2011 Lokomotiv Yaroslavl plane crash that killed the team's entire traveling roster. In the policy, each team makes three players eligible for the disaster draft, with the team that suffered the disaster being able to call up five players from its farm teams. There is no mention of a goaltender minimum for the draft, unlike the NFL disaster draft on quarterbacks or NHL disaster draft on goaltenders, or a mention of a team being able to surrender only one player, unlike other leagues, in the draft. Until 2016, the afflicted team would have had have a spot in the draft lottery, thus guaranteeing that the team would have picked at least as high as 4th overall in the next KHL Junior Draft and it would also have been able to protect any player it wants for the next five entry drafts.
References
^ a b c d e f g Eskenazi, Gerald. "The Plans No One Wants to Use." The New York Times, 22 May 1992.
^ a b The Official Professional Baseball Rules Book (PDF). New York City: Office of the Commissioner of Baseball. 2019. Retrieved 16 April 2021 – via mlbpa.org.
^ a b c d e f g h Drehs, Wayne. "'God forbid it should ever be needed'." ESPN.com, 10 April 2001.
^ a b c d e f g Mizell, Hubert (23 September 2001). "Several pro teams have airline disaster plans in place". The St. Petersburg Times. Retrieved 14 September 2010.
^ a b c d O'Keeffee, Michael. "JUST PLANE SCARY Oklahoma State crash causes high anxiety Archived 6 May 2009 at the Wayback Machine." New York Daily News, 4 February 2001.
^ "2011 MLS Roster Rules | Major League Soccer". Archived from the original on 30 April 2011. Retrieved 31 August 2012.
^ National Post, "KHL delays games, but season will go on for Lokomotiv" Archived 5 June 2012 at archive.today, Peter Leonard, 8 September 2011
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"disaster recovery plan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disaster_recovery_plan"},{"link_name":"roster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schedule_(workplace)"}],"text":"A disaster draft or contingency draft is a disaster recovery plan developed by professional sports leagues to rebuild a team's roster if many players are disabled or killed.","title":"Disaster draft"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of accidents involving sports teams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_accidents_involving_sports_teams"},{"link_name":"1949 Torino Football Club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superga_air_disaster"},{"link_name":"one survivor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sauro_Tom%C3%A0"},{"link_name":"Canadian Football League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Football_League"},{"link_name":"Trans-Canada Air Lines Flight 810","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-Canada_Air_Lines_Flight_810"},{"link_name":"1958 Manchester United football team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munich_air_disaster"},{"link_name":"1960 Cal Poly football team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cal_Poly_football_team_plane_crash"},{"link_name":"1961 United States figure skating team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabena_Flight_548"},{"link_name":"1970 Wichita State University football team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wichita_State_University_football_team_plane_crash"},{"link_name":"1970 Marshall University football team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Airways_Flight_932"},{"link_name":"1977 University of Evansville basketball team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evansville_basketball_plane_crash"},{"link_name":"1980 United States boxing team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LOT_Polish_Airlines_Flight_007"},{"link_name":"1993 Zambia national football team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1993_Zambia_national_football_team_air_disaster"},{"link_name":"2011 Lokomotiv Yaroslavl ice hockey team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_Lokomotiv_Yaroslavl_plane_crash"},{"link_name":"2016 Associação Chapecoense de Futebol team (Brasil)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LaMia_Flight_2933"},{"link_name":"2018 Humboldt Broncos ice hockey team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humboldt_Broncos_bus_crash"},{"link_name":"disaster recovery plans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disaster_recovery_plan"}],"text":"Further information: List of accidents involving sports teamsSince the advent of modern mass transportation, there have been accidents that killed all or nearly all members of various sports teams. The 1949 Torino Football Club had only one survivor following a plane crash. Two teams in the Canadian Football League lost players, returning from an all-star game, in the 1956 crash of Trans-Canada Air Lines Flight 810.Other incidents since then have involved the 1958 Manchester United football team, 1960 Cal Poly football team, 1961 United States figure skating team, 1970 Wichita State University football team, 1970 Marshall University football team, 1977 University of Evansville basketball team, 1980 United States boxing team, 1993 Zambia national football team, 2011 Lokomotiv Yaroslavl ice hockey team, 2016 Associação Chapecoense de Futebol team (Brasil), and the 2018 Humboldt Broncos ice hockey team.As a result of these accidents, some professional sports leagues have developed disaster recovery plans should such an incident befall one or more of their teams.","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"minor leagues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minor_leagues"},{"link_name":"free agents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_agent"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt1992-1"},{"link_name":"draft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Draft_(sports)"}],"text":"An affected team is expected to replace players using the minor leagues and by signing free agents.[1] Each league, however, has established procedures to decide whether an accident is of sufficient scale to activate contingency plans to help rebuild an affected team's roster, typically involving a special draft.","title":"Special procedures"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Official Professional Baseball Rules Book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Official_Professional_Baseball_Rules_Book"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-topbrb-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-topbrb-2"},{"link_name":"expansion drafts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expansion_draft"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Major League Baseball","text":"Major League Baseball's disaster plan is covered in Rule 19 of The Official Professional Baseball Rules Book.[2] The plan is triggered by an event causing the death, dismemberment, or permanent disability of at least five players from a team's active, injured, or suspended roster during a season (including the playoffs), or at least six players during the off-season. Major League Baseball's commissioner will decide if the disabled club can continue play, in consultation with the MLB Players' Association and the club.If the commissioner decides that the disabled club will continue to play, the commissioner may hold a Restocking Draft to allow the disabled club to select as many players as it lost, with the restriction that no more than one player can be selected from each team. Each of the non-disabled teams makes five players available for the draft taken from its active list (or if during the off-season, from its reserve list), composed of one pitcher, one catcher, one outfielder, one infielder, and one more player of any position, subject to adjustments by the commissioner based on the players lost by the disabled club. If a team has fewer than three eligible catchers, it does not have to provide a catcher to the draft. The non-disabled teams also are required to make available as many players with 60 or more days of Major League service time as of 31 August of the season preceding such draft as the number of such players lost by the disabled team.[2]: Section 19(b)(3)(A)(iii) Any player with no-trade rights with regards to the disabled team may not be made available unless the player waives the right.If the commissioner decides that the disabled club cannot continue play, the commissioner will cancel the disabled club's season. The commissioner and Players' Association can also agree upon other appropriate relief for a disabled club. Major League Baseball's first expansion drafts of the early 1960s were based largely on the procedures first set out for the disaster draft.[citation needed]","title":"Special procedures"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"National Basketball Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Basketball_Association"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt1992-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-espn2001-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-espn2001-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mizell20010923-4"},{"link_name":"sixth men","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sixth_man"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt1992-1"}],"sub_title":"National Basketball Association","text":"The National Basketball Association (NBA) contingency plan activates if five or more players on a team \"die or are dismembered\".[1][3] A special \"disaster draft\" would be held in which other NBA teams could only protect five players,[3][4] so that quality sixth men would be available. No more than one player would be drafted from a team.[1]","title":"Special procedures"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"National Football League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Football_League"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt1992-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-espn2001-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-espn2001-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mizell20010923-4"},{"link_name":"waivers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waivers_(American_football)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nydn2001-5"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mizell20010923-4"},{"link_name":"quarterback","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quarterback"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt1992-1"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nydn2001-5"},{"link_name":"commissioner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NFL_Commissioner"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nydn2001-5"},{"link_name":"draft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NFL_Draft"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-espn2001-3"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nydn2001-5"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mizell20010923-4"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt1992-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-espn2001-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mizell20010923-4"}],"sub_title":"National Football League","text":"The National Football League (NFL)'s contingency plan provides for both a \"near-disaster\" and a \"disaster\".[1][3] A \"near-disaster\" is defined as fewer than 15 players on a team being disabled, and a \"disaster\" is 15 or more.[3][4]No special draft would be held for a \"near-disaster\"; the team would instead get preferential rights on any waivers until the end of the season.[5][4] If a quarterback is among the fewer than 15 lost, the team would be able to draft up to two[1] quarterbacks from all NFL teams with three available. Each team would be able to protect two, and the drafted quarterbacks would return to their original teams in the following season.[5]For a \"disaster\", the commissioner would determine whether to cancel the team's schedule for the season.[5] If the team's season is canceled, the team would have the first pick in the next regular draft;[3][5][4] a special draft would also be held in which each team would be able to protect 32 players. If not canceled, the \"near-disaster\" procedures would be used.[1][3][4]","title":"Special procedures"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"National Hockey League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Hockey_League"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-espn2001-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mizell20010923-4"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt1992-1"},{"link_name":"goaltender","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goaltender"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-espn2001-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mizell20010923-4"}],"sub_title":"National Hockey League","text":"The National Hockey League (NHL) contingency plan activates if five or more players[3][4] on a team \"are killed or disabled\".[1] The team would select players from other NHL teams, paying with funds from a special insurance fund. Once its roster has one goaltender and 14 other players, a special draft involving the teams unaffected by the earlier selection could be held, with each team able to protect one goaltender and 10 other players.[3][4]","title":"Special procedures"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Major League Soccer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_League_Soccer"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"sub_title":"Major League Soccer","text":"Within its roster regulations, Major League Soccer has what it refers to as an \"extreme hardship\" provision, which can be used if \"a team has less than 15 available players\". However, this is a mechanism intended to be used on a \"game-by-game basis\", and any contingency plans that may exist for a disaster draft scenario are not public.[6]","title":"Special procedures"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kontinental Hockey League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kontinental_Hockey_League"},{"link_name":"2011 Lokomotiv Yaroslavl plane crash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_Lokomotiv_Yaroslavl_plane_crash"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"KHL Junior Draft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KHL_Junior_Draft"}],"sub_title":"Kontinental Hockey League","text":"The Kontinental Hockey League (KHL) contingency plan was implemented after the 2011 Lokomotiv Yaroslavl plane crash that killed the team's entire traveling roster. In the policy, each team makes three players eligible for the disaster draft, with the team that suffered the disaster being able to call up five players from its farm teams. There is no mention of a goaltender minimum for the draft, unlike the NFL disaster draft on quarterbacks or NHL disaster draft on goaltenders, or a mention of a team being able to surrender only one player, unlike other leagues, in the draft.[7] Until 2016, the afflicted team would have had have a spot in the draft lottery, thus guaranteeing that the team would have picked at least as high as 4th overall in the next KHL Junior Draft and it would also have been able to protect any player it wants for the next five entry drafts.","title":"Special procedures"}]
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[]
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[{"reference":"The Official Professional Baseball Rules Book (PDF). New York City: Office of the Commissioner of Baseball. 2019. Retrieved 16 April 2021 – via mlbpa.org.","urls":[{"url":"https://registration.mlbpa.org/pdf/MajorLeagueRules.pdf","url_text":"The Official Professional Baseball Rules Book"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City","url_text":"New York City"}]},{"reference":"Mizell, Hubert (23 September 2001). \"Several pro teams have airline disaster plans in place\". The St. Petersburg Times. Retrieved 14 September 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.sptimes.com/News/092301/Columns/Several_pro_teams_hav.shtml","url_text":"\"Several pro teams have airline disaster plans in place\""}]},{"reference":"\"2011 MLS Roster Rules | Major League Soccer\". Archived from the original on 30 April 2011. Retrieved 31 August 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110430101816/http://www.mlssoccer.com/2011-mls-roster-rules","url_text":"\"2011 MLS Roster Rules | Major League Soccer\""},{"url":"http://www.mlssoccer.com/2011-mls-roster-rules","url_text":"the original"}]}]
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fumiko_Kometani
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Fumiko Kometani
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["1 Awards","2 References","3 External links"]
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Japanese author
This biography of a living person needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately from the article and its talk page, especially if potentially libelous.Find sources: "Fumiko Kometani" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Fumiko Kometani (米谷ふみ子, Kometani Fumiko, born 1930 in Osaka, Japan) is a Japanese author and artist (painter) and a longtime resident of the United States. Kometani moved to the US in 1960 when she was working as an abstract painter, spending time at the MacDowell Colony in New Hampshire where she met her husband, Josh Greenfeld (now living in California). She changed her focus to writing when her developmentally disabled son Noah became too hard to handle when he was around the art supplies in her studio. Her older son, Karl Taro Greenfeld, is also a writer.
Kometani is also noted for her expressed displeasure of what she terms the fascist mentality of the World War II Japanese Army. She regularly participates in anti-war and anti-nuclear protests.
Her first book, Passover, received the distinguished Akutagawa Prize. It was subsequently described in The New York Times as "anti-Semitic" and an example of Japan's "widespread anti-Semitism", although Kometani's husband is Jewish, and the novel was an adaption of a visit to his parents' house. A judge for the Akutagawa Prize claimed that the Times had misinterpreted the sardonic and self-ridiculing tone of the novel.
Awards
Bungakkai shinjinshoo (1985)
Shinchoo shinjinshoo (1985)
Akutagawashoo (1985) (One of the most prestigious literary awards in Japan)
Murasaki Shikibu Prize (1998)
References
^ "Foumiko Kometani: Un-handicapped Art". Asia Pacific Arts, UCLA. June 25, 2004. Archived from the original on December 1, 2010. Retrieved January 2, 2011.
^ Mulhern, Chieko Irie (1994). Japanese women writers: a bio-critical sourcebook. Greenwood Press. pp. 190–199. ISBN 0-313-25486-9. Retrieved January 2, 2011.
^ Her Story : L.A. Writer Foumiko Kometani's Novella 'Passover' Created a Sensation in Japan, Winning an Unprecedented String of Literary Prizes. In This Country, It Created a Sensation of a Different Kind. 'Passover,' Critics Charged, Was a Work of Anti-Semitism.
External links
Fumiko Kometani at J'Lit Books from Japan (in English)
Synopsis of Wasabi for Breakfast (Famiri bijinesu) at JLPP (Japanese Literature Publishing Project) (in English)
vteList of Akutagawa Prize winners1935–1950
1935: Tatsuzō Ishikawa / None
1936: Oda Takeo and Tsuruta Tomoya / Jun Ishikawa and Tomisawa Uio
1937: Ozaki Kazuo / Ashihei Hino
1938: Nakayama Gishū / Nakazato Tsuneko
1939: Handa Yoshiyuki and Hase Ken / Samukawa Kotaro
1940: None / Sakurada Tsunehisa
1941: Tada Yukei / Shibaki Yoshiko
1942: None / Kuramitsu Toshio
1943: Ishizuka Kikuzo / Tonobe Kaoru
1944: Yagi Yoshinori and Ono Juzo / Shimizu Motoyoshi
1949: Kotani Tsuyoshi and Yuki Shigeko / Yasushi Inoue
1950: Tsuji Ryoichi / None
1951–1975
1951: Abe Kōbō and Ishikawa Toshimitsu / Hotta Yoshie
1952: None / Gomi Kosuke and Matsumoto Seichō
1953: Shōtarō Yasuoka / None
1954: Yoshiyuki Junnosuke / Kojima Nobuo and Shono Junzo
1955: Shūsaku Endō / Shintaro Ishihara
1956: Kondō Keitarō / None
1957: Kikumura Itaru / Takeshi Kaikō
1958: Kenzaburō Ōe / None
1959: Shiba Shiro / None
1960: Morio Kita / Miura Tetsuo
1961: None / Kōichirō Uno
1962: Kawamura Akira / None
1963: Goto Kiichi and Kōno Taeko / Tanabe Seiko
1964: Shiba Shou / None
1965: Tsumura Setsuko / Takai Yuichi
1966: None / Maruyama Kenji
1967: Oshiro Tatsuhiro / Kashiwabara Hyozo
1968: Maruya Saiichi and Oba Minako / None
1969: Shoji Kaoru and Takubo Hideo / KiyookaTakayuki
1970: Yoshida Tomoko and Komao Furuyama / Yoshikichi Furui
1971: None / Kaisei Ri and Mineo Higashi
1972: Hiroshi Hatayama and Akio Miyahara / Michiko Yamamoto and Shizuko Go
1973: Taku Miki / Kuninobu Noro and Atsushi Mori
1974: None / Keizo Hino and Hiro Sakata
1975: Kyoko Hayashi / Kenji Nakagami and Kazuo Okamatsu
1976–2000
1976: Ryū Murakami / None
1977: Masahiro Mita and Masuo Ikeda / Teru Miyamoto and Shuzo Taki
1978: Kiichiro Takahashi and Michitsuna Takahashi / None
1979: Yoshiko Shigekane and So Aono / Reiko Mori
1980: None / Katsuhiko Otsuji
1981: Rie Yoshiyuki / None
1982: None / Yukiko Kato and Jūrō Kara
1983: None / Jun Kasahara and Nobuko Takagi
1984: None / Satoko Kizaki
1985: None / Fumiko Kometani
1986: None / None
1987: Kiyoko Murata / Natsuki Ikezawa and Kiyohiro Miura
1988: Man Arai / Keishi Nagi and Lee Yangji
1989: None / Akira Ooka and Mieko Takizawa
1990: Noboru Tsujihara / Yōko Ogawa
1991: Yo Henmi and Anna Ogino / Eiko Matsumura
1992: Tomomi Fujiwara / Yoko Tawada
1993: Haruhiko Yoshimeki / Hikaru Okuizumi
1994: Mitsuhiro Muroi and Yoriko Shono / None
1995: Kazushi Hosaka / Matayoshi Eiki
1996: Hiromi Kawakami / Hitonari Tsuji and Miri Yu
1997: Shun Medoruma / None
1998: Mangetsu Hanamura and Shu Fujisawa / Keiichiro Hirano
1999: None / Gengetsu and Chiya Fujino
2000: Kō Machida and Hisaki Matsuura / Yuichi Seirai and Toshiyuki Horie
2001–2025
2001: Sokyu Genyu / Yu Nagashima
2002: Shuichi Yoshida / Tamaki Daido
2003: Man'ichi Yoshimura / Risa Wataya and Hitomi Kanehara
2004: Norio Mobu / Kazushige Abe
2005: Fuminori Nakamura / Akiko Itoyama
2006: Takami Itō / Nanae Aoyama
2007: Tetsushi Suwa / Mieko Kawakami
2008: Yang Yi / Kikuko Tsumura
2009: Ken'ichirō Isozaki / None
2010: Akiko Akazome / Mariko Asabuki and Kenta Nishimura
2011: None / Toh EnJoe and Shinya Tanaka
2012: Maki Kashimada / Natsuko Kuroda
2013: Kaori Fujino / Hiroko Oyamada
2014: Tomoka Shibasaki / Masatsugu Ono
2015: Keisuke Hada and Naoki Matayoshi / Yusho Takiguchi and Yukiko Motoya
2016: Sayaka Murata / Sumito Yamashita
2017: Shinsuke Numata / Chisako Wakatake and Yuka Ishii
2018: Hiroki Takahashi / Takahiro Ueda and Ryōhei Machiya
2019: Natsuko Imamura / Makoto Furukawa
2020: Haruka Tono and Haneko Takayama / Rin Usami
2021: Li Kotomi and Mai Ishizawa / Bunji Sunakawa
2022: Junko Takase / Iko Idogawa and Atsushi Satō
2023: Saō Ichikawa / Rie Kudan
Authority control databases International
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IdRef
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Osaka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osaka"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"MacDowell Colony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacDowell_Colony"},{"link_name":"New Hampshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Hampshire"},{"link_name":"Josh Greenfeld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josh_Greenfeld"},{"link_name":"Karl Taro Greenfeld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Taro_Greenfeld"},{"link_name":"fascist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fascism"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"anti-nuclear protests","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_protests"},{"link_name":"Akutagawa Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akutagawa_Prize"},{"link_name":"The New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"Japanese authorFumiko Kometani (米谷ふみ子, Kometani Fumiko, born 1930 in Osaka, Japan) is a Japanese author and artist (painter)[1][2] and a longtime resident of the United States. Kometani moved to the US in 1960 when she was working as an abstract painter, spending time at the MacDowell Colony in New Hampshire where she met her husband, Josh Greenfeld (now living in California). She changed her focus to writing when her developmentally disabled son Noah became too hard to handle when he was around the art supplies in her studio. Her older son, Karl Taro Greenfeld, is also a writer.Kometani is also noted for her expressed displeasure of what she terms the fascist mentality of the World War II Japanese Army. She regularly participates in anti-war and anti-nuclear protests.Her first book, Passover, received the distinguished Akutagawa Prize. It was subsequently described in The New York Times as \"anti-Semitic\" and an example of Japan's \"widespread anti-Semitism\", although Kometani's husband is Jewish, and the novel was an adaption of a visit to his parents' house. A judge for the Akutagawa Prize claimed that the Times had misinterpreted the sardonic and self-ridiculing tone of the novel.[3]","title":"Fumiko Kometani"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Bungakkai shinjinshoo (1985)\nShinchoo shinjinshoo (1985)\nAkutagawashoo (1985) (One of the most prestigious literary awards in Japan)\nMurasaki Shikibu Prize (1998)","title":"Awards"}]
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[]
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[{"reference":"\"Foumiko Kometani: Un-handicapped Art\". Asia Pacific Arts, UCLA. June 25, 2004. Archived from the original on December 1, 2010. Retrieved January 2, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20101201194127/http://www.asiaarts.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=12245","url_text":"\"Foumiko Kometani: Un-handicapped Art\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UCLA","url_text":"UCLA"},{"url":"http://www.asiaarts.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=12245","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Mulhern, Chieko Irie (1994). Japanese women writers: a bio-critical sourcebook. Greenwood Press. pp. 190–199. ISBN 0-313-25486-9. Retrieved January 2, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=q9eFckEQAMkC&q=kometani","url_text":"Japanese women writers: a bio-critical sourcebook"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-25486-9","url_text":"0-313-25486-9"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinesics
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Kinesics
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["1 Birdwhistell's work","2 Modern applications","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]
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Interpretation of body motion communication
Not to be confused with Kinetics.
Kinesics is the interpretation of body communication such as facial expressions and gestures, nonverbal behavior related to movement of any part of the body or the body as a whole. The equivalent popular culture term is body language, a term Ray Birdwhistell, considered the founder of this area of study, neither used nor liked (on the grounds that what can be conveyed with the body does not meet the linguist's definition of language).
Birdwhistell's work
Kinesics was first used in 1952 by an anthropologist named Ray Birdwhistell. Birdwhistell wished to study how people communicate through posture, gesture, stance and movement. His ideas over several decades were synthesized and resulted in the book Kinesics and Context. Interest in kinesics specifically and nonverbal behaviour generally was popularized in the late 1960s and early 1970s by such popular mass-market (nonacademic) publications as How to Read a Person Like a Book. Part of Birdwhistell's work involved filming people in social situations and analyzing them to show elements of communication that were not seen otherwise. One of his most important projects was The Natural History of an Interview, a long-term interdisciplinary collaboration including Gregory Bateson, Frieda Fromm-Reichmann, Norman A. McQuown, Henry W. Brosin and others.
Drawing heavily on descriptive linguistics, Birdwhistell argued that all movements of the body have meaning and that nonverbal behaviour has a grammar that can be analyzed in similar terms to spoken language. Thus, a "kineme" is "similar to a phoneme because it consists of a group of movements which are not identical, but which may be used interchangeably without affecting social meaning."
Birdwhistell estimated that no more than 30 to 35 percent of the social meaning of a conversation or an interaction is carried by the words. He also concluded that there were no universals in these kinesic displays, a claim that was disputed by Paul Ekman, who was interested in analysis of universals, especially in facial expression.
Modern applications
In a current application, kinesic behavior is sometimes used as signs of deception by interviewers looking for clusters of movements to determine the veracity of the statement being uttered, although kinesics can be equally applied in any context and type of setting to construe innocuous messages whose carriers are indolent or unable to express verbally.
Relevant concepts include:
Emblems - Body movements or gestures that are directly translatable into a word or phrase
Illustrators - Accompany or reinforce verbal messages
Batons - Temporally accent or emphasize words or phrases
Ideographs - Trace the paths of mental journeys
Deictic movements - Point to a present object
Kinetographs - Depict a bodily action
Spatial movements - Depict a spatial relationship
Pictographs - Draw a picture of their referent
Rhythmic movements - Depict the rhythm or pacing of an event
Affect Displays - Show emotion
Regulators - Control the flow and pace of communication
Manipulators - Release physical or emotional tension
Kinesic behaviors are an important part of nonverbal communication. Body movements convey information, but interpretations vary by culture. As many movements are carried out at a subconscious or at least a low-awareness level, kinesic movements carry a significant risk of being misinterpreted in an intercultural communication situation.
See also
Intercultural competence
Metacommunicative competence
Nonverbal communication
Body language
Cold reading
Eye contact
Facial expression
Gesture
Posture
Proxemics
Paralanguage
References
^ Danesi, M (2006). "Kinesics". Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics: 207–213. doi:10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01421-8. ISBN 9780080448541.
^ Birdwhistell, R. L. (1952). Introduction to Kinesics: An Annotation System for Analysis of Body Motion and Gesture. Washington, DC: Department of State, Foreign Service Institute.
^ Birdwhistell, R. 1970. Kinesics and Context. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.
^ Nierenberg, G. I., & Calero, H. H. (1971). How to Read a Person Like a Book. New York: Hawthorn Books.
^ Jump up ^ Leeds-Hurwitz, W. (1987). The Social History of The Natural History of an Interview: A multidisciplinary investigation of social communication. Research on Language and Social Interaction, 20, 1-51.
^ Knapp, M. 1972. Nonverbal Communication in Human Interaction. Reinhart and Winston, New York, pp. 94-5.
^ McDermott, R. 1980. Profile: Ray L. Birdwhistell. The Kinesis Report, 2, 3: 1-16.
^ Ekman, P; Friesen, W (1971). "Constants across cultures in the face and emotion" (PDF). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 17 (2): 124–9. doi:10.1037/h0030377. PMID 5542557. S2CID 14013552. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-02-28. Retrieved 2015-02-28.
^ Ekman, Paul (2004). "Emotional and Conversational Nonverbal Signals". Language, Knowledge, and Representation. pp. 39–50. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-2783-3_3. ISBN 978-94-015-7073-2.
External links
Look up kinesics in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Report on kinesics by David B. Givens for the Center for Nonverbal Studies.
On the Origin of Language by Andrej Poleev.
vteNonverbal communicationModalitiesPhysical
Blushing
Body language / Kinesics
Body-to-body communication
Facial expression
Facial Action Coding System
Microexpression
Subtle expression
Gesture
List
Speech-independent gestures
Haptic communication
Imitation
Interpersonal synchrony
Laughter
Oculesics
Eye contact
Pupil dilation
Olfaction
Posture
Proxemics
Speech
Affect
Emotional prosody
Paralanguage
Intonation
Loudness
Prosody
Rhythm
Stress
Tone
Voice quality
Social context
Chronemics
Conventions
Display rules
Habitus
High-context and low-context cultures
Interpersonal relationship
Social norm
Other
Emoticon / Smiley
One-bit message
Missed call
Yo
Punctuation
Silent service code
Unconscious
Microexpression
Non-verbal leakage
Multi-faceted
Affect display
Deception
Emotion recognition
First impression
Intimacy
Broader concepts
Basic interpersonal communicative skills
Communication
Emotional intelligence
Nunchi
People skills
Semiotics
Social behavior
Social cue
Social competence
Social skills
Unsaid
Further informationDisorders
Aprosodia
Asperger syndrome
Autism
Fragile X
Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified
Childhood disintegrative disorder
Rett syndrome
Dyssemia
Nonverbal learning disorder
Social (pragmatic) communication disorder
Neuroanatomy
Limbic system / Limbic lobe
Mirror neuron
Applications
Cold reading
Lie detection
Freudian slip
Poker tell
Targeted advertising
Technology
Computer processing of body language
Emotion recognition in conversation
Gesture recognition
List of facial expression databases
Sentiment analysis
Key people
Ray Birdwhistell
Charles Darwin
Paul Ekman
Related
Animal communication
Behavioral communication
Aggressive
Assertive
Passive
Passive-aggressive
Impression management
Meta-communication
Monastic sign lexicons
Verbal communication
Non-verbal language
Sign language
Tactile signing
Tadoma
Art and literature
Mime
Mimoplastic art
Subtext
|
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The equivalent popular culture term is body language, a term Ray Birdwhistell, considered the founder of this area of study,[1] neither used nor liked (on the grounds that what can be conveyed with the body does not meet the linguist's definition of language).","title":"Kinesics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"anthropologist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropology"},{"link_name":"Ray Birdwhistell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_Birdwhistell"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Gregory Bateson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_Bateson"},{"link_name":"Frieda Fromm-Reichmann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frieda_Fromm-Reichmann"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"descriptive linguistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descriptive_linguistics"},{"link_name":"grammar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammar"},{"link_name":"phoneme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoneme"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Paul Ekman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Ekman"},{"link_name":"facial expression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facial_expression"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"Kinesics was first used in 1952 by an anthropologist named Ray Birdwhistell. Birdwhistell wished to study how people communicate through posture, gesture, stance and movement.[2] His ideas over several decades were synthesized and resulted in the book Kinesics and Context.[3] Interest in kinesics specifically and nonverbal behaviour generally was popularized in the late 1960s and early 1970s by such popular mass-market (nonacademic) publications as How to Read a Person Like a Book.[4] Part of Birdwhistell's work involved filming people in social situations and analyzing them to show elements of communication that were not seen otherwise. One of his most important projects was The Natural History of an Interview, a long-term interdisciplinary collaboration including Gregory Bateson, Frieda Fromm-Reichmann, Norman A. McQuown, Henry W. Brosin and others.[5]Drawing heavily on descriptive linguistics, Birdwhistell argued that all movements of the body have meaning and that nonverbal behaviour has a grammar that can be analyzed in similar terms to spoken language. Thus, a \"kineme\" is \"similar to a phoneme because it consists of a group of movements which are not identical, but which may be used interchangeably without affecting social meaning.\"[6]Birdwhistell estimated that no more than 30 to 35 percent of the social meaning of a conversation or an interaction is carried by the words.[7] He also concluded that there were no universals in these kinesic displays, a claim that was disputed by Paul Ekman, who was interested in analysis of universals, especially in facial expression.[8]","title":"Birdwhistell's work"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"deception","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deception"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"nonverbal communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication"}],"text":"In a current application, kinesic behavior is sometimes used as signs of deception by interviewers looking for clusters of movements to determine the veracity of the statement being uttered, although kinesics can be equally applied in any context and type of setting to construe innocuous messages whose carriers are indolent or unable to express verbally.Relevant concepts[9] include:Emblems - Body movements or gestures that are directly translatable into a word or phrase\nIllustrators - Accompany or reinforce verbal messages\nBatons - Temporally accent or emphasize words or phrases\nIdeographs - Trace the paths of mental journeys\nDeictic movements - Point to a present object\nKinetographs - Depict a bodily action\nSpatial movements - Depict a spatial relationship\nPictographs - Draw a picture of their referent\nRhythmic movements - Depict the rhythm or pacing of an event\nAffect Displays - Show emotion\nRegulators - Control the flow and pace of communication\nManipulators - Release physical or emotional tensionKinesic behaviors are an important part of nonverbal communication. Body movements convey information, but interpretations vary by culture. As many movements are carried out at a subconscious or at least a low-awareness level, kinesic movements carry a significant risk of being misinterpreted in an intercultural communication situation.","title":"Modern applications"}]
|
[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Hochberg
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Fred Hochberg
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["1 Early life and education","2 Business career","3 Public service and academic career","4 LGBTQ activism","5 Corporate and non-profit boards","6 Publications","6.1 Articles","7 Personal life","8 Selected writings","9 References","10 External links"]
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American businessman and civic leader
Fred HochbergChairman and President of the Export-Import BankIn officeMay 27, 2009 – January 17, 2017PresidentBarack ObamaPreceded byJames LambrightSucceeded byKimberly A. ReedDeputy Administrator of the Small Business AdministrationIn officeJune 1, 1998 – January 20, 2001PresidentBill ClintonPreceded byGinger Ehn LewSucceeded byMelanie Sabelhaus
Personal detailsBorn (1952-02-03) February 3, 1952 (age 72)Mount Vernon, New York, U.S.Political partyDemocraticEducationNew York University (BA)Columbia University (MBA)
Fred Philip Hochberg (born February 3, 1952) is an American businessman and civic leader. After nearly two decades as an executive, including five years as President at the Lillian Vernon Corporation, he then served in various leadership roles at U.S. government agencies, non-profit organizations, and in academia. From 2009 to 2017, he was chairman and president of the Export–Import Bank of the United States, becoming the institution's longest-serving chairman.
He was initially appointed in January 2009 and confirmed in May 2009. He was re-nominated in March 2013 and confirmed for a second term in July 2013. He served as a member of the Presidential transition of Barack Obama. From 2004 to 2008 he served as dean of the Milano School of International Affairs, Management, and Urban Policy at The New School and as deputy and then acting administrator of the Small Business Administration (SBA) in the Clinton Administration. Hochberg was one of the highest-ranking LGBTQ officials in the Obama Administration and has been active for decades in LGBTQ causes. In the 1990s Hochberg served as co-chair of the board of the Human Rights Campaign, the largest LGBTQ civil rights advocacy organization in the United States. In January 2020, Simon & Schuster published Hochberg's first book, Trade is Not a Four-Letter Word.
As of 2023, Hochberg serves as chair of the Meridian International Center's board of trustees.
Early life and education
Hochberg was born on February 3, 1952. He is the first son of Lillian Vernon (born Lilli Menasche) and Samuel Hochberg. Lillian's father (Fred Hochberg's grandfather) fled Germany for Amsterdam in 1933, later emigrating to New York City in 1937. He was named after his uncle, Siegfried Menasche, who was drafted into the U.S. Army and died during the invasion of Normandy. Lillian and Samuel had a second son, David Hochberg, in October 1956. The couple divorced in 1969. Fred Hochberg received his B.A. from New York University and an MBA from Columbia.
Business career
Hochberg's official administration portrait as chairman and president of the Export-Import Bank of the United States (2009)
Hochberg began his business career at the Lillian Vernon Corporation, the company founded by his mother on her kitchen table in 1951. That table can now be found at the Smithsonian National Museum of American History in Washington, D.C.. As president and chief operating officer, where he led the transformation of a small, family-owned mail order company into an international, publicly traded direct marketing corporation. The company listed on the American Stock Exchange in 1987 and Forbes described the company's growth as "one of the great success stories of American entrepreneurship." Hochberg helped oversee a nearly 40-fold increase in annual revenue, from $5 million in 1975 to nearly $200 million in 1993. In 1993, Hochberg left Lillian Vernon as the company was struggling and later entered bankruptcy, in what was characterized as a sudden move, to devote his time to advocacy and investing.
Public service and academic career
In 1998 Hochberg was confirmed by unanimous consent of the U.S. Senate and deputy administrator of the Small Business Administration (SBA), later becoming the agency's acting administrator. He remained in the post at the SBA until January 2001, serving also on US President Bill Clinton's Management Council. At the SBA, Hochberg helped to lead aggressive outreach that quadrupled loans to minority, women, and LGBTQ-owned businesses across the nation.Hochberg tours a Brazilian landfill gas-to-energy plant constructed with U.S. equipment in 2014
Following his years in the Clinton administration, he was in December 2003 appointed dean of the Milano School of International Affairs, Management, and Urban Policy, a post he left in late 2008.
Hochberg was a bundler of contributions for the Obama campaign; some bundlers collected $500,000 for the campaign. In the fall of 2009, Hochberg was named as an Agency Review team leader for the SBA on then-President-elect Barack Obama's transition team.
President Obama formally nominated Hochberg to be chairman and president of the Export-Import Bank of the United States on April 20, 2009. The U.S. Senate confirmed his nomination by unanimous consent on May 14, 2009, for a term ending on January 20, 2013. He was sworn in on May 21, 2009. During his tenure, the agency supported more than 1.4 million American jobs and financed exports with a value exceeding $240 billion, while generating $3.8 billion in profits for U.S. taxpayers and reducing internal agency costs by 30 percent. Under Hochberg, the bank also increased its focus on customers, particularly America’s small business exporters, and in several years during his tenure, nearly 90 percent of EXIM Bank authorizations directly supported small businesses. He streamlined processes, cutting transactions times so that 98% of transactions were processed within 100 days and 89% within 30 days. During this period the bank also achieved record lows for employee satisfaction and morale and spent large sums of money on frequent international travel by Hochberg. During his tenure as chairman, the bank experienced its longest ever shutdown and longest period without a board quorum rendering it unable to approve large transactions.
After Hochberg's tenure at the U.S. Export-Import Bank he was named a fellow at the Institute of Politics at the University of Chicago in the fall of 2017 and the Institute of Politics at Harvard University in the spring of 2018. Following his fellowships, Hochberg wrote Trade is Not a Four Letter Word: How Six Everyday Products Make the Case for Trade, his first book. The book is described as the antidote to today’s acronym-laden trade jargon pitched to voters with simple promises that rarely play out so one-dimensionally. The book was published by Simon & Schuster on January 14, 2020 in advance of voting getting underway in the 2020 Democratic Presidential primaries. The book was met with critical praise and has been referred to as "a sprightly and clear-eyed testimonial to the value of globalization" and “a rousing, well-argued defense of global trade in a time of isolationist entrenchment."
LGBTQ activism
Beginning in the 1970s Hochberg has a long history of LGBTQ activism, including serving as co-chair of the Human Rights Campaign, a prominent lesbian and gay rights group. In the April 2007 issue of Out Magazine he was ranked the 15th most powerful gay person in America. Hochberg is also a founder of the Bohnett Leaders Fellowship, an executive education program for state and local elected officials through the LGBTQ Victory Institute in partnership with Harvard Kennedy School at Harvard University.
Corporate and non-profit boards
Hochberg has been dedicated to public policy, community service and philanthropic involvement in expanding access to capital, civil rights, education and the arts. He currently serves on the boards of the Meridian International Center and the American Theatre Wing and has recently been a member of the boards of the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, New York City's Citizens Budget Commission, and FINCA International. From 2008 to 2009 he was a member of the Board of Commissioners of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey.
He has also served on the boards of Playwrights Horizons and the Wolfsonian Art Museum, and on the Democratic National Committee.
Publications
Articles
America’s global ‘soft power’ strategy is aging poorly — especially compared to China’s, The Hill, January 13, 2024
Personal life
Hochberg was born in New York and lives with his partner, the writer Tom Healy, in Miami Beach, Florida.
Selected writings
Trade is Not a Four Letter Word. Simon & Schuster, 2020
"The Next Coronavirus Relief Bill Needs To Solve America's Unbanked and Unwired Crises". The Hill. April 15, 2020
"The iPhone Isn't Made in China – It's Made Everywhere". The Wall Street Journal. January 31, 2020
"To Beat Trump, Embrace Free Trade". The Wall Street Journal. February 6, 2019
"EXIM Plays a Critical Role in Supporting U.S. Businesses". Washington Post. February 8, 2019
"An Easy Trade Win for Trump". The New York Times. February 2, 2017.
"New Year's Resolution: Jobs". Foreign Policy. December 29, 2016.
"Protecting America's Competitive Advantage". Foreign Affairs. 94 (3). May–June 2015.
"Small Business, Badly Damaged". The New York Times. October 17, 2001.
"In Government and, Incidentally, Gay". The New York Times. February 10, 2001.
References
^ "PN732 - Nomination of Fred P. Hochberg for Small Business Administration, 105th Congress (1997-1998)". May 21, 1998.
^ "PN1223 - Nomination of Melanie Sabelhaus for Small Business Administration, 107th Congress (2001-2002)". April 8, 2002.
^ a b c d e Mehnert, Ute (December 21, 2015). "Lillian Vernon (1927–2015)". Immigrant Entrepreneurship. German Historical Institute. Retrieved September 9, 2016.
^ Vernon, Lillian (October 1996). An Eye for Winners: How I Built One of America's Greatest Direct-Mail Businesses. HarperCollins. p. 54. ISBN 9780887308185.
^ "Statement by Ranking Member Maxine Waters on the Resignation of Export-Import Bank Chairman and President Fred P. Hochberg". Financial Services Committee Democrats. January 19, 2017. Retrieved July 24, 2017.
^ "- NOMINATION OF FRED P. HOCHBERG". www.congress.gov. Retrieved July 24, 2017.
^ O'Keefe, Ed (July 17, 2013). "Hochberg confirmed for Import-Export Bank; Perez clears hurdle for Labor post". The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved December 5, 2015.
^ "Hochberg named dean of New School's Milano School". thevillager.com. Archived from the original on February 17, 2017. Retrieved July 24, 2017.
^ a b "Fred P. Hochberg profile". Forbes.com. Archived from the original on January 23, 2013. Retrieved December 18, 2008.
^ "Obama has appointed most U.S. gay officials". The Washington Times. Retrieved July 24, 2017.
^ a b c "Hochberg Becomes New School Dean". gaycitynews.nyc. Retrieved July 24, 2017.
^ Team, Meridian International Center. "Fred P. Hochberg | Meridian International Center". www.meridian.org. Retrieved January 13, 2024.
^ Arnold, Laurence (December 14, 2015). "Lillian Vernon, who created mail-order catalog business, dies at 88". The Washington Post. Retrieved September 9, 2016.
^ Hochberg, Fred (December 22, 2015). "On the Passing of My Mother, Lillian Vernon". The Huffington Post. Retrieved September 9, 2016.
^ Witchel, Alex (January 16, 1997). "Sometimes a Great Notion". The New York Times. Retrieved September 9, 2016.
^ a b "Hochberg named dean of New School's Milano School". The Villager. December 17–23, 2003. Archived from the original on June 12, 2011. Retrieved December 18, 2008.
^ "About Us - Lillian Vernon". www.lillianvernon.com. Retrieved July 24, 2017.
^ "Lillian Vernon Corp. - Company Profile, Information, Business Description, History, Background Information on Lillian Vernon Corp". www.referenceforbusiness.com. Retrieved July 24, 2017.
^ "Strickland, Ted". AllGov. Retrieved May 9, 2020.
^ "Lillian Vernon Corporation History". Funding Universe. Retrieved May 9, 2020.
^ a b Andy Birkey, Obama transition includes LGBT community. Minnesota Independent, December 16, 2008.
^ "Obama-Biden Transition: Agency Review Teams". Archived from the original on October 13, 2016. Retrieved December 18, 2008.
^ "Who Made the Cut at the State Dinner?", by Nadia Taha, The Caucus blog, The New York Times, May 20, 2010. Retrieved July 13, 2010.
^ "Senate Hearing 113-378 — OVERSIGHT AND REAUTHORIZATION OF THE EXPORT-IMPORT BANK OF THE UNITED STATES". Congress.gov. U.S. Government Publishing Office. Retrieved February 20, 2024.
^ http://www.exim.gov/sites/default/files//FPH%20Biography_as%20of%2012%2019%202016.pdf
^ Hochberg, Fred P. (January 14, 2020). Trade Is Not a Four-Letter Word. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-9821-2736-7.
^ Melloan, George (January 7, 2020). "'Trade Is Not a Four-Letter Word' Review: Bargain Shopping Across the Globe". Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved September 24, 2020.
^ TRADE IS NOT A FOUR-LETTER WORD | Kirkus Reviews.
^ Oxfield, Jesse, Idov, Michael (March 4, 2007), ‘Out’ Ranks the Top 50 Gays; Anderson Is No. 2 Archived June 6, 2007, at the Wayback Machine, New York Magazine. Retrieved December 18, 2008.
^ mthomas. "Bohnett Leaders Fellowship - Victory Institute". Retrieved July 24, 2017.
^ "Woodrow Wilson Center". support.wilsoncenter.org. Archived from the original on August 29, 2016. Retrieved July 24, 2017.
^ https://cbcny.org/sites/default/files/media/files/reportsummary_medicaid_04012004.pdf
^ "Press Release Article - Port Authority of NY & NJ". www.panynj.gov. Archived from the original on February 22, 2017. Retrieved July 24, 2017.
^ Hochberg, Fred P. (January 13, 2024). "America's global 'soft power' strategy is aging poorly — especially compared to China's". The Hill. Retrieved January 13, 2024.
^ "Healy named new leader of Downtown cultural group". www.downtownexpress.com. Archived from the original on September 23, 2015. Retrieved July 24, 2017.
External links
Fred Hochberg Archived April 25, 2009, at the Wayback Machine profile at the Milano The New School for Management and Urban Policy website
Nomination of Fred P. Hochberg: Hearing before the Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs, United States Senate, One Hundred Thirteenth Congress, First Session, on Nomination of Fred P. Hochberg, of New York, to be President of the Export-Import Bank of the United States, May 7, 2013
Appearances on C-SPAN
Political offices
Preceded byJames Lambright
Chairman and President of the Export-Import Bank 2009–2017
Succeeded byKimberly A. Reed
Authority control databases International
FAST
VIAF
WorldCat
National
United States
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ghi-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Lillian Vernon Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lillian_Vernon_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Export–Import Bank of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Export%E2%80%93Import_Bank_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Presidential transition of Barack Obama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_Barack_Obama"},{"link_name":"Milano School of International Affairs, Management, and Urban Policy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milano_School_of_International_Affairs,_Management,_and_Urban_Policy"},{"link_name":"The New School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_School"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-thevillager.com-8"},{"link_name":"Small Business Administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_Business_Administration"},{"link_name":"Clinton Administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinton_Administration"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Forbes-9"},{"link_name":"Obama Administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obama_Administration"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Human Rights Campaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Rights_Campaign"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gaycitynews.nyc-11"},{"link_name":"Simon & Schuster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster"},{"link_name":"Trade is Not a Four-Letter Word","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.fredphochberg.com"},{"link_name":"Meridian International Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meridian_International_Center"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"Fred Philip Hochberg (born February 3, 1952)[3][4] is an American businessman and civic leader. After nearly two decades as an executive, including five years as President at the Lillian Vernon Corporation, he then served in various leadership roles at U.S. government agencies, non-profit organizations, and in academia. From 2009 to 2017, he was chairman and president of the Export–Import Bank of the United States, becoming the institution's longest-serving chairman.[5]He was initially appointed in January 2009 and confirmed in May 2009. He was re-nominated in March 2013[6] and confirmed for a second term in July 2013.[7] He served as a member of the Presidential transition of Barack Obama. From 2004 to 2008 he served as dean of the Milano School of International Affairs, Management, and Urban Policy at The New School[8] and as deputy and then acting administrator of the Small Business Administration (SBA) in the Clinton Administration.[9] Hochberg was one of the highest-ranking LGBTQ officials in the Obama Administration[10] and has been active for decades in LGBTQ causes. In the 1990s Hochberg served as co-chair of the board of the Human Rights Campaign,[11] the largest LGBTQ civil rights advocacy organization in the United States. In January 2020, Simon & Schuster published Hochberg's first book, Trade is Not a Four-Letter Word.As of 2023, Hochberg serves as chair of the Meridian International Center's board of trustees.[12]","title":"Fred Hochberg"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ghi-3"},{"link_name":"Lillian Vernon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lillian_Vernon_(businesswoman)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ghi-3"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"U.S. Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Army"},{"link_name":"invasion of Normandy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_Normandy"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ghi-3"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ghi-3"},{"link_name":"New York University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_University"},{"link_name":"Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_University"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-thevillager-16"}],"text":"Hochberg was born on February 3, 1952.[3] He is the first son of Lillian Vernon (born Lilli Menasche) and Samuel Hochberg.[3][13] Lillian's father (Fred Hochberg's grandfather) fled Germany for Amsterdam in 1933, later emigrating to New York City in 1937. He was named after his uncle,[14] Siegfried Menasche, who was drafted into the U.S. Army and died during the invasion of Normandy.[3][15] Lillian and Samuel had a second son, David Hochberg, in October 1956. The couple divorced in 1969.[3] Fred Hochberg received his B.A. from New York University and an MBA from Columbia.[16]","title":"Early life and education"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HochbergPhoto2.jpg"},{"link_name":"Lillian Vernon Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lillian_Vernon_(company)"},{"link_name":"Smithsonian National Museum of American History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_American_History"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Forbes-9"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"text":"Hochberg's official administration portrait as chairman and president of the Export-Import Bank of the United States (2009)Hochberg began his business career at the Lillian Vernon Corporation, the company founded by his mother on her kitchen table in 1951. That table can now be found at the Smithsonian National Museum of American History in Washington, D.C.. As president and chief operating officer, where he led the transformation of a small, family-owned mail order company into an international, publicly traded direct marketing corporation. The company listed on the American Stock Exchange in 1987[17] and Forbes described the company's growth as \"one of the great success stories of American entrepreneurship.\"[9] Hochberg helped oversee a nearly 40-fold increase in annual revenue, from $5 million in 1975 to nearly $200 million in 1993.[18] In 1993, Hochberg left Lillian Vernon as the company was struggling and later entered bankruptcy, in what was characterized as a sudden move, to devote his time to advocacy and investing.[19][20]","title":"Business career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bill Clinton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Clinton"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MI01-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gaycitynews.nyc-11"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Firmgreen_Brazil.png"},{"link_name":"landfill gas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landfill_gas"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gaycitynews.nyc-11"},{"link_name":"bundler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States#Bundling"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MI01-21"},{"link_name":"Export-Import Bank of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Export-Import_Bank_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"U.S. Senate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senate_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"University of Chicago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Chicago"},{"link_name":"Harvard University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Simon & Schuster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster"},{"link_name":"2020 Democratic Presidential primaries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Democratic_presidential_primaries"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"text":"In 1998 Hochberg was confirmed by unanimous consent of the U.S. Senate and deputy administrator of the Small Business Administration (SBA), later becoming the agency's acting administrator. He remained in the post at the SBA until January 2001, serving also on US President Bill Clinton's Management Council.[21][22] At the SBA, Hochberg helped to lead aggressive outreach that quadrupled loans to minority, women, and LGBTQ-owned businesses across the nation.[11]Hochberg tours a Brazilian landfill gas-to-energy plant constructed with U.S. equipment in 2014Following his years in the Clinton administration, he was in December 2003 appointed dean of the Milano School of International Affairs, Management, and Urban Policy,[11] a post he left in late 2008.Hochberg was a bundler of contributions for the Obama campaign; some bundlers collected $500,000 for the campaign.[23] In the fall of 2009, Hochberg was named as an Agency Review team leader for the SBA on then-President-elect Barack Obama's transition team.[21]President Obama formally nominated Hochberg to be chairman and president of the Export-Import Bank of the United States on April 20, 2009. The U.S. Senate confirmed his nomination by unanimous consent on May 14, 2009, for a term ending on January 20, 2013. He was sworn in on May 21, 2009. During his tenure, the agency supported more than 1.4 million American jobs and financed exports with a value exceeding $240 billion, while generating $3.8 billion in profits for U.S. taxpayers and reducing internal agency costs by 30 percent. Under Hochberg, the bank also increased its focus on customers, particularly America’s small business exporters, and in several years during his tenure, nearly 90 percent of EXIM Bank authorizations directly supported small businesses. He streamlined processes, cutting transactions times so that 98% of transactions were processed within 100 days and 89% within 30 days.[24] During this period the bank also achieved record lows for employee satisfaction and morale and spent large sums of money on frequent international travel by Hochberg.[citation needed] During his tenure as chairman, the bank experienced its longest ever shutdown and longest period without a board quorum rendering it unable to approve large transactions.[25]After Hochberg's tenure at the U.S. Export-Import Bank he was named a fellow at the Institute of Politics at the University of Chicago in the fall of 2017 and the Institute of Politics at Harvard University in the spring of 2018. Following his fellowships, Hochberg wrote Trade is Not a Four Letter Word: How Six Everyday Products Make the Case for Trade, his first book. The book is described as the antidote to today’s acronym-laden trade jargon pitched to voters with simple promises that rarely play out so one-dimensionally.[26] The book was published by Simon & Schuster on January 14, 2020 in advance of voting getting underway in the 2020 Democratic Presidential primaries. The book was met with critical praise and has been referred to as \"a sprightly and clear-eyed testimonial to the value of globalization\"[27] and “a rousing, well-argued defense of global trade in a time of isolationist entrenchment.\"[28]","title":"Public service and academic career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Human Rights Campaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Rights_Campaign"},{"link_name":"lesbian and gay rights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesbian_and_gay_rights"},{"link_name":"Out Magazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Out_Magazine"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-out-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"LGBTQ Victory Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_Victory_Fund"},{"link_name":"Harvard Kennedy School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Kennedy_School"},{"link_name":"Harvard University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University"}],"text":"Beginning in the 1970s Hochberg has a long history of LGBTQ activism, including serving as co-chair of the Human Rights Campaign, a prominent lesbian and gay rights group. In the April 2007 issue of Out Magazine he was ranked the 15th most powerful gay person in America.[29] Hochberg is also a founder of the Bohnett Leaders Fellowship,[30] an executive education program for state and local elected officials through the LGBTQ Victory Institute in partnership with Harvard Kennedy School at Harvard University.","title":"LGBTQ activism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Meridian International Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meridian_International_Center"},{"link_name":"American Theatre Wing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Theatre_Wing"},{"link_name":"Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_International_Center_for_Scholars"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"New York City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"FINCA International","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FINCA_International"},{"link_name":"Port Authority of New York and New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_Authority_of_New_York_and_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Playwrights Horizons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Playwrights_Horizons"},{"link_name":"Democratic National Committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_National_Committee"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-thevillager-16"}],"text":"Hochberg has been dedicated to public policy, community service and philanthropic involvement in expanding access to capital, civil rights, education and the arts. He currently serves on the boards of the Meridian International Center and the American Theatre Wing and has recently been a member of the boards of the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars,[31] New York City's Citizens Budget Commission,[32] and FINCA International. From 2008 to 2009 he was a member of the Board of Commissioners of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey.[33]He has also served on the boards of Playwrights Horizons and the Wolfsonian Art Museum, and on the Democratic National Committee.[16]","title":"Corporate and non-profit boards"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Publications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hill_(newspaper)"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"}],"sub_title":"Articles","text":"America’s global ‘soft power’ strategy is aging poorly — especially compared to China’s, The Hill, January 13, 2024[34]","title":"Publications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tom Healy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Healy_(poet)"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Miami Beach, Florida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miami_Beach,_Florida"}],"text":"Hochberg was born in New York and lives with his partner, the writer Tom Healy,[35] in Miami Beach, Florida.","title":"Personal life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Trade is Not a Four Letter Word","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//simonandschuster.com/books%E2%80%A6"},{"link_name":"Simon & Schuster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster"},{"link_name":"The Next Coronavirus Relief Bill Needs To Solve America's Unbanked and Unwired Crises","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//thehill.com/opinion/finance/492923-the-next-coronavirus-relief-bill-needs-to-solve-americas-unbanked-and-unwired"},{"link_name":"The Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hill_(newspaper)"},{"link_name":"The iPhone Isn't Made in China – It's Made Everywhere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wsj.com/articles/the-iphone-isnt-made-in-chinaits-made-everywhere-11580485139"},{"link_name":"The Wall Street Journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal"},{"link_name":"\"To Beat Trump, Embrace Free Trade\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wsj.com/articles/to-beat-trump-embrace-free-trade-11549497590"},{"link_name":"The Wall Street Journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal"},{"link_name":"EXIM Plays a Critical Role in Supporting U.S. Businesses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/the-export-import-bank-plays-a-critical-role-in-supporting-us-businesses/2019/02/08/abec8b36-2aea-11e9-906e-9d55b6451eb4_story.html"},{"link_name":"Washington Post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Washington_Post"},{"link_name":"\"An Easy Trade Win for Trump\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.nytimes.com/2017/02/02/opinion/an-easy-trade-win-for-trump.html?_r=0"},{"link_name":"The New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"\"New Year's Resolution: Jobs\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//foreignpolicy.com/2016/12/29/jobs-employment-international-trade-donald-trump-economy/"},{"link_name":"Foreign Policy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_Policy"},{"link_name":"\"Protecting America's Competitive Advantage\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.foreignaffairs.com/issues/2015/94/3"},{"link_name":"\"Small Business, Badly Damaged\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//mobile.nytimes.com/2001/10/17/opinion/small-business-badly-damaged.html"},{"link_name":"The New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"\"In Government and, Incidentally, Gay\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.nytimes.com/2001/02/10/opinion/in-government-and-incidentally-gay.html"},{"link_name":"The New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"}],"text":"Trade is Not a Four Letter Word. Simon & Schuster, 2020\n\"The Next Coronavirus Relief Bill Needs To Solve America's Unbanked and Unwired Crises\". The Hill. April 15, 2020\n\"The iPhone Isn't Made in China – It's Made Everywhere\". The Wall Street Journal. January 31, 2020\n\"To Beat Trump, Embrace Free Trade\". The Wall Street Journal. February 6, 2019\n\"EXIM Plays a Critical Role in Supporting U.S. Businesses\". Washington Post. February 8, 2019\n\"An Easy Trade Win for Trump\". The New York Times. February 2, 2017.\n\"New Year's Resolution: Jobs\". Foreign Policy. December 29, 2016.\n\"Protecting America's Competitive Advantage\". Foreign Affairs. 94 (3). May–June 2015.\n\"Small Business, Badly Damaged\". The New York Times. October 17, 2001.\n\"In Government and, Incidentally, Gay\". The New York Times. February 10, 2001.","title":"Selected writings"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Hochberg's official administration portrait as chairman and president of the Export-Import Bank of the United States (2009)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/HochbergPhoto2.jpg/220px-HochbergPhoto2.jpg"},{"image_text":"Hochberg tours a Brazilian landfill gas-to-energy plant constructed with U.S. equipment in 2014","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4b/Firmgreen_Brazil.png/220px-Firmgreen_Brazil.png"}]
| null |
[{"reference":"\"An Easy Trade Win for Trump\". The New York Times. February 2, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/02/opinion/an-easy-trade-win-for-trump.html?_r=0","url_text":"\"An Easy Trade Win for Trump\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"}]},{"reference":"\"New Year's Resolution: Jobs\". Foreign Policy. December 29, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://foreignpolicy.com/2016/12/29/jobs-employment-international-trade-donald-trump-economy/","url_text":"\"New Year's Resolution: Jobs\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_Policy","url_text":"Foreign Policy"}]},{"reference":"\"Protecting America's Competitive Advantage\". Foreign Affairs. 94 (3). May–June 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.foreignaffairs.com/issues/2015/94/3","url_text":"\"Protecting America's Competitive Advantage\""}]},{"reference":"\"Small Business, Badly Damaged\". The New York Times. October 17, 2001.","urls":[{"url":"https://mobile.nytimes.com/2001/10/17/opinion/small-business-badly-damaged.html","url_text":"\"Small Business, Badly Damaged\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"}]},{"reference":"\"In Government and, Incidentally, Gay\". The New York Times. February 10, 2001.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2001/02/10/opinion/in-government-and-incidentally-gay.html","url_text":"\"In Government and, Incidentally, Gay\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"}]},{"reference":"\"PN732 - Nomination of Fred P. Hochberg for Small Business Administration, 105th Congress (1997-1998)\". May 21, 1998.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.congress.gov/nomination/105th-congress/732","url_text":"\"PN732 - Nomination of Fred P. Hochberg for Small Business Administration, 105th Congress (1997-1998)\""}]},{"reference":"\"PN1223 - Nomination of Melanie Sabelhaus for Small Business Administration, 107th Congress (2001-2002)\". April 8, 2002.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.congress.gov/nomination/107th-congress/1223","url_text":"\"PN1223 - Nomination of Melanie Sabelhaus for Small Business Administration, 107th Congress (2001-2002)\""}]},{"reference":"Mehnert, Ute (December 21, 2015). \"Lillian Vernon (1927–2015)\". Immigrant Entrepreneurship. German Historical Institute. Retrieved September 9, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.immigrantentrepreneurship.org/entry.php?rec=72","url_text":"\"Lillian Vernon (1927–2015)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Historical_Institute","url_text":"German Historical Institute"}]},{"reference":"Vernon, Lillian (October 1996). An Eye for Winners: How I Built One of America's Greatest Direct-Mail Businesses. HarperCollins. p. 54. ISBN 9780887308185.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lillian_Vernon_(businesswoman)","url_text":"Vernon, Lillian"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/eyeforwinnershow00vern","url_text":"An Eye for Winners: How I Built One of America's Greatest Direct-Mail Businesses"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HarperCollins","url_text":"HarperCollins"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/eyeforwinnershow00vern/page/54","url_text":"54"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780887308185","url_text":"9780887308185"}]},{"reference":"\"Statement by Ranking Member Maxine Waters on the Resignation of Export-Import Bank Chairman and President Fred P. Hochberg\". Financial Services Committee Democrats. January 19, 2017. Retrieved July 24, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://democrats-financialservices.house.gov/news/documentsingle.aspx?DocumentID=400214","url_text":"\"Statement by Ranking Member Maxine Waters on the Resignation of Export-Import Bank Chairman and President Fred P. Hochberg\""}]},{"reference":"\"- NOMINATION OF FRED P. HOCHBERG\". www.congress.gov. Retrieved July 24, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.congress.gov/113/chrg/shrg81242/CHRG-113shrg81242.htm","url_text":"\"- NOMINATION OF FRED P. HOCHBERG\""}]},{"reference":"O'Keefe, Ed (July 17, 2013). \"Hochberg confirmed for Import-Export Bank; Perez clears hurdle for Labor post\". The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved December 5, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-politics/wp/2013/07/17/hochberg-confirmed-for-import-export-bank-perez-clears-hurdle-for-labor-dept/","url_text":"\"Hochberg confirmed for Import-Export Bank; Perez clears hurdle for Labor post\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0190-8286","url_text":"0190-8286"}]},{"reference":"\"Hochberg named dean of New School's Milano School\". thevillager.com. Archived from the original on February 17, 2017. Retrieved July 24, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170217082227/http://thevillager.com/villager_33/hochbergnamed.html","url_text":"\"Hochberg named dean of New School's Milano School\""},{"url":"http://thevillager.com/villager_33/hochbergnamed.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Fred P. Hochberg profile\". Forbes.com. Archived from the original on January 23, 2013. Retrieved December 18, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20130123182743/http://people.forbes.com/profile/fred-p-hochberg/35557","url_text":"\"Fred P. Hochberg profile\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbes.com","url_text":"Forbes.com"},{"url":"https://people.forbes.com/profile/fred-p-hochberg/35557","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Obama has appointed most U.S. gay officials\". The Washington Times. Retrieved July 24, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2010/oct/26/obama-has-appointed-most-us-gay-officials/","url_text":"\"Obama has appointed most U.S. gay officials\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Washington_Times","url_text":"The Washington Times"}]},{"reference":"\"Hochberg Becomes New School Dean\". gaycitynews.nyc. Retrieved July 24, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://gaycitynews.nyc/gcn_251/hocherbergbecomes.html","url_text":"\"Hochberg Becomes New School Dean\""}]},{"reference":"Team, Meridian International Center. \"Fred P. Hochberg | Meridian International Center\". www.meridian.org. Retrieved January 13, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.meridian.org/profile/fred-p-hochberg/","url_text":"\"Fred P. Hochberg | Meridian International Center\""}]},{"reference":"Arnold, Laurence (December 14, 2015). \"Lillian Vernon, who created mail-order catalog business, dies at 88\". The Washington Post. Retrieved September 9, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/lillian-vernon-who-created-catalog-business-dies-at-88/2015/12/14/f4cffec8-a2bc-11e5-b53d-972e2751f433_story.html","url_text":"\"Lillian Vernon, who created mail-order catalog business, dies at 88\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Washington_Post","url_text":"The Washington Post"}]},{"reference":"Hochberg, Fred (December 22, 2015). \"On the Passing of My Mother, Lillian Vernon\". The Huffington Post. Retrieved September 9, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.huffingtonpost.com/fred-hochberg/on-the-passing-of-my-moth_b_8864026.html","url_text":"\"On the Passing of My Mother, Lillian Vernon\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Huffington_Post","url_text":"The Huffington Post"}]},{"reference":"Witchel, Alex (January 16, 1997). \"Sometimes a Great Notion\". The New York Times. 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Retrieved July 24, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.lillianvernon.com/resources/about-us","url_text":"\"About Us - Lillian Vernon\""}]},{"reference":"\"Lillian Vernon Corp. - Company Profile, Information, Business Description, History, Background Information on Lillian Vernon Corp\". www.referenceforbusiness.com. Retrieved July 24, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.referenceforbusiness.com/history2/14/Lillian-Vernon-Corp.html","url_text":"\"Lillian Vernon Corp. - Company Profile, Information, Business Description, History, Background Information on Lillian Vernon Corp\""}]},{"reference":"\"Strickland, Ted\". AllGov. Retrieved May 9, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.allgov.com/officials/hochberg-fred?officialid=28876","url_text":"\"Strickland, Ted\""}]},{"reference":"\"Lillian Vernon Corporation History\". Funding Universe. Retrieved May 9, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/lillian-vernon-corporation-history/","url_text":"\"Lillian Vernon Corporation History\""}]},{"reference":"\"Obama-Biden Transition: Agency Review Teams\". Archived from the original on October 13, 2016. Retrieved December 18, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161013135404/http://change.gov/learn/obama_biden_transition_agency_review_teams","url_text":"\"Obama-Biden Transition: Agency Review Teams\""},{"url":"http://change.gov/learn/obama_biden_transition_agency_review_teams","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Senate Hearing 113-378 — OVERSIGHT AND REAUTHORIZATION OF THE EXPORT-IMPORT BANK OF THE UNITED STATES\". Congress.gov. U.S. Government Publishing Office. 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Archived from the original on August 29, 2016. Retrieved July 24, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160829045853/http://support.wilsoncenter.org/page.aspx?pid=701","url_text":"\"Woodrow Wilson Center\""},{"url":"https://support.wilsoncenter.org/page.aspx?pid=701","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Press Release Article - Port Authority of NY & NJ\". www.panynj.gov. Archived from the original on February 22, 2017. Retrieved July 24, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170222194923/http://www.panynj.gov/press-room/press-item.cfm?headLine_id=1035","url_text":"\"Press Release Article - Port Authority of NY & NJ\""},{"url":"http://www.panynj.gov/press-room/press-item.cfm?headLine_id=1035","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Hochberg, Fred P. (January 13, 2024). \"America's global 'soft power' strategy is aging poorly — especially compared to China's\". The Hill. Retrieved January 13, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://thehill.com/opinion/international/4406297-americas-global-soft-power-strategy-is-aging-poorly-especially-compared-to-chinas/","url_text":"\"America's global 'soft power' strategy is aging poorly — especially compared to China's\""}]},{"reference":"\"Healy named new leader of Downtown cultural group\". www.downtownexpress.com. Archived from the original on September 23, 2015. Retrieved July 24, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150923220407/http://www.downtownexpress.com/de_55/healynamednewleaaderof.html","url_text":"\"Healy named new leader of Downtown cultural group\""},{"url":"http://www.downtownexpress.com/de_55/healynamednewleaaderof.html","url_text":"the original"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liturgical_Movement
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Liturgical Movement
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["1 History","1.1 Background to the Mass of the Roman Rite","1.2 Developments in Belgium and Germany","1.3 Second Vatican Council","2 Effect on church architecture","2.1 Reordering of churches","2.2 Building of new churches","2.3 Status of Modernist churches","2.4 Criticism","2.5 Return to traditional layouts","3 Churches of the Lutheran tradition","4 Anglican Communion","5 Influence and criticisms","6 See also","6.1 Individuals","6.2 Concepts and movements","7 References","8 Further reading"]
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19th- and 20th-century Christian movement
The Liturgical Movement was a 19th-century and 20th-century movement of scholarship for the reform of worship. It began in the Catholic Church and spread to many other Christian churches including the Anglican Communion, Lutheran and some other Protestant churches.
History
Background to the Mass of the Roman Rite
Main articles: Roman Missal, Roman Rite, and Traditional Latin Mass
Developments in Belgium and Germany
At almost the same time, in Germany Abbot Ildefons Herwegen of Maria Laach convened a liturgical conference in Holy Week 1914 for lay people. Herwegen thereafter promoted research which resulted in a series of publications for clergy and lay people during and after World War I. One of the foremost German scholars was Odo Casel. Having begun by studying the Middle Ages, Casel looked at the origins of Christian liturgy in pagan cultic acts, understanding liturgy as a profound universal human act as well as a religious one. In his Ecclesia Orans (The Praying Church) (1918), Casel studied and interpreted the pagan mysteries of ancient Greece and Rome, discussing similarities and differences between them and the Christian mysteries. His conclusions were studied in various places, notably at Klosterneuburg in Austria, where the Augustinian canon Pius Parsch applied the principles in his church of St. Gertrude, which he took over in 1919. With laymen he worked out the relevance of the Bible to liturgy. Similar experiments were to take place in Leipzig during the Second World War.
Second Vatican Council
Further information: Sacrosanctum Concilium
Effect on church architecture
The Liturgical movement was influential in church design in France, Belgium Germany, Switzerland and the UK - where it was introduced in the 1950s. The New Churches Research Group was founded in 1957 in the UK to promote "a modern idiom appropriate to the ideas of the Liturgical Movement". The NCRG was a group of Catholic and Anglican church architects and craftspeople who promoted liturgical reform of churches though publications such as The Tablet and Architects' Journal. The group was co-founded by Peter Hammond, Robert Maguire and Keith Murray (an ecclesiastical designer), and included architects Peter Gilbey, John Newton (Burles, Newton & Partners), Patrick Nuttgens, George Pace, Patrick Reyntiens (stained glass artist), Austin Winkley, Lance Wright, as well as Catholic priest and theologian Charles Davis.
The Second Vatican Council saw the acceptance of many of the movement's ideas, resulting in a radical rethinking of design, expressing 'noble simplicity rather than sumptuous display'. The turning points were the publication of Peter Hammond's Liturgy and Architecture, a critique of modern English church design, and the publication of Frederick Gibberd's design for the completion of Liverpool Metropolitan Cathedral.
Reordering of churches
An example of reordering is St Joseph's church in Retford, which was designed by Ernest Bower Norris in modern Romanesque design, incorporating Art Deco elements. It opened in 1959 and in 1968 was re-ordered by Gerard Goalen to comply with the recommendations of Vatican II. During the re-order, Goalen commissioned a large Christus Resurrexit for the sanctuary wall by Steven Sykes.
Building of new churches
The Catholic church became a major patron of modern architecture and art during the 1950s and 60s in the UK. A group of modernist architects including Gillespie, Kidd & Coia, Gerard Goalen, Francis Pollen, Desmond Williams and Austin Winkley utilised contemporary design and construction methods to deliver the 'noble simplicity' instructed by Vatican II, literally to express the values of the Liturgical Movement in buildings. Desmond Williams noted that his St Mary Dunstable church was "circular, with the object being to bring as many of the congregation near the altar, and proved very popular in attracting worshippers." Maguire & Murray's St Paul's, Bow Common (1960) has not only been awarded Grade II* listed status but was also voted best twentieth century church in the UK by the judges of the UK's Best Modern Churches competition (2013).
Architects in this movement also collaborated with notable ceramic and glass artists such as Dom Charles Norris, Patrick Reyntiens and Steven Sykes.
Status of Modernist churches
Some of the churches built during this period are now being listed by Historic England in recognition of their outstanding modernist architecture and art. These include Goalen's Our Lady of Fatima, Harlow (Grade II listed, 1958), St Mary Dunstable (Grade II listed, 1964), Winkley's Church of St Margaret of Scotland, Twickenham (Grade II listed, 1969).
Criticism
The architecture of these churches was criticized by the architect Robert Maguire; he stated: "Gerard Goalen's T-shaped church of Our Lady of Fatima at Harlow, resplendent with its Buckfast Abbey glass. My only serious criticism of this – and it is serious – is that God's Holy People are divided, like All Gaul, into three parts."
Return to traditional layouts
In the US, there has been a return to more traditional Catholic church layouts as a result of Pope Benedict's re-emphasising clerical distinctions. This has included revisiting pre-Liturgical Movement architecture in new construction and the renovation of modernist churches along traditionalist lines. The traditional cruciform plan—which was largely absent from liturgical designs since Vatican II because of its fracturing effect on the assembly—has been incorporated into recent church buildings.
Churches of the Lutheran tradition
The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, the largest Lutheran body in the United States, has also revived a greater appreciation of the liturgy and its ancient origins. Its clergy and congregations have adopted many traditional liturgical symbols, such as the sign of the cross, incense, and the full chasuble, which have become more common than in years past. While some freedom in style is exercised by individual congregations, the overall style of the aspects of liturgical worship – including vestments, altar adornments, and a general return of many formal practices – has become closer to the styles of the Roman Catholic and Anglican traditions.
Anglican Communion
By the 20th century, the Church of England had made quite radical ceremonial and ritual changes, most of them incorporating revival of medieval Christian practice.
The English Missal, published first in 1912, was a conflation of the Eucharistic rite in the 1662 prayer book and the Latin prayers of the Roman Missal, including the rubrics indicating the posture and manual acts. It was a recognition of practices which had been widespread for many years. The changes were the subject of controversy, opposition, hostility, and legal action.
The revision effort that produced the failed 1928 proposed prayer book was based on medieval models, owing little to the researches or practices of continental scholars. In the United States, William Palmer Ladd, who had visited a number of the European centers of Catholic scholarship and reform, introduced many of the ideas of the movement at the Berkeley Divinity School in New Haven. Ladd wrote a series of magazine columns (published as a book after his death titled Prayer Book Interleaves) that introduced much of the newer agenda to the Episcopal Church. While this American version of the movement had broad church roots, in England it was a new generation of scholars and clergy associated with the Catholic revival who led the next phase of discussion. With the publication in 1935 of Gabriel Hebert's Liturgy and Society, a debate in England began about the relationship between worship and the world as well as about the importance of eucharistic celebration and participation. Hebert, a Kelham Father, interpreted the liturgy on wider social principles, rejecting, for example the idea of the eucharistic fast as being impractical. Its members wished for more frequent communion, not merely attendance at Mass; they wanted to relate the eucharist to the world of ordinary life. Through its influence, the offertory was restored, though not without protracted controversy.
Influence and criticisms
Horton M. Davies, a professor at Princeton University, states: "What is fascinating about (the liturgical) movement is that it has enabled Protestant churches to recover in part the Catholic liturgical heritage, while the Catholics seem to have appropriated the Protestant valuation of preaching, of shared worship in the vernacular tongue, and the importance of laity as the people of God."
See also
Christianity portal
Individuals
Louis Bouyer
Annibale Bugnini
Charles Davis
Gregory Dix
Donald L. Garfield
Gerard Goalen
Romano Guardini
Peter Hammond
Marion J. Hatchett
Gabriel Hebert
Friedrich Heiler
Reynold Henry Hillenbrand
Josef Andreas Jungmann
William Palmer Ladd
Robert Maguire
Christine Mohrmann
Patrick Nuttgens
George Pace
Francis Pollen
H. A. Reinhold
Patrick Reyntiens
Clarence Rufus J. Rivers
Gunnar Rosendal
Hermann Sasse
Alexander Schmemann
Max Thurian
Desmond Williams
Austin Winkley
Concepts and movements
Lex orandi, lex credendi
Sacrosanctum Concilium
Berneuchen Movement
Kirchliche Arbeit Alpirsbach
References
^ Gassmann, Günther; Oldenburg, Mark W. (10 October 2011). Historical Dictionary of Lutheranism. Scarecrow Press. p. 236. ISBN 978-0-8108-7482-4.
^ Ernest Benjamin Koenker, The Liturgical Renaissance in the Roman Catholic Church (1954), p. 10
^ "CHURCH OF ST MARGARET OF SCOTLAND". Historic England.
^ Robert Proctor (2014). Building the Modern Church: Roman Catholic Church Architecture in Britain, 1955 to 1975. Routledge.
^ "CHURCH OF ST MARGARET OF SCOTLAND". Historic England.
^ The Architectural History Practice Limited for English Heritage (July 2014). "Twentieth-Century Roman Catholic Church Architecture in England, A Characterisation Study" (PDF).
^ "Retford – St Joseph". Taking Stock: Catholic Churches of England and Wales.
^ RW Proctor (2014). Building the Modern Church: Roman Catholic Church Architecture in Britain, 1955 to 1975.
^ "19th- and 20th-Century Roman Catholic Churches - Introductions to Heritage Assets". Historic England.
^ "Roman Catholic Church of St Mary, Dunstable designed by Desmond Williams OBE is listed at Grade II". EWA.
^ "Church Of St Paul". Historic England.
^ "Best Modern Churches winners announced". Twentieth Century Societey.
^ "CHURCH OF OUR LADY OF FATIMA". Historic England.
^ "Roman Catholic Church of St Mary". Historic England.
^ "CHURCH OF ST MARGARET OF SCOTLAND". Historic England.
^ Maguire, Robert (January 2002). "CHURCH DESIGN SINCE 1950" (PDF). Ecclesiology Today (23): 8.
^ Peter Feuerherd (13 April 2017). "New clericalism is imposing old ways on modern church architecture". National Catholic Reporter.
^ Michael E. DeSanctis (28 May 2012). "Upon This Foundation: Are new church designs taking us backward?". America, The Jesuit Review.
^ Archived June 4, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
^ Contemporary commentators, such as Benjamin Jowett, saw the changes as indicative of Romantic and aesthetic influences (and 'revolting to the reverent mind'), but the models were Roman Catholic. Judith Pinnington, "Rubric and Spirit: a diagnostic reading of Tractarian Worship", in Essays Catholic and Radical, ed. Kenneth Leech and Rowan Williams (Bowerdean 1983) p. 98f; see also Valerie Pitt: "The Oxford Movement: a case of Cultural Distortion?", in Essays Catholic and Radical,, p. 205ff.
^ Chadwick, Owen The Victorian Church; vol. 2; Carpenter, S. C. Church and People (SPCK 1933); pp.212ff.
^ a b Gray, Donald, Earth and Altar, (Canterbury Press 1986); p. 196
^ Buchanan, Colin. The End of the Offertory (Grove Books)
^ Arguile, Roger. The Offering of the People (Jubilee, 1989)
^ O.C. Jr., Edwards. A History of Preaching. Abingdon Press. p. 746. ISBN 9780687038640. In the subtitle for the fifth volume of his history of Worship and Theology in England, Horton Davies refers to the twentieth century as the 'ecumenical century.' Nowhere is that more obvious than in attitudes toward Christian worship. As Davies said: 'What is fascinating about (the liturgical) movement is that it has enabled Protestant churches to recover in part the Catholic liturgical heritage, while the Catholics seem to have appropriated the Protestant valuation of preaching, of shared worship in the vernacular tongue, and the importance of laity as the people of God.'
Further reading
Bouyer, Louis (1955), Liturgical Piety, University of Notre Dame Press
Bouyer, Louis (2015), The Memoirs of Louis Bouyer: From Youth and Conversion to Vatican II, the Liturgical Reform, and After, Angelico Press, ISBN 978-1621381426
Chiron, Yves (2018), Annibale Bugnini: Reformer of the Liturgy, Angelico Press, ISBN 978-1621384113
Chupungco, Anscar J (1997), Handbook for Liturgical Studies: Introduction to the Liturgy, Liturgical Press.
Crichton, J D (1996), Lights in the Darkness: Fore-runners of the Liturgical Movement, Columba Press, ISBN 1856071529..
Dobszay, László (2003), The Bugnini-Liturgy and the Reform of the Reform, Church Music Association of America, ISBN 978-1607437246
Giampietro, Nicola (2010), The Development of the Liturgical Reform: As Seen by Cardinal Ferdinando Antonelli from 1948 to 1970, Roman Catholic Books, ISBN 978-1934888124
Grillo, Andrea (2013), Beyond Pius V: Conflicting Interpretations of the Liturgical Reform, Liturgical Press, ISBN 0814663028.
Guardini, Romano (1998), The Spirit of the Liturgy, Crossroad Publishing Company
Hayes, David (2009), In a Great and Noble Tradition: The Autobiography of Dom Prosper Gueranger (1805-1875), Founder of the Solesmes Congregation of Benedictine Monks and Nuns, Gracewing Publishing
Hebert, A G (1935), Liturgy and Society, Faber
Irwin, Kevin W (2014), What We Have Done, What We Have Failed to Do: Assessing the Liturgical Reforms of Vatican II, Paulist Press
Kocik, Thomas M (2016), Singing His Song: A Short Introduction to the Liturgical Movement, Chorabooks
Koenker, Ernest Benjamin (1951), Objectives and Achievements of the Liturgical Movement in the Roman Catholic Church since World War II, Church History 20, no 2
Koenker, Ernest Benjamin (1954), The Liturgical Renaissance in the Roman Catholic Church, University of Chicago Press
Marx, Paul (1957), Virgil Michel and the Liturgical Movement, Liturgical Press
Pecklers, Keith F (1998), The Unread Vision: The Liturgical Movement in the United States of America 1926-1955, Liturgical Press, ISBN 0814624502
Puglisi, James F (2005), Liturgical Renewal as a Way to Christian Unity, Pueblo Publishing Co, ISBN 081466203X
Reid, Alcuin (2004), The Organic Development of the Liturgy: The Principles of Liturgical Reform and Their Relation to the Twentieth Century Liturgical Movement Prior to the Second Vatican Council, St Michael's Abbey Press, ISBN 0907077439
Robinson, Jonathan (2005), The Mass and Modernity: Walking to Heaven Backward, Ignatius Press, ISBN 1586170694
Turner, Paul (2015), Whose Mass Is It?: Why People Care So Much about the Catholic Liturgy, Liturgical Press
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"worship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worship"},{"link_name":"Catholic Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Church"},{"link_name":"Christian churches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_church"},{"link_name":"Anglican Communion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglican_Communion"},{"link_name":"Lutheran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lutheran"},{"link_name":"Protestant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GassmannOldenburg2011-1"}],"text":"The Liturgical Movement was a 19th-century and 20th-century movement of scholarship for the reform of worship. It began in the Catholic Church and spread to many other Christian churches including the Anglican Communion, Lutheran and some other Protestant churches.[1]","title":"Liturgical Movement"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Background to the Mass of the Roman Rite","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ildefons Herwegen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ildefons_Herwegen&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Maria Laach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Laach_Abbey"},{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"Klosterneuburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klosterneuburg"},{"link_name":"Pius Parsch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pius_Parsch"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"sub_title":"Developments in Belgium and Germany","text":"At almost the same time, in Germany Abbot Ildefons Herwegen of Maria Laach convened a liturgical conference in Holy Week 1914 for lay people. Herwegen thereafter promoted research which resulted in a series of publications for clergy and lay people during and after World War I. One of the foremost German scholars was Odo Casel. Having begun by studying the Middle Ages, Casel looked at the origins of Christian liturgy in pagan cultic acts, understanding liturgy as a profound universal human act as well as a religious one. In his Ecclesia Orans (The Praying Church) (1918), Casel studied and interpreted the pagan mysteries of ancient Greece and Rome, discussing similarities and differences between them and the Christian mysteries. His conclusions were studied in various places, notably at Klosterneuburg in Austria, where the Augustinian canon Pius Parsch applied the principles in his church of St. Gertrude, which he took over in 1919. With laymen he worked out the relevance of the Bible to liturgy. Similar experiments were to take place in Leipzig during the Second World War.[2]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sacrosanctum Concilium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacrosanctum_Concilium"}],"sub_title":"Second Vatican Council","text":"Further information: Sacrosanctum Concilium","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"The Tablet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tablet"},{"link_name":"Architects' Journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architects%27_Journal"},{"link_name":"Peter Hammond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Hammond_(priest)"},{"link_name":"Robert Maguire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Maguire_(architect)"},{"link_name":"Patrick Nuttgens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Nuttgens"},{"link_name":"George Pace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Pace"},{"link_name":"Patrick Reyntiens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Reyntiens"},{"link_name":"Austin Winkley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austin_Winkley"},{"link_name":"Charles Davis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Davis_(theologian)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Frederick Gibberd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Gibberd"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"The Liturgical movement was influential in church design in France, Belgium Germany, Switzerland and the UK - where it was introduced in the 1950s. The New Churches Research Group was founded in 1957 in the UK to promote \"a modern idiom appropriate to the ideas of the Liturgical Movement\".[3] The NCRG was a group of Catholic and Anglican church architects and craftspeople who promoted liturgical reform of churches though publications such as The Tablet and Architects' Journal. The group was co-founded by Peter Hammond, Robert Maguire and Keith Murray (an ecclesiastical designer), and included architects Peter Gilbey, John Newton (Burles, Newton & Partners), Patrick Nuttgens, George Pace, Patrick Reyntiens (stained glass artist), Austin Winkley, Lance Wright, as well as Catholic priest and theologian Charles Davis.[4]The Second Vatican Council saw the acceptance of many of the movement's ideas, resulting in a radical rethinking of design, expressing 'noble simplicity rather than sumptuous display'.[5] The turning points were the publication of Peter Hammond's Liturgy and Architecture, a critique of modern English church design, and the publication of Frederick Gibberd's design for the completion of Liverpool Metropolitan Cathedral.[6]","title":"Effect on church architecture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Retford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retford"},{"link_name":"Ernest Bower Norris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Bower_Norris"},{"link_name":"Art Deco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_Deco"},{"link_name":"Gerard Goalen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerard_Goalen"},{"link_name":"Steven Sykes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Sykes_(artist)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"sub_title":"Reordering of churches","text":"An example of reordering is St Joseph's church in Retford, which was designed by Ernest Bower Norris in modern Romanesque design, incorporating Art Deco elements. It opened in 1959 and in 1968 was re-ordered by Gerard Goalen to comply with the recommendations of Vatican II. During the re-order, Goalen commissioned a large Christus Resurrexit for the sanctuary wall by Steven Sykes.[7]","title":"Effect on church architecture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Gillespie, Kidd & Coia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gillespie,_Kidd_%26_Coia"},{"link_name":"Gerard Goalen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerard_Goalen"},{"link_name":"Francis Pollen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Pollen"},{"link_name":"Desmond Williams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desmond_Williams_(architect)"},{"link_name":"Austin Winkley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austin_Winkley"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"St Paul's, Bow Common","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Paul%27s,_Bow_Common"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Dom Charles Norris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dom_Charles_Norris"},{"link_name":"Patrick Reyntiens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Reyntiens"},{"link_name":"Steven Sykes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Sykes_(artist)"}],"sub_title":"Building of new churches","text":"The Catholic church became a major patron of modern architecture and art during the 1950s and 60s in the UK.[8] A group of modernist architects including Gillespie, Kidd & Coia, Gerard Goalen, Francis Pollen, Desmond Williams and Austin Winkley utilised contemporary design and construction methods to deliver the 'noble simplicity' instructed by Vatican II, literally to express the values of the Liturgical Movement in buildings.[9] Desmond Williams noted that his St Mary Dunstable church was \"circular, with the object being to bring as many of the congregation near the altar, and proved very popular in attracting worshippers.\"[10] Maguire & Murray's St Paul's, Bow Common (1960) has not only been awarded Grade II* listed status[11] but was also voted best twentieth century church in the UK by the judges of the UK's Best Modern Churches competition (2013).[12]Architects in this movement also collaborated with notable ceramic and glass artists such as Dom Charles Norris, Patrick Reyntiens and Steven Sykes.","title":"Effect on church architecture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"modernist architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernist_architecture"},{"link_name":"art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernist_art"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Church of St Margaret of Scotland, Twickenham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_St_Margaret_of_Scotland,_Twickenham"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"sub_title":"Status of Modernist churches","text":"Some of the churches built during this period are now being listed by Historic England in recognition of their outstanding modernist architecture and art. These include Goalen's Our Lady of Fatima, Harlow (Grade II listed, 1958),[13] St Mary Dunstable (Grade II listed, 1964),[14] Winkley's Church of St Margaret of Scotland, Twickenham (Grade II listed, 1969).[15]","title":"Effect on church architecture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Robert Maguire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Maguire_(architect)"},{"link_name":"God's Holy People","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People_of_God"},{"link_name":"like All Gaul, into three parts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Gaul#Geographical_divisions"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"sub_title":"Criticism","text":"The architecture of these churches was criticized by the architect Robert Maguire; he stated: \"Gerard Goalen's T-shaped church of Our Lady of Fatima at Harlow, resplendent with its Buckfast Abbey glass. My only serious criticism of this – and it is serious – is that God's Holy People are divided, like All Gaul, into three parts.\"[16]","title":"Effect on church architecture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"sub_title":"Return to traditional layouts","text":"In the US, there has been a return to more traditional Catholic church layouts as a result of Pope Benedict's re-emphasising clerical distinctions. This has included revisiting pre-Liturgical Movement architecture in new construction and the renovation of modernist churches along traditionalist lines.[17] The traditional cruciform plan—which was largely absent from liturgical designs since Vatican II because of its fracturing effect on the assembly—has been incorporated into recent church buildings.[18]","title":"Effect on church architecture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Evangelical Lutheran Church in America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelical_Lutheran_Church_in_America"},{"link_name":"Lutheran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lutheran"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"text":"The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, the largest Lutheran body in the United States, has also revived a greater appreciation of the liturgy and its ancient origins. Its clergy and congregations have adopted many traditional liturgical symbols, such as the sign of the cross, incense, and the full chasuble, which have become more common than in years past. While some freedom in style is exercised by individual congregations, the overall style of the aspects of liturgical worship – including vestments, altar adornments, and a general return of many formal practices – has become closer to the styles of the Roman Catholic and Anglican traditions.[19]","title":"Churches of the Lutheran tradition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Church of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_England"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"English Missal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Missal"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"1928 proposed prayer book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Common_Prayer_(1928,_England)"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated196-22"},{"link_name":"William Palmer Ladd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Palmer_Ladd"},{"link_name":"Berkeley Divinity School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkeley_Divinity_School"},{"link_name":"Gabriel Hebert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel_Hebert"},{"link_name":"Kelham Father","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_the_Sacred_Mission"},{"link_name":"eucharistic fast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eucharistic_Fast"},{"link_name":"offertory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offertory"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated196-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"text":"By the 20th century, the Church of England had made quite radical ceremonial and ritual changes, most of them incorporating revival of medieval Christian practice.[20]The English Missal, published first in 1912, was a conflation of the Eucharistic rite in the 1662 prayer book and the Latin prayers of the Roman Missal, including the rubrics indicating the posture and manual acts. It was a recognition of practices which had been widespread for many years. The changes were the subject of controversy, opposition, hostility, and legal action.[21]The revision effort that produced the failed 1928 proposed prayer book was based on medieval models, owing little to the researches or practices of continental scholars.[22] In the United States, William Palmer Ladd, who had visited a number of the European centers of Catholic scholarship and reform, introduced many of the ideas of the movement at the Berkeley Divinity School in New Haven. Ladd wrote a series of magazine columns (published as a book after his death titled Prayer Book Interleaves) that introduced much of the newer agenda to the Episcopal Church. While this American version of the movement had broad church roots, in England it was a new generation of scholars and clergy associated with the Catholic revival who led the next phase of discussion. With the publication in 1935 of Gabriel Hebert's Liturgy and Society, a debate in England began about the relationship between worship and the world as well as about the importance of eucharistic celebration and participation. Hebert, a Kelham Father, interpreted the liturgy on wider social principles, rejecting, for example the idea of the eucharistic fast as being impractical. Its members wished for more frequent communion, not merely attendance at Mass; they wanted to relate the eucharist to the world of ordinary life. Through its influence, the offertory was restored, though not without protracted controversy.[22][23][24]","title":"Anglican Communion"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"text":"Horton M. Davies, a professor at Princeton University, states: \"What is fascinating about (the liturgical) movement is that it has enabled Protestant churches to recover in part the Catholic liturgical heritage, while the Catholics seem to have appropriated the Protestant valuation of preaching, of shared worship in the vernacular tongue, and the importance of laity as the people of God.\"[25]","title":"Influence and criticisms"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1621381426","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1621381426"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1621384113","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1621384113"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1856071529","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1856071529"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1607437246","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1607437246"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1934888124","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1934888124"},{"link_name":"Liturgical Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liturgical_Press"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0814663028","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0814663028"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0814624502","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0814624502"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"081466203X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/081466203X"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0907077439","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0907077439"},{"link_name":"Ignatius Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignatius_Press"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1586170694","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1586170694"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Liturgical_Movement"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Liturgical_Movement&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Liturgical_Movement"},{"link_name":"Liturgical Movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Catholic liturgy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_liturgy"},{"link_name":"Mass in the Catholic Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_in_the_Catholic_Church"},{"link_name":"Lex orandi, lex credendi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lex_orandi,_lex_credendi"},{"link_name":"French Benedictine Congregation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solesmes_Congregation"},{"link_name":"Belgian Benedictine Congregation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congregation_of_the_Annunciation"},{"link_name":"Gregorian chant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian_chant"},{"link_name":"Liturgy of the Hours","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liturgy_of_the_Hours"},{"link_name":"Sacred Congregation of Rites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacred_Congregation_of_Rites"},{"link_name":"Liturgical reforms of Pope Pius XII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liturgical_reforms_of_Pope_Pius_XII"},{"link_name":"Mass of Paul VI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_of_Paul_VI"},{"link_name":"Sacrosanctum concilium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacrosanctum_concilium"},{"link_name":"Consilium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_members_of_the_Council_for_the_Implementation_of_the_Constitution_on_the_Sacred_Liturgy&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Mass of Paul VI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_of_Paul_VI"},{"link_name":"Ottaviani Intervention","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottaviani_Intervention"},{"link_name":"Book of Common Prayer (1979)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Common_Prayer_(1979)"},{"link_name":"Prosper Guéranger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosper_Gu%C3%A9ranger"},{"link_name":"Pope Pius X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Pius_X"},{"link_name":"Columba Marmion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columba_Marmion"},{"link_name":"Fernand Cabrol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernand_Cabrol"},{"link_name":"Pierre Batiffol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Batiffol"},{"link_name":"Lambert Beauduin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambert_Beauduin"},{"link_name":"Jacques Paul Migne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Paul_Migne"},{"link_name":"Adrian Fortescue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrian_Fortescue"},{"link_name":"André-Jean Festugière","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9-Jean_Festugi%C3%A8re"},{"link_name":"Gaspar Lefebvre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaspar_Lefebvre"},{"link_name":"Edmund Bishop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Bishop"},{"link_name":"Adrien Gréa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrien_Gr%C3%A9a"},{"link_name":"Gerard van Caloen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerard_van_Caloen"},{"link_name":"Maurice de la Taille","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_de_la_Taille"},{"link_name":"Augustin Bea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustin_Bea"},{"link_name":"Giulio Bevilacqua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giulio_Bevilacqua"},{"link_name":"Louis Bouyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Bouyer"},{"link_name":"Annibale Bugnini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annibale_Bugnini"},{"link_name":"Thomas J. Carroll","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_J._Carroll"},{"link_name":"Odo Casel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odo_Casel"},{"link_name":"Paul Doncoeur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Doncoeur"},{"link_name":"Alexandre Fleury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandre_Fleury"},{"link_name":"Romano Guardini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romano_Guardini"},{"link_name":"Benno Gut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benno_Gut"},{"link_name":"Pierre-Marie Gy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Marie_Gy"},{"link_name":"Anton Hänggi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_H%C3%A4nggi"},{"link_name":"Ildefons Herwegen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ildefons_Herwegen"},{"link_name":"Reynold Henry Hillenbrand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reynold_Henry_Hillenbrand"},{"link_name":"Josef Andreas Jungmann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef_Andreas_Jungmann"},{"link_name":"Ronald Jasper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Jasper"},{"link_name":"Pierre Jounel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Jounel"},{"link_name":"Giacomo Lercaro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Lercaro"},{"link_name":"Adrien Nocent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrien_Nocent"},{"link_name":"Pius Parsch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pius_Parsch"},{"link_name":"Johannes Pinsk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Pinsk"},{"link_name":"H. A. Reinhold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H._A._Reinhold"},{"link_name":"Mario Righetti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mario_Righetti"},{"link_name":"Theodor Schnitzler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Schnitzler"},{"link_name":"Massey H. 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data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119423825"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//d-nb.info/gnd/4167970-2"},{"link_name":"Israel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007533709605171"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85077727"}],"text":"Bouyer, Louis (1955), Liturgical Piety, University of Notre Dame Press\nBouyer, Louis (2015), The Memoirs of Louis Bouyer: From Youth and Conversion to Vatican II, the Liturgical Reform, and After, Angelico Press, ISBN 978-1621381426\nChiron, Yves (2018), Annibale Bugnini: Reformer of the Liturgy, Angelico Press, ISBN 978-1621384113\nChupungco, Anscar J (1997), Handbook for Liturgical Studies: Introduction to the Liturgy, Liturgical Press.\nCrichton, J D (1996), Lights in the Darkness: Fore-runners of the Liturgical Movement, Columba Press, ISBN 1856071529..\nDobszay, László (2003), The Bugnini-Liturgy and the Reform of the Reform, Church Music Association of America, ISBN 978-1607437246\nGiampietro, Nicola (2010), The Development of the Liturgical Reform: As Seen by Cardinal Ferdinando Antonelli from 1948 to 1970, Roman Catholic Books, ISBN 978-1934888124\nGrillo, Andrea (2013), Beyond Pius V: Conflicting Interpretations of the Liturgical Reform, Liturgical Press, ISBN 0814663028.\nGuardini, Romano (1998), The Spirit of the Liturgy, Crossroad Publishing Company\nHayes, David (2009), In a Great and Noble Tradition: The Autobiography of Dom Prosper Gueranger (1805-1875), Founder of the Solesmes Congregation of Benedictine Monks and Nuns, Gracewing Publishing\nHebert, A G (1935), Liturgy and Society, Faber\nIrwin, Kevin W (2014), What We Have Done, What We Have Failed to Do: Assessing the Liturgical Reforms of Vatican II, Paulist Press\nKocik, Thomas M (2016), Singing His Song: A Short Introduction to the Liturgical Movement, Chorabooks\nKoenker, Ernest Benjamin (1951), Objectives and Achievements of the Liturgical Movement in the Roman Catholic Church since World War II, Church History 20, no 2\nKoenker, Ernest Benjamin (1954), The Liturgical Renaissance in the Roman Catholic Church, University of Chicago Press\nMarx, Paul (1957), Virgil Michel and the Liturgical Movement, Liturgical Press\nPecklers, Keith F (1998), The Unread Vision: The Liturgical Movement in the United States of America 1926-1955, Liturgical Press, ISBN 0814624502\nPuglisi, James F (2005), Liturgical Renewal as a Way to Christian Unity, Pueblo Publishing Co, ISBN 081466203X\nReid, Alcuin (2004), The Organic Development of the Liturgy: The Principles of Liturgical Reform and Their Relation to the Twentieth Century Liturgical Movement Prior to the Second Vatican Council, St Michael's Abbey Press, ISBN 0907077439\nRobinson, Jonathan (2005), The Mass and Modernity: Walking to Heaven Backward, Ignatius Press, ISBN 1586170694\nTurner, Paul (2015), Whose Mass Is It?: Why People Care So Much about the Catholic Liturgy, Liturgical PressvteLiturgical MovementGeneral\nCatholic liturgy (Mass in the Catholic Church)\nLex orandi, lex credendi\nFrench Benedictine Congregation\nBelgian Benedictine Congregation\nGregorian chant\nLiturgy of the Hours\nSacred Congregation of Rites\nLiturgical reforms of Pope Pius XII\nMass of Paul VI\nSacrosanctum concilium\nConsilium\nMass of Paul VI\nOttaviani Intervention\nBook of Common Prayer (1979)\nPeopleEarly\nProsper Guéranger\nPope Pius X\nColumba Marmion\nFernand Cabrol\nPierre Batiffol\nLambert Beauduin\nJacques Paul Migne\nAdrian Fortescue\nAndré-Jean Festugière\nGaspar Lefebvre\nEdmund Bishop\nAdrien Gréa\nGerard van Caloen\nMaurice de la Taille\nLater\nAugustin Bea\nGiulio Bevilacqua\nLouis Bouyer\nAnnibale Bugnini\nThomas J. Carroll\nOdo Casel\nPaul Doncoeur\nAlexandre Fleury\nRomano Guardini\nBenno Gut\nPierre-Marie Gy\nAnton Hänggi\nIldefons Herwegen\nReynold Henry Hillenbrand\nJosef Andreas Jungmann\nRonald Jasper\nPierre Jounel\nGiacomo Lercaro\nAdrien Nocent\nPius Parsch\nJohannes Pinsk\nH. A. Reinhold\nMario Righetti\nTheodor Schnitzler\nMassey H. Shepherd\nMax Thurian\nMaria Luise Thurmair\nJohannes Wagner\nCirpirano Vagaggini\nBenedictine-establishments\nSolesmes Abbey\nBeuron Archabbey\nMaredsous Abbey\nMont César Abbey\nMaria Laach Abbey\nPontifical Athenaeum of Saint Anselm\nSaint John's Abbey, Collegeville\nPapaldocuments\nTra le sollecitudini\nQuam singulari\nMystici Corporis Christi\nIn cotidianis precibus\nMediator Dei\nArchitecture\nFrancis Pollen\nGillespie, Kidd & Coia\nGerard Goalen\nDesmond Williams\nAustin Winkley\nIssues\nDialogue mass\nPeople's altar\nVersus populum\nTextual criticism\nSee also\nAmay Priory\nDeutsche Singmesse\nKlosterneuburg Monastery\nHippolytus of Rome\nMalines Congresses\nModernism in the Catholic Church\nCatholic Church and ecumenism (Anglican–Roman Catholic dialogue & Catholic–Eastern Orthodox relations)\nCrypto-Protestantism\nSecond Vatican Council\nPaschal mystery\n\n Catholicism portal\n Vatican City portal\nName\n Media\n Category\n Templates\n WikiProjectvteMass of the Roman Rite of the Catholic ChurchForms and uses\nPre-Tridentine Mass\nTridentine Mass\nAfter the Second Vatican Council\nMass of Paul VI (Ordinary Form)\nZaire Use\nAnglican Use\nOrders\nBenedictine Rite\nCarmelite Rite\nCarthusian Rite\nCistercian Rite\nDominican Rite\nNorbertine Rite\n\nTypes\nLow Mass\nMissa Cantata\nSolemn Mass\nPontifical High Mass\nPapal Mass\nsine populo\nVotive Mass\nRitual Masses\nBlue Mass\nChapter and Conventual Mass\nCoronation Mass\nGold Mass\nNuptial Mass\nRed Mass\nRose Mass\nRequiem Mass\nMonth's mind\nWhite Mass\n\nLanguage\nLiturgical use of Latin\nEcclesiastical Latin\nVernacular\nOrder of MassPre-Mass\nVesting prayers\nAsperges me\nVidi aquam in Eastertide\nProcessional hymn\nLiturgy ofthe Word\nSign of the Cross\nPsalm 43\nEntrance Antiphon\nPenitential Act\nConfiteor / Kyrie\nGloria\nDominus vobiscum\nCollect\nOremus\nResponsorial Psalm or Gradual\nEpistle\nAlleluia\nTract / sequence\nGospel\nHomily\nCredo\nNiceno-Constantinopolitan Creed or Apostles' Creed\nUniversal Prayer\nLiturgy ofthe Eucharist\nOffertory\nOrate fratres / prayer over the gifts\nPreface\nSursum corda / Sanctus / Hosanna\nEucharistic Prayer/Canon of the Mass\noblation / epiclesis / Words of Institution / elevation / anamnesis\ntexts and rubrics\nCanonical digits\nRoman Canon\nhistory\nMemorial Acclamation\nLord's Prayer\nembolism / doxology\nPax\nSign of peace\nAgnus Dei\nDona nobis pacem\nFraction\nHoly Communion\nCommunion antiphon\nAblutions\nPostcommunion\nDismissal\nIte, missa est / Benedicamus Domino\nLast Gospel\nPost-Mass\nLeonine Prayers\nRecessional hymn\nParticipants\nAcolyte\nAltar server\nfemale\nBishop\nBoat boy\nCantor\nChoir\nCrucifer\nDeacon\nExtraordinary minister of Holy Communion\nLaity\nEucharistic Congress\nLector\nPorter\nPriest\nSubdeacon\nUsher\nAltar\nAltar crucifix\nAltar rails\nAmbo\nAntependium\nCandles and candlesticks\nTriple candlestick\nPaschal candle\nSanctuary lamp\nChalice veil\nCommunion bench\nCorporal\nCredence table\nKneeler\nLavabo\nMisericord\nPall\nPiscina\nPurificator\nRood\nTabernacle\nLiturgicalobjects\nAltar bell\nAshes\nAspergillum\nCenser\nChalice\nCiborium\nCrotalus\nCollection basket\nCommunion-plate\nCruet\nEvangeliary\nFistula\nFlabellum\nFunghellino\nHoly water\nIncense\nuse\nManuterge\nPaten\nProcessional cross\nPyx\nSacramental bread\nwafer\nSacramental wine (or must)\nThurible\nLiturgical books\nAntiphonary\nCeremonial of Bishops\nCustomary\nRoman Gradual\nGraduale Simplex\nRoman Missal\nDivine Worship: The Missal\nSacramentary and Lectionary\nRoman Pontifical\nTonary\nVestments\nAlb\nAmice\nChasuble\nDalmatic\nEpiscopal sandals\nHumeral veil\nPallium\nPontifical\nStole\nSurplice\nTunicle\nVimpa\nLiturgical yearCalendars\nTridentine calendar\nGeneral Roman Calendar of 1954\nGeneral Roman Calendar of Pope Pius XII\nGeneral Roman Calendar of 1960\nGeneral Roman Calendar (current)\nPeriods\nAdvent\nChristmastide\nOrdinary Time\nSeptuagesima\nLent\nPassiontide\nHoly Week\nPaschal Triduum\nEastertide\nAscensiontide\nEucharisticdiscipline\nAbstemius\nConcelebration\nChurch etiquette\nClosed communion\nCanon 844\nCanon 915\nCommunion and the developmentally disabled\nCommunion under both kinds\nEucharistic fast\nFirst Communion\nFrequent Communion\nGenuflection\nHead cover\nHost desecration\nInfant communion\nIntinction\nReserved sacrament\nSacramental bread and wine (or must)\nSpiritual communion\nThanksgiving after Communion\nAnima Christi\nViaticum\nEucharistictheology\nBody and Blood of Christ\nCorpus Christi\nEpiousion\nGrace ex opere operato\nIn persona Christi\nHistorical roots of Catholic Eucharistic theology\nKoinonia\nLiturgical colours\nMirae caritatis\nMysterium fidei (encyclical)\nOrigin of the Eucharist\nLast Supper\nPassion of Jesus and its salvific nature\nPriesthood of Melchizedek\nReal presence\nTransubstantiation\nYear of the Eucharist\nRegulationsand concepts\nAccentus\nAd orientem and versus populum\nCalendar of saints\nCanon law\nCode of Rubrics\nCommemoration\nGeneral Instruction of the Roman Missal\nHoly day of obligation\nIntercession of saints\nOrdinary and Propers\nPro multis\nSunday\nLord's Day\nRelated\nAgape feast\nAnaphora of the Apostolic Tradition\nAmbrosian Rite\nCatholic theology\nChristian liturgy\nCatholic liturgy\nEastern Catholic liturgy\nChristian prayer\neffects of prayer\nDicastery for Divine Worship\nCouncil of Trent\nEcclesia de Eucharistia\nEucharistic adoration and benediction\nDominicae Cenae / Holy Hour\nEucharistic miracle\nFermentum\nFourth Council of the Lateran\nGelineau psalmody\nGregorian chant\nHistory of the Roman Canon\nLex orandi, lex credendi\nLiturgical Movement\nLiturgical reforms of Pope Pius XII\nMediator Dei\nMissale Romanum (apostolic constitution)\nMusic\nPope Paul VI\nSacraments of the Catholic Church\nSecond Vatican Council\nSacrosanctum concilium\nSummorum Pontificum\nTraditionis custodes\nStercoranism\nTra le sollecitudiniPortals: Catholicism Christianity History ReligionAuthority control databases: National \nFrance\nBnF data\nGermany\nIsrael\nUnited States","title":"Further reading"}]
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Building the Modern Church: Roman Catholic Church Architecture in Britain, 1955 to 1975.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"19th- and 20th-Century Roman Catholic Churches - Introductions to Heritage Assets\". Historic England.","urls":[{"url":"https://historicengland.org.uk/images-books/publications/iha-19th-20th-century-roman-catholic-churches/heag159-roman-catholic-churches-iha/","url_text":"\"19th- and 20th-Century Roman Catholic Churches - Introductions to Heritage Assets\""}]},{"reference":"\"Roman Catholic Church of St Mary, Dunstable designed by Desmond Williams OBE is listed at Grade II\". EWA.","urls":[{"url":"https://ewa.co.uk/en/roman-catholic-church-of-st-mary-dunstable-designed-by-desmond-williams-obe-is-listed-at-grade-ii/","url_text":"\"Roman Catholic Church of St Mary, Dunstable designed by Desmond Williams OBE is listed at Grade II\""}]},{"reference":"\"Church Of St Paul\". Historic England.","urls":[{"url":"https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1241881?section=official-list-entry","url_text":"\"Church Of St Paul\""}]},{"reference":"\"Best Modern Churches winners announced\". Twentieth Century Societey.","urls":[{"url":"https://c20society.org.uk/news/best-modern-churches-winners-announced","url_text":"\"Best Modern Churches winners announced\""}]},{"reference":"\"CHURCH OF OUR LADY OF FATIMA\". Historic England.","urls":[{"url":"https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1246733","url_text":"\"CHURCH OF OUR LADY OF FATIMA\""}]},{"reference":"\"Roman Catholic Church of St Mary\". Historic England.","urls":[{"url":"https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1469006","url_text":"\"Roman Catholic Church of St Mary\""}]},{"reference":"\"CHURCH OF ST MARGARET OF SCOTLAND\". Historic England.","urls":[{"url":"https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1387183","url_text":"\"CHURCH OF ST MARGARET OF SCOTLAND\""}]},{"reference":"Maguire, Robert (January 2002). \"CHURCH DESIGN SINCE 1950\" (PDF). Ecclesiology Today (23): 8.","urls":[{"url":"http://ecclsoc.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/ET.27.pdf","url_text":"\"CHURCH DESIGN SINCE 1950\""}]},{"reference":"Peter Feuerherd (13 April 2017). \"New clericalism is imposing old ways on modern church architecture\". National Catholic Reporter.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncronline.org/blogs/ncr-today/new-clericalism-imposing-old-ways-modern-church-architecture","url_text":"\"New clericalism is imposing old ways on modern church architecture\""}]},{"reference":"Michael E. DeSanctis (28 May 2012). \"Upon This Foundation: Are new church designs taking us backward?\". America, The Jesuit Review.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.americamagazine.org/faith/2012/05/28/upon-foundation-are-new-church-designs-taking-us-backward","url_text":"\"Upon This Foundation: Are new church designs taking us backward?\""}]},{"reference":"O.C. Jr., Edwards. A History of Preaching. Abingdon Press. p. 746. ISBN 9780687038640. In the subtitle for the fifth volume of his history of Worship and Theology in England, Horton Davies refers to the twentieth century as the 'ecumenical century.' Nowhere is that more obvious than in attitudes toward Christian worship. As Davies said: 'What is fascinating about (the liturgical) movement is that it has enabled Protestant churches to recover in part the Catholic liturgical heritage, while the Catholics seem to have appropriated the Protestant valuation of preaching, of shared worship in the vernacular tongue, and the importance of laity as the people of God.'","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780687038640","url_text":"9780687038640"}]},{"reference":"Bouyer, Louis (1955), Liturgical Piety, University of Notre Dame Press","urls":[]},{"reference":"Bouyer, Louis (2015), The Memoirs of Louis Bouyer: From Youth and Conversion to Vatican II, the Liturgical Reform, and After, Angelico Press, ISBN 978-1621381426","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1621381426","url_text":"978-1621381426"}]},{"reference":"Chiron, Yves (2018), Annibale Bugnini: Reformer of the Liturgy, Angelico Press, ISBN 978-1621384113","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1621384113","url_text":"978-1621384113"}]},{"reference":"Chupungco, Anscar J (1997), Handbook for Liturgical Studies: Introduction to the Liturgy, Liturgical Press","urls":[]},{"reference":"Crichton, J D (1996), Lights in the Darkness: Fore-runners of the Liturgical Movement, Columba Press, ISBN 1856071529","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1856071529","url_text":"1856071529"}]},{"reference":"Dobszay, László (2003), The Bugnini-Liturgy and the Reform of the Reform, Church Music Association of America, ISBN 978-1607437246","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1607437246","url_text":"978-1607437246"}]},{"reference":"Giampietro, Nicola (2010), The Development of the Liturgical Reform: As Seen by Cardinal Ferdinando Antonelli from 1948 to 1970, Roman Catholic Books, ISBN 978-1934888124","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1934888124","url_text":"978-1934888124"}]},{"reference":"Grillo, Andrea (2013), Beyond Pius V: Conflicting Interpretations of the Liturgical Reform, Liturgical Press, ISBN 0814663028","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liturgical_Press","url_text":"Liturgical Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0814663028","url_text":"0814663028"}]},{"reference":"Guardini, Romano (1998), The Spirit of the Liturgy, Crossroad Publishing Company","urls":[]},{"reference":"Hayes, David (2009), In a Great and Noble Tradition: The Autobiography of Dom Prosper Gueranger (1805-1875), Founder of the Solesmes Congregation of Benedictine Monks and Nuns, Gracewing Publishing","urls":[]},{"reference":"Hebert, A G (1935), Liturgy and Society, Faber","urls":[]},{"reference":"Irwin, Kevin W (2014), What We Have Done, What We Have Failed to Do: Assessing the Liturgical Reforms of Vatican II, Paulist Press","urls":[]},{"reference":"Kocik, Thomas M (2016), Singing His Song: A Short Introduction to the Liturgical Movement, Chorabooks","urls":[]},{"reference":"Koenker, Ernest Benjamin (1951), Objectives and Achievements of the Liturgical Movement in the Roman Catholic Church since World War II, Church History 20, no 2","urls":[]},{"reference":"Koenker, Ernest Benjamin (1954), The Liturgical Renaissance in the Roman Catholic Church, University of Chicago Press","urls":[]},{"reference":"Marx, Paul (1957), Virgil Michel and the Liturgical Movement, Liturgical Press","urls":[]},{"reference":"Pecklers, Keith F (1998), The Unread Vision: The Liturgical Movement in the United States of America 1926-1955, Liturgical Press, ISBN 0814624502","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0814624502","url_text":"0814624502"}]},{"reference":"Puglisi, James F (2005), Liturgical Renewal as a Way to Christian Unity, Pueblo Publishing Co, ISBN 081466203X","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/081466203X","url_text":"081466203X"}]},{"reference":"Reid, Alcuin (2004), The Organic Development of the Liturgy: The Principles of Liturgical Reform and Their Relation to the Twentieth Century Liturgical Movement Prior to the Second Vatican Council, St Michael's Abbey Press, ISBN 0907077439","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0907077439","url_text":"0907077439"}]},{"reference":"Robinson, Jonathan (2005), The Mass and Modernity: Walking to Heaven Backward, Ignatius Press, ISBN 1586170694","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignatius_Press","url_text":"Ignatius Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1586170694","url_text":"1586170694"}]},{"reference":"Turner, Paul (2015), Whose Mass Is It?: Why People Care So Much about the Catholic Liturgy, Liturgical Press","urls":[]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1387183","external_links_name":"\"CHURCH OF ST MARGARET OF SCOTLAND\""},{"Link":"https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1387183","external_links_name":"\"CHURCH OF ST MARGARET OF SCOTLAND\""},{"Link":"http://www.hrballiance.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/RC-C20-Characterisation-Final-July-2014.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Twentieth-Century Roman Catholic Church Architecture in England, A Characterisation Study\""},{"Link":"https://taking-stock.org.uk/building/retford-st-joseph/","external_links_name":"\"Retford – St Joseph\""},{"Link":"https://historicengland.org.uk/images-books/publications/iha-19th-20th-century-roman-catholic-churches/heag159-roman-catholic-churches-iha/","external_links_name":"\"19th- and 20th-Century Roman Catholic Churches - Introductions to Heritage Assets\""},{"Link":"https://ewa.co.uk/en/roman-catholic-church-of-st-mary-dunstable-designed-by-desmond-williams-obe-is-listed-at-grade-ii/","external_links_name":"\"Roman Catholic Church of St Mary, Dunstable designed by Desmond Williams OBE is listed at Grade II\""},{"Link":"https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1241881?section=official-list-entry","external_links_name":"\"Church Of St Paul\""},{"Link":"https://c20society.org.uk/news/best-modern-churches-winners-announced","external_links_name":"\"Best Modern Churches winners announced\""},{"Link":"https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1246733","external_links_name":"\"CHURCH OF OUR LADY OF FATIMA\""},{"Link":"https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1469006","external_links_name":"\"Roman Catholic Church of St Mary\""},{"Link":"https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1387183","external_links_name":"\"CHURCH OF ST MARGARET OF SCOTLAND\""},{"Link":"http://ecclsoc.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/ET.27.pdf","external_links_name":"\"CHURCH DESIGN SINCE 1950\""},{"Link":"https://www.ncronline.org/blogs/ncr-today/new-clericalism-imposing-old-ways-modern-church-architecture","external_links_name":"\"New clericalism is imposing old ways on modern church architecture\""},{"Link":"https://www.americamagazine.org/faith/2012/05/28/upon-foundation-are-new-church-designs-taking-us-backward","external_links_name":"\"Upon This Foundation: Are new church designs taking us backward?\""},{"Link":"http://www.elca.org/Growing-In-Faith/Worship/Learning-Center/FAQs/How-are-Resources-Prepared.aspx","external_links_name":"[1]"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090604032904/http://www.elca.org/Growing-In-Faith/Worship/Learning-Center/FAQs/How-are-Resources-Prepared.aspx","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119423825","external_links_name":"France"},{"Link":"https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119423825","external_links_name":"BnF data"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/4167970-2","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007533709605171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85077727","external_links_name":"United States"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metapneumovirus
|
Metapneumovirus
|
["1 References"]
|
Genus of viruses in the family Pneumoviridae
Metapneumovirus
Human metapneumovirus (hMPV) structure and genome
Virus classification
(unranked):
Virus
Realm:
Riboviria
Kingdom:
Orthornavirae
Phylum:
Negarnaviricota
Class:
Monjiviricetes
Order:
Mononegavirales
Family:
Pneumoviridae
Genus:
Metapneumovirus
Species
Avian metapneumovirus
Human metapneumovirus
Metapneumovirus is a genus of viruses in the family Pneumoviridae.
The genus contains two species:
Avian metapneumovirus (aMPV)
Human metapneumovirus (hMPV)
References
^ a b "Virus Taxonomy: 2018b Release". International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV). March 2019. Retrieved 19 June 2019.
Taxon identifiersMetapneumovirus
Wikidata: Q16606632
Wikispecies: Metapneumovirus
CoL: 5QK2
EoL: 80648
GBIF: 9930598
IRMNG: 1040675
NCBI: 162387
WoRMS: 600288
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"genus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genus"},{"link_name":"Pneumoviridae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumoviridae"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ICTV-1"},{"link_name":"Avian metapneumovirus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avian_metapneumovirus"},{"link_name":"Human metapneumovirus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_metapneumovirus"}],"text":"Metapneumovirus is a genus of viruses in the family Pneumoviridae.[1]The genus contains two species:Avian metapneumovirus (aMPV)\nHuman metapneumovirus (hMPV)","title":"Metapneumovirus"}]
|
[]
| null |
[{"reference":"\"Virus Taxonomy: 2018b Release\". International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV). March 2019. Retrieved 19 June 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://ictv.global/taxonomy","url_text":"\"Virus Taxonomy: 2018b Release\""}]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://ictv.global/taxonomy","external_links_name":"\"Virus Taxonomy: 2018b Release\""},{"Link":"https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/5QK2","external_links_name":"5QK2"},{"Link":"https://eol.org/pages/80648","external_links_name":"80648"},{"Link":"https://www.gbif.org/species/9930598","external_links_name":"9930598"},{"Link":"https://www.irmng.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=1040675","external_links_name":"1040675"},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=162387","external_links_name":"162387"},{"Link":"https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=600288","external_links_name":"600288"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuff_the_Magic_Dragon
|
Stuff the Magic Dragon
|
["1 Biography","2 Appearance","3 Antics","4 Awards","5 References","6 External links"]
|
Mascot of the Orlando Magic
Not to be confused with Puff the Magic Dragon (disambiguation).
Stuff the Magic Dragon is the official mascot of the Orlando Magic of the National Basketball Association (NBA). His name is a play on the Peter, Paul and Mary song "Puff, the Magic Dragon", and the basketball slang term "stuff" (which means to either slam dunk or reject a slam dunk shot).
Stuff at ESPN The Weekend in 2011
Biography
Stuff the Magic Dragon, described as "the tallest dragon in Orlando's history," was introduced in a giant egg on Church Street in 1989, where Dave Raymond, the original Phillie Phanatic, portrayed him for his "birth". He was "originally the Magic's #1 pick in the supplemental dragon back draft, directly out of clown college." Stuff is said to live in the Dragon's Lair at Orlando's Amway Center and has his own play area, "Stuff's Magic Castle" on the promenade level. Many think that Stuff is a copy of the Philly Phanatic, but the two mascots were made by the same company, Acme Mascots (Harrison/Erickson), which made many popular mascots including the retired Yankees mascot "Dandy", the Hornets mascot Hugo, and Montreal's Youppi!. According to original Magic general manager Pat Williams, various other mascot ideas were thrown before the dragon, including a rabbit, a wizard and a magic bean.
Appearance
Stuff is a neon green dragon with a blue unibrow. two teeth on his snout, two magician's wands on his head, a long blue and pink mane, black shoes with stars on them and pink wings on the sides of his head and on his arms. Stuff also has yellow puffers that inflate and deflate and come out of his nostrils to represent the "fire" that comes out of a dragon's nostrils. He is recognisable by his white Magic jersey with his logo on the front. but he also has black and blue jerseys. During the 2010 playoffs, Stuff appeared wearing royal blue fur instead of his usual neon green.
Antics
Stuff comes out on the court pre-game to do a skit and toss out T-shirts; during the game, he often ventures around in the stand and does more skits during breaks and between quarters. Most skits can be from a trampoline dunk show (by himself or with the Orlando Magic Flight Crew), a pump-up session with giant signs, break-dancing in the middle of the court, or dancing to a song compilation. A special song made for the mascot plays during his entrances. He also makes grand entrances during special events like the playoffs or opening night where he comes down from the rafters on a zip line or bungee. He also has two air-mascot counterparts, Air Stuff and Air Stuff Jr., and has a miniature mascot of him named Mini-Stuff. He gained nationwide popularity when he was featured on "The Tonight Show", hosted by Jimmy Fallon, during a dance off with their mascot, Hashtag the panda, during a week-long special in Orlando. He also made headlines when he proposed to Kate Upton.
Stuff is also the host of the annual "Celebrity Mascot Games" that takes place each year at the Amway Center. Each year, mascots from North America come to Orlando and compete in Olympic-style games while being in different colored teams. The Mascot Games were made for the non-profit organization, "New Hope For Kids", to raise money and attention for them. The games started in 1992 at the old Amway Arena and have continued annually until 2019 except in 2013 (the games took a hiatus due to lack of a new partnership for the company). The Games was originally cancelled from 2020 to 2022, then eventually discontinued.
During his career, Stuff has been seen with many other sports mascots at numerous mascot-oriented events. Each year, about 4-5 mascots (locally and across the country) come to Orlando and do opportunities for pictures and meet and greets pre-game and during the game. Stuff and his mascot guests also do special skits, which normally include a mascot dunk show, a halftime skit, and a short number from the mascots' air counterparts. .
Stuff has recently received more popularity after the NBA All Star Game's Verizon Slam Dunk Contest, where he assisted Magic player Aaron Gordon during the event. He won the NBA Mascot Conference's Mascot of the Year award in 2016.
Awards
Mascot of the Year – 2016, 2017
References
^ "What does it mean "to stuff"?
^ Pat Williams, James D. Denney (2014). Ahead of the Game: The Pat Williams Story. Revell. p. 191. ISBN 978-1441220455.
^ Matt Humphrey (April 19, 2010). "Orlando Magic mascot: Blue Stuff mascot stirs Orlando Magic fans". Archived from the original on 2012-05-24. Retrieved December 12, 2016.
^ "STUFF Appears on Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon". NBA.com.
^ "Orlando Magic mascot proposed to Kate Upton... She didn't say no". 10 February 2014.
^ "Magic Blog: Stuff Happens". www.nba.com/magic. Retrieved 2009-04-02.
^ "Aaron Gordon deserved a million points for his dunks with the Magic's hoverboarding mascot". 14 February 2016.
^ Orlando Magic (July 29, 2016). "Wooooooohooooooooo!!! RETWEET to congratulate @STUFFMagic on being named @NBA Mascot of the Year!!" (Tweet) – via Twitter.
External links
Stuff's Lair
Magic Blog: Stuff Happens
vteOrlando Magic
Founded in 1989
Based in Orlando, Florida
Franchise
All-time roster
Draft history
1989
Head coaches
Seasons
Current season
Arenas
Amway Arena
Kia Center
Personnel
Owner(s)
RDV Sports, Inc. (Doug DeVos, chairman)
President
Jeff Weltman
General manager
Anthony Parker
Head coach
Jamahl Mosley
G League affiliate
Osceola Magic
Retired numbers
6
32
Rivalries
Miami Heat
Culture and lore
Broadcasters
Paul Porter
Stuff the Magic Dragon
Summer League
This Magic Moment
vteNBA mascotsEasternConferenceAtlantic
Lucky the Leprechaun (Boston Celtics)
no mascot (Brooklyn Nets)
no mascot (New York Knicks)
Franklin (Philadelphia 76ers)
The Raptor / Stripes (Toronto Raptors)
Central
Benny the Bull (Chicago Bulls)
Moon Dog, Sir CC (Cleveland Cavaliers)
Hooper (Detroit Pistons)
Boomer (Indiana Pacers)
Bango / Bango Jr. (Milwaukee Bucks)
Southeast
Harry the Hawk (Atlanta Hawks)
Hugo the Hornet (Charlotte Hornets)
Burnie (Miami Heat)
Stuff the Magic Dragon (Orlando Magic)
G-Wiz / G-Man (Washington Wizards)
Western ConferenceNorthwest
Rocky the Mountain Lion (Denver Nuggets)
Crunch the Wolf (Minnesota Timberwolves)
Rumble the Bison (Oklahoma City Thunder)
Blaze the Trail Cat, Douglas Fur (Portland Trail Blazers)
Jazz Bear (Utah Jazz)
Pacific
no mascot (Golden State Warriors)
Chuck the Condor (Los Angeles Clippers)
no mascot (Los Angeles Lakers)
Go the Gorilla (Phoenix Suns)
Slamson the Lion (Sacramento Kings)
Southwest
Champ / Mavs Man (Dallas Mavericks)
Clutch (Houston Rockets)
Grizz (Memphis Grizzlies)
Pierre the Pelican (New Orleans Pelicans)
The Coyote (San Antonio Spurs)
Former mascots
Dancing Harry
Hip Hop
Rufus
Skyhawk
Squatch
Wheedle
Mascots of the Year
2005: Clutch
2006: Jazz Bear
2007: Hugo
2008: Jazz Bear
2009: Rumble the Bison
2010: Bango
2011: Grizz
2012: Crunch the Wolf
2013: Clutch
2014: The Coyote
2015: Benny the Bull
2016: Stuff the Magic Dragon
2017: Stuff the Magic Dragon
2018: Jazz Bear
2019: Rocky the Mountain Lion
2020: The Coyote
2021: Clutch
2022: Chuck the Condor
2023: Harry the Hawk
|
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His name is a play on the Peter, Paul and Mary song \"Puff, the Magic Dragon\", and the basketball slang term \"stuff\" (which means to either slam dunk or reject a slam dunk shot).[1]Stuff at ESPN The Weekend in 2011","title":"Stuff the Magic Dragon"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Orlando","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orlando,_Florida"},{"link_name":"Phillie Phanatic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phillie_Phanatic"},{"link_name":"Amway Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amway_Center"},{"link_name":"Youppi!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youppi!"},{"link_name":"Pat Williams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pat_Williams_(basketball)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Stuff the Magic Dragon, described as \"the tallest dragon in Orlando's history,\" was introduced in a giant egg on Church Street in 1989, where Dave Raymond, the original Phillie Phanatic, portrayed him for his \"birth\". He was \"originally the Magic's #1 pick in the supplemental dragon back draft, directly out of clown college.\" Stuff is said to live in the Dragon's Lair at Orlando's Amway Center and has his own play area, \"Stuff's Magic Castle\" on the promenade level. Many think that Stuff is a copy of the Philly Phanatic, but the two mascots were made by the same company, Acme Mascots (Harrison/Erickson), which made many popular mascots including the retired Yankees mascot \"Dandy\", the Hornets mascot Hugo, and Montreal's Youppi!. According to original Magic general manager Pat Williams, various other mascot ideas were thrown before the dragon, including a rabbit, a wizard and a magic bean.[2]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"Stuff is a neon green dragon with a blue unibrow. two teeth on his snout, two magician's wands on his head, a long blue and pink mane, black shoes with stars on them and pink wings on the sides of his head and on his arms. Stuff also has yellow puffers that inflate and deflate and come out of his nostrils to represent the \"fire\" that comes out of a dragon's nostrils. He is recognisable by his white Magic jersey with his logo on the front. but he also has black and blue jerseys. During the 2010 playoffs, Stuff appeared wearing royal blue fur instead of his usual neon green. [3]","title":"Appearance"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-stuff-6"},{"link_name":"Aaron Gordon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aaron_Gordon"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"Stuff comes out on the court pre-game to do a skit and toss out T-shirts; during the game, he often ventures around in the stand and does more skits during breaks and between quarters. Most skits can be from a trampoline dunk show (by himself or with the Orlando Magic Flight Crew), a pump-up session with giant signs, break-dancing in the middle of the court, or dancing to a song compilation. A special song made for the mascot plays during his entrances. He also makes grand entrances during special events like the playoffs or opening night where he comes down from the rafters on a zip line or bungee. He also has two air-mascot counterparts, Air Stuff and Air Stuff Jr., and has a miniature mascot of him named Mini-Stuff. He gained nationwide popularity when he was featured on \"The Tonight Show\", hosted by Jimmy Fallon, during a dance off with their mascot, Hashtag the panda, during a week-long special in Orlando.[4] He also made headlines when he proposed to Kate Upton.[5]Stuff is also the host of the annual \"Celebrity Mascot Games\" that takes place each year at the Amway Center. Each year, mascots from North America come to Orlando and compete in Olympic-style games while being in different colored teams. The Mascot Games were made for the non-profit organization, \"New Hope For Kids\", to raise money and attention for them. The games started in 1992 at the old Amway Arena and have continued annually until 2019 except in 2013 (the games took a hiatus due to lack of a new partnership for the company). The Games was originally cancelled from 2020 to 2022, then eventually discontinued.During his career, Stuff has been seen with many other sports mascots at numerous mascot-oriented events. Each year, about 4-5 mascots (locally and across the country) come to Orlando and do opportunities for pictures and meet and greets pre-game and during the game. Stuff and his mascot guests also do special skits, which normally include a mascot dunk show, a halftime skit, and a short number from the mascots' air counterparts. .[6]Stuff has recently received more popularity after the NBA All Star Game's Verizon Slam Dunk Contest, where he assisted Magic player Aaron Gordon during the event.[7] He won the NBA Mascot Conference's Mascot of the Year award in 2016.[8]","title":"Antics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mascot of the Year","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_National_Basketball_Association_mascots#Mascot_of_the_Year"}],"text":"Mascot of the Year – 2016, 2017","title":"Awards"}]
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[{"image_text":"Stuff at ESPN The Weekend in 2011","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Stuff_The_Magic_Dragon.jpg/220px-Stuff_The_Magic_Dragon.jpg"}]
| null |
[{"reference":"Pat Williams, James D. Denney (2014). Ahead of the Game: The Pat Williams Story. Revell. p. 191. ISBN 978-1441220455.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1441220455","url_text":"978-1441220455"}]},{"reference":"Matt Humphrey (April 19, 2010). \"Orlando Magic mascot: Blue Stuff mascot stirs Orlando Magic fans\". Archived from the original on 2012-05-24. Retrieved December 12, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120524054036/http://blogs.orlandosentinel.com/sports_magic/2010/04/orlando-magic-mascot-blue-stuff-mascot-stirs-orlando-magic-fans.html","url_text":"\"Orlando Magic mascot: Blue Stuff mascot stirs Orlando Magic fans\""},{"url":"http://blogs.orlandosentinel.com/sports_magic/2010/04/orlando-magic-mascot-blue-stuff-mascot-stirs-orlando-magic-fans.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"STUFF Appears on Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon\". NBA.com.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nba.com/magic/stuff-appear-tonight-show-starring-jimmy-fallon-wednesday","url_text":"\"STUFF Appears on Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBA.com","url_text":"NBA.com"}]},{"reference":"\"Orlando Magic mascot proposed to Kate Upton... She didn't say no\". 10 February 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://probasketballtalk.nbcsports.com/2014/02/10/orlando-magic-mascot-proposed-to-kate-upton-she-didnt-say-no/","url_text":"\"Orlando Magic mascot proposed to Kate Upton... She didn't say no\""}]},{"reference":"\"Magic Blog: Stuff Happens\". www.nba.com/magic. Retrieved 2009-04-02.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nba.com/magic/news/Magic_Blog_Stuff_Happens-179107-800-html","url_text":"\"Magic Blog: Stuff Happens\""}]},{"reference":"\"Aaron Gordon deserved a million points for his dunks with the Magic's hoverboarding mascot\". 14 February 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://ftw.usatoday.com/2016/02/aaron-gordon-dunk-contest-magic-mascot-hoverboard-whoa-omg-wow","url_text":"\"Aaron Gordon deserved a million points for his dunks with the Magic's hoverboarding mascot\""}]},{"reference":"Orlando Magic [@OrlandoMagic] (July 29, 2016). \"Wooooooohooooooooo!!! RETWEET to congratulate @STUFFMagic on being named @NBA Mascot of the Year!!\" (Tweet) – via Twitter.","urls":[{"url":"https://x.com/OrlandoMagic/status/759068011131043840","url_text":"\"Wooooooohooooooooo!!! RETWEET to congratulate @STUFFMagic on being named @NBA Mascot of the Year!!\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tweet_(social_media)","url_text":"Tweet"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twitter","url_text":"Twitter"}]}]
|
[{"Link":"http://alvin-almazov.com/basketball-eng/stuff/#:~:text=Stuff%20is%20another%20term%20used,the%20ball%20out%20of%20bounds.","external_links_name":"\"What does it mean \"to stuff\"?"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120524054036/http://blogs.orlandosentinel.com/sports_magic/2010/04/orlando-magic-mascot-blue-stuff-mascot-stirs-orlando-magic-fans.html","external_links_name":"\"Orlando Magic mascot: Blue Stuff mascot stirs Orlando Magic fans\""},{"Link":"http://blogs.orlandosentinel.com/sports_magic/2010/04/orlando-magic-mascot-blue-stuff-mascot-stirs-orlando-magic-fans.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.nba.com/magic/stuff-appear-tonight-show-starring-jimmy-fallon-wednesday","external_links_name":"\"STUFF Appears on Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon\""},{"Link":"http://probasketballtalk.nbcsports.com/2014/02/10/orlando-magic-mascot-proposed-to-kate-upton-she-didnt-say-no/","external_links_name":"\"Orlando Magic mascot proposed to Kate Upton... She didn't say no\""},{"Link":"http://www.nba.com/magic/news/Magic_Blog_Stuff_Happens-179107-800-html","external_links_name":"\"Magic Blog: Stuff Happens\""},{"Link":"http://ftw.usatoday.com/2016/02/aaron-gordon-dunk-contest-magic-mascot-hoverboard-whoa-omg-wow","external_links_name":"\"Aaron Gordon deserved a million points for his dunks with the Magic's hoverboarding mascot\""},{"Link":"https://x.com/OrlandoMagic/status/759068011131043840","external_links_name":"\"Wooooooohooooooooo!!! RETWEET to congratulate @STUFFMagic on being named @NBA Mascot of the Year!!\""},{"Link":"http://www.nba.com/magic/mascot/stuff_court.html","external_links_name":"Stuff's Lair"},{"Link":"http://www.nba.com/magic/news/Magic_Blog_Stuff_Happens-179107-800.html","external_links_name":"Magic Blog: Stuff Happens"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospitium
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Hospitium
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["1 Private","2 Public","3 Medieval hospitia","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]
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Greco-Roman hospitality concept
This article relies largely or entirely on a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources.Find sources: "Hospitium" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2023)
Scallop shell offering hospitality to pilgrims on the Way of St James
Hospitium (; Greek: ξενία, xenia, προξενία) is the ancient Greco-Roman concept of hospitality as a divine right of the guest and a divine duty of the host. Similar or broadly equivalent customs were and are also known in other cultures, though not always by that name. Among the Greeks and Romans, hospitium was of a twofold character: private and public.
Private
In Homeric times, all strangers, without exception, were regarded as being under the protection of Zeus Xenios, the god of strangers and suppliants, and had the right to hospitality. (It is doubtful whether, as is commonly assumed, they were considered as ipso facto enemies; they were rather guests.) Immediately on his arrival, the stranger was clothed and entertained, and no inquiry was made as to his name or antecedents until the duties of hospitality had been fulfilled. When the guest parted from his host he was often presented with gifts (ξένια), and sometimes a die (ἀστράγαλος) was broken between them. Each then took a part, a family connection was established, and the broken die served as a symbol of recognition; thus the members of each family found in the other hosts and protectors in case of need.
Violation by the host of the duties of hospitality was likely to provoke the wrath of the gods; but it does not appear that anything beyond this religious sanction existed to guard the rights of a traveler. Similar customs seem to have existed among the Italian peoples. Amongst the Romans, private hospitality, which had existed from the earliest times, was more accurately and legally defined than amongst the Greeks, the tie between host and guest being almost as strong as that between patron and client. It was of the nature of a contract, entered into by mutual promise, the clasping of hands, and exchange of an agreement in writing (tabula hospitalis) or of a token (tessera or symbolum), and was rendered hereditary by the division of the tessera. The advantages thus obtained by the guest were, the right of hospitality when traveling and, above all, the protection of his host (representing him as his patron) in a court of law. The contract was sacred and inviolable, undertaken in the name of Jupiter Hospitalis, and could only be dissolved by a formal act.
Public
This private connection developed into a custom according to which a state appointed one of the citizens of a foreign state as its representative Proxenos (πρόξενος) to protect any of its citizens travelling or resident in his country. Sometimes an individual came forward voluntarily to perform these duties on behalf of another state etheloproxenos (ἐθελοπρόξενος). The proxenus is generally compared to the modern consul or minister resident. His duties were to afford hospitality to strangers from the state whose proxenus he was, to introduce its ambassadors, to procure them admission to the assembly and seats in the theatre, and in general to look after the commercial and political interests of the state by which he had been appointed to his office.
Many cases occur where such an office was hereditary; thus the family of Callias at Athens were proxeni of the Spartans. We find the office mentioned in a Corcyraean inscription dating probably from the 7th century BC, and it continued to grow more important and frequent throughout Greek history. There is no proof that any direct emolument was ever attached to the office, while the expense and trouble entailed by it must often have been very great. Probably the honors which it brought with it were sufficient recompense. These consisted partly in the general respect and esteem paid to a proxenus, and partly in many more substantial honors conferred by special decree of the state whose representative he was, such as freedom from taxation and public burdens, the right of acquiring property in Attica, admission to the senate and popular assemblies, and perhaps even full citizenship.
Public hospitium seems also to have existed among the Italian races; but the circumstances of their history prevented it from becoming so important as in Greece. Cases, however, occur of the establishment of public hospitality between two cities (Rome and Caere, Livy v. 50), and of towns entering into a position of clientship to some distinguished Roman, who then became patronus of such a town. Foreigners were frequently granted the right of public hospitality by the senate down to the end of the republic. The public hospes had a right to entertainment at the public expense, admission to sacrifices and games, the right of buying and selling on his own account, and of bringing an action at law without the intervention of a Roman patron.
A full bibliography of the subject will be found in the article in Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquités, to which may be added Rudolf von Jhering. Die Gastfreundschaft im Altertum (1887); see also Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (3rd ed., 1890).
Medieval hospitia
The former Hospitium of St Mary's Abbey, York, England
In the Middle Ages, the term was extended, across Europe, to refer to the building or complex of buildings attached to a monastery, where pilgrims and other lesser guests could find hospitality or hospitium, including dormitory-based accommodation.
See also
Proxeny
Xenia (Greek)
Hospitality law
Nanawatai
Melmastia
References
^ a b c d e f g One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Hospitium". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 13 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 801.
External links
Smith. Bill Thayer (ed.). "Hospitium". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. LacusCurtius.
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[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Audignon_%C3%A9glise_4.JPG"},{"link_name":"Way of St James","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camino_de_Santiago"},{"link_name":"[hɔs̠ˈpɪt̪iʊ̃]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Latin"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"xenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenia_(Greek)"},{"link_name":"Greco-Roman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greco-Roman"},{"link_name":"hospitality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospitality"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-1"}],"text":"Scallop shell offering hospitality to pilgrims on the Way of St JamesHospitium ([hɔs̠ˈpɪt̪iʊ̃]; Greek: ξενία, xenia, προξενία) is the ancient Greco-Roman concept of hospitality as a divine right of the guest and a divine duty of the host. Similar or broadly equivalent customs were and are also known in other cultures, though not always by that name. Among the Greeks and Romans, hospitium was of a twofold character: private and public.[1]","title":"Hospitium"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Homeric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homer"},{"link_name":"Zeus Xenios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeus#Roles_and_epithets"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"ipso facto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ipso_facto"},{"link_name":"antecedents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antecedent_(genealogy)"},{"link_name":"die","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talus_bone#As_dice"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-1"},{"link_name":"tone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles#Tone"},{"link_name":"Romans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Rome"},{"link_name":"tessera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tessera"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-1"}],"text":"In Homeric times, all strangers, without exception, were regarded as being under the protection of Zeus Xenios, the god of strangers and suppliants, and had the right to hospitality. (It is doubtful whether, as is commonly assumed,[citation needed] they were considered as ipso facto enemies; they were rather guests.) Immediately on his arrival, the stranger was clothed and entertained, and no inquiry was made as to his name or antecedents until the duties of hospitality had been fulfilled. When the guest parted from his host he was often presented with gifts (ξένια), and sometimes a die (ἀστράγαλος) was broken between them. Each then took a part, a family connection was established, and the broken die served as a symbol of recognition; thus the members of each family found in the other hosts and protectors in case of need.[1]Violation by the host of the duties of hospitality was likely to provoke the wrath of the gods; but it does not appear that anything beyond this religious sanction existed to guard the rights of a traveler. Similar customs seem to have existed among the Italian peoples.[tone] Amongst the Romans, private hospitality, which had existed from the earliest times, was more accurately and legally defined than amongst the Greeks, the tie between host and guest being almost as strong as that between patron and client. It was of the nature of a contract, entered into by mutual promise, the clasping of hands, and exchange of an agreement in writing (tabula hospitalis) or of a token (tessera or symbolum), and was rendered hereditary by the division of the tessera. The advantages thus obtained by the guest were, the right of hospitality when traveling and, above all, the protection of his host (representing him as his patron) in a court of law. The contract was sacred and inviolable, undertaken in the name of Jupiter Hospitalis, and could only be dissolved by a formal act.[1]","title":"Private"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Proxenos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proxenos"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-1"},{"link_name":"Callias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callias"},{"link_name":"Athens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athens"},{"link_name":"Spartans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta"},{"link_name":"Corcyraean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corcyraean"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-1"},{"link_name":"Rome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome"},{"link_name":"Caere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caere"},{"link_name":"Livy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livy"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-1"},{"link_name":"Rudolf von Jhering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_von_Jhering"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-1"}],"text":"This private connection developed into a custom according to which a state appointed one of the citizens of a foreign state as its representative Proxenos (πρόξενος) to protect any of its citizens travelling or resident in his country. Sometimes an individual came forward voluntarily to perform these duties on behalf of another state etheloproxenos (ἐθελοπρόξενος). The proxenus is generally compared to the modern consul or minister resident. His duties were to afford hospitality to strangers from the state whose proxenus he was, to introduce its ambassadors, to procure them admission to the assembly and seats in the theatre, and in general to look after the commercial and political interests of the state by which he had been appointed to his office.[1]Many cases occur where such an office was hereditary; thus the family of Callias at Athens were proxeni of the Spartans. We find the office mentioned in a Corcyraean inscription dating probably from the 7th century BC, and it continued to grow more important and frequent throughout Greek history. There is no proof that any direct emolument was ever attached to the office, while the expense and trouble entailed by it must often have been very great. Probably the honors which it brought with it were sufficient recompense. These consisted partly in the general respect and esteem paid to a proxenus, and partly in many more substantial honors conferred by special decree of the state whose representative he was, such as freedom from taxation and public burdens, the right of acquiring property in Attica, admission to the senate and popular assemblies, and perhaps even full citizenship.[1]Public hospitium seems also to have existed among the Italian races; but the circumstances of their history prevented it from becoming so important as in Greece. Cases, however, occur of the establishment of public hospitality between two cities (Rome and Caere, Livy v. 50), and of towns entering into a position of clientship to some distinguished Roman, who then became patronus of such a town. Foreigners were frequently granted the right of public hospitality by the senate down to the end of the republic. The public hospes had a right to entertainment at the public expense, admission to sacrifices and games, the right of buying and selling on his own account, and of bringing an action at law without the intervention of a Roman patron.[1]A full bibliography of the subject will be found in the article in Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquités, to which may be added Rudolf von Jhering. Die Gastfreundschaft im Altertum (1887); see also Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (3rd ed., 1890).[1]","title":"Public"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hospitium,_York.jpg"},{"link_name":"St Mary's Abbey, York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Mary%27s_Abbey,_York"},{"link_name":"Middle Ages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages"},{"link_name":"monastery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monastery"},{"link_name":"pilgrims","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilgrim"},{"link_name":"dormitory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dormitory"}],"text":"The former Hospitium of St Mary's Abbey, York, EnglandIn the Middle Ages, the term was extended, across Europe, to refer to the building or complex of buildings attached to a monastery, where pilgrims and other lesser guests could find hospitality or hospitium, including dormitory-based accommodation.","title":"Medieval hospitia"}]
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[{"image_text":"Scallop shell offering hospitality to pilgrims on the Way of St James","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Audignon_%C3%A9glise_4.JPG/220px-Audignon_%C3%A9glise_4.JPG"},{"image_text":"The former Hospitium of St Mary's Abbey, York, England","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Hospitium%2C_York.jpg/220px-Hospitium%2C_York.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Proxeny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proxeny"},{"title":"Xenia (Greek)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenia_(Greek)"},{"title":"Hospitality law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospitality_law"},{"title":"Nanawatai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanawatai"},{"title":"Melmastia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melmastia"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sink_(computing)
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Sink (computing)
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["1 In software engineering","2 In graph theory","3 In stream processing","4 Other uses","5 See also","6 References"]
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In computing, a sink, or data sink generally refers to the destination of data flow.
The word sink has multiple uses in computing. In software engineering, an event sink is a class or function that receives events from another object or function, while a sink can also refer to a node of a directed acyclic graph with no additional nodes leading out from it, among other uses.
In software engineering
An event sink is a class or function designed to receive incoming events from another object or function. This is commonly implemented in C++ as callbacks. Other object-oriented languages, such as Java and C#, have built-in support for sinks by allowing events to be fired to delegate functions.
Due to lack of formal definition, a sink is often misconstrued with a gateway, which is a similar construct but the latter is usually either an end-point or allows bi-direction communication between dissimilar systems, as opposed to just an event input point . This is often seen in C++ and hardware-related programming , thus the choice of nomenclature by a developer usually depends on whether the agent acting on a sink is a producer or consumer of the sink content.
In graph theory
Main article: Directed acyclic graph
In a Directed acyclic graph, a source node is a node (also known as a vertex) with no incoming connections from other nodes, while a sink node is a node without outgoing connections.
Directed acyclic graphs are used in instruction scheduling, neural networks and data compression.
In stream processing
In several computer programs employing streams, such as GStreamer, PulseAudio, or PipeWire, a sink is the starting point of a pipeline which consumes a stream of data, while a source is the end point which emits a stream a data (often after having performing some processing function on the data).
An example is an audio pipeline in the PulseAudio sound system. An input device such as a microphone is an audio device which will send data to a sink for consumption. The audio signal will then be made available as an audio source, which may have undergone audio processing, such as volume adjustment. Typically, it will also pass through other stages, such as audio mixing. In this way the volume adjustment processing receives audio samples via its sink, emits them from its source, which is then connected to a mixer sink, which mixes audio, ultimately emitting the processed audio from it source. Referred to as an output source in PulseAudio. The configuration and connection of these pipelines can be complex and dynamic.
The terms sink and source may be confusing, but they specifically refer to the point of entry (sink) and exit (source) in systems. The terminology is exactly analogous to that used in other domains, such as electrical engineering.
Other uses
The word sink has been used for both input and output in the industry. Mobile sink is proposed to save sensor energy for multihop communication in transferring data to a base station (sink) in wireless sensor networks.
See also
Flow network
Event-driven architecture
References
^ "What is a sink in graph theory?".
^ "Elements". GStreamer Documentation.
^ "About – PulseAudio". PulseAudio.
^ "Current Sourcing and Sinking".
This computing article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"software engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_engineering"},{"link_name":"directed acyclic graph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directed_acyclic_graph"}],"text":"The word sink has multiple uses in computing. In software engineering, an event sink is a class or function that receives events from another object or function, while a sink can also refer to a node of a directed acyclic graph with no additional nodes leading out from it, among other uses.","title":"Sink (computing)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"class","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_(computing)"},{"link_name":"events","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Event_(computing)"},{"link_name":"object","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"C++","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%2B%2B"},{"link_name":"callbacks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callback_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"object-oriented languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object-oriented_programming"},{"link_name":"Java","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"C#","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_Sharp_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"delegate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delegation_(programming)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"An event sink is a class or function designed to receive incoming events from another object or function. This is commonly implemented in C++ as callbacks. Other object-oriented languages, such as Java and C#, have built-in support for sinks by allowing events to be fired to delegate functions.Due to lack of formal definition, a sink is often misconstrued with a gateway, which is a similar construct but the latter is usually either an end-point or allows bi-direction communication between dissimilar systems, as opposed to just an event input point [citation needed]. This is often seen in C++ and hardware-related programming [citation needed], thus the choice of nomenclature by a developer usually depends on whether the agent acting on a sink is a producer or consumer of the sink content.","title":"In software engineering"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Directed acyclic graph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directed_acyclic_graph"},{"link_name":"vertex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertex_(graph_theory)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"instruction scheduling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instruction_scheduling"},{"link_name":"neural networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_neural_network"},{"link_name":"data compression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_compression"}],"text":"In a Directed acyclic graph, a source node is a node (also known as a vertex) with no incoming connections from other nodes, while a sink node is a node without outgoing connections.[1]Directed acyclic graphs are used in instruction scheduling, neural networks and data compression.","title":"In graph theory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"GStreamer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GStreamer"},{"link_name":"PulseAudio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PulseAudio"},{"link_name":"PipeWire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PipeWire"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"PulseAudio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PulseAudio"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"In several computer programs employing streams, such as GStreamer, PulseAudio, or PipeWire, a sink is the starting point of a pipeline which consumes a stream of data, while a source is the end point which emits a stream a data (often after having performing some processing function on the data).[2]An example is an audio pipeline in the PulseAudio sound system. An input device such as a microphone is an audio device which will send data to a sink for consumption. The audio signal will then be made available as an audio source, which may have undergone audio processing, such as volume adjustment. Typically, it will also pass through other stages, such as audio mixing. In this way the volume adjustment processing receives audio samples via its sink, emits them from its source, which is then connected to a mixer sink, which mixes audio, ultimately emitting the processed audio from it source. Referred to as an output source in PulseAudio. The configuration and connection of these pipelines can be complex and dynamic. [3]The terms sink and source may be confusing, but they specifically refer to the point of entry (sink) and exit (source) in systems. The terminology is exactly analogous to that used in other domains, such as electrical engineering. [4]","title":"In stream processing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data"},{"link_name":"wireless sensor networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_sensor_network"}],"text":"The word sink has been used for both input and output in the industry.[citation needed] Mobile sink is proposed to save sensor energy for multihop communication in transferring data to a base station (sink) in wireless sensor networks.","title":"Other uses"}]
|
[]
|
[{"title":"Flow network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_network"},{"title":"Event-driven architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Event-driven_architecture"}]
|
[{"reference":"\"What is a sink in graph theory?\".","urls":[{"url":"https://askinglot.com/what-is-a-sink-in-graph-theory","url_text":"\"What is a sink in graph theory?\""}]},{"reference":"\"Elements\". GStreamer Documentation.","urls":[{"url":"https://gstreamer.freedesktop.org/documentation/application-development/basics/elements.html#sink-elements","url_text":"\"Elements\""}]},{"reference":"\"About – PulseAudio\". PulseAudio.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.freedesktop.org/wiki/Software/PulseAudio/About/#aboutpulseaudio","url_text":"\"About – PulseAudio\""}]},{"reference":"\"Current Sourcing and Sinking\".","urls":[{"url":"https://startingelectronics.com/articles/current-sourcing-sinking/","url_text":"\"Current Sourcing and Sinking\""}]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://askinglot.com/what-is-a-sink-in-graph-theory","external_links_name":"\"What is a sink in graph theory?\""},{"Link":"https://gstreamer.freedesktop.org/documentation/application-development/basics/elements.html#sink-elements","external_links_name":"\"Elements\""},{"Link":"https://www.freedesktop.org/wiki/Software/PulseAudio/About/#aboutpulseaudio","external_links_name":"\"About – PulseAudio\""},{"Link":"https://startingelectronics.com/articles/current-sourcing-sinking/","external_links_name":"\"Current Sourcing and Sinking\""},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sink_(computing)&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_direction
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Wind direction
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["1 Measurement techniques","2 See also","3 References"]
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Meteorological phenomenon
This wind vane indicates an east wind.
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Wind direction is generally reported by the direction from which the wind originates. For example, a north or northerly wind blows from the north to the south; the exceptions are onshore winds (blowing onto the shore from the water) and offshore winds (blowing off the shore to the water). Wind direction is usually reported in cardinal (or compass) direction, or in degrees. Consequently, a wind blowing from the north has a wind direction referred to as 0° (360°); a wind blowing from the east has a wind direction referred to as 90°, etc.
Weather forecasts typically give the direction of the wind along with its speed, for example a "northerly wind at 15 km/h" is a wind blowing from the north at a speed of 15 km/h. If wind gusts are present, their speed may also be reported.
Measurement techniques
A variety of instruments can be used to measure wind direction, such as the anemoscope, windsock, and wind vane. All these instruments work by moving to minimize air resistance. The way a weather vane is pointed by prevailing winds indicates the direction from which the wind is blowing. The larger opening of a windsock faces the direction that the wind is blowing from; its tail, with the smaller opening, points in the same direction as the wind is blowing.
Modern instruments used to measure wind speed and direction are called anemoscopes, anemometers and wind vanes. These types of instruments are used by the wind energy industry, both for wind resource assessment and turbine control.
When a high measurement frequency is needed (such as in research applications), wind can be measured by the propagation speed of ultrasound signals or by the effect of ventilation on the resistance of a heated wire. Another type of anemometer uses pitot tubes that take advantage of the pressure differential between an inner tube and an outer tube that is exposed to the wind to determine the dynamic pressure, which is then used to compute the wind speed.
In situations where modern instruments are not available, an index finger can be used to test the direction of wind. This is accomplished by wetting the finger and pointing it upwards. The side of the finger that feels "cool" is (approximately) the direction from which the wind is blowing. The "cool" sensation is caused by an increased rate of evaporation of the moisture on the finger due to the air flow across the finger, and consequently the "finger technique" of measuring wind direction does not work well in either very humid or very hot conditions. The same principle is used to measure the dew point using a sling psychrometer (a more accurate instrument than the human finger).
Another primitive technique for measuring wind direction is to take a pinch of grass and drop it; the direction that the grass falls is the direction the wind is blowing. This last technique is often used by golfers because it allows them to gauge the strength of the wind.
See also
Air masses
Apparent wind
Beaufort scale
Wind fetch
Wind power
Wind transducer
Yamartino method for calculating the standard deviation of wind direction
References
^ a b "Origin of Wind". National Weather Service.
^ Myer Kutz (1 December 2015). Handbook of Measurement in Science and Engineering. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 737–. ISBN 978-1-118-44697-3.
^ Frederick K. Lutgens; Edward J. Tarbuck (1989). The Atmosphere: An Introduction to Meteorology. Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-050196-7.
^ Glossary of Meteorology (2009). "Wind vane". American Meteorological Society. Archived from the original on 2007-10-18. Retrieved 2009-03-17.
^ Glossary of Meteorology (2009). "Anemometer". American Meteorological Society. Archived from the original on 2011-06-06. Retrieved 2009-03-17.
^ Glossary of Meteorology (2009). "Pitot tube". American Meteorological Society. Archived from the original on 2012-05-14. Retrieved 2009-03-17.
^ Raymond A. Serway; John W. Jewett (1 January 2018). Physics for Scientists and Engineers. Cengage Learning. pp. 533–. ISBN 978-1-337-67171-2.
^ Chi Chi Rodriguez (8 May 1975). Everybody's Golf Book. Viking Press. ISBN 9780670300365.
vteMeteorological data and variablesGeneral
Adiabatic processes
Advection
Buoyancy
Lapse rate
Lightning
Surface solar radiation
Surface weather analysis
Visibility
Vorticity
Wind
Wind shear
Condensation
Cloud
Cloud condensation nuclei (CCN)
Fog
Convective condensation level (CCL)
Lifted condensation level (LCL)
Precipitable water
Precipitation
Water vapor
Convection
Convective available potential energy (CAPE)
Convective inhibition (CIN)
Convective instability
Convective momentum transport
Conditional symmetric instability
Convective temperature (Tc)
Equilibrium level (EL)
Free convective layer (FCL)
Helicity
K Index
Level of free convection (LFC)
Lifted index (LI)
Maximum parcel level (MPL)
Bulk Richardson number (BRN)
Temperature
Dew point (Td)
Dew point depression
Dry-bulb temperature
Equivalent temperature (Te)
Forest fire weather index
Haines Index
Heat index
Humidex
Humidity
Relative humidity (RH)
Mixing ratio
Potential temperature (θ)
Equivalent potential temperature (θe)
Sea surface temperature (SST)
Temperature anomaly
Thermodynamic temperature
Vapor pressure
Virtual temperature
Wet-bulb temperature
Wet-bulb globe temperature
Wet-bulb potential temperature
Wind chill
Pressure
Atmospheric pressure
Baroclinity
Barotropicity
Pressure gradient
Pressure-gradient force (PGF)
Velocity
Maximum potential intensity
Authority control databases: National
Germany
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wind_vane_05643.jpg"},{"link_name":"wind vane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather_vane"},{"link_name":"east wind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_wind"},{"link_name":"wind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind"},{"link_name":"north or northerly wind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_wind"},{"link_name":"north","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North"},{"link_name":"south","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HOWTOREAD-1"},{"link_name":"cardinal (or compass) direction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal_direction"},{"link_name":"degrees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degree_(angle)"},{"link_name":"Weather forecasts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather_forecast"},{"link_name":"its speed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_speed"},{"link_name":"km/h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilometres_per_hour"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HOWTOREAD-1"},{"link_name":"wind gusts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_gust"}],"text":"This wind vane indicates an east wind.Wind direction is generally reported by the direction from which the wind originates. For example, a north or northerly wind blows from the north to the south;[1] the exceptions are onshore winds (blowing onto the shore from the water) and offshore winds (blowing off the shore to the water). Wind direction is usually reported in cardinal (or compass) direction, or in degrees. Consequently, a wind blowing from the north has a wind direction referred to as 0° (360°); a wind blowing from the east has a wind direction referred to as 90°, etc.Weather forecasts typically give the direction of the wind along with its speed, for example a \"northerly wind at 15 km/h\" is a wind blowing from the north at a speed of 15 km/h.[1] If wind gusts are present, their speed may also be reported.","title":"Wind direction"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"anemoscope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anemoscope"},{"link_name":"windsock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windsock"},{"link_name":"wind vane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather_vane"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kutz2015-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LutgensTarbuck1989-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"anemoscopes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anemoscope"},{"link_name":"anemometers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anemometer"},{"link_name":"wind vanes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_vane"},{"link_name":"wind resource assessment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_resource_assessment"},{"link_name":"turbine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbine"},{"link_name":"ultrasound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrasound"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"pitot tubes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitot_tube"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SerwayJewett2018-7"},{"link_name":"dew point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dew_point"},{"link_name":"sling psychrometer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sling_psychrometer"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rodriguez1975-8"}],"text":"A variety of instruments can be used to measure wind direction, such as the anemoscope, windsock, and wind vane.[2] All these instruments work by moving to minimize air resistance. The way a weather vane is pointed by prevailing winds indicates the direction from which the wind is blowing.[3] The larger opening of a windsock faces the direction that the wind is blowing from; its tail, with the smaller opening, points in the same direction as the wind is blowing.[4]Modern instruments used to measure wind speed and direction are called anemoscopes, anemometers and wind vanes. These types of instruments are used by the wind energy industry, both for wind resource assessment and turbine control.\nWhen a high measurement frequency is needed (such as in research applications), wind can be measured by the propagation speed of ultrasound signals or by the effect of ventilation on the resistance of a heated wire.[5] Another type of anemometer uses pitot tubes that take advantage of the pressure differential between an inner tube and an outer tube that is exposed to the wind to determine the dynamic pressure, which is then used to compute the wind speed.[6]In situations where modern instruments are not available, an index finger can be used to test the direction of wind.[7] This is accomplished by wetting the finger and pointing it upwards. The side of the finger that feels \"cool\" is (approximately) the direction from which the wind is blowing. The \"cool\" sensation is caused by an increased rate of evaporation of the moisture on the finger due to the air flow across the finger, and consequently the \"finger technique\" of measuring wind direction does not work well in either very humid or very hot conditions. The same principle is used to measure the dew point using a sling psychrometer (a more accurate instrument than the human finger).Another primitive technique for measuring wind direction is to take a pinch of grass and drop it; the direction that the grass falls is the direction the wind is blowing. This last technique is often used by golfers because it allows them to gauge the strength of the wind.[8]","title":"Measurement techniques"}]
|
[{"image_text":"This wind vane indicates an east wind.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Wind_vane_05643.jpg/220px-Wind_vane_05643.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Air masses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_masses"},{"title":"Apparent wind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apparent_wind"},{"title":"Beaufort scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaufort_scale"},{"title":"Wind fetch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_fetch"},{"title":"Wind power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_power"},{"title":"Wind transducer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_transducer"},{"title":"Yamartino method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamartino_method"}]
|
[{"reference":"\"Origin of Wind\". National Weather Service.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.weather.gov/jetstream/wind","url_text":"\"Origin of Wind\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Weather_Service","url_text":"National Weather Service"}]},{"reference":"Myer Kutz (1 December 2015). Handbook of Measurement in Science and Engineering. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 737–. ISBN 978-1-118-44697-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=X2FcCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA737","url_text":"Handbook of Measurement in Science and Engineering"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-44697-3","url_text":"978-1-118-44697-3"}]},{"reference":"Frederick K. Lutgens; Edward J. Tarbuck (1989). The Atmosphere: An Introduction to Meteorology. Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-050196-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=nDFRAAAAMAAJ","url_text":"The Atmosphere: An Introduction to Meteorology"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-050196-7","url_text":"978-0-13-050196-7"}]},{"reference":"Glossary of Meteorology (2009). \"Wind vane\". American Meteorological Society. Archived from the original on 2007-10-18. Retrieved 2009-03-17.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071018042250/http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=wind-vane1","url_text":"\"Wind vane\""},{"url":"http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary//search?id=wind-vane1","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Glossary of Meteorology (2009). \"Anemometer\". American Meteorological Society. Archived from the original on 2011-06-06. Retrieved 2009-03-17.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110606085028/http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?p=1&query=anemometer&submit=Search","url_text":"\"Anemometer\""},{"url":"http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?p=1&query=anemometer&submit=Search","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Glossary of Meteorology (2009). \"Pitot tube\". American Meteorological Society. Archived from the original on 2012-05-14. Retrieved 2009-03-17.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120514033528/http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?p=1&query=pitot+tube&submit=Search","url_text":"\"Pitot tube\""},{"url":"http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?p=1&query=pitot+tube&submit=Search","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Raymond A. Serway; John W. Jewett (1 January 2018). Physics for Scientists and Engineers. Cengage Learning. pp. 533–. ISBN 978-1-337-67171-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=4g9EDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA533","url_text":"Physics for Scientists and Engineers"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-337-67171-2","url_text":"978-1-337-67171-2"}]},{"reference":"Chi Chi Rodriguez (8 May 1975). Everybody's Golf Book. Viking Press. ISBN 9780670300365.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=dKkrAQAAMAAJ","url_text":"Everybody's Golf Book"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780670300365","url_text":"9780670300365"}]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://www.weather.gov/jetstream/wind","external_links_name":"\"Origin of Wind\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=X2FcCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA737","external_links_name":"Handbook of Measurement in Science and Engineering"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=nDFRAAAAMAAJ","external_links_name":"The Atmosphere: An Introduction to Meteorology"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071018042250/http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=wind-vane1","external_links_name":"\"Wind vane\""},{"Link":"http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary//search?id=wind-vane1","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110606085028/http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?p=1&query=anemometer&submit=Search","external_links_name":"\"Anemometer\""},{"Link":"http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?p=1&query=anemometer&submit=Search","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120514033528/http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?p=1&query=pitot+tube&submit=Search","external_links_name":"\"Pitot tube\""},{"Link":"http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?p=1&query=pitot+tube&submit=Search","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=4g9EDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA533","external_links_name":"Physics for Scientists and Engineers"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=dKkrAQAAMAAJ","external_links_name":"Everybody's Golf Book"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/4189949-0","external_links_name":"Germany"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychogenic_seizures
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Psychogenic non-epileptic seizure
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["1 Incidence","1.1 Children","2 Signs and symptoms","3 Causes and risk factors","4 Diagnosis","5 Treatment","6 Prognosis","7 History","8 Society and culture","9 Terminology","10 References"]
|
Type of neurological disorder
Medical conditionPsychogenic non-epileptic seizuresOther namespseudoseizures, dissociative non-epileptic seizures, FNEA (Functional Non-Epileptic Attacks), NEAD (Non-epileptic Attack Disorder)SpecialtyNeurology, psychiatry
Psychogenic non-epileptic seizures (PNES), also referred to as non-epileptic attacks (NEA), functional seizures, or dissociative seizures, are episodes resembling an epileptic seizure but without the characteristic electrical discharges associated with epilepsy. PNES fall under the category of disorders known as functional neurological disorders (FND), also known as conversion disorders, and are typically treated by psychologists or psychiatrists. PNES has previously been called pseudoseizures, stress seizures, and hysterical seizures, but these terms have fallen out of favor.
Incidence
The number of people with PNES ranges from 2 to 33 per 100,000. PNES are most common in young adults, particularly women. The prevalence for PNES is estimated to make up 5–20% of outpatient epilepsy clinics; 75–80% of these diagnoses are given to female patients and 83% are to individuals between 15 and 35 years old.
Children
PNES are seen in children after the age of eight, and occur equally among boys and girls before puberty. Diagnostic and treatment principles are similar to those for adults, except that in children there is a broader differential diagnosis of seizures so that other possible diagnoses specific to children may be considered.
Signs and symptoms
PNES episodes can be difficult to distinguish from epileptic seizures without the use of long-term video EEG monitoring. Some characteristics which may distinguish PNES from epileptic seizures include gradual onset, out-of-phase limb movement (in which left and right extremities jerk asynchronously or in opposite directions, as opposed to rhythmically and simultaneously as in epileptic seizures), closed eyes, high memory recall, and lack of post-ictal confusion. Although these symptoms are possible in epileptic seizures, they are much more commonly found in PNES.
PNES episodes are often less injurious than epileptic seizures. Unlike epilepsy, many PNES patients presenting with total unresponsiveness still retain some form of conscious response, including the natural behavior to protect oneself from harm. This is often reflected by a lack of tongue-biting, urinary and/or fecal incontinence, fall-related trauma, or accidental burns, all of which are significantly less common in PNES than in epileptic seizures. Other means of determining consciousness include dropping a patient's hand above the nasopharyngeal lead; the natural response is to prevent it from falling. Visual tracking and resistance to passive eye movements can also be used to determine PNES when the eyes are open. However, total unresponsiveness is possible in PNES, and lack of conscious response on its own is not enough to indicate an epileptic seizure.
While most epileptic seizures last no more than two minutes, PNES episodes may last five minutes or longer. An epileptic seizure lasting longer than five minutes is considered a life-threatening medical emergency, which is not a risk in PNES.
Causes and risk factors
The cause of PNES has not yet been established. One hypothesis is that they are a learned physical reaction or habit the body develops, similar to a reflex. The individual does not have control of the learned reaction, but this can be retrained to allow the patient to control the physical movements again. The production of seizure-like symptoms is not under voluntary control; symptoms which are feigned or faked voluntarily would fall under the categories of factitious disorder or malingering.
Risk factors for PNES include having a history of head injury, and having a diagnosis of epilepsy. Approximately 10–30% of people diagnosed with PNES also have an epilepsy diagnosis. People diagnosed with PNES commonly report physical, sexual, or emotional trauma, but the reported incidence of these events may not differ between PNES and epilepsy.
Diagnosis
According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (version 5) the criteria for receiving a diagnosis of PNES are:
One or more symptoms of altered voluntary motor or sensory function.
Clinical findings provide evidence of incompatibility between the symptom and recognized neurological or medical conditions.
The symptom or deficit is not better explained by another medical or mental disorder.
The symptom or deficit causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning or warrants medical evaluation.
Additionally, the specific symptom type must be reported "with attacks or seizures".
Some individuals with PNES have carried an erroneous diagnosis of epilepsy. On average, it takes seven years to receive a proper diagnosis. The differential diagnosis of PNES firstly involves ruling out epilepsy as the cause of the seizure episodes, along with other organic causes of non-epileptic seizures, including syncope, migraine, vertigo, anoxia, hypoglycemia, and stroke. However, 5–20% of people with PNES also have epilepsy. Frontal lobe seizures can be mistaken for PNES, though these tend to have shorter duration, stereotyped patterns of movements, and occurrence during sleep. Next, an exclusion of factitious disorder (a subconscious somatic symptom disorder, where seizures are caused by psychological reasons) and malingering (simulating seizures intentionally for conscious personal gain – such as monetary compensation or avoidance of criminal punishment) is conducted. Finally other psychiatric conditions that may superficially resemble seizures are eliminated, including panic disorder, schizophrenia, and depersonalization derealization disorder.
The most definitive test to distinguish epilepsy from PNES is long term video-EEG monitoring, with the aim of capturing one or two episodes on both video recording and electroencephalography (EEG) simultaneously (some clinicians may use suggestion to attempt to trigger an episode). Additional clinical criteria are usually considered in addition to video-EEG monitoring when diagnosing PNES. By recording the event in question on video and EEG simultaneously, a clear diagnosis can usually be obtained.
Laboratory testing can detect rising blood levels of serum prolactin if samples are taken in the right time window after most tonic-clonic or complex partial epileptic seizures. However, due to false positives and variability in results, this test is relied upon less frequently.
Treatment
Patient understanding of the new diagnosis is crucial for their treatment, which requires their active participation. A negative diagnosis experience may cause frustration and could cause a person to reject any further attempts at treatment. Psychotherapy, particularly cognitive behavioral therapy, is most frequently used to treat PNES. There is also some evidence supporting selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor antidepressants.
Retraining and Control Therapy (ReACT)
ReACT, while new and understudied, has shown extremely promising outcomes for reduction of PNES episodes in pediatric patients. This therapy focuses on the idea that PNES are caused by a learned physical reaction or habit the body develops, similar to a reflex. ReACT aims to retrain the learned reaction (PNES episodes) by targeting symptom catastrophizing and restoring sense of control over symptoms.
Prognosis
For individuals who pursue treatment for PNES, CBT has shown varying rates of success but it has been established as one of the most promising treatments to date. ReACT has shown reduction in symptoms by 100% seven days after treatment and 82% of individuals who completed the therapy remained symptom free for 60 days. A follow-up has not been done to see if the therapy retained its reduction of symptoms beyond the 60 days. In the cognitive behavioral therapy for adults with dissociative seizures (CODES) trial, the largest regarding CBT treatment for PNES though found no significant reduction in monthly episodes compared to the control arm at 12 months, however there were significant improvements on a number of secondary outcomes, such as psychosocial functioning, and self-rated and clinician-rated global change. A secondary analysis of the CODES trial demonstrated improved frequency of PNES episodes at 6 months with CBT.
History
Hystero-epilepsy is a historical term that refers to a condition described by 19th-century French neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot where people with neuroses "acquired" symptoms resembling seizures as a result of being treated on the same ward as people who genuinely had epilepsy.
The etiology of FND was historically explained in the context of psychoanalytic theory as a physical manifestation of psychological distress and repressed trauma. There is very little supporting evidence for this theory, as there is little research.
The DSM-IV lists conversion disorders instead of the current FND. Additionally, in revision, the DSM-5 was updated to add emphasis to the positive physical signs inconsistent with recognized diseases. The requirement of a history of psychological stressors and that the symptom is not fake was removed as well.
Society and culture
PNES rates and presenting symptoms are somewhat dependent on the culture and society. In some cultures, they, like epilepsy, are thought of as a curse or a demonic possession. In cultures with a solid establishment of evidence-based medicine, they are considered a subtype of a larger category of psychiatric disease.
Terminology
The term PNES is sometimes considered a misnomer, because the word "seizure" refers to a surge of electrical discharges in the brain, which does not occur in PNES episodes. Many prefer to use more general terms like "spells," "events," "attacks," or "episodes." "Non-epileptic attack disorder," or NEAD, is typically used in the UK for this reason. The use of older terms including pseudoseizures and hysterical seizures are discouraged.
Within DSM 5, patients presenting with PNES may meet the criteria for functional neurological disorder and in some cases, somatic symptom disorder, whilst in ICD 10 it may meet the criteria for a conversion disorder.
References
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^ Reuber M, Elger CE (June 2003). "Psychogenic nonepileptic seizures: review and update". Epilepsy & Behavior. 4 (3): 205–16. doi:10.1016/S1525-5050(03)00104-5. PMID 12791321. S2CID 25347605.
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^ Goldstein, Laura H.; Robinson, Emily J.; Mellers, John D. C.; Stone, Jon; Carson, Alan; Reuber, Markus; Medford, Nick; McCrone, Paul; Murray, Joanna; Richardson, Mark P.; Pilecka, Izabela (2020-06-01). "Cognitive behavioural therapy for adults with dissociative seizures (CODES): a pragmatic, multicentre, randomised controlled trial". The Lancet Psychiatry. 7 (6): 491–505. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(20)30128-0. ISSN 2215-0366. PMC 7242906. PMID 32445688.
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^ Diagnosis and management of dissociative seizures Archived 2006-01-29 at the Wayback Machine, John DC Mellers, The National Society for Epilepsy, September 2005.
ClassificationDICD-10: F44.5ICD-9-CM: 300.11, 780.39MeSH: D000091323External resourceseMedicine: article/1184694
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|
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PNES has previously been called pseudoseizures, stress seizures, and hysterical seizures, but these terms have fallen out of favor.[6]","title":"Psychogenic non-epileptic seizure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Asadi-Pooya_2015-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Asadi-Pooya_2015-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid8167966-8"}],"text":"The number of people with PNES ranges from 2 to 33 per 100,000.[7] PNES are most common in young adults, particularly women.[7] The prevalence for PNES is estimated to make up 5–20% of outpatient epilepsy clinics; 75–80% of these diagnoses are given to female patients and 83% are to individuals between 15 and 35 years old.[8]","title":"Incidence"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"sub_title":"Children","text":"PNES are seen in children after the age of eight, and occur equally among boys and girls before puberty. Diagnostic and treatment principles are similar to those for adults, except that in children there is a broader differential diagnosis of seizures so that other possible diagnoses specific to children may be considered.[9]","title":"Incidence"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"long-term video EEG monitoring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_video-EEG_monitoring"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-11"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-10"},{"link_name":"life-threatening medical emergency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Status_epilepticus"}],"text":"PNES episodes can be difficult to distinguish from epileptic seizures without the use of long-term video EEG monitoring. Some characteristics which may distinguish PNES from epileptic seizures include gradual onset, out-of-phase limb movement (in which left and right extremities jerk asynchronously or in opposite directions, as opposed to rhythmically and simultaneously as in epileptic seizures), closed eyes, high memory recall, and lack of post-ictal confusion.[10][11][12] Although these symptoms are possible in epileptic seizures, they are much more commonly found in PNES.PNES episodes are often less injurious than epileptic seizures. Unlike epilepsy, many PNES patients presenting with total unresponsiveness still retain some form of conscious response, including the natural behavior to protect oneself from harm. This is often reflected by a lack of tongue-biting, urinary and/or fecal incontinence, fall-related trauma, or accidental burns, all of which are significantly less common in PNES than in epileptic seizures.[10][11] Other means of determining consciousness include dropping a patient's hand above the nasopharyngeal lead; the natural response is to prevent it from falling. Visual tracking and resistance to passive eye movements can also be used to determine PNES when the eyes are open.[10] However, total unresponsiveness is possible in PNES, and lack of conscious response on its own is not enough to indicate an epileptic seizure.While most epileptic seizures last no more than two minutes, PNES episodes may last five minutes or longer. An epileptic seizure lasting longer than five minutes is considered a life-threatening medical emergency, which is not a risk in PNES.","title":"Signs and symptoms"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Benbadis2005-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"factitious disorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factitious_disorder"},{"link_name":"malingering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malingering"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"text":"The cause of PNES has not yet been established. One hypothesis is that they are a learned physical reaction or habit the body develops, similar to a reflex. The individual does not have control of the learned reaction, but this can be retrained to allow the patient to control the physical movements again.[13] The production of seizure-like symptoms is not under voluntary control;[14][15] symptoms which are feigned or faked voluntarily would fall under the categories of factitious disorder or malingering.[16]Risk factors for PNES include having a history of head injury, and having a diagnosis of epilepsy.[17] Approximately 10–30% of people diagnosed with PNES also have an epilepsy diagnosis. People diagnosed with PNES commonly report physical, sexual, or emotional trauma, but the reported incidence of these events may not differ between PNES and epilepsy.[18]","title":"Causes and risk factors"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DSM-5"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-19"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-19"},{"link_name":"non-epileptic seizures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-epileptic_seizures"},{"link_name":"syncope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syncope_(medicine)"},{"link_name":"migraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migraine"},{"link_name":"vertigo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertigo_(medical)"},{"link_name":"anoxia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypoxia_(medical)"},{"link_name":"hypoglycemia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypoglycemia"},{"link_name":"stroke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid14694050-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mellers2005-21"},{"link_name":"factitious disorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factitious_disorder"},{"link_name":"somatic symptom disorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatic_symptom_disorder"},{"link_name":"malingering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malingering"},{"link_name":"panic disorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panic_disorder"},{"link_name":"schizophrenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizophrenia"},{"link_name":"depersonalization derealization disorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depersonalization-derealization_disorder"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mellers2005-21"},{"link_name":"electroencephalography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroencephalography"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Asano_2005-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid10842446-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"prolactin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prolactin"},{"link_name":"tonic-clonic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonic-clonic_seizure"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mellers2005-21"}],"text":"According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (version 5) the criteria for receiving a diagnosis of PNES are:[19]One or more symptoms of altered voluntary motor or sensory function.\nClinical findings provide evidence of incompatibility between the symptom and recognized neurological or medical conditions.\nThe symptom or deficit is not better explained by another medical or mental disorder.\nThe symptom or deficit causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning or warrants medical evaluation.Additionally, the specific symptom type must be reported \"with attacks or seizures\".[19]Some individuals with PNES have carried an erroneous diagnosis of epilepsy. On average, it takes seven years to receive a proper diagnosis. The differential diagnosis of PNES firstly involves ruling out epilepsy as the cause of the seizure episodes, along with other organic causes of non-epileptic seizures, including syncope, migraine, vertigo, anoxia, hypoglycemia, and stroke. However, 5–20% of people with PNES also have epilepsy.[20] Frontal lobe seizures can be mistaken for PNES, though these tend to have shorter duration, stereotyped patterns of movements, and occurrence during sleep.[21] Next, an exclusion of factitious disorder (a subconscious somatic symptom disorder, where seizures are caused by psychological reasons) and malingering (simulating seizures intentionally for conscious personal gain – such as monetary compensation or avoidance of criminal punishment) is conducted. Finally other psychiatric conditions that may superficially resemble seizures are eliminated, including panic disorder, schizophrenia, and depersonalization derealization disorder.[21]The most definitive test to distinguish epilepsy from PNES is long term video-EEG monitoring, with the aim of capturing one or two episodes on both video recording and electroencephalography (EEG) simultaneously (some clinicians may use suggestion to attempt to trigger an episode).[22] Additional clinical criteria are usually considered in addition to video-EEG monitoring when diagnosing PNES.[23] By recording the event in question on video and EEG simultaneously, a clear diagnosis can usually be obtained.[24]Laboratory testing can detect rising blood levels of serum prolactin if samples are taken in the right time window after most tonic-clonic or complex partial epileptic seizures. However, due to false positives and variability in results, this test is relied upon less frequently.[21]","title":"Diagnosis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Reuber-25"},{"link_name":"Psychotherapy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychotherapy"},{"link_name":"cognitive behavioral therapy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_behavioral_therapy"},{"link_name":"selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_serotonin_reuptake_inhibitor"},{"link_name":"antidepressants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antidepressants"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-27"}],"text":"Patient understanding of the new diagnosis is crucial for their treatment, which requires their active participation.[25] A negative diagnosis experience may cause frustration and could cause a person to reject any further attempts at treatment. Psychotherapy, particularly cognitive behavioral therapy, is most frequently used to treat PNES. There is also some evidence supporting selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor antidepressants.[26]Retraining and Control Therapy (ReACT)ReACT, while new and understudied, has shown extremely promising outcomes for reduction of PNES episodes in pediatric patients.[27] This therapy focuses on the idea that PNES are caused by a learned physical reaction or habit the body develops, similar to a reflex. ReACT aims to retrain the learned reaction (PNES episodes) by targeting symptom catastrophizing and restoring sense of control over symptoms.","title":"Treatment"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-27"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"}],"text":"For individuals who pursue treatment for PNES, CBT has shown varying rates of success but it has been established as one of the most promising treatments to date.[28] ReACT has shown reduction in symptoms by 100% seven days after treatment and 82% of individuals who completed the therapy remained symptom free for 60 days. A follow-up has not been done to see if the therapy retained its reduction of symptoms beyond the 60 days.[27] In the cognitive behavioral therapy for adults with dissociative seizures (CODES) trial, the largest regarding CBT treatment for PNES though found no significant reduction in monthly episodes compared to the control arm at 12 months, however there were significant improvements on a number of secondary outcomes, such as psychosocial functioning, and self-rated and clinician-rated global change.[29] A secondary analysis of the CODES trial demonstrated improved frequency of PNES episodes at 6 months with CBT.","title":"Prognosis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jean-Martin Charcot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Martin_Charcot"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid20748992-30"},{"link_name":"neuroses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroses"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"DSM-IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DSM-IV"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"}],"text":"Hystero-epilepsy is a historical term that refers to a condition described by 19th-century French neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot[30] where people with neuroses \"acquired\" symptoms resembling seizures as a result of being treated on the same ward as people who genuinely had epilepsy.The etiology of FND was historically explained in the context of psychoanalytic theory as a physical manifestation of psychological distress and repressed trauma. There is very little supporting evidence for this theory, as there is little research.[31]The DSM-IV lists conversion disorders instead of the current FND. Additionally, in revision, the DSM-5 was updated to add emphasis to the positive physical signs inconsistent with recognized diseases. The requirement of a history of psychological stressors and that the symptom is not fake was removed as well.[32]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"curse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curse"},{"link_name":"demonic possession","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demonic_possession"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"}],"text":"PNES rates and presenting symptoms are somewhat dependent on the culture and society. In some cultures, they, like epilepsy, are thought of as a curse or a demonic possession.[33] In cultures with a solid establishment of evidence-based medicine, they are considered a subtype of a larger category of psychiatric disease.","title":"Society and culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"misnomer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misnomer"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NSE-36"},{"link_name":"DSM 5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DSM_5"},{"link_name":"ICD 10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICD_10"},{"link_name":"conversion disorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversion_disorder"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mellers2005-21"}],"text":"The term PNES is sometimes considered a misnomer, because the word \"seizure\" refers to a surge of electrical discharges in the brain, which does not occur in PNES episodes. Many prefer to use more general terms like \"spells,\" \"events,\" \"attacks,\" or \"episodes.\"[34] \"Non-epileptic attack disorder,\" or NEAD, is typically used in the UK for this reason.[35] The use of older terms including pseudoseizures and hysterical seizures are discouraged.[36]Within DSM 5, patients presenting with PNES may meet the criteria for functional neurological disorder and in some cases, somatic symptom disorder, whilst in ICD 10 it may meet the criteria for a conversion disorder.[21]","title":"Terminology"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Behandling av psykogena icke-epileptiska anfall\". www.sbu.se (in Swedish). Swedish Agency for Health Technology Assessment and Assessment of Social Services (SBU). 2022-02-15. Retrieved 2022-12-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sbu.se/sv/publikationer/sbus-upplysningstjanst/behandling-av-psykogena-icke-epileptiska-anfall/","url_text":"\"Behandling av psykogena icke-epileptiska anfall\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_Agency_for_Health_Technology_Assessment_and_Assessment_of_Social_Services","url_text":"Swedish Agency for Health Technology Assessment and Assessment of Social Services"}]},{"reference":"Dickson, Jon Mark; Peacock, Martin; Grünewald, Richard A; Howlett, Stephanie; Bissell, Paul; Reuber, Mark (2017). \"Non-epileptic attack disorder: the importance of diagnosis and treatment\". BMJ. 2017: bcr2016218278. doi:10.1136/bcr-2016-218278. PMC 5353491. PMID 28249881.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5353491","url_text":"\"Non-epileptic attack disorder: the importance of diagnosis and treatment\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbcr-2016-218278","url_text":"10.1136/bcr-2016-218278"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5353491","url_text":"5353491"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28249881","url_text":"28249881"}]},{"reference":"Ertan, Deniz; Aybek, Selma; LaFrance, W. Curt; Kanemoto, Kousuke; Tarrada, Alexis; Maillard, Louis; El-Hage, Wissam; Hingray, Coraline (February 2022). \"Functional (psychogenic non-epileptic/dissociative) seizures: why and how?\". Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry. 93 (2): 144–157. doi:10.1136/jnnp-2021-326708. 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S2CID 5178510.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.yebeh.2004.10.009","url_text":"10.1016/j.yebeh.2004.10.009"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15652726","url_text":"15652726"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5178510","url_text":"5178510"}]},{"reference":"Brown RJ, Reuber M (April 2016). \"Psychological and psychiatric aspects of psychogenic non-epileptic seizures (PNES): A systematic review\" (PDF). Clinical Psychology Review. 45: 157–82. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2016.01.003. PMID 27084446. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-07-24. Retrieved 2019-07-11.","urls":[{"url":"http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/98748/3/CPR%20Systematic%20review%20v13%20%28revised%20version%29%20MR.pdf","url_text":"\"Psychological and psychiatric aspects of psychogenic non-epileptic seizures (PNES): A systematic review\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cpr.2016.01.003","url_text":"10.1016/j.cpr.2016.01.003"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27084446","url_text":"27084446"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180724003658/http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/98748/3/CPR%20Systematic%20review%20v13%20(revised%20version)%20MR.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Bass C, Halligan P (2016). \"Factitious disorders and malingering in relation to functional neurologic disorders\". Functional Neurologic Disorders. Handbook of Clinical Neurology. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melania_Trump
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Melania Trump
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["1 Early life and education","2 Early modeling career","2.1 European career","2.2 Relocating to New York","3 Marriage and family","3.1 Meeting Donald Trump","3.2 Relationship with Donald Trump","3.3 Engagement and wedding","3.4 Marriage and motherhood","4 Business ventures","5 Donald Trump 2016 presidential campaign","5.1 Personal life during the campaign","5.2 Campaign involvement","5.3 Media coverage","5.4 Access Hollywood tape","6 First lady of the United States (2017–2021)","6.1 First lady in Manhattan","6.2 East Wing staff","6.3 Life in the White House","6.4 Tribulations in early 2018","6.5 2018 Africa tour","6.6 Political influence","6.6.1 Family separation policy","6.7 Be Best campaign","6.8 COVID-19 and 2020 presidential campaign","7 Subsequent activities","8 Public image","9 Footnotes","10 Notes","11 References","12 External links"]
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First Lady of the United States from 2017 to 2021
Melania TrumpOfficial portrait, 2017First Lady of the United StatesIn roleJanuary 20, 2017 – January 20, 2021PresidentDonald TrumpPreceded byMichelle ObamaSucceeded byJill Biden
Personal detailsBornMelanija Knavs (1970-04-26) April 26, 1970 (age 54)Novo Mesto, SR Slovenia, SFR YugoslaviaCitizenshipYugoslavia (1970–1991)Slovenia (1991–present)United States (2006–present)Spouse
Donald Trump (m. 2005)ChildrenBarron TrumpParentsViktor Knavs (father)Amalija Knavs (mother)ResidenceMar-a-LagoSignature
Melania Trump's voice
Trump on her family's departure from the White HouseRecorded January 18, 2021
Melania Trump (born Melanija Knavs; April 26, 1970) is a Slovenian-American former model who served as the first lady of the United States from 2017 to 2021 as the wife of former president Donald Trump, the 45th president of the United States. She is the first naturalized citizen to become first lady and the second foreign-born first lady after Louisa Adams.
Melanija Knavs was born in Slovenia (then part of Yugoslavia) where she began working as a fashion model at the age of 16. She changed the spelling of her name to Melania Knauss, and she traveled to Milan and Paris to seek modeling work until she met Paolo Zampolli, who hired her and sponsored her immigration to the United States in 1996. She continued working as a model in Manhattan, where Zampolli introduced her to the real estate developer Donald Trump in 1998. They began dating, and she began adjusting to a more lavish lifestyle. He worked to get her more modeling jobs, and she supported him during his 2000 presidential campaign. Melania and Donald Trump married in 2005, and they had a son, Barron Trump, the following year. She dedicated most of her time to Barron during his infancy, spending less time working or accompanying her husband at events. She started her own jewelry brand, Melania, in 2009.
After encouraging Donald to run for president in the 2016 presidential election, Melania only made rare campaign appearances, opting to help Donald strategize over the phone. She received major press coverage during the campaign when erotic photos from her modeling years were uncovered and published, and again when a speech she gave at the 2016 Republican National Convention was found to be plagiarized from a similar speech by Michelle Obama. In the month leading up to the election, she responded to the Access Hollywood tape that had caused a scandal for her husband.
Trump stayed in Manhattan for the first months of her tenure as first lady, allowing Barron to finish school and Melania to negotiate her prenuptial agreement. Her stepdaughter Ivanka Trump fulfilled some of the first lady's traditional duties, causing a rivalry between the two. She kept to minimal activity after moving into the White House, often staying in the residence instead of her office in the East Wing, and she held fewer events than previous first ladies. 2018 saw several challenges for Melania, including allegations of extramarital affairs by her husband, surgery for kidney disease, and a tour of Africa that was overshadowed by scandals. During her tenure as first lady, Trump prioritized children's issues, launching the Be Best campaign to promote children's welfare and making many visits to children's hospitals. She opposed her husband's family separation policy and convinced him to end the practice. She was a close advisor to her husband, the only person from whom he accepted frank advice, and he frequently asked her opinion. In the final months of her tenure, Trump endorsed her husband's false claims of election fraud in the 2020 presidential election. She has largely stayed out of public view since leaving the White House.
Early life and education
Melanija Knavs was born in Novo Mesto, Yugoslavia, now part of present-day Slovenia, on April 26, 1970. Her father Viktor Knavs first worked as a chauffeur, and he eventually sold car parts for a state-owned vehicle manufacturer as he made connections with the League of Communists of Yugoslavia, the national communist party. Her mother Amalija worked as a patternmaker at the children's clothing manufacturer Jutranjka in Sevnica. In Sevnica, the family lived in the state-run housing complex Naselje Heroja Maroka. She has an older sister, Ines, and an older half-brother from her father's previous relationship, Denis Cigelnjak, whom she reportedly has never met. Her father denied paternity of the boy, even after it was confirmed by a paternity test.
Although Knauss's father was a member of Yugoslavia's communist party, which espoused a policy of state atheism, he had his daughters secretly baptized as Catholic, as was common. The family was well-off relative to most who lived in communist societies. They frequently went on vacations to other parts of Europe. Their apartment was decorated with brightly colored walls, which was a major departure from other apartments in the country.
As a child, Knavs and other children of workers at the factory participated in fashion shows that featured children's clothing. Textiles were Sevnica's primary industry. Students were excused from school to participate in the shows. From a young age, Knavs expressed an interest in fashion, and she began customizing and sewing her own clothes. She developed a skill for it by watching her mother work. Knavs did well in school, where she was appointed school treasurer.
When Knavs was a teenager, she moved to a two-story house in Sevnica with her family. From her youth in Slovenia, Knavs was influenced by the United States: she described the presidency of Ronald Reagan as the beginning of a new era in her own country and the debut of CNN International in 1985 gave her family access to American media. At the age of fifteen, Knavs moved to Ljubljana to attend the Secondary School for Design and Photography, attending the school until her graduation at nineteen. She was admitted despite the school's exclusivity. She made the long commute from her hometown to the capital and back each day by train. After her first year, Melanija and Ines moved to the capital together. After graduating, Knavs enrolled in the Faculty of Architecture and Civil and Geodetic Engineering to further study design.
Early modeling career
European career
Knavs was discovered by Slovenian fashion photographer Stane Jerko when she was sixteen, after modeling in a school-sponsored show. At the time, she had wanted to be a fashion designer rather than a model. Knavs won a modeling contest with the Italian studio Cinecittà that entitled her to a movie role, but she rejected the prize after a producer sexually propositioned her. As her modeling career progressed, Knavs took on an alternate spelling of her name, Melania Knauss. She traveled Europe to find modeling work. Except a few close relatives, she did not maintain contact with anyone she knew in Slovenia. In 1992, Knauss was named runner-up in the Jana Magazine "Look of the Year" contest, which promised its top three contestants an international modeling contract. She signed with RVR Reclame in Milan, but she left the organization a few months later.
Knauss spent the following years traveling Europe for modeling jobs, including one in which she portrayed the first female president of the United States in 1993. Around age 23 or 24, her career was successful enough that she could make Paris her primary residence, where she lived with her roommate Victoria Silvstedt. Knauss modeled for fashion houses in Paris and Milan, where in 1995 she met Metropolitan Models co-owner Paolo Zampolli, a friend of her future husband Donald Trump, who was on a scouting trip in Europe. Zampolli became one of the few people who was involved in Knauss's life long-term.
Relocating to New York
Zampolli urged Knauss to travel to the United States, where he said he would like to represent her. In 1996, Knauss moved to Manhattan. By this time, she was already 26 years old, much older than most aspiring models. Zampolli encouraged Knauss to live near and socialize with people in the fashion industry, and he arranged for her to share an apartment with photographer Matthew Atanian in Zeckendorf Towers in Union Square. Her rent was taken from her pay with Zampolli's agency. Once she arrived in the United States, she returned to her home country only sparingly and only for short periods of time. She lived a healthy lifestyle, managing her diet carefully, and she avoided the drinking and partying that often consumed the lives of the models around her. She did not lead an active social life and only went out on rare occasions. Knauss was featured in a sexually explicit photo shoot for a 1997 issue of Max, a French men's magazine with another female model. The photos were shot by the photographer Alexandre Ale de Basseville, and the work was unpaid, instead promising Knauss exposure in a prominent magazine. The photos were largely forgotten until they were published by the New York Post in 2016.
For her first weeks in the United States, her travel visa did not allow her to work in the country. Despite this, she accepted ten modeling jobs that earned her approximately $20,000. She then received an H-1B visa that allowed her to work. She received her first major gig when she posed for a Camel cigarette ad shot by Ellen von Unwerth, which was displayed as a Times Square billboard and ran in Rolling Stone. The opportunity came about from a law that required cigarette ads only feature individuals above the age of 25, which excluded most aspiring models. When her roommate Atanian left New York, Knauss moved to an apartment off of Park Avenue.
Marriage and family
Meeting Donald Trump
Donald Trump and Melania Knauss in 1999In September 1998, Zampolli introduced Knauss to the real estate mogul Donald Trump at a party. Trump had a date to the event, Celina Midelfart. When he asked Knauss for her phone number, she refused. Instead, she insisted that he give her his own number. He passed her test when he gave her multiple personal numbers instead of an office number. She later said that giving her own number would make her "just one of the women he calls". The exact details of when and where this took place are unclear, though the Kit Kat Club is often described as where they met.
After a week, Knauss called Trump and they went on a date. She intentionally gave him an indifferent attitude to his advances, knowing this would pique his interest. Not only was Trump's personality similar to that of Knauss's father, but they were of similar ages and had similar physical appearances. When they began dating, Knauss had access to his book Trump: The Art of the Comeback, in which he detailed what he wanted from a relationship.
Knauss held a press conference on September 8, spending the event recounting her successes and telling reporters that she was "world famous", "among the top 50" highest paid models in the world, and set to appear in a movie alongside Mickey Rourke. The intention was to build her profile in anticipation of another, ultimately unsuccessful, cigarette ad campaign. This was unusual behavior for a woman who typically kept a quiet and professional presence, and reporters were unable to verify the claims she made. The Trumps have stated that they met at the New York Fashion Week shortly after this conference, though others in the industry have said rumors about their relationship had already developed by then. Their relationship initially only lasted a few weeks. Knauss left Trump after she saw his ex Kara Young leaving Trump Tower, but Knauss and Trump reunited the following week.
Relationship with Donald Trump
Dating Trump brought several benefits for Knauss. His fame and connections gave her new career opportunities, and at the time he had a reputation for being more respectful to the women he associated with relative to other men who mingled with supermodels. Knauss experienced such a benefit that October when she had the opportunity to meet the Kennedys at a gala—their mother Jacqueline Kennedy, who had died shortly before, had been deeply admired by Knauss and her mother. She encountered many other world famous celebrities while attending events with Trump.
Knauss continued her modeling career after meeting Donald Trump, though she took fewer jobs as time went on and she dedicated more time to him. In 1999, the couple gained attention after an interview with shock jock Howard Stern on his show, in which he asked them lewd sexual questions. Trump often brought Knauss to meetings to show her off, praising her beauty. He did not let her participate in the business, citing the conflict he had with his first wife after giving her an executive role.Melania Knauss with then-president Bill Clinton in 2000Trump announced his candidacy for the Reform Party presidential nomination on October 7, 1999. Knauss adamantly supported the move. When asked by The New York Times what her role would be if Trump were to become president, Knauss replied: "I would be very traditional, like Betty Ford or Jackie Kennedy". Knauss saw extensive media attention as tabloids considered the idea of a model as first lady.
Knauss was one of the first models recruited to Trump's modeling agency, Trump Model Management, after its creation in February 1999. The following months, she appeared in several magazines and advertisements organized by individuals close to Trump. While Trump was organizing his campaign, Knauss appeared the February Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue. The image featured her in a bikini alongside a large inflatable whale, and the shoot was run by Antoine Verglas, an associate of Zampolli's. Shortly after the shoot, Verglas called Knauss back for another project where he had her pose nude in a Bond girl aesthetic. Trump had lobbied for her inclusion in a GQ spread, and her relationship with Trump allowed the shoot access to Trump's Boeing 727. Images from the shoot were featured in the January edition of GQ magazine. At the time, Trump's involvement was not made known. She then appeared in another sexualized photo shoot where she was posted in a mock up of the Oval Office.
In January 2000, news broke that Knauss and Trump broke up, with conflicting accounts of who ended the relationship. Many photos and publicity pieces the two had done together were quickly edited before publication to accommodate the change. They kept in contact, and they reunited a few months later. Knauss received her green card in 2001, granting her permanent residency in the United States. Knauss and Trump moved in together at Trump Tower in 2002. She made her first appearance on Trump's game show The Apprentice in April 2004 when an episode had the contestants visit their penthouse.
Engagement and wedding
Trump proposed to Knauss on April 26, 2004, on her birthday as they were leaving to attend the Met Gala. He reasoned that he was more willing to wed as she had not insisted on marriage, and he felt she was an influence in the success he had seen over the previous years. Knauss was more compatible with Trump than his previous wives, as she did not have the ambition of his first wife and did not cause public drama like his second wife. Knauss fulfilled his desire for a wife who was self-confident but supported him silently. She also signed his prenuptual agreement without issue. A few months before the wedding, Knauss traveled to Paris with Anna Wintour and André Leon Talley to find a wedding dress, and Knauss decided on a dress by John Galliano. In the days leading up to the wedding, she appeared on the front cover of Vogue in her dress.
Trump and Knauss married on January 22, 2005, at the Bethesda-by-the-Sea church in Palm Beach, Florida. The ceremony was followed by a reception in the ballroom at Donald's Mar-a-Lago estate, which Melania planned with Preston Bailey. Numerous celebrities were present, including musicians, athletes, media executives, and television personalities. She had one bridesmaid, her sister Ines, who had moved to New York so they could be closer together. Knauss arranged all of the details of the wedding with her planner. She let Trump make decisions about the event, but she refused his suggestion that the wedding be broadcast on NBC.
Marriage and motherhood
Melania and Donald in 2006
The Trumps had three residences that they traveled between: Trump Tower in New York, Trump National Golf Club Bedminster in New Jersey, and Mar-a-Lago in Florida. To have her own private abode, Melania had a private spa constructed on the top floor of Trump Tower. As a couple, the two did not spend much direct time together, preferring to live adjacently with one another. According to Trump, their passive relationship suited him because he worked for a living and didn't "want to go home and work at a relationship". Melania accepted a transaction element in their relationship, though she cared about Donald and did not believe that she was a gold digger. When she attended events with her husband at Trump facilities, she often stayed for only a few minutes to make an appearance before returning to the private residence. Donald did not learn to speak Melania's native language, which she said she accepted because she is "not a nagging wife".
Upon marrying Donald, Melania became stepmother to his four children: Donald Trump Jr., Eric Trump and Ivanka Trump from his first marriage to Ivana Zelníčková, and Tiffany Trump from his second marriage to Marla Maples. Melania had especially bonded with Tiffany, who was six when Melania began dating Tiffany's father, and made sure she felt included among her step-siblings. When Melania herself became pregnant, it was widely covered in the media. This included her second appearance on the cover of Vogue, featuring her pregnant body in a bikini and an open coat. Melania spent the months with her sister, who had moved to New York, and her parents, who visited throughout the pregnancy. She also oversaw the construction of a nursery in Trump Tower. She had a baby shower at the FAO Schwarz toy store, but she insisted that the toys and gifts she received be donated to a children's hospital.
On March 20, 2006, Donald and Melania had a son, Barron William Trump. Melania chose her son's middle name, while Donald chose his first name. Donald had previously used the name Barron as a pseudonym for when he posed as his own public relations agent. After Barron was born, Melania was active in his life and accordingly spent less time attending events with her husband. Donald had made it clear to her that if they had a child, he would not be actively involved in the child's life. Melania later said she approved of this, stating that she "didn't want him changing diapers or putting Barron to bed". She avoided the use of nannies, with a few exceptions in Barron's earliest years, insisting on raising him herself. This lessened social activity meant that Donald began courting supermodels again, which made Melania uncomfortable, though she did not know about the women who later alleged that they had extramarital affairs with him.
Melania stayed out of the public spotlight after she settled into her life as a Trump, excepting occasional charity work and an appearance in an Aflac commercial. She became a citizen of the United States on July 28, 2006. She then sponsored her parents using the "chain migration" immigration process that her husband later repeatedly criticized. Besides her American citizenship, both she and her son maintain multiple citizenship in Slovenia. Spending most of her time at Trump residences, she rarely kept companions besides her parents and her son. When she was with her husband, they watched films together, including their favorite films Gone with the Wind and Sunset Boulevard.
Business ventures
Melania Trump in 2011
As her son reached childhood, Melania found herself with more time for other pursuits. She trademarked her name, Melania, in 2009 as a jewelry brand, which she used to sell less expensive jewelry pieces on QVC. She was intentional about not using the Trump name in her branding, correcting reporters who called it Melania Trump. She drew the designs herself, which were based on three places where she had lived: New York, Palm Beach, and Paris. Over the following years, she released additional Melania collections, and they sold out each time.
Melania then introduced a line of caviar-infused skincare products under the brand Melania Marks Skincare in 2011. The brand never launched. It brought about a legal case when the company selling the products, New Sunshine, underwent management changes and voided the contract. The company alleged that one executive had given a sweetheart deal to the Trumps because he was a family friend. The case was decided in Trump's favor, and the amount to be paid to her was settled out of court. She had initially sued the company for $50 million in lost revenue. Rededicating herself to parenting, Melania eventually ended the production of her jewelry brand.
Donald Trump 2016 presidential campaign
Personal life during the campaign
Melania was the one who finally convinced Donald to campaign for president in the 2016 presidential election, telling him that he either needed to do it or stop talking about it. When the campaign began, Melania made it clear to her husband that she would not be pressured into campaigning or attending events, and that she would only make appearances when she wanted to. She subsequently played a relatively small role in the campaign, which had been atypical of spouses of presidential candidates since the early 20th century. Explaining her absence, she cited the need to stay home with her son Barron. Her daily routine was nonetheless altered by the campaign, as she had to take security arrangements into account when she traveled, and she could not post about her activities online in real time. Once a prolific user of Instagram and Twitter, she became less active on her social media accounts when the campaign began.
While many people doubted Donald's chances at the presidency, including his own inner circle, Melania believed he would win. Unlike Donald's advisors, Melania encouraged him to follow his instincts and say what he felt he should say, with the exception that she does not like his use of profane language. She analyzed the campaign closely from home, following polling and watching how her husband interacted with his opponents. She spoke to him on the phone regularly throughout the campaign, including a conversation after each rally in which she gave a candid evaluation of how he did.
Campaign involvement
Melania at a campaign event with Donald and Barron in November 2015Melania Trump's career as a model was an advantage during the campaign, as she was prepared for photographers and did not need to hire a fashion consultant. As a model, she was required to be deliberate in all of her movement, including how she stood and walked. She resented being called shy during the campaign, saying that this was an impression spread by people who only briefly met her and wanted their "15 minutes of fame". Melania's earliest speaking appearances in November 2015 and February 2016 were prompted by Donald calling on her to speak to the crowd. Both times, she only said a few sentences. Her first scheduled speech during the campaign did not take place until April 2016.
The campaign longed to get Melania more active, as she was in a unique position to humanize Donald and to appeal to the American Dream from an immigrant's perspective. Hope Hicks was the campaign's main liaison with Melania, facilitating any appearances that she wished to make. Melania trusted Hicks's judgement and allowed her to weigh the importance of a given appearance. Her rare appearances brought her to swing states where her husband needed extra support, and her speeches celebrated his personal traits instead of policy.
Melania Trump was involved in the vice presidential selection process, meeting with the top contenders, and her approval of Mike Pence contributed to his selection. The deciding factor, in her mind, was that Pence was not as ambitious as the other contenders and would not seek to undermine Donald. She did not get along as well with Pence's wife, Karen Pence, with whom she had little in common.
Media coverage
Melania Trump in 2016An attack ad against the Trumps was produced by super PAC that supported Donald's opponent Ted Cruz featuring Melania's nude GQ photo with the caption "Meet Melania Trump. Your next first lady. Or you could support Ted Cruz on Tuesday", intensifying the rivalry between the two candidates in the 2016 Republican Party presidential primaries. More scandalous nude images of Melania were published on the front page of the New York Post in July 2016 in a story titled "The Ogle Office". The images did not have a major effect on the campaign, as Melania was seen as the victim, but they were humiliating and she spent the following two months away from the public.
On July 18, 2016, Melania Trump gave a speech at the 2016 Republican National Convention. A controversy emerged after it became apparent that a paragraph of the speech had been plagiarized from Michelle Obama's speech at the 2008 Democratic National Convention. When asked about it, Melania said she wrote the speech herself "with as little help as possible". No one in the Trump campaign had previewed the speech, when political campaigns typically have several people scrutinize such a speech. Donald was furious with his staff and felt he had failed Melania, while Melania took the gaffe personally and felt she had failed the campaign. It was the only major speech she delivered during the campaign. Two days later, Trump staff writer Meredith McIver took responsibility, saying there was a misunderstanding when Melania read passages of Obama's speech as examples. The speech also included a rare statement on her past, describing her family in Slovenia and her early modeling career. After giving the speech, Melania stayed out of public view until election day approached.
Access Hollywood tape
On October 7, a month before the election, the Access Hollywood tape was leaked. The tape had been recorded in 2005, shortly after their marriage, and it featured audio of Donald making controversial remarks about his treatment of women. Immediately after its release, the campaign's primary concern was Melania's reaction. An anonymous person who was with Donald when the news broke reported that "red was coming up his neck to his ears". It took him two hours before he went to see Melania. Upon their meeting, Melania reportedly told him "Now you could lose, you could have blown this for us", and then left the room after he apologized. In 2024, her husband's former personal counsel Michael Cohen testified during the The People of the State of New York v. Donald J. Trump trial that Donald Trump had privately credited her as having suggested the campaign's response strategy of characterizing the conversation on the tape as "locker room talk".
Melania kept her distance from him, angry that he may have ended his candidacy with his comments, and she waited a day before making a comment. When asked by the campaign to make a scripted appearance alongside Donald as damage control, she refused, deciding that she was going to respond her own way. She also refused to sit beside him during his recorded apology as politicians' spouses often did in these situations. Melania released a statement saying that the tape did not show "the man I know" and said those who accused him of sexual misconduct are liars. Melania received significantly more attention from the press following the incident, and she was frustrated by the pity she received. A few days later, she attended a presidential debate wearing a pussy bow, causing widespread speculation about her intention (as her husband's comments on the Access Hollywood tape had included, "grab them by the pussy"–with pussy being slang for vagina). After she voted, Melania spent most of election day with her parents in Trump Tower while the rest of the family did last minute campaigning.
First lady of the United States (2017–2021)
First lady in Manhattan
With Donald, Liberty Ball, January 20, 2017
The inauguration of Donald Trump took place on January 20, 2017. After her husband was elected president, she announced that she would not move to Washington, D.C. with him, instead staying in Manhattan so Barron could finish the school year there. This also allowed her to introduce him to the White House gradually so as not to overwhelm him. During this time, Melania negotiated new terms for her prenuptial agreement with Donald to reflect the changes in their lives since it was signed and to ensure that Barron received a suitable inheritance.
Melania Trump was the second foreign-born woman to hold the title of first lady after Louisa Adams, who was born in England, and Melania was the first naturalized citizen to hold the title. Trump has said that she can speak English, Italian, French, and German in addition to her native Slovene, but she has only been heard speaking English and Slovene fluently. When communicating with speakers of other languages, she makes use of a translator. She was also the first Catholic to live in the White House since President John F. Kennedy and his wife Jacqueline and was the second Catholic first lady of the United States.
The first lady's absence caused speculation that her stepdaughter Ivanka would serve as an acting first lady. This was part of a larger rivalry that developed between the two as they both engaged in activity typically in the first lady's purview. After Ivanka organized a screening of Finding Dory in the White House, Melania required that they needed permission before entering the residential area of the building. As time went by, the administration's staff grew unhappy with Melania's absence, as it gave the impression of marital issues and prevented her from exercising a calming influence over the president. She also stoked resentment among the people in New York, who predominantly opposed the Trumps, because of the costs and traffic issues caused by the Secret Service presence. The Secret Service itself also faced logistical issues from the repeated travel to New York. Having a Secret Service detail was not a major adjustment for Melania though, as she had spent years around her husband's security team. She was given the Secret Service code name "Muse" to go along with the president's name "Mogul". Being first lady came with another drawback for Melania, as she was expected to speak on serious topics such as immigration policy and had little control over how her media appearances were handled, which was a different experience than she had as a model.Melania Trump with Pope Francis, the Vatican, May 2017
When the Trump administration's White House website was posted, Melania's biographical information caused controversy because it listed her jewelry business. Though it had already ceased operation, critics alleged that it was an attempt to promote her business with government resources. Another allegation of attempting to profit from her role as first lady came up in February, when she sued the Daily Mail for libel after it alleged in 2016 that she had worked for an escort agency. The suit was initially for lost career opportunities, but this was changed to emotional distress when she received questions about why she expected to have career opportunities as first lady.
On March 8, 2017, Trump hosted her first White House event, a luncheon for International Women's Day. She spoke to an audience of women about her life as a female immigrant and about working towards gender equality both domestically and abroad, noting the role of education as a tool against gender inequality. The Trumps visited Vatican City in May 2017. As Melania was visiting as a Catholic, Pope Francis blessed her rosary beads, and she placed flowers at the feet of a statue of the Madonna at the Vatican's Bambino Gesù children's hospital.
The first major public attention Melania received was after an incident in May 2017 while the Trumps were visiting Israel. Donald had forgotten that Melania was by his side when he was walking with Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, and she fell behind from the group. Humiliated, she slapped away his hand when he reached out behind him to grab hers. This was the first time press coverage of Melania took notice of an independent streak.
East Wing staff
The lack of staff appointments in the East Wing during the first months of the Trump administration—typically the domain of the first lady—caused a backlog of tour requests to develop. In February several hires were made for the Office of the First Lady: Anna Cristina Niceta Lloyd as social secretary, Lindsay Reynolds as the first lady's chief of staff, Tham Kannalikham as her decorator, Stephanie Winston Wolkoff as the first lady's assistant, and Stephanie Grisham as communications director. Melania retained the head florist appointed by Michelle Obama, Hedieh Ghaffarian. The chief usher appointed under the Obama administration, Angella Reid, was replaced by Trump International Hotel employee Timothy Harleth, breaking the norm of the chief usher serving under multiple presidencies. Reid had been unpopular with the staff, and the firing earned Melania their goodwill.
The first lady's staff remained small relative to those of her predecessors. This was in part because she did not want to have any employees speaking on her behalf. Instead, she answered her correspondences herself. Melania had a reputation in the White House for being "drama-free", and for treating the staff well. According to her husband's campaign manager Corey Lewandowski, her staff had "100 percent loyalty to her". Melania had a close, trusting relationship with her staff, and she was protective of them when conflict arose. Before moving in, Melania worked with Kannalikham to redecorate the White House, as first ladies typically do. She had most of the Obama-era decor replaced, and like the Obamas, the Trumps paid for it out of pocket instead of using the allotted funding.
Life in the White House
Melania Trump with Argentine first lady Juliana Awada in 2017
Trump and her son, Barron, moved into the White House on June 11, 2017. Like they had throughout their marriage, Melania and Donald chose to sleep in separate bedrooms. In her first year, Melania gave only eight speeches, compared to 74 by Michelle Obama and 42 by Laura Bush. Instead of frequent public appearances, she communicated her activities through video. Most of Trump's appearances as first lady in 2017 were in Manhattan and Washington, and she typically spoke about women's and children's issues.
After moving to the White House, Melania opted to spend most of her time in the private quarters, running the White House staff from there instead of the first lady's East Wing offices. She oversaw restorations of several rooms in the building, including the bowling alley in the White House basement and the first lady's hairdresser's room. She kept one office, called the "swag room" by aides, in which she kept trinkets she collected while she was first lady. To accommodate Barron's soccer practice, she had a net installed on the White House grounds and had a coach practice with him. Barron remained Melania's top priority when she was first lady, and she worked to keep him free from politics to the point that staffers referred to her as "The Protector". Even after arriving at the White House, Melania spent extensive time away each year, visiting Mar-a-Lago on major holidays and over many weekends.Melania Trump examining the 2018 White House Christmas decorationsMelania personally involved herself in decorations and planning within the White House. She was particular about how things were designed and arranged whenever events were planned, but she would take on a calm and relaxed demeanor once the event began. Whenever a foreign dignitary arrived at the White House, Melania had the Blue Room set aside where she ate lunch or drank tea with the dignitary's spouse. When choosing which presidential china set to use, Melania often chose the Clinton administration china with its gold embroidery. She held events less frequently than her predecessors, with a typical week featuring three or fewer events, all under one hour long. Among her most ambitious projects was planning the White House Christmas decorations in 2018. Moving away from traditional designs, she filled the East Collonnade with red cranberry-laden trees set atop a green carpet. The design was widely derided, which Melania ascribed to personal taste.
To protect use of her image and maintain an income, Melania licensed photos from her photoshoots through Getty Images. This allowed her to choose how they were used by reporters, and she received royalties for each use. The Office of Government Ethics reported that she made $100,000 to $1,000,000 in royalties in 2017, though other estimates put it at over $10,000,000.
As first lady, Trump was the honorary chair of the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts. She was unable to fulfill this duty for much of her tenure, as her husband's presidency had alienated many in the media and art communities. She made her first appearances at the Kennedy Center in 2019.
Tribulations in early 2018
A scandal broke in January 2018 when it was alleged that Donald had had an extramarital affair with the pornographic actress Stormy Daniels. The affair was said to have taken place in July 2006, after the Trumps' marriage and the birth of their son. Melania's public appearances became more infrequent after the news emerged, and she canceled several events that she was to attend with her husband. This included the 2018 State of the Union Address, where Melania made the unprecedented decision to ride separately from him on the way there. Michael Cohen, who had arranged the silencing of the alleged affair, stated that his greatest regret was lying to Melania, saying that she didn't deserve it. The next month, the story of a second affair in 2006 with the model Karen McDougal was made public. To Melania, the worst part was that she felt Donald had publicly humiliated her.Left to right: Brigitte Macron, Melania Trump, Emmanuel Macron, Donald TrumpMelania learned in April 2018 that she was afflicted with kidney disease, but she only told her parents, her husband, and her sister. On May 14, she began treatment at Walter Reed National Military Medical Center. While her husband had wished to join her, his presence would have risked the press discovering her condition. The official statement said that she underwent an embolization, a minimally invasive procedure that deliberately blocks a blood vessel. A statement was released after the procedure was finished without complication, and she recovered in the hospital over the following five days. The extended stay led to false rumors and conspiracy theories that she had gotten plastic surgery. After leaving the hospital, she continued to stay out of the public eye until the beginning of June. At this point, the president let slip that the surgery had been more serious than initially suggested.
Those around Melania noticed that she was generally happier by mid-2018. By this time, she had reached a more advantageous marital agreement that ensured Barron would be given a fair inheritance. Her public position, and the corresponding influence she had over her husband's political career, had given her the advantage in negotiations. After several months of problems, Melania received positive coverage for a large custom-made white hat that she wore during a visit by French president Emmanuel Macron. On August 9, 2018, Melania's parents were granted American citizenship. This revitalized accusations of hypocrisy by the Trumps regarding Melania's parents, as Donald had spoken out against the chain migration process that allowed them to enter the United States.
2018 Africa tour
Melania Trump wearing a pith helmet in Kenya
In October 2018, Melania took a tour of Africa without Donald, visiting Ghana, Malawi, Kenya and Egypt. She spent much of her time with children in schools, orphanages, and hospitals. She used the trip to tout relief work being carried out by the United States Agency for International Development, which raised questions about her husband's intention to cut its funding. Melania also received criticism for her fashion choices, where a photo opportunity in front of the Great Sphinx of Giza was seen as exploitive and a pith helmet she wore in Kenya was criticized for its association with colonialism in Africa. To these criticisms, she responded that people should pay more attention to her actions instead of her outfits. Perception of the trip grew worse when she responded to criticisms by saying that she was "the most bullied person in the world".
Throughout Melania's tour of Africa, personality conflicts took place between her team and Mira Ricardel, the Deputy National Security Advisor. Ricardel's staffer had been bumped from the first lady's plane on the flight to Africa to make room for a journalist, and Ricardel subsequently became less cooperative with providing logistical information needed for the tour. Upon returning, Ricardel gave a thoroughly negative report on Melania's staff, describing them as embarrassing the White House with their partying. Melania twice complained to the president, but no immediate action was taken. So the following month, the Office of the First Lady issued an official statement calling for Ricardel to be removed from her position. Publicly commenting on such a thing was unprecedented for a first lady. No one in the administration had been told in advance about the statement, including the president. Ricardel was fired the following day. A dispute over the trip arose between Melania and Ivanka a few months later when the latter made her own trip to the continent. Melania felt that in taking such a similar trip, Ivanka was intruding on the first lady's role.
Political influence
Melania working with children at a 2017 Christmas event; children's welfare was among the most important issues to Melania.
Melania was the one person exempt from the criticism and distrust that Donald leveled against those around him in the White House. He held her opinion in high regard, often agreeing with her when she made it known, and he valued her loyalty as she did not seek public attention of her own. Melania believed that it was not her duty as first lady to take policy positions in her own right, but simply to advise Donald regarding his. She was the only person among those around him who could critique him directly without repercussion. Donald frequently asked for her opinion about issues he was considering or people who he interacted with, calling her over the phone when she was not in the same room.
Melania paid close attention to media coverage throughout Donald's presidency, providing her input on what would make good optics and maintain his image. She also provided advice on how to pose for pictures and has given him suggestions on how to appear when moving. The nature of their relationship allowed Melania to overlook erratic behavior from Donald, as she had long believed that there was no use in trying to change someone's personality, especially her husband's.
Melania had influence over her husband's staff, and Donald sometimes fired individuals on her advice. The welfare of children is a subject of interest for her, and she routinely made visits to children's hospitals throughout her tenure as first lady. According to her biographer Kate Bennett, interacting with children is one of the rare things that causes Melania to shift away from her usual stoic demeanor. Her advocacy was a major factor in her husband's decision to ban fruit flavored electronic cigarettes. About one year into her tenure, Melania hired Reagan Thompson as a policy advisor, though she had yet to adopt any official initiatives at the time.
Family separation policy
Trump was openly critical of her husband's "zero tolerance" policy of denying asylum at the Mexico–United States border in 2018, where children were being separated from their parents. Her official position was that she hated to see families separated and hoped for successful immigration reform. Out of public view, she made her opposition clear to the president and influenced his decision to end it. Leaked tapes in 2020 featured Melania making statements defending some of the practices, expressing grief about family separation but questioning the validity of asylum claims and dismissing concerns that children were kept in substandard conditions.
Melania was upset when her stepdaughter Ivanka began receiving the credit for changing the president's mind on the issue. Melania decided to visit the border herself, ignoring her husband's worries about keeping media attention on the border and the Secret Service's need of advance notice to plan her trip. She arrived at the border on June 21, where she visited the family separation facilities in Texas and attended a roundtable with doctors, medical staff, social workers, and other experts at Upbring New Hope Children's Shelter. On the way to the border facility, she caused controversy by wearing a jacket that read, "I really don't care, do u?" After much speculation about the jacket's message, including criticism that she may have been expressing indifference toward the families separated at the border, Trump stated that the jacket was aimed at people and media who were criticizing her. The jacket dominated media coverage of her visit.
Be Best campaign
Main article: Be Best
Melania Trump celebrating the second anniversary of the Be Best campaign
On May 7, 2018, Trump held a press conference in the White House Rose Garden to announce her official public initiative as first lady, the Be Best awareness campaign. The initiative was created to support the welfare of children, advocate against cyberbullying, and prevent opioid abuse. The initiative's name drew ridicule in the press for its grammatical structure. Instead of creating new programs like previous first ladies' projects, Be Best promoted existing initiatives and organizations that worked toward the cause. Public awareness of the initiate remained low, and it was often regarded solely as an anti-cyberbullying campaign.
The Be Best campaign drew criticism for its perceived hypocrisy, challenging cyberbullying when her husband was well known for attacking people online. Even Donald had warned her before the campaign's launch that the contrast may provoke criticism. She acknowledged the discrepancy but insisted that she would continue because she felt it was a good cause. This received more attention in 2019 when the president made Twitter posts critical of Greta Thunberg, a teenage environmental activist diagnosed on the autism spectrum. This came days after Melania had criticized Pamela Karlan for invoking Barron in a speech against the president. The first lady's office responded that spouses such as her and Donald communicate differently, and said that Barron was not "an activist who travels the globe giving speeches".
COVID-19 and 2020 presidential campaign
Melania with first responders during the COVID-19 pandemic
Trump underwent a major reorganization of her staff in April 2020 in anticipation of her husband's reelection campaign. She appointed Marcia Lee Kelly as her senior advisor and Emma Doyle as her policy advisor. Her chief of staff Lindsay Reynolds was removed, with her responsibilities going to Melania's communications director Stephanie Grisham. Trump became an active campaigner for her husband during the 2020 presidential election, which was a strong contrast to her 2016 activity.
When the COVID-19 pandemic began, Melania was criticized for promoting a White House renovation project. She took the topic more seriously after the COVID-19 lockdowns began, using her Twitter to encourage social distancing during the pandemic and promote official medical advice. Much of what she posted directly contradicted what her husband posted, as he discouraged many of the recommended practices.
On October 1, 2020, Melania's former advisor Stephanie Winston Wolkoff released audiotapes that featured Melania making profane statements about her image and role as first lady. In the tapes, she condemned the media for not giving her positive coverage, questioned why people wanted her to speak out against her husband when she supported his policies, and expressed frustration with her responsibility to oversee Christmas decorations in the White House. She also mentioned her "I really don't care, do u" jacket in the tapes, admitting that she wore it to irritate liberals. Winston Wolkoff had released the tapes alongside a tell-all book, Melania and Me. The Justice Department filed a civil suit against Wolkoff in October 2019, alleging breach of a nondisclosure agreement, but it was dropped in February 2021 under the Biden administration. In September 2022, Trump said in an interview with Breitbart News that the audiotapes had been strategically edited to make people believe that her duties in the White House had been unimportant to her.
Despite Donald Trump's loss of the 2020 election, Melania Trump ended her tenure by endorsing his false statement that he had been the legitimate election winner. For her final months in the White House, she stopped visiting her office in the East Wing, instead staying in the White House residence dressed in terrycloth bathrobes. Her focus at this time was on compiling photo albums of the decorations and renovations she had overseen through her tenure. Melania was overseeing photography at the White House when the January 6 United States Capitol attack took place and gave no comment at the time. She later said that she would have commented if she had been "fully informed of all the details". Her communications director Stephanie Grisham later stated she had sent Melania a text message asking her to make a statement condemning the violence and resigned when that did not happen. On January 18, Melania released a farewell video asking the American people to uphold the principles of her Be Best campaign. She did not contact incoming first lady Jill Biden to make transition arrangements or provide her the traditional tour of the White House. She did, however, follow the tradition of leaving a letter for the incoming first lady.
Subsequent activities
After the Trumps left the White House, Melania returned to Mar-a-Lago, where she could live while avoiding public attention. She retained one White House advisor, Marcia Lee Kelly, to help her during the post-presidency. Melania kept in contact with her successor Jill Biden, and the two have exchanged birthday cards. Since her tenure as first lady ended, Melania has made occasional paid speaking appearances, she has founded a scholarship program for foster children, and she has minted a line of Apollo 11-themed non-fungible tokens that were not in compliance with NASA's image use policy. Melania has not accompanied her husband to his court appearances or events for his candidacy in the 2024 presidential election.
Public image
Main article: Public image of Melania Trump
A 2017 Women's March protestor with a Free Melania sign
Trump limits her interactions with the public, creating a public image heavily influenced by speculation. She worked to protect her privacy as first lady, and her staff was instructed not to answer any questions about her whereabouts at a given time. With limited information, commentators have portrayed her as being a reluctant companion to her husband or as a woman who has no independence of her own. Several incidents during her husband's presidency led to rumors that she had a secret animosity toward her husband, such as her delay in moving to the White House and allegations that he had committed adultery. The rumors led to popular use of the hashtag #FreeMelania by those who believed them. Though she disliked the idea that people saw her as helpless, Melania found the campaign amusing. This became less common by 2020 as she took a more active role in the administration. She is often seen as cold by the public, though people who interact with her describe her as a warm presence.
As with previous first ladies, Trump's fashion was heavily scrutinized, and particularly expensive pieces were criticized. More than other first ladies, her fashion was scrutinized in the context of her past as a fashion model and her marriage to a billionaire. She did her own clothes shopping, but she was assisted by designer Hervé Pierre, hair stylist Mordechai Alvow, and make up artist Nicole Byrl. When preparing for speeches, she dedicated more attention to her physical appearance than content or delivery, which her staff felt affected her ability to promote her causes. Despite her experience in fashion, she disliked that it was such a major aspect of news coverage about her as first lady.
Since the only previous foreign-born first lady had an American father, Melania has been seen by the American public as the first foreigner first lady. Having a Slovenian-born woman as the American first lady became a point of national pride in Slovenia, and it gave the nation a sense of recognition on the world stage. Melania Trump's hometown Sevnica has developed a small tourist industry around her, and Melania-themed merchandise was common during her tenure as first lady. These items never used Melania's full name, substituting it with "first lady" or "M", as she is protective of her personality rights.
During the 2016 presidential election, Trump became the only candidate's spouse to have a negative approval rating since polling began in 1988. Her approval rating stood at 36–37% in the months leading up to becoming first lady in January 2017, but it increased to 57% in a CNN poll in April 2018 after she received public sympathy amid allegations that her husband had committed adultery. Trump finished her tenure in 2021 as the least popular first lady since polling began with a rating of 42%. Multiple polls during her tenure as first lady showed her as the most popular member of the Trump family.
In December 2020, the Siena College Research Institute released a study surveying scholars and historians on their assessments of American first ladies. It was the fifth such first ladies study that the Institute had conducted since 1982, and the first in which Trump appeared. Trump was ranked as being the worst of 40 assessed American first ladies, receiving the lowest assessments in all of the metrics that were weighed.
Footnotes
^ Pronounced /məˈlɑːniə/ mə-LAH-nee-ə; name prior to her marriage: Melania Knauss (IPA: ), a Germanization of her Slovene birth name Melanija Knavs (IPA: ).
Notes
^ a b c d e f Collins, Lauren (May 9, 2016). "The Model American: Melania Trump is the exception to her husband's nativist politics". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on November 19, 2018. Retrieved May 3, 2016.
^ "O Melaniji je prvi poročal Dolenjski list" . Dolenjski list (in Slovenian). November 10, 2016. Archived from the original on November 11, 2016. Retrieved November 11, 2016.
^ Bennett 2019, pp. 48–49.
^ a b Bennett 2019, p. 51.
^ a b Caroli 2019, p. 336.
^ Jordan 2020, p. 56.
^ a b Jordan 2020, p. 50.
^ Wellington, Elizabeth (May 25, 2017). "Melania Trump only the second Catholic first lady to meet a pope". Archived from the original on May 25, 2017. Retrieved May 25, 2017. Trump's father was a member of the Communist Party in Slovenia, which meant the family were officially atheists. Donald Trump is Presbyterian; the couple married in an Episcopal church.
^ Požar, Bojan (February 18, 2016). Melania Trump – The Inside Story: The Potential First Lady. Zalozba Ombo d.o.o. Ljubljana. pp. 111–113. Melanija Knavs was baptized on 14 June 1970 in Raka (the village where her mother came from). The church was called St. Lawrence, and the master of the ceremony was pastor Franc Campa. Her sister Ines had also been baptized there, and there had been a church service following the official civil marriage of her parents in 1967 (Požar, p. 94). This was not what was officially allowed for members of the Communist Party. Still, it was nevertheless quite common to do it secretly.
^ Alvarez, Inma; Vombergar, Marko (June 5, 2017). "Melania Trump spoke with Slovenian cardinal about her baptism". Aleteia. Archived from the original on June 5, 2017. Retrieved June 14, 2017. In the interview, the cardinal reports that Melania spoke with him of her baptism in Raka (her mother's hometown), close to Melania's birthplace of Novo Mesto.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Ioffe, Julia (April 27, 2016). "Melania Trump on Her Rise, Her Family Secrets, and Her True Political Views: "Nobody Will Ever Know"". GQ. Archived from the original on September 6, 2017. Retrieved April 29, 2016.
^ a b Caroli 2019, p. 337.
^ a b c d e f Peretz, Evgenia (April 21, 2017). "Inside the Trump Marriage: Melania's Burden". Vanity Fair. Archived from the original on July 18, 2017.
^ Jordan 2020, pp. 52–53.
^ Bennett 2019, p. 52.
^ Jordan 2020, p. 54.
^ "Melania Trump's Past Took Her From A River Town In Slovenia To Trump Tower" Archived February 15, 2016, at the Wayback Machine. HuffPost. February 12, 2016.
^ Jordan 2020, pp. 55–57.
^ a b c d e Caroli 2019, p. 338.
^ Bennett 2019, pp. 53–54.
^ Bennett 2019, p. 54.
^ Bennett 2019, p. 57.
^ Bennett 2019, pp. 54–55.
^ Jordan 2020, pp. 57–60.
^ Jordan 2020, pp. 61–63.
^ Jordan 2020, p. 63.
^ Jordan 2020, pp. 25–26.
^ Jordan 2020, pp. 67–69.
^ Jordan 2020, pp. 72–73.
^ Jordan 2020, pp. 76–77.
^ Jordan 2020, p. 83.
^ Bennett 2019, p. 59.
^ a b c d Caroli 2019, p. 334.
^ Jordan 2020, pp. 81–82.
^ Bennett 2019, p. 63.
^ a b c Caroli 2019, p. 335.
^ a b Bennett 2019, p. 64.
^ a b Jordan 2020, pp. 86–89.
^ Jordan 2020, pp. 89–92.
^ Jordan 2020, pp. 95–96.
^ Jordan 2020, p. 97.
^ Horowitz, Jason (August 31, 2016). "When Donald Met Melanie, Paolo Was There". The New York Times. Archived from the original on November 17, 2017. Retrieved June 15, 2023.
^ a b Jordan 2020, p. 109.
^ Bennett 2019, p. 66.
^ Jordan 2020, pp. 109–110.
^ Bennett 2019, pp. 66–67.
^ Jordan 2020, p. 112.
^ a b Jordan 2020, p. 48.
^ Bennett 2019, p. 72.
^ Bennett 2019, pp. 67, 72.
^ Jordan 2020, pp. 29–30.
^ Bennett 2019, pp. 93–94.
^ Jordan 2020, pp. 99–102.
^ Jordan 2020, pp. 106–107.
^ a b Jordan 2020, p. 108.
^ Jordan 2020, pp. 101, 104–105.
^ Bennett 2019, p. 68.
^ Jordan 2020, p. 113.
^ Jordan 2020, p. 114.
^ Jordan 2020, pp. 115, 118–119.
^ Bennett 2019, p. 74.
^ Jordan 2020, pp. 141–144.
^ Jordan 2020, pp. 199–200.
^ Jordan 2020, pp. 128–129.
^ Jordan 2020, pp. 144–145.
^ Jordan 2020, pp. 139–140.
^ Jordan 2020, pp. 119–123.
^ Jordan 2020, pp. 129–130.
^ a b Jordan 2020, pp. 132–135.
^ Bennett 2019, pp. 74–75.
^ Bennett 2019, pp. 78–79.
^ Jordan 2020, pp. 151–156.
^ Bennett 2019, p. 80.
^ Bennett 2019, p. 81.
^ Bennett 2019, p. 83.
^ Bennett 2019, pp. 86–87.
^ Bennett 2019, p. 84.
^ Bennett 2019, pp. 83–87.
^ Bennett 2019, p. 91.
^ Bennett 2019, p. 100.
^ Bennett 2019, p. 101.
^ Jordan 2020, pp. 178–179.
^ Jordan 2020, p. 176.
^ Bennett 2019, pp. 96–97.
^ Jordan 2020, pp. 176–177.
^ Jordan 2020, pp. 177–178.
^ a b Jordan 2020, p. 185.
^ Jordan 2020, pp. 210–213.
^ Bennett 2019, pp. 87–88.
^ Bennett 2019, pp. 92–93.
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^ Schneider, Karen S. (May 1, 2006). "Billion Dollar Baby: He Has Mom's Eyes, Dad's Lips, His Own Floor in Trump Tower and Doting Parents: Welcome to the World of Barron William Trump". People. Archived from the original on September 25, 2015. Retrieved September 7, 2015.
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^ Stump, Scott (July 19, 2016). "Melania Trump On Convention Speech: 'I Wrote It with as Little Help as Possible'". Today. Archived from the original on July 19, 2016. Retrieved July 19, 2016.
^ a b Bennett 2019, p. 8.
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^ Bennett 2019, pp. 15–16.
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^ "'Locker room talk' defense was Melania Trump's idea, Michael Cohen testifies". ABC News. March 13, 2024. Retrieved May 14, 2024.
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^ a b "Melania Trump: Fulfilling the first lady's role her way - CBS News". CBS News. January 23, 2017. Archived from the original on January 24, 2017. Retrieved March 9, 2024.
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^ "Melania Trump". White House Historical Association. Archived from the original on February 25, 2024. Retrieved March 9, 2024.
^ Jordan 2020, pp. 238–241.
^ Sieczkowski, Cavan (May 25, 2017). "Melania Trump Will Be The First Catholic To Live At The White House Since JFK". HuffPost. Archived from the original on May 26, 2017. Retrieved May 26, 2017.
^ "US First Lady Melania Trump Is Catholic, Spokeswoman Confirms". The Catholic Herald. May 26, 2017. Archived from the original on May 26, 2017. Retrieved May 26, 2017.
^ Jordan 2020, p. 30.
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^ Jordan 2020, pp. 34–35.
^ a b c d e Terris, Ben; Dawsey, Josh (November 10, 2023). "Where's Melania?". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on November 11, 2023. Retrieved March 6, 2024.
^ Jordan 2020, p. 36.
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^ Puente, Maria (February 7, 2017). "Melanie Trump's 'Daily Mail' Lawsuit: A FLOTUS First?". USA Today. Archived from the original on February 10, 2017. Retrieved February 10, 2017.
^ Bennett, Kate (February 22, 2017). "Melania Trump drops controversial language from $150 million defamation suit". CNN. Archived from the original on March 19, 2017. Retrieved March 16, 2017.
^ Betsy Klein; Kate Bennett. "First lady touts equality at International Women's Day luncheon". CNN. Archived from the original on March 9, 2017. Retrieved March 10, 2017.
^ "Melania Trump 'recalls her immigrant past' as she pushes for equality on International Women's Day". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on March 9, 2017. Retrieved March 10, 2017.
^ Pulliam Bailey, Sarah (May 25, 2017). "Melania Trump is Catholic, she confirms after Vatican visit". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on May 27, 2019. Retrieved October 18, 2018.
^ Bennett 2019, pp. 257–262.
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^ a b c d e f Rogers, Katie (February 17, 2024). "How Two First Ladies Weathered a Most Unusual Presidential Transition". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on February 27, 2024. Retrieved March 8, 2024.
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^ a b c d e Rogers, Katie; Haberman, Maggie (January 19, 2021). "Melania Trump's Legacy: Missteps, Mystery and, in the End, Absence". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 19, 2021.
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^ a b Kelly, Caroline. "Secretly recorded tapes show Melania Trump's frustration at criticism for family separation policy and her bashing of Christmas decorations". CNN. Archived from the original on October 8, 2020. Retrieved October 2, 2020.
^ Bennett 2019, p. 178.
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^ Bennett, Kate. "Melania Trump makes surprise visit to border facilities". CNN. Archived from the original on June 21, 2018. Retrieved June 21, 2018.
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^ Shear, Michael D. (October 2, 2020). "In Profane Rant, Melania Trump Takes Aim at Migrant Children and Critics". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 14, 2021. Retrieved October 2, 2020.
^ "Biden Admin DOJ Drops Lawsuit Against Melania Trump's Ex-Friend Stephanie Winston Wolkoff". February 9, 2021. Archived from the original on February 14, 2021. Retrieved February 9, 2021.
^ Poonia, Gitanjali (September 21, 2022). "Melania Trump, once critical of White House decorating, now selling Christmas ornaments". Deseret News. Archived from the original on October 13, 2022. Retrieved October 13, 2022.
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^ Vidmar Horvat 2021, pp. 447–448.
^ Vidmar Horvat 2021, p. 448.
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^ Enten, Harry (January 19, 2021). "The worst final popularity rating ever for a first lady belongs to Melania Trump". CNN. Archived from the original on February 9, 2021. Retrieved January 19, 2021.
^ Frankovic, Kathy (March 7, 2019). "Melania remains the most popular Trump; Kushner security clearance seen as problematic". today.yougov.com. YouGov. Archived from the original on February 4, 2021. Retrieved January 19, 2021.
^ Easley, Cameron (August 25, 2020). "As Trump family dominates RNC, poll shows they're most popular GOP figures". Morning Consult. Archived from the original on January 11, 2021. Retrieved January 22, 2021.
^ "Eleanor Roosevelt America's Top First Lady for 6th Consecutive Time Abigail Adams Finishes a Close Second; Michelle Obama Moves to Third First Lady Initiatives – Lady Bird Johnson (Environmental Protection) Did Most to Raise Awareness and Address the Issue; Obama (Childhood Obesity), Betty Ford (Women's Rights), and Barbara Bush (Literacy) Made Major Contributions Jackie Kennedy - 4th but First on Being a White House Steward & Public Image" (PDF). scri.siena.edu. Siena College Research Institute. December 9, 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 8, 2024. Retrieved March 6, 2024.
^ "Copy of FirstLadies_Full Rankings_working_dl_2.xls" (PDF). scri.siena.edu. Siena College Research Institute. December 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 30, 2024. Retrieved March 6, 2024.
References
Baker, Peter; Glasser, Susan (2022). The Divider: Trump in the White House, 2017-2021. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-385-54654-6.
Bennett, Kate (2019). Free, Melania. Flatiron Books. ISBN 978-1-250-30737-8.
Caroli, Betty Boyd (2019). "Chapter 11: The Ever-Changing Role of First Lady". First Ladies: The Ever Changing Role, from Martha Washington to Melania Trump. Oxford University Press. pp. 333–348. ISBN 978-0-19-066913-3.
Elder, Laurel; Frederick, Brian; Burrell, Barbara (2018). American Presidential Candidate Spouses: The Public's Perspective. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-3-319-73878-9.
Jordan, Mary (2020). The Art of Her Deal: The Untold Story of Melania Trump. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-9821-1340-7.
Pušnik, Maruša; Jontes, Dejan (2021). "Mediji in Spontani Nacionalizem: Primer Melanie Trump" (PDF). Teorija in Praksa (in Slovenian). 58 (2): 464–480. doi:10.51936/tip.58.2.464-480. ISSN 0040-3598.
Vidmar Horvat, Ksenija (2021). "Postimperialni Patriarhat In Karnevaleskna Periferija: Melania Trump V Transnacionalni Javnosti" (PDF). Teorija in Praksa (in Slovenian). 58 (2): 447–463. doi:10.51936/tip.58.2.447-463. ISSN 0040-3598.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Melania Trump.
Wikiquote has quotations related to Melania Trump.
White House website
Official website (archived March 1, 2012)
Melania Trump at Fashion Model Directory
Melania Trump at IMDb
Appearances on C-SPAN
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Succeeded byJill Biden
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Children
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Ivanka Trump (daughter)
Eric Trump (son)
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Parents
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In-laws
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vte2000–2009 Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue2000
Elsa Benítezp
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Yamila Díaz
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Malia Jonesp
Heidi Klum
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Noémie Lenoir
Josie Maranp
Carré Otis
Daniela Peštová
Audrey Quockp
Gabrielle Reecep
Rachel Roberts
Molly Simsp
Veronika Vařeková
Estella Warren
2001
Michelle Behennah
Elsa Benítez
Aurélie Claudel
Yamila Díaz*
Luján Fernández
Janelle Fishmanp
Heidi Klum*
Shakara Ledard*
Kim Lemantonp
Noémie Lenoir*
Shirley Mallmann
Josie Maran
Petra Němcováp
Daniela Peštová
Audrey Quockp
Molly Sims*
Fernanda Tavares*
Veronika Vařeková*
Amy Wesson
2002
Ana Beatriz Barros
Elsa Benítez
Ehrinn Cummings
Yamila Díaz
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2003
Michelle Alvesp
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Audrey Quock
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2004
May Andersen
Ana Beatriz Barros
Elsa Benítez
Yamila Díaz
Bridget Hall*
Melissa Keller*
Noémie Lenoir*
Angela Lindvall
Marisa Miller*
Fernanda Motta
Carolyn Murphy
Petra Němcová*
Daniela Peštová
Frankie Rayder
Molly Sims
Jessica Van Der Steen
Veronika Vařeková
Jessica White*
2005
Michelle Alves
Ana Beatriz Barros
Yamila Díaz
Alicia Hall
Bridget Hall*
Shakara Ledard
Noémie Lenoir
Michelle Lombardo
Marisa Miller*
Fernanda Motta
Carolyn Murphy
Petra Němcová
Oluchi Onweagba
Frankie Rayder
Daniella Sarahyba*
Mallory Snyder
Jessica Van Der Steen
Anne V*
Veronika Vařeková
Jessica White*
2006
Ana Beatriz Barros
Elsa Benitez
Carla Campbell
Brooklyn Decker
Yamila Diaz
Bridget Hall
Rachel Hunter
Heidi Klum*
Noémie Lenoir
Elle Macpherson
Marisa Miller
Fernanda Motta
Carolyn Murphy
Aline Nakashima
Petra Němcová
Oluchi Onweagba
Daniela Peštová
Rebecca Romijn
Pania Rose
Daniella Sarahyba
Molly Sims
Mallory Snyder
Yésica Toscanini
Veronica Varekova
Anne V
2007
Ana Paula Araújo*
Ana Beatriz Barros
Brooklyn Decker
Yamila Díaz
Selita Ebanks
Julie Henderson
Beyoncé Knowles
Marisa Miller*
Fernanda Motta
Aline Nakashima
Raica Oliveira
Oluchi Onweagba
Tori Praver*
Bar Refaeli
Daniella Sarahyba*
Irina Shayk
Fernanda Tavares
Yésica Toscanini
Anne V
Veronika Vařeková
Jessica White
2008
Ana Beatriz Barros
Yasmin Brunet
Jeísa Chiminazzo
Brooklyn Decker
Selita Ebanks
Jessica Gomes*
Quiana Grant*
Melissa Haro
Julie Henderson
Jarah Mariano
Marisa Miller*
Oluchi Onweagba
Tori Praver*
Bar Refaeli
Daniella Sarahyba
Irina Shayk
Anne V
Jessica White
2009
Kim Cloutier
Brooklyn Decker*
Cintia Dicker
Lucia Dvorská
Esti Ginzburg
Jessica Gomes
Melissa Haro
Jessica Hart
Julie Henderson*
Damaris Lewis
Jarah Mariano
Ariel Meredith
Tori Praver
Bar Refaeli
Hilary Rhoda
Daniella Sarahyba
Irina Shayk*
Anne V
Jessica White*
40th Anniversary (2004)Hall of Fame
Elle Macpherson
Paulina Porizkova
Rachel Hunter
Tyra Banks
Valeria Mazza
Stacey Williams
Heidi Klum
Cheryl Tiegs
Roshumba Williams
Christie Brinkley
Vendela Kirsebom
All-Star ReunionCover (2006)
Elsa Benítez
Yamila Díaz
Rachel Hunter
Elle Macpherson
Carolyn Murphy
Daniela Peštová
Rebecca Romijn
Veronika Vařeková (Celebrity special: Maria Sharapova)
underline indicates cover model, *appeared in bodypainting by Joanne Gair, pappeared in print edition only
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She is the first naturalized citizen to become first lady and the second foreign-born first lady after Louisa Adams.Melanija Knavs was born in Slovenia (then part of Yugoslavia) where she began working as a fashion model at the age of 16. She changed the spelling of her name to Melania Knauss, and she traveled to Milan and Paris to seek modeling work until she met Paolo Zampolli, who hired her and sponsored her immigration to the United States in 1996. She continued working as a model in Manhattan, where Zampolli introduced her to the real estate developer Donald Trump in 1998. They began dating, and she began adjusting to a more lavish lifestyle. He worked to get her more modeling jobs, and she supported him during his 2000 presidential campaign. Melania and Donald Trump married in 2005, and they had a son, Barron Trump, the following year. She dedicated most of her time to Barron during his infancy, spending less time working or accompanying her husband at events. She started her own jewelry brand, Melania, in 2009.After encouraging Donald to run for president in the 2016 presidential election, Melania only made rare campaign appearances, opting to help Donald strategize over the phone. She received major press coverage during the campaign when erotic photos from her modeling years were uncovered and published, and again when a speech she gave at the 2016 Republican National Convention was found to be plagiarized from a similar speech by Michelle Obama. In the month leading up to the election, she responded to the Access Hollywood tape that had caused a scandal for her husband.Trump stayed in Manhattan for the first months of her tenure as first lady, allowing Barron to finish school and Melania to negotiate her prenuptial agreement. Her stepdaughter Ivanka Trump fulfilled some of the first lady's traditional duties, causing a rivalry between the two. She kept to minimal activity after moving into the White House, often staying in the residence instead of her office in the East Wing, and she held fewer events than previous first ladies. 2018 saw several challenges for Melania, including allegations of extramarital affairs by her husband, surgery for kidney disease, and a tour of Africa that was overshadowed by scandals. During her tenure as first lady, Trump prioritized children's issues, launching the Be Best campaign to promote children's welfare and making many visits to children's hospitals. She opposed her husband's family separation policy and convinced him to end the practice. She was a close advisor to her husband, the only person from whom he accepted frank advice, and he frequently asked her opinion. In the final months of her tenure, Trump endorsed her husband's false claims of election fraud in the 2020 presidential election. She has largely stayed out of public view since leaving the White House.","title":"Melania Trump"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Novo Mesto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novo_Mesto"},{"link_name":"Yugoslavia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia"},{"link_name":"Slovenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovenia"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CollinsModel-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"League of Communists of Yugoslavia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/League_of_Communists_of_Yugoslavia"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201948%E2%80%9349-4"},{"link_name":"Amalija","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amalija_Knavs"},{"link_name":"patternmaker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pattern_(sewing)"},{"link_name":"Sevnica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sevnica"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CollinsModel-2"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201951-5"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaroli2019336-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan202056-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan202050-8"},{"link_name":"paternity test","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paternity_test"},{"link_name":"state atheism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_atheism"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"baptized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptism"},{"link_name":"Catholic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Slovenia"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ioffe-12"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ioffe-12"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan202050-8"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaroli2019337-13"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201951-5"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VanityFair-14"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan202052%E2%80%9353-15"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaroli2019336-6"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201952-16"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan202054-17"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"presidency of Ronald Reagan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidency_of_Ronald_Reagan"},{"link_name":"CNN International","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNN_International"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan202055%E2%80%9357-19"},{"link_name":"Ljubljana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ljubljana"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaroli2019338-20"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201953%E2%80%9354-21"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201954-22"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaroli2019338-20"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201957-23"}],"text":"Melanija Knavs was born in Novo Mesto, Yugoslavia, now part of present-day Slovenia, on April 26, 1970.[1][2] Her father Viktor Knavs first worked as a chauffeur, and he eventually sold car parts for a state-owned vehicle manufacturer as he made connections with the League of Communists of Yugoslavia, the national communist party.[3] Her mother Amalija worked as a patternmaker at the children's clothing manufacturer Jutranjka in Sevnica.[1][4] In Sevnica, the family lived in the state-run housing complex Naselje Heroja Maroka.[5] She has an older sister, Ines,[6] and an older half-brother from her father's previous relationship, Denis Cigelnjak, whom she reportedly has never met.[7] Her father denied paternity of the boy, even after it was confirmed by a paternity test.Although Knauss's father was a member of Yugoslavia's communist party, which espoused a policy of state atheism,[8] he had his daughters secretly baptized as Catholic, as was common.[9][10] The family was well-off relative to most who lived in communist societies. They frequently went on vacations to other parts of Europe.[11] Their apartment was decorated with brightly colored walls, which was a major departure from other apartments in the country.[11][7]As a child, Knavs and other children of workers at the factory participated in fashion shows that featured children's clothing.[12][4][13] Textiles were Sevnica's primary industry. Students were excused from school to participate in the shows.[14] From a young age, Knavs expressed an interest in fashion, and she began customizing and sewing her own clothes.[5] She developed a skill for it by watching her mother work. [15] Knavs did well in school, where she was appointed school treasurer.[16]When Knavs was a teenager, she moved to a two-story house in Sevnica with her family.[17] From her youth in Slovenia, Knavs was influenced by the United States: she described the presidency of Ronald Reagan as the beginning of a new era in her own country and the debut of CNN International in 1985 gave her family access to American media.[18] At the age of fifteen, Knavs moved to Ljubljana to attend the Secondary School for Design and Photography, attending the school until her graduation at nineteen.[19] She was admitted despite the school's exclusivity. She made the long commute from her hometown to the capital and back each day by train.[20] After her first year, Melanija and Ines moved to the capital together.[21] After graduating, Knavs enrolled in the Faculty of Architecture and Civil and Geodetic Engineering to further study design.[19][22]","title":"Early life and education"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Early modeling career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201954%E2%80%9355-24"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan202057%E2%80%9360-25"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ioffe-12"},{"link_name":"Cinecittà","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinecitt%C3%A0"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan202061%E2%80%9363-26"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaroli2019338-20"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan202063-27"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan202025%E2%80%9326-28"},{"link_name":"runner-up","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runner-up"},{"link_name":"Look of the Year","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elite_Model_Look"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CollinsModel-2"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaroli2019338-20"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ioffe-12"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan202067%E2%80%9369-29"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan202072%E2%80%9373-30"},{"link_name":"Victoria Silvstedt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_Silvstedt"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan202076%E2%80%9377-31"},{"link_name":"Paolo Zampolli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paolo_Zampolli"},{"link_name":"Donald Trump","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Trump"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VanityFair-14"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan202083-32"}],"sub_title":"European career","text":"Knavs was discovered by Slovenian fashion photographer Stane Jerko when she was sixteen, after modeling in a school-sponsored show.[23][24] At the time, she had wanted to be a fashion designer rather than a model.[11] Knavs won a modeling contest with the Italian studio Cinecittà that entitled her to a movie role, but she rejected the prize after a producer sexually propositioned her.[25] As her modeling career progressed, Knavs took on an alternate spelling of her name, Melania Knauss. She traveled Europe to find modeling work.[19][26] Except a few close relatives, she did not maintain contact with anyone she knew in Slovenia.[27] In 1992, Knauss was named runner-up in the Jana Magazine \"Look of the Year\" contest, which promised its top three contestants an international modeling contract.[1][19][11] She signed with RVR Reclame in Milan, but she left the organization a few months later.[28]Knauss spent the following years traveling Europe for modeling jobs, including one in which she portrayed the first female president of the United States in 1993.[29] Around age 23 or 24, her career was successful enough that she could make Paris her primary residence, where she lived with her roommate Victoria Silvstedt.[30] Knauss modeled for fashion houses in Paris and Milan, where in 1995 she met Metropolitan Models co-owner Paolo Zampolli, a friend of her future husband Donald Trump, who was on a scouting trip in Europe.[13] Zampolli became one of the few people who was involved in Knauss's life long-term.[31]","title":"Early modeling career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VanityFair-14"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VanityFair-14"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ioffe-12"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201959-33"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaroli2019334-34"},{"link_name":"Zeckendorf Towers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeckendorf_Towers"},{"link_name":"Union Square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Square,_Manhattan"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan202081%E2%80%9382-35"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VanityFair-14"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201963-36"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaroli2019335-37"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201964-38"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan202086%E2%80%9389-39"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan202086%E2%80%9389-39"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201964-38"},{"link_name":"Max","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_(French_magazine)"},{"link_name":"New York Post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Post"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan202089%E2%80%9392-40"},{"link_name":"travel visa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Travel_visa"},{"link_name":"H-1B visa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H-1B_visa"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaroli2019334-34"},{"link_name":"Camel cigarette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camel_(cigarette)"},{"link_name":"Ellen von Unwerth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellen_von_Unwerth"},{"link_name":"Times Square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Times_Square"},{"link_name":"Rolling Stone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolling_Stone"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan202095%E2%80%9396-41"},{"link_name":"Park Avenue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Park_Avenue"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan202097-42"}],"sub_title":"Relocating to New York","text":"Zampolli urged Knauss to travel to the United States, where he said he would like to represent her.[13] In 1996, Knauss moved to Manhattan.[13][11] By this time, she was already 26 years old, much older than most aspiring models.[32] Zampolli encouraged Knauss to live near and socialize with people in the fashion industry,[33] and he arranged for her to share an apartment with photographer Matthew Atanian in Zeckendorf Towers in Union Square.[34][13] Her rent was taken from her pay with Zampolli's agency.[35] Once she arrived in the United States, she returned to her home country only sparingly and only for short periods of time.[36] She lived a healthy lifestyle, managing her diet carefully,[37] and she avoided the drinking and partying that often consumed the lives of the models around her.[38] She did not lead an active social life and only went out on rare occasions.[38][37] Knauss was featured in a sexually explicit photo shoot for a 1997 issue of Max, a French men's magazine with another female model. The photos were shot by the photographer Alexandre Ale de Basseville, and the work was unpaid, instead promising Knauss exposure in a prominent magazine. The photos were largely forgotten until they were published by the New York Post in 2016.[39]For her first weeks in the United States, her travel visa did not allow her to work in the country. Despite this, she accepted ten modeling jobs that earned her approximately $20,000. She then received an H-1B visa that allowed her to work.[33] She received her first major gig when she posed for a Camel cigarette ad shot by Ellen von Unwerth, which was displayed as a Times Square billboard and ran in Rolling Stone. The opportunity came about from a law that required cigarette ads only feature individuals above the age of 25, which excluded most aspiring models.[40] When her roommate Atanian left New York, Knauss moved to an apartment off of Park Avenue.[41]","title":"Early modeling career"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Marriage and family"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Donald_and_Melania_1999.jpg"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"Celina Midelfart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celina_Midelfart"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020109-44"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201966-45"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020109-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020109%E2%80%93110-46"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201966%E2%80%9367-47"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020112-48"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaroli2019337-13"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan202048-49"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201972-50"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ioffe-12"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan202048-49"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201967,_72-51"},{"link_name":"Trump: The Art of the Comeback","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trump:_The_Art_of_the_Comeback"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan202029%E2%80%9330-52"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201993%E2%80%9394-53"},{"link_name":"Mickey Rourke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mickey_Rourke"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan202099%E2%80%93102-54"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020106%E2%80%93107-55"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020108-56"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020101,_104%E2%80%93105-57"},{"link_name":"New York Fashion Week","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Fashion_Week"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020108-56"},{"link_name":"Kara Young","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kara_Young"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201968-58"}],"sub_title":"Meeting Donald Trump","text":"Donald Trump and Melania Knauss in 1999In September 1998, Zampolli introduced Knauss to the real estate mogul Donald Trump at a party.[42] Trump had a date to the event, Celina Midelfart. When he asked Knauss for her phone number, she refused. Instead, she insisted that he give her his own number. He passed her test when he gave her multiple personal numbers instead of an office number.[43][44] She later said that giving her own number would make her \"just one of the women he calls\".[43] The exact details of when and where this took place are unclear, though the Kit Kat Club is often described as where they met.[45]After a week, Knauss called Trump and they went on a date.[46] She intentionally gave him an indifferent attitude to his advances, knowing this would pique his interest.[47] Not only was Trump's personality similar to that of Knauss's father,[12][48][49] but they were of similar ages and had similar physical appearances.[11][48][50] When they began dating, Knauss had access to his book Trump: The Art of the Comeback, in which he detailed what he wanted from a relationship.[51][52]Knauss held a press conference on September 8, spending the event recounting her successes and telling reporters that she was \"world famous\", \"among the top 50\" highest paid models in the world, and set to appear in a movie alongside Mickey Rourke.[53] The intention was to build her profile in anticipation of another, ultimately unsuccessful, cigarette ad campaign.[54] This was unusual behavior for a woman who typically kept a quiet and professional presence,[55] and reporters were unable to verify the claims she made.[56] The Trumps have stated that they met at the New York Fashion Week shortly after this conference, though others in the industry have said rumors about their relationship had already developed by then.[55] Their relationship initially only lasted a few weeks. Knauss left Trump after she saw his ex Kara Young leaving Trump Tower, but Knauss and Trump reunited the following week.[57]","title":"Marriage and family"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020113-59"},{"link_name":"Kennedys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_family"},{"link_name":"Jacqueline Kennedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacqueline_Kennedy"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020114-60"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020115,_118%E2%80%93119-61"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VanityFair-14"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201974-62"},{"link_name":"Howard Stern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Stern"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020141%E2%80%93144-63"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020199%E2%80%93200-64"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Clinton_Trump_2000_08_(cropped1).jpg"},{"link_name":"Bill Clinton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Clinton"},{"link_name":"his candidacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Trump_2000_presidential_campaign"},{"link_name":"Reform Party presidential nomination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000_Reform_Party_presidential_primaries"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020128%E2%80%93129-65"},{"link_name":"The New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"Betty Ford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betty_Ford"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020144%E2%80%93145-66"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020139%E2%80%93140-67"},{"link_name":"Trump Model Management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trump_Model_Management"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020119%E2%80%93123-68"},{"link_name":"Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports_Illustrated_Swimsuit_Issue"},{"link_name":"Antoine Verglas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Verglas"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020129%E2%80%93130-69"},{"link_name":"Bond girl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bond_girl"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020132%E2%80%93135-70"},{"link_name":"GQ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GQ"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201974%E2%80%9375-71"},{"link_name":"Boeing 727","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_727"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020132%E2%80%93135-70"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaroli2019334-34"},{"link_name":"Oval Office","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oval_Office"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201978%E2%80%9379-72"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020151%E2%80%93156-73"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201980-74"},{"link_name":"green card","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_card"},{"link_name":"permanent residency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permanent_residency"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaroli2019334-34"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CollinsModel-2"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201981-75"},{"link_name":"The Apprentice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Apprentice_(American_TV_series)"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201983-76"}],"sub_title":"Relationship with Donald Trump","text":"Dating Trump brought several benefits for Knauss. His fame and connections gave her new career opportunities, and at the time he had a reputation for being more respectful to the women he associated with relative to other men who mingled with supermodels.[58] Knauss experienced such a benefit that October when she had the opportunity to meet the Kennedys at a gala—their mother Jacqueline Kennedy, who had died shortly before, had been deeply admired by Knauss and her mother.[59] She encountered many other world famous celebrities while attending events with Trump.[60]Knauss continued her modeling career after meeting Donald Trump,[13] though she took fewer jobs as time went on and she dedicated more time to him.[61] In 1999, the couple gained attention after an interview with shock jock Howard Stern on his show, in which he asked them lewd sexual questions.[62] Trump often brought Knauss to meetings to show her off, praising her beauty. He did not let her participate in the business, citing the conflict he had with his first wife after giving her an executive role.[63]Melania Knauss with then-president Bill Clinton in 2000Trump announced his candidacy for the Reform Party presidential nomination on October 7, 1999. Knauss adamantly supported the move.[64] When asked by The New York Times what her role would be if Trump were to become president, Knauss replied: \"I would be very traditional, like Betty Ford or Jackie Kennedy\".[65] Knauss saw extensive media attention as tabloids considered the idea of a model as first lady.[66]Knauss was one of the first models recruited to Trump's modeling agency, Trump Model Management, after its creation in February 1999. The following months, she appeared in several magazines and advertisements organized by individuals close to Trump.[67] While Trump was organizing his campaign, Knauss appeared the February Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue. The image featured her in a bikini alongside a large inflatable whale, and the shoot was run by Antoine Verglas, an associate of Zampolli's.[68] Shortly after the shoot, Verglas called Knauss back for another project where he had her pose nude in a Bond girl aesthetic.[69] Trump had lobbied for her inclusion in a GQ spread,[70] and her relationship with Trump allowed the shoot access to Trump's Boeing 727. Images from the shoot were featured in the January edition of GQ magazine.[69] At the time, Trump's involvement was not made known.[33] She then appeared in another sexualized photo shoot where she was posted in a mock up of the Oval Office.[71]In January 2000, news broke that Knauss and Trump broke up, with conflicting accounts of who ended the relationship. Many photos and publicity pieces the two had done together were quickly edited before publication to accommodate the change.[72] They kept in contact, and they reunited a few months later.[73] Knauss received her green card in 2001, granting her permanent residency in the United States.[33][1] Knauss and Trump moved in together at Trump Tower in 2002.[74] She made her first appearance on Trump's game show The Apprentice in April 2004 when an episode had the contestants visit their penthouse.[75]","title":"Marriage and family"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Met Gala","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Met_Gala"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201986%E2%80%9387-77"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201984-78"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201983%E2%80%9387-79"},{"link_name":"prenuptual agreement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prenuptual_agreement"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201991-80"},{"link_name":"Anna Wintour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Wintour"},{"link_name":"André Leon Talley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Leon_Talley"},{"link_name":"John Galliano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Galliano"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019100-81"},{"link_name":"Vogue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vogue_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019101-82"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020178%E2%80%93179-83"},{"link_name":"Bethesda-by-the-Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethesda-by-the-Sea"},{"link_name":"Palm Beach, Florida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palm_Beach,_Florida"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020176-84"},{"link_name":"ballroom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballroom"},{"link_name":"Mar-a-Lago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mar-a-Lago"},{"link_name":"Preston Bailey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Preston_Bailey_(wedding_planner)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201996%E2%80%9397-85"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020176%E2%80%93177-86"},{"link_name":"bridesmaid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridesmaid"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaroli2019335-37"},{"link_name":"NBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBC"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020177%E2%80%93178-87"}],"sub_title":"Engagement and wedding","text":"Trump proposed to Knauss on April 26, 2004, on her birthday as they were leaving to attend the Met Gala.[76] He reasoned that he was more willing to wed as she had not insisted on marriage, and he felt she was an influence in the success he had seen over the previous years.[77] Knauss was more compatible with Trump than his previous wives, as she did not have the ambition of his first wife and did not cause public drama like his second wife. Knauss fulfilled his desire for a wife who was self-confident but supported him silently.[78] She also signed his prenuptual agreement without issue.[79] A few months before the wedding, Knauss traveled to Paris with Anna Wintour and André Leon Talley to find a wedding dress, and Knauss decided on a dress by John Galliano.[80] In the days leading up to the wedding, she appeared on the front cover of Vogue in her dress.[81][82]Trump and Knauss married on January 22, 2005, at the Bethesda-by-the-Sea church in Palm Beach, Florida.[83] The ceremony was followed by a reception in the ballroom at Donald's Mar-a-Lago estate, which Melania planned with Preston Bailey.[84] Numerous celebrities were present, including musicians, athletes, media executives, and television personalities.[85] She had one bridesmaid, her sister Ines, who had moved to New York so they could be closer together.[36] Knauss arranged all of the details of the wedding with her planner. She let Trump make decisions about the event, but she refused his suggestion that the wedding be broadcast on NBC.[86]","title":"Marriage and family"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Donald_Trump_and_wife_Melania.jpg"},{"link_name":"three residences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Residences_of_Donald_Trump"},{"link_name":"Trump Tower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trump_Tower"},{"link_name":"Trump National Golf Club Bedminster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trump_National_Golf_Club_Bedminster"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaroli2019335-37"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020185-88"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020185-88"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020210%E2%80%93213-89"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ioffe-12"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201987%E2%80%9388-90"},{"link_name":"gold digger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold_digger"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201992%E2%80%9393-91"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020214-92"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CollinsModel-2"},{"link_name":"Donald Trump Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Trump_Jr."},{"link_name":"Eric Trump","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Trump"},{"link_name":"Ivanka Trump","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivanka_Trump"},{"link_name":"Ivana Zelníčková","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivana_Trump"},{"link_name":"Tiffany Trump","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiffany_Trump"},{"link_name":"Marla Maples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marla_Maples"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020183-93"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201973-94"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019110%E2%80%93111-95"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019113%E2%80%93114-96"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019112-97"},{"link_name":"FAO Schwarz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FAO_Schwarz"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019114-98"},{"link_name":"Barron William Trump","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barron_Trump"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020183%E2%80%93184-99"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schneider1May-100"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019114%E2%80%93115-101"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020184-102"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019118-103"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019118-103"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ioffe-12"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201924,_117-104"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020184%E2%80%93185-105"},{"link_name":"Aflac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aflac"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019125-106"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020186-107"},{"link_name":"chain migration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chain_migration"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020193%E2%80%93194-108"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019112%E2%80%93113-109"},{"link_name":"multiple citizenship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_citizenship"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020191%E2%80%93192-110"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020214-92"},{"link_name":"Gone with the Wind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gone_with_the_Wind_(film)"},{"link_name":"Sunset Boulevard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunset_Boulevard_(film)"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020224-111"}],"sub_title":"Marriage and motherhood","text":"Melania and Donald in 2006The Trumps had three residences that they traveled between: Trump Tower in New York, Trump National Golf Club Bedminster in New Jersey, and Mar-a-Lago in Florida.[36][87] To have her own private abode, Melania had a private spa constructed on the top floor of Trump Tower.[87] As a couple, the two did not spend much direct time together, preferring to live adjacently with one another.[88] According to Trump, their passive relationship suited him because he worked for a living and didn't \"want to go home and work at a relationship\".[11][89] Melania accepted a transaction element in their relationship, though she cared about Donald and did not believe that she was a gold digger.[90] When she attended events with her husband at Trump facilities, she often stayed for only a few minutes to make an appearance before returning to the private residence.[91] Donald did not learn to speak Melania's native language, which she said she accepted because she is \"not a nagging wife\".[1]Upon marrying Donald, Melania became stepmother to his four children: Donald Trump Jr., Eric Trump and Ivanka Trump from his first marriage to Ivana Zelníčková, and Tiffany Trump from his second marriage to Marla Maples.[92] Melania had especially bonded with Tiffany, who was six when Melania began dating Tiffany's father, and made sure she felt included among her step-siblings.[93] When Melania herself became pregnant, it was widely covered in the media.[94] This included her second appearance on the cover of Vogue, featuring her pregnant body in a bikini and an open coat.[95] Melania spent the months with her sister, who had moved to New York, and her parents, who visited throughout the pregnancy. She also oversaw the construction of a nursery in Trump Tower.[96] She had a baby shower at the FAO Schwarz toy store, but she insisted that the toys and gifts she received be donated to a children's hospital.[97]On March 20, 2006, Donald and Melania had a son, Barron William Trump.[98] Melania chose her son's middle name, while Donald chose his first name.[99] Donald had previously used the name Barron as a pseudonym for when he posed as his own public relations agent.[100] After Barron was born, Melania was active in his life and accordingly spent less time attending events with her husband.[101][102] Donald had made it clear to her that if they had a child, he would not be actively involved in the child's life.[102] Melania later said she approved of this, stating that she \"didn't want him changing diapers or putting Barron to bed\".[11] She avoided the use of nannies, with a few exceptions in Barron's earliest years, insisting on raising him herself.[103] This lessened social activity meant that Donald began courting supermodels again, which made Melania uncomfortable, though she did not know about the women who later alleged that they had extramarital affairs with him.[104]Melania stayed out of the public spotlight after she settled into her life as a Trump, excepting occasional charity work and an appearance in an Aflac commercial.[105] She became a citizen of the United States on July 28, 2006.[106] She then sponsored her parents using the \"chain migration\" immigration process that her husband later repeatedly criticized.[107][108] Besides her American citizenship, both she and her son maintain multiple citizenship in Slovenia.[109] Spending most of her time at Trump residences, she rarely kept companions besides her parents and her son.[91] When she was with her husband, they watched films together, including their favorite films Gone with the Wind and Sunset Boulevard.[110]","title":"Marriage and family"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Melania_Trump_2011.jpg"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019125%E2%80%93126-112"},{"link_name":"QVC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QVC"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020200%E2%80%93201-113"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019126%E2%80%93127-114"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ioffe-12"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019126%E2%80%93127-114"},{"link_name":"caviar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caviar"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020204%E2%80%93205-115"},{"link_name":"sweetheart deal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweetheart_deal"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020207%E2%80%93209-116"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019128-117"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019128-117"}],"text":"Melania Trump in 2011As her son reached childhood, Melania found herself with more time for other pursuits.[111] She trademarked her name, Melania, in 2009 as a jewelry brand, which she used to sell less expensive jewelry pieces on QVC.[112] She was intentional about not using the Trump name in her branding, correcting reporters who called it Melania Trump.[113] She drew the designs herself,[11] which were based on three places where she had lived: New York, Palm Beach, and Paris. Over the following years, she released additional Melania collections, and they sold out each time.[113]Melania then introduced a line of caviar-infused skincare products under the brand Melania Marks Skincare in 2011.[114] The brand never launched. It brought about a legal case when the company selling the products, New Sunshine, underwent management changes and voided the contract. The company alleged that one executive had given a sweetheart deal to the Trumps because he was a family friend. The case was decided in Trump's favor, and the amount to be paid to her was settled out of court.[115] She had initially sued the company for $50 million in lost revenue.[116] Rededicating herself to parenting, Melania eventually ended the production of her jewelry brand.[116]","title":"Business ventures"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Donald Trump 2016 presidential campaign"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"to campaign for president","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Trump_2016_presidential_campaign"},{"link_name":"2016 presidential election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_United_States_presidential_election"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan202022-118"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201920%E2%80%9322-119"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201923-120"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaroli2019339-121"},{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElderFrederickBurrell2018108-122"},{"link_name":"[122]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019120%E2%80%93121-123"},{"link_name":"Instagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instagram"},{"link_name":"Twitter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twitter"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ioffe-12"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan20203%E2%80%934-124"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201922-125"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020227%E2%80%93228-126"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201927-127"},{"link_name":"[127]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020224,_226-128"}],"sub_title":"Personal life during the campaign","text":"Melania was the one who finally convinced Donald to campaign for president in the 2016 presidential election, telling him that he either needed to do it or stop talking about it.[117][118] When the campaign began, Melania made it clear to her husband that she would not be pressured into campaigning or attending events, and that she would only make appearances when she wanted to. She subsequently played a relatively small role in the campaign, which had been atypical of spouses of presidential candidates since the early 20th century.[119] Explaining her absence, she cited the need to stay home with her son Barron.[120][121] Her daily routine was nonetheless altered by the campaign, as she had to take security arrangements into account when she traveled, and she could not post about her activities online in real time.[122] Once a prolific user of Instagram and Twitter, she became less active on her social media accounts when the campaign began.[11]While many people doubted Donald's chances at the presidency, including his own inner circle, Melania believed he would win.[123][124] Unlike Donald's advisors, Melania encouraged him to follow his instincts and say what he felt he should say, with the exception that she does not like his use of profane language.[125] She analyzed the campaign closely from home, following polling and watching how her husband interacted with his opponents.[126] She spoke to him on the phone regularly throughout the campaign, including a conversation after each rally in which she gave a candid evaluation of how he did.[127]","title":"Donald Trump 2016 presidential campaign"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:First_Lady_Melania_Trump_speaking_in_2015_(cropped2).jpg"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaroli2019338-20"},{"link_name":"[128]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan202018-129"},{"link_name":"15 minutes of fame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/15_minutes_of_fame"},{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020222%E2%80%93223-130"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201925%E2%80%9326-131"},{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElderFrederickBurrell2018108-122"},{"link_name":"American Dream","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Dream"},{"link_name":"[131]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201924%E2%80%9325,_42-132"},{"link_name":"Hope Hicks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hope_Hicks"},{"link_name":"[132]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201928-133"},{"link_name":"swing states","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swing_states"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaroli2019339-121"},{"link_name":"vice presidential selection process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Republican_Party_vice_presidential_candidate_selection"},{"link_name":"Mike Pence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Pence"},{"link_name":"[133]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan202042%E2%80%9343-134"},{"link_name":"Karen Pence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karen_Pence"},{"link_name":"[134]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201939-135"}],"sub_title":"Campaign involvement","text":"Melania at a campaign event with Donald and Barron in November 2015Melania Trump's career as a model was an advantage during the campaign, as she was prepared for photographers and did not need to hire a fashion consultant.[19] As a model, she was required to be deliberate in all of her movement, including how she stood and walked.[128] She resented being called shy during the campaign, saying that this was an impression spread by people who only briefly met her and wanted their \"15 minutes of fame\".[129] Melania's earliest speaking appearances in November 2015 and February 2016 were prompted by Donald calling on her to speak to the crowd. Both times, she only said a few sentences.[130] Her first scheduled speech during the campaign did not take place until April 2016.[121]The campaign longed to get Melania more active, as she was in a unique position to humanize Donald and to appeal to the American Dream from an immigrant's perspective.[131] Hope Hicks was the campaign's main liaison with Melania, facilitating any appearances that she wished to make. Melania trusted Hicks's judgement and allowed her to weigh the importance of a given appearance.[132] Her rare appearances brought her to swing states where her husband needed extra support, and her speeches celebrated his personal traits instead of policy.[120]Melania Trump was involved in the vice presidential selection process, meeting with the top contenders, and her approval of Mike Pence contributed to his selection. The deciding factor, in her mind, was that Pence was not as ambitious as the other contenders and would not seek to undermine Donald.[133] She did not get along as well with Pence's wife, Karen Pence, with whom she had little in common.[134]","title":"Donald Trump 2016 presidential campaign"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Melania_Trump_(8_February_2016).jpg"},{"link_name":"attack ad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_ad"},{"link_name":"super PAC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_PAC"},{"link_name":"Ted Cruz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ted_Cruz"},{"link_name":"2016 Republican Party presidential primaries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaroli2019339-121"},{"link_name":"[135]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201977-136"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ioffe-12"},{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201929%E2%80%9331-137"},{"link_name":"a speech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melania_Trump_speech_plagiarism_controversy"},{"link_name":"2016 Republican National Convention","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Republican_National_Convention"},{"link_name":"Michelle Obama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelle_Obama"},{"link_name":"2008 Democratic National Convention","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008_Democratic_National_Convention"},{"link_name":"[137]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaroli2019340-138"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett20197%E2%80%938-139"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-140"},{"link_name":"[140]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett20198-141"},{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201911%E2%80%9312-142"},{"link_name":"[142]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-143"},{"link_name":"Meredith McIver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meredith_McIver"},{"link_name":"[137]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaroli2019340-138"},{"link_name":"[143]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201915%E2%80%9316-144"},{"link_name":"[140]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett20198-141"},{"link_name":"[144]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElderFrederickBurrell2018110-145"}],"sub_title":"Media coverage","text":"Melania Trump in 2016An attack ad against the Trumps was produced by super PAC that supported Donald's opponent Ted Cruz featuring Melania's nude GQ photo with the caption \"Meet Melania Trump. Your next first lady. Or you could support Ted Cruz on Tuesday\", intensifying the rivalry between the two candidates in the 2016 Republican Party presidential primaries.[120][135][11] More scandalous nude images of Melania were published on the front page of the New York Post in July 2016 in a story titled \"The Ogle Office\". The images did not have a major effect on the campaign, as Melania was seen as the victim, but they were humiliating and she spent the following two months away from the public.[136]On July 18, 2016, Melania Trump gave a speech at the 2016 Republican National Convention. A controversy emerged after it became apparent that a paragraph of the speech had been plagiarized from Michelle Obama's speech at the 2008 Democratic National Convention.[137][138] When asked about it, Melania said she wrote the speech herself \"with as little help as possible\".[139] No one in the Trump campaign had previewed the speech, when political campaigns typically have several people scrutinize such a speech.[140] Donald was furious with his staff and felt he had failed Melania, while Melania took the gaffe personally and felt she had failed the campaign.[141] It was the only major speech she delivered during the campaign.[142] Two days later, Trump staff writer Meredith McIver took responsibility, saying there was a misunderstanding when Melania read passages of Obama's speech as examples.[137][143] The speech also included a rare statement on her past, describing her family in Slovenia and her early modeling career.[140] After giving the speech, Melania stayed out of public view until election day approached.[144]","title":"Donald Trump 2016 presidential campaign"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Access Hollywood tape","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Trump_Access_Hollywood_tape"},{"link_name":"[145]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan20201%E2%80%933-146"},{"link_name":"Michael Cohen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Cohen_(lawyer)"},{"link_name":"The People of the State of New York v. Donald J. Trump","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_People_of_the_State_of_New_York_v._Donald_J._Trump"},{"link_name":"[146]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-147"},{"link_name":"[147]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201934%E2%80%9335-148"},{"link_name":"[148]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan20204-149"},{"link_name":"[149]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201935-150"},{"link_name":"accused him of sexual misconduct","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Trump_sexual_misconduct_allegations"},{"link_name":"[137]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaroli2019340-138"},{"link_name":"[150]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan20207-151"},{"link_name":"[148]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan20204-149"},{"link_name":"presidential debate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_United_States_presidential_debates"},{"link_name":"pussy bow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pussy_bow"},{"link_name":"pussy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pussy"},{"link_name":"slang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slang"},{"link_name":"vagina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vagina"},{"link_name":"[151]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201932-152"},{"link_name":"[150]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan20207-151"},{"link_name":"[152]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201945-153"}],"sub_title":"Access Hollywood tape","text":"On October 7, a month before the election, the Access Hollywood tape was leaked. The tape had been recorded in 2005, shortly after their marriage, and it featured audio of Donald making controversial remarks about his treatment of women. Immediately after its release, the campaign's primary concern was Melania's reaction. An anonymous person who was with Donald when the news broke reported that \"red was coming up his neck to his ears\". It took him two hours before he went to see Melania. Upon their meeting, Melania reportedly told him \"Now you could lose, you could have blown this for us\", and then left the room after he apologized.[145] In 2024, her husband's former personal counsel Michael Cohen testified during the The People of the State of New York v. Donald J. Trump trial that Donald Trump had privately credited her as having suggested the campaign's response strategy of characterizing the conversation on the tape as \"locker room talk\".[146]Melania kept her distance from him, angry that he may have ended his candidacy with his comments, and she waited a day before making a comment.[147] When asked by the campaign to make a scripted appearance alongside Donald as damage control, she refused, deciding that she was going to respond her own way.[148] She also refused to sit beside him during his recorded apology as politicians' spouses often did in these situations.[149] Melania released a statement saying that the tape did not show \"the man I know\" and said those who accused him of sexual misconduct are liars.[137] Melania received significantly more attention from the press following the incident,[150] and she was frustrated by the pity she received.[148] A few days later, she attended a presidential debate wearing a pussy bow, causing widespread speculation about her intention (as her husband's comments on the Access Hollywood tape had included, \"grab them by the pussy\"–with pussy being slang for vagina).[151][150] After she voted, Melania spent most of election day with her parents in Trump Tower while the rest of the family did last minute campaigning.[152]","title":"Donald Trump 2016 presidential campaign"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"First lady of the United States (2017–2021)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Donald_Trump_and_Melania_Trump_at_Liberty_Ball_Inauguration_2017.jpg"},{"link_name":"inauguration of Donald Trump","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inauguration_of_Donald_Trump"},{"link_name":"[153]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-154"},{"link_name":"Washington, D.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_D.C."},{"link_name":"[154]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaroli2019341-155"},{"link_name":"[155]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019144-156"},{"link_name":"prenuptial agreement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prenuptial_agreement"},{"link_name":"[156]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan202034-157"},{"link_name":"Louisa Adams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisa_Adams"},{"link_name":"[153]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-154"},{"link_name":"naturalized citizen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalized_citizen"},{"link_name":"[157]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-158"},{"link_name":"[158]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020238%E2%80%93241-159"},{"link_name":"Catholic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic"},{"link_name":"John F. Kennedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_F._Kennedy"},{"link_name":"[159]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sieczkowski-160"},{"link_name":"[160]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-catholicherald.co.uk-161"},{"link_name":"[154]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaroli2019341-155"},{"link_name":"[161]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan202030-162"},{"link_name":"[162]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019161-163"},{"link_name":"Finding Dory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finding_Dory"},{"link_name":"[163]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBakerGlasser202226%E2%80%9327-164"},{"link_name":"[164]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan202034%E2%80%9335-165"},{"link_name":"[165]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-166"},{"link_name":"Secret Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secret_Service"},{"link_name":"[166]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan202036-167"},{"link_name":"[167]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019144%E2%80%93145-168"},{"link_name":"[168]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019134-169"},{"link_name":"Secret Service code name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secret_Service_code_name"},{"link_name":"[169]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019137-170"},{"link_name":"[170]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan202037-171"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Donald_Trump_Pope_Francis_Melania_Trump_in_2017.jpg"},{"link_name":"White House website","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House_website"},{"link_name":"[171]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019128%E2%80%93129-172"},{"link_name":"Daily Mail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daily_Mail"},{"link_name":"escort agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escort_agency"},{"link_name":"[172]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Puente-173"},{"link_name":"[173]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-174"},{"link_name":"International Women's Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Women%27s_Day"},{"link_name":"gender equality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_equality"},{"link_name":"gender inequality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_inequality"},{"link_name":"[174]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-175"},{"link_name":"[175]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-176"},{"link_name":"Vatican City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vatican_City"},{"link_name":"Pope Francis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Francis"},{"link_name":"Madonna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary,_mother_of_Jesus"},{"link_name":"Bambino Gesù","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bambino_Ges%C3%B9_Hospital"},{"link_name":"[176]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-177"},{"link_name":"Benjamin Netanyahu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Netanyahu"},{"link_name":"[177]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019257%E2%80%93262-178"},{"link_name":"[178]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBakerGlasser2022145-179"}],"sub_title":"First lady in Manhattan","text":"With Donald, Liberty Ball, January 20, 2017The inauguration of Donald Trump took place on January 20, 2017.[153] After her husband was elected president, she announced that she would not move to Washington, D.C. with him, instead staying in Manhattan so Barron could finish the school year there.[154] This also allowed her to introduce him to the White House gradually so as not to overwhelm him.[155] During this time, Melania negotiated new terms for her prenuptial agreement with Donald to reflect the changes in their lives since it was signed and to ensure that Barron received a suitable inheritance.[156]Melania Trump was the second foreign-born woman to hold the title of first lady after Louisa Adams, who was born in England,[153] and Melania was the first naturalized citizen to hold the title.[157] Trump has said that she can speak English, Italian, French, and German in addition to her native Slovene, but she has only been heard speaking English and Slovene fluently. When communicating with speakers of other languages, she makes use of a translator.[158] She was also the first Catholic to live in the White House since President John F. Kennedy and his wife Jacqueline and was the second Catholic first lady of the United States.[159][160]The first lady's absence caused speculation that her stepdaughter Ivanka would serve as an acting first lady.[154][161][162] This was part of a larger rivalry that developed between the two as they both engaged in activity typically in the first lady's purview. After Ivanka organized a screening of Finding Dory in the White House, Melania required that they needed permission before entering the residential area of the building.[163] As time went by, the administration's staff grew unhappy with Melania's absence, as it gave the impression of marital issues and prevented her from exercising a calming influence over the president.[164][165] She also stoked resentment among the people in New York, who predominantly opposed the Trumps, because of the costs and traffic issues caused by the Secret Service presence.[166][167] The Secret Service itself also faced logistical issues from the repeated travel to New York. Having a Secret Service detail was not a major adjustment for Melania though, as she had spent years around her husband's security team.[168] She was given the Secret Service code name \"Muse\" to go along with the president's name \"Mogul\".[169] Being first lady came with another drawback for Melania, as she was expected to speak on serious topics such as immigration policy and had little control over how her media appearances were handled, which was a different experience than she had as a model.[170]Melania Trump with Pope Francis, the Vatican, May 2017When the Trump administration's White House website was posted, Melania's biographical information caused controversy because it listed her jewelry business. Though it had already ceased operation, critics alleged that it was an attempt to promote her business with government resources.[171] Another allegation of attempting to profit from her role as first lady came up in February, when she sued the Daily Mail for libel after it alleged in 2016 that she had worked for an escort agency.[172] The suit was initially for lost career opportunities, but this was changed to emotional distress when she received questions about why she expected to have career opportunities as first lady.[173]On March 8, 2017, Trump hosted her first White House event, a luncheon for International Women's Day. She spoke to an audience of women about her life as a female immigrant and about working towards gender equality both domestically and abroad, noting the role of education as a tool against gender inequality.[174][175] The Trumps visited Vatican City in May 2017. As Melania was visiting as a Catholic, Pope Francis blessed her rosary beads, and she placed flowers at the feet of a statue of the Madonna at the Vatican's Bambino Gesù children's hospital.[176]The first major public attention Melania received was after an incident in May 2017 while the Trumps were visiting Israel. Donald had forgotten that Melania was by his side when he was walking with Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, and she fell behind from the group. Humiliated, she slapped away his hand when he reached out behind him to grab hers. This was the first time press coverage of Melania took notice of an independent streak.[177][178]","title":"First lady of the United States (2017–2021)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"East Wing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Wing"},{"link_name":"Office of the First Lady","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_the_First_Lady_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Anna Cristina Niceta Lloyd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Cristina_Niceta_Lloyd"},{"link_name":"Lindsay Reynolds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lindsay_Reynolds"},{"link_name":"Tham Kannalikham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tham_Kannalikham&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Stephanie Winston Wolkoff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephanie_Winston_Wolkoff"},{"link_name":"Stephanie Grisham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephanie_Grisham"},{"link_name":"[179]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaroli2019341%E2%80%93342-180"},{"link_name":"Hedieh Ghaffarian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hedieh_Ghaffarian&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[180]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019138-181"},{"link_name":"chief usher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House_Chief_Usher"},{"link_name":"Obama administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obama_administration"},{"link_name":"Angella Reid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angella_Reid"},{"link_name":"Trump International Hotel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trump_International_Hotel_(Washington_D.C.)"},{"link_name":"Timothy Harleth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timothy_Harleth"},{"link_name":"[179]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaroli2019341%E2%80%93342-180"},{"link_name":"[181]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019139%E2%80%93140-182"},{"link_name":"[179]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaroli2019341%E2%80%93342-180"},{"link_name":"[182]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019156-183"},{"link_name":"[183]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020251-184"},{"link_name":"[184]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019139-185"},{"link_name":"Corey Lewandowski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corey_Lewandowski"},{"link_name":"[185]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020243-186"},{"link_name":"[186]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019185185%E2%80%93186-187"},{"link_name":"[187]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019211%E2%80%93212-188"}],"sub_title":"East Wing staff","text":"The lack of staff appointments in the East Wing during the first months of the Trump administration—typically the domain of the first lady—caused a backlog of tour requests to develop. In February several hires were made for the Office of the First Lady: Anna Cristina Niceta Lloyd as social secretary, Lindsay Reynolds as the first lady's chief of staff, Tham Kannalikham as her decorator, Stephanie Winston Wolkoff as the first lady's assistant, and Stephanie Grisham as communications director.[179] Melania retained the head florist appointed by Michelle Obama, Hedieh Ghaffarian.[180] The chief usher appointed under the Obama administration, Angella Reid, was replaced by Trump International Hotel employee Timothy Harleth, breaking the norm of the chief usher serving under multiple presidencies.[179] Reid had been unpopular with the staff, and the firing earned Melania their goodwill.[181]The first lady's staff remained small relative to those of her predecessors.[179] This was in part because she did not want to have any employees speaking on her behalf. Instead, she answered her correspondences herself.[182] Melania had a reputation in the White House for being \"drama-free\",[183] and for treating the staff well.[184] According to her husband's campaign manager Corey Lewandowski, her staff had \"100 percent loyalty to her\".[185] Melania had a close, trusting relationship with her staff, and she was protective of them when conflict arose.[186] Before moving in, Melania worked with Kannalikham to redecorate the White House, as first ladies typically do. She had most of the Obama-era decor replaced, and like the Obamas, the Trumps paid for it out of pocket instead of using the allotted funding.[187]","title":"First lady of the United States (2017–2021)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Juliana_Awada_and_Melania_Trump_walk_along_the_Colonnade_of_the_White_House,_April_2017_(cropped).jpg"},{"link_name":"Juliana Awada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juliana_Awada"},{"link_name":"White House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House"},{"link_name":"[188]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan202044-189"},{"link_name":"[189]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019208-190"},{"link_name":"Laura Bush","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laura_Bush"},{"link_name":"[190]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020244-191"},{"link_name":"[185]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020243-186"},{"link_name":"[191]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaroli2019342-192"},{"link_name":"White House basement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House_basement"},{"link_name":"[192]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020241%E2%80%93242-193"},{"link_name":"[193]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-194"},{"link_name":"[194]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020255-195"},{"link_name":"[195]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020271-196"},{"link_name":"[196]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019156%E2%80%93157-197"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_House_Christmas_2018_(46060476411).jpg"},{"link_name":"[197]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019142-198"},{"link_name":"[198]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019105-199"},{"link_name":"Blue Room","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Room_(White_House)"},{"link_name":"[199]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019150-200"},{"link_name":"presidential china set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House_china"},{"link_name":"Clinton administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinton_administration"},{"link_name":"[200]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019151-201"},{"link_name":"[201]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019157-202"},{"link_name":"[202]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019142%E2%80%93144-203"},{"link_name":"Getty Images","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Getty_Images"},{"link_name":"Office of Government Ethics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Office_of_Government_Ethics"},{"link_name":"[203]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019130-204"},{"link_name":"John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Center_for_the_Performing_Arts"},{"link_name":"[204]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020237%E2%80%93238-205"}],"sub_title":"Life in the White House","text":"Melania Trump with Argentine first lady Juliana Awada in 2017Trump and her son, Barron, moved into the White House on June 11, 2017.[188] Like they had throughout their marriage, Melania and Donald chose to sleep in separate bedrooms.[189] In her first year, Melania gave only eight speeches, compared to 74 by Michelle Obama and 42 by Laura Bush.[190] Instead of frequent public appearances, she communicated her activities through video.[185] Most of Trump's appearances as first lady in 2017 were in Manhattan and Washington, and she typically spoke about women's and children's issues.[191]After moving to the White House, Melania opted to spend most of her time in the private quarters, running the White House staff from there instead of the first lady's East Wing offices. She oversaw restorations of several rooms in the building, including the bowling alley in the White House basement and the first lady's hairdresser's room.[192] She kept one office, called the \"swag room\" by aides, in which she kept trinkets she collected while she was first lady.[193] To accommodate Barron's soccer practice, she had a net installed on the White House grounds and had a coach practice with him.[194] Barron remained Melania's top priority when she was first lady, and she worked to keep him free from politics to the point that staffers referred to her as \"The Protector\".[195] Even after arriving at the White House, Melania spent extensive time away each year, visiting Mar-a-Lago on major holidays and over many weekends.[196]Melania Trump examining the 2018 White House Christmas decorationsMelania personally involved herself in decorations and planning within the White House.[197] She was particular about how things were designed and arranged whenever events were planned, but she would take on a calm and relaxed demeanor once the event began.[198] Whenever a foreign dignitary arrived at the White House, Melania had the Blue Room set aside where she ate lunch or drank tea with the dignitary's spouse.[199] When choosing which presidential china set to use, Melania often chose the Clinton administration china with its gold embroidery.[200] She held events less frequently than her predecessors, with a typical week featuring three or fewer events, all under one hour long.[201] Among her most ambitious projects was planning the White House Christmas decorations in 2018. Moving away from traditional designs, she filled the East Collonnade with red cranberry-laden trees set atop a green carpet. The design was widely derided, which Melania ascribed to personal taste.[202]To protect use of her image and maintain an income, Melania licensed photos from her photoshoots through Getty Images. This allowed her to choose how they were used by reporters, and she received royalties for each use. The Office of Government Ethics reported that she made $100,000 to $1,000,000 in royalties in 2017, though other estimates put it at over $10,000,000.[203]As first lady, Trump was the honorary chair of the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts. She was unable to fulfill this duty for much of her tenure, as her husband's presidency had alienated many in the media and art communities. She made her first appearances at the Kennedy Center in 2019.[204]","title":"First lady of the United States (2017–2021)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"had an extramarital affair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stormy_Daniels%E2%80%93Donald_Trump_scandal"},{"link_name":"Stormy Daniels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stormy_Daniels"},{"link_name":"[205]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaroli2019343%E2%80%93344-206"},{"link_name":"2018 State of the Union Address","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_State_of_the_Union_Address"},{"link_name":"[206]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019194%E2%80%93195-207"},{"link_name":"[207]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan202011-208"},{"link_name":"Karen McDougal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karen_McDougal"},{"link_name":"[205]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaroli2019343%E2%80%93344-206"},{"link_name":"[208]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019202-209"},{"link_name":"[209]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019196%E2%80%93197-210"},{"link_name":"[165]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-166"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arrival_Ceremony_-_The_Official_State_Visit_of_France_(39892882240).jpg"},{"link_name":"Brigitte Macron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brigitte_Macron"},{"link_name":"Emmanuel Macron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmanuel_Macron"},{"link_name":"Donald Trump","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Trump"},{"link_name":"kidney disease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidney_disease"},{"link_name":"[210]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019215%E2%80%93216-211"},{"link_name":"Walter Reed National Military Medical Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Reed_National_Military_Medical_Center"},{"link_name":"[211]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019218%E2%80%93219-212"},{"link_name":"[212]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019218-213"},{"link_name":"embolization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embolization"},{"link_name":"minimally invasive procedure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimally_invasive_procedure"},{"link_name":"[213]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019220-214"},{"link_name":"[213]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019220-214"},{"link_name":"[211]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019218%E2%80%93219-212"},{"link_name":"[214]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaroli2019345-215"},{"link_name":"plastic surgery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_surgery"},{"link_name":"[215]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaroli2019346-216"},{"link_name":"[216]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019220%E2%80%93221-217"},{"link_name":"[217]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019222%E2%80%93223-218"},{"link_name":"[218]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019224-219"},{"link_name":"[219]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020234-220"},{"link_name":"[220]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020236-221"},{"link_name":"Emmanuel Macron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmanuel_Macron"},{"link_name":"[221]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019226%E2%80%93230-222"},{"link_name":"[222]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaroli2019347-223"}],"sub_title":"Tribulations in early 2018","text":"A scandal broke in January 2018 when it was alleged that Donald had had an extramarital affair with the pornographic actress Stormy Daniels. The affair was said to have taken place in July 2006, after the Trumps' marriage and the birth of their son. Melania's public appearances became more infrequent after the news emerged, and she canceled several events that she was to attend with her husband.[205] This included the 2018 State of the Union Address, where Melania made the unprecedented decision to ride separately from him on the way there.[206] Michael Cohen, who had arranged the silencing of the alleged affair, stated that his greatest regret was lying to Melania, saying that she didn't deserve it.[207] The next month, the story of a second affair in 2006 with the model Karen McDougal was made public.[205][208] To Melania, the worst part was that she felt Donald had publicly humiliated her.[209][165]Left to right: Brigitte Macron, Melania Trump, Emmanuel Macron, Donald TrumpMelania learned in April 2018 that she was afflicted with kidney disease, but she only told her parents, her husband, and her sister.[210] On May 14, she began treatment at Walter Reed National Military Medical Center.[211] While her husband had wished to join her, his presence would have risked the press discovering her condition.[212] The official statement said that she underwent an embolization, a minimally invasive procedure that deliberately blocks a blood vessel.[213][213] A statement was released after the procedure was finished without complication,[211] and she recovered in the hospital over the following five days.[214] The extended stay led to false rumors and conspiracy theories that she had gotten plastic surgery.[215][216] After leaving the hospital, she continued to stay out of the public eye until the beginning of June.[217] At this point, the president let slip that the surgery had been more serious than initially suggested.[218]Those around Melania noticed that she was generally happier by mid-2018. By this time, she had reached a more advantageous marital agreement that ensured Barron would be given a fair inheritance.[219] Her public position, and the corresponding influence she had over her husband's political career, had given her the advantage in negotiations.[220] After several months of problems, Melania received positive coverage for a large custom-made white hat that she wore during a visit by French president Emmanuel Macron.[221] On August 9, 2018, Melania's parents were granted American citizenship. This revitalized accusations of hypocrisy by the Trumps regarding Melania's parents, as Donald had spoken out against the chain migration process that allowed them to enter the United States.[222]","title":"First lady of the United States (2017–2021)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:First_Lady_Melania_Trump%27s_Visit_to_Kenya_14.jpg"},{"link_name":"pith helmet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pith_helmet"},{"link_name":"United States Agency for International Development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Agency_for_International_Development"},{"link_name":"Great Sphinx of Giza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Sphinx_of_Giza"},{"link_name":"pith helmet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pith_helmet"},{"link_name":"colonialism in Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonialism_in_Africa"},{"link_name":"[223]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020261%E2%80%93263-224"},{"link_name":"[224]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto1-225"},{"link_name":"Mira Ricardel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mira_Ricardel"},{"link_name":"Deputy National Security Advisor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deputy_National_Security_Advisor"},{"link_name":"[225]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020264%E2%80%93267-226"},{"link_name":"[226]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019184%E2%80%93185-227"},{"link_name":"[227]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019186-228"},{"link_name":"[227]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019186-228"},{"link_name":"[228]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019183%E2%80%93184-229"},{"link_name":"[227]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019186-228"},{"link_name":"[229]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019187-230"},{"link_name":"[230]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019170%E2%80%93172-231"}],"sub_title":"2018 Africa tour","text":"Melania Trump wearing a pith helmet in KenyaIn October 2018, Melania took a tour of Africa without Donald, visiting Ghana, Malawi, Kenya and Egypt. She spent much of her time with children in schools, orphanages, and hospitals. She used the trip to tout relief work being carried out by the United States Agency for International Development, which raised questions about her husband's intention to cut its funding. Melania also received criticism for her fashion choices, where a photo opportunity in front of the Great Sphinx of Giza was seen as exploitive and a pith helmet she wore in Kenya was criticized for its association with colonialism in Africa. To these criticisms, she responded that people should pay more attention to her actions instead of her outfits.[223] Perception of the trip grew worse when she responded to criticisms by saying that she was \"the most bullied person in the world\".[224]Throughout Melania's tour of Africa, personality conflicts took place between her team and Mira Ricardel, the Deputy National Security Advisor.[225] Ricardel's staffer had been bumped from the first lady's plane on the flight to Africa to make room for a journalist, and Ricardel subsequently became less cooperative with providing logistical information needed for the tour.[226] Upon returning, Ricardel gave a thoroughly negative report on Melania's staff, describing them as embarrassing the White House with their partying.[227] Melania twice complained to the president, but no immediate action was taken.[227] So the following month, the Office of the First Lady issued an official statement calling for Ricardel to be removed from her position. Publicly commenting on such a thing was unprecedented for a first lady.[228] No one in the administration had been told in advance about the statement, including the president.[227] Ricardel was fired the following day.[229] A dispute over the trip arose between Melania and Ivanka a few months later when the latter made her own trip to the continent. Melania felt that in taking such a similar trip, Ivanka was intruding on the first lady's role.[230]","title":"First lady of the United States (2017–2021)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_House_Christmas_(38121595104).jpg"},{"link_name":"[231]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan202040%E2%80%9341-232"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ioffe-12"},{"link_name":"[232]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett20192%E2%80%933-233"},{"link_name":"[233]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019213-234"},{"link_name":"[234]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan202041-235"},{"link_name":"[235]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019154%E2%80%93156-236"},{"link_name":"[236]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020274-237"},{"link_name":"[182]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019156-183"},{"link_name":"[188]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan202044-189"},{"link_name":"[237]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett20193-238"},{"link_name":"[238]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020253-239"},{"link_name":"Kate Bennett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kate_Bennett&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[239]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019200%E2%80%93201-240"},{"link_name":"electronic cigarettes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_cigarettes"},{"link_name":"[240]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020254,_269%E2%80%93271-241"},{"link_name":"Reagan Thompson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reagan_Thompson&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[241]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaroli2019344-242"}],"sub_title":"Political influence","text":"Melania working with children at a 2017 Christmas event; children's welfare was among the most important issues to Melania.Melania was the one person exempt from the criticism and distrust that Donald leveled against those around him in the White House. He held her opinion in high regard, often agreeing with her when she made it known, and he valued her loyalty as she did not seek public attention of her own.[231] Melania believed that it was not her duty as first lady to take policy positions in her own right, but simply to advise Donald regarding his.[11] She was the only person among those around him who could critique him directly without repercussion.[232] Donald frequently asked for her opinion about issues he was considering or people who he interacted with, calling her over the phone when she was not in the same room.[233]Melania paid close attention to media coverage throughout Donald's presidency, providing her input on what would make good optics and maintain his image.[234][235] She also provided advice on how to pose for pictures and has given him suggestions on how to appear when moving.[236] The nature of their relationship allowed Melania to overlook erratic behavior from Donald, as she had long believed that there was no use in trying to change someone's personality, especially her husband's.[182]Melania had influence over her husband's staff, and Donald sometimes fired individuals on her advice.[188][237] The welfare of children is a subject of interest for her, and she routinely made visits to children's hospitals throughout her tenure as first lady.[238] According to her biographer Kate Bennett, interacting with children is one of the rare things that causes Melania to shift away from her usual stoic demeanor.[239] Her advocacy was a major factor in her husband's decision to ban fruit flavored electronic cigarettes.[240] About one year into her tenure, Melania hired Reagan Thompson as a policy advisor, though she had yet to adopt any official initiatives at the time.[241]","title":"First lady of the United States (2017–2021)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"zero tolerance\" policy of denying asylum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trump_administration_family_separation_policy"},{"link_name":"Mexico–United States border","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico%E2%80%93United_States_border"},{"link_name":"[242]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020259-243"},{"link_name":"[243]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019176-244"},{"link_name":"[244]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett20193,_176-245"},{"link_name":"asylum claims","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asylum_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"[245]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CNNTapes-246"},{"link_name":"[246]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019178-247"},{"link_name":"[247]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019178%E2%80%93179-248"},{"link_name":"roundtable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roundtable"},{"link_name":"[248]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-249"},{"link_name":"[249]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020260%E2%80%93261-250"},{"link_name":"[250]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019179-251"}],"sub_title":"Political influence - Family separation policy","text":"Trump was openly critical of her husband's \"zero tolerance\" policy of denying asylum at the Mexico–United States border in 2018, where children were being separated from their parents. Her official position was that she hated to see families separated and hoped for successful immigration reform.[242][243] Out of public view, she made her opposition clear to the president and influenced his decision to end it.[244] Leaked tapes in 2020 featured Melania making statements defending some of the practices, expressing grief about family separation but questioning the validity of asylum claims and dismissing concerns that children were kept in substandard conditions.[245]Melania was upset when her stepdaughter Ivanka began receiving the credit for changing the president's mind on the issue.[246] Melania decided to visit the border herself, ignoring her husband's worries about keeping media attention on the border and the Secret Service's need of advance notice to plan her trip.[247] She arrived at the border on June 21, where she visited the family separation facilities in Texas and attended a roundtable with doctors, medical staff, social workers, and other experts at Upbring New Hope Children's Shelter.[248] On the way to the border facility, she caused controversy by wearing a jacket that read, \"I really don't care, do u?\" After much speculation about the jacket's message, including criticism that she may have been expressing indifference toward the families separated at the border, Trump stated that the jacket was aimed at people and media who were criticizing her.[249] The jacket dominated media coverage of her visit.[250]","title":"First lady of the United States (2017–2021)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:First_Lady_Melania_Trump_Participates_in_a_Zoom_Call_with_Students_for_the_Second_Anniversary_of_Be_Best_(49883203437).jpg"},{"link_name":"White House Rose Garden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House_Rose_Garden"},{"link_name":"cyberbullying","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyberbullying"},{"link_name":"opioid abuse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opioid_abuse"},{"link_name":"[214]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaroli2019345-215"},{"link_name":"[251]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020247-252"},{"link_name":"[252]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019216-253"},{"link_name":"[253]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019158-254"},{"link_name":"[254]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020247%E2%80%93248-255"},{"link_name":"[253]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019158-254"},{"link_name":"[254]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020247%E2%80%93248-255"},{"link_name":"Greta Thunberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greta_Thunberg"},{"link_name":"autism spectrum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism_spectrum"},{"link_name":"Pamela Karlan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pamela_Karlan"},{"link_name":"[255]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020271%E2%80%93272-256"}],"sub_title":"Be Best campaign","text":"Melania Trump celebrating the second anniversary of the Be Best campaignOn May 7, 2018, Trump held a press conference in the White House Rose Garden to announce her official public initiative as first lady, the Be Best awareness campaign. The initiative was created to support the welfare of children, advocate against cyberbullying, and prevent opioid abuse.[214][251] The initiative's name drew ridicule in the press for its grammatical structure.[252] Instead of creating new programs like previous first ladies' projects, Be Best promoted existing initiatives and organizations that worked toward the cause. Public awareness of the initiate remained low, and it was often regarded solely as an anti-cyberbullying campaign.[253]The Be Best campaign drew criticism for its perceived hypocrisy, challenging cyberbullying when her husband was well known for attacking people online.[254] Even Donald had warned her before the campaign's launch that the contrast may provoke criticism.[253] She acknowledged the discrepancy but insisted that she would continue because she felt it was a good cause.[254] This received more attention in 2019 when the president made Twitter posts critical of Greta Thunberg, a teenage environmental activist diagnosed on the autism spectrum. This came days after Melania had criticized Pamela Karlan for invoking Barron in a speech against the president. The first lady's office responded that spouses such as her and Donald communicate differently, and said that Barron was not \"an activist who travels the globe giving speeches\".[255]","title":"First lady of the United States (2017–2021)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_First_Lady_Visits_with_First_Responders_(50123337337).jpg"},{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic"},{"link_name":"her husband's reelection campaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Trump_2020_presidential_campaign"},{"link_name":"Marcia Lee Kelly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcia_Lee_Kelly&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Emma Doyle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emma_Doyle"},{"link_name":"[185]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020243-186"},{"link_name":"2020 presidential election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_United_States_presidential_election"},{"link_name":"[256]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020276%E2%80%93277-257"},{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic"},{"link_name":"COVID-19 lockdowns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_lockdowns"},{"link_name":"social distancing during the pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_distancing_measures_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic"},{"link_name":"[257]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020279%E2%80%93281-258"},{"link_name":"liberals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"tell-all","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tell-all"},{"link_name":"Melania and Me","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melania_and_Me"},{"link_name":"[245]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CNNTapes-246"},{"link_name":"[258]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-259"},{"link_name":"nondisclosure agreement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nondisclosure_agreement"},{"link_name":"[259]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-260"},{"link_name":"Breitbart News","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breitbart_News"},{"link_name":"[260]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-261"},{"link_name":"[193]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-194"},{"link_name":"[224]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto1-225"},{"link_name":"terrycloth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrycloth"},{"link_name":"[193]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-194"},{"link_name":"January 6 United States Capitol attack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/January_6_United_States_Capitol_attack"},{"link_name":"[165]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-166"},{"link_name":"[193]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-194"},{"link_name":"[224]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto1-225"},{"link_name":"Jill Biden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jill_Biden"},{"link_name":"[224]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto1-225"},{"link_name":"[193]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-194"}],"sub_title":"COVID-19 and 2020 presidential campaign","text":"Melania with first responders during the COVID-19 pandemicTrump underwent a major reorganization of her staff in April 2020 in anticipation of her husband's reelection campaign. She appointed Marcia Lee Kelly as her senior advisor and Emma Doyle as her policy advisor. Her chief of staff Lindsay Reynolds was removed, with her responsibilities going to Melania's communications director Stephanie Grisham.[185] Trump became an active campaigner for her husband during the 2020 presidential election, which was a strong contrast to her 2016 activity.[256]When the COVID-19 pandemic began, Melania was criticized for promoting a White House renovation project. She took the topic more seriously after the COVID-19 lockdowns began, using her Twitter to encourage social distancing during the pandemic and promote official medical advice. Much of what she posted directly contradicted what her husband posted, as he discouraged many of the recommended practices.[257]On October 1, 2020, Melania's former advisor Stephanie Winston Wolkoff released audiotapes that featured Melania making profane statements about her image and role as first lady. In the tapes, she condemned the media for not giving her positive coverage, questioned why people wanted her to speak out against her husband when she supported his policies, and expressed frustration with her responsibility to oversee Christmas decorations in the White House. She also mentioned her \"I really don't care, do u\" jacket in the tapes, admitting that she wore it to irritate liberals. Winston Wolkoff had released the tapes alongside a tell-all book, Melania and Me.[245][258] The Justice Department filed a civil suit against Wolkoff in October 2019, alleging breach of a nondisclosure agreement, but it was dropped in February 2021 under the Biden administration.[259] In September 2022, Trump said in an interview with Breitbart News that the audiotapes had been strategically edited to make people believe that her duties in the White House had been unimportant to her.[260]Despite Donald Trump's loss of the 2020 election, Melania Trump ended her tenure by endorsing his false statement that he had been the legitimate election winner.[193][224] For her final months in the White House, she stopped visiting her office in the East Wing, instead staying in the White House residence dressed in terrycloth bathrobes. Her focus at this time was on compiling photo albums of the decorations and renovations she had overseen through her tenure.[193] Melania was overseeing photography at the White House when the January 6 United States Capitol attack took place and gave no comment at the time. She later said that she would have commented if she had been \"fully informed of all the details\".[165] Her communications director Stephanie Grisham later stated she had sent Melania a text message asking her to make a statement condemning the violence and resigned when that did not happen.[193] On January 18, Melania released a farewell video asking the American people to uphold the principles of her Be Best campaign.[224] She did not contact incoming first lady Jill Biden to make transition arrangements or provide her the traditional tour of the White House.[224] She did, however, follow the tradition of leaving a letter for the incoming first lady.[193]","title":"First lady of the United States (2017–2021)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[165]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-166"},{"link_name":"[224]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto1-225"},{"link_name":"[193]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-194"},{"link_name":"foster children","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foster_children"},{"link_name":"Apollo 11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_11"},{"link_name":"non-fungible tokens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-fungible_tokens"},{"link_name":"NASA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA"},{"link_name":"his court appearances","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indictments_against_Donald_Trump"},{"link_name":"his candidacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Trump_2024_presidential_campaign"},{"link_name":"2024 presidential election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_United_States_presidential_election"},{"link_name":"[165]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-166"}],"text":"After the Trumps left the White House, Melania returned to Mar-a-Lago, where she could live while avoiding public attention.[165] She retained one White House advisor, Marcia Lee Kelly, to help her during the post-presidency.[224] Melania kept in contact with her successor Jill Biden, and the two have exchanged birthday cards.[193] Since her tenure as first lady ended, Melania has made occasional paid speaking appearances, she has founded a scholarship program for foster children, and she has minted a line of Apollo 11-themed non-fungible tokens that were not in compliance with NASA's image use policy. Melania has not accompanied her husband to his court appearances or events for his candidacy in the 2024 presidential election.[165]","title":"Subsequent activities"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Women%27s_March_in_San_Francisco_(32348786991).jpg"},{"link_name":"2017 Women's March","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_Women%27s_March"},{"link_name":"[261]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan202026%E2%80%9327-262"},{"link_name":"[262]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett20192-263"},{"link_name":"[183]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020251-184"},{"link_name":"[263]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan202027-264"},{"link_name":"[215]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaroli2019346-216"},{"link_name":"[262]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett20192-263"},{"link_name":"hashtag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hashtag"},{"link_name":"[264]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan202021-265"},{"link_name":"[265]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020275%E2%80%93276-266"},{"link_name":"[266]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020281%E2%80%93282-267"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CollinsModel-2"},{"link_name":"[267]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019152-268"},{"link_name":"[191]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaroli2019342-192"},{"link_name":"[268]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019247-269"},{"link_name":"[269]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201937-270"},{"link_name":"[270]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019227-271"},{"link_name":"Hervé Pierre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herv%C3%A9_Pierre_(designer)"},{"link_name":"[271]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019226%E2%80%93228-272"},{"link_name":"[272]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019243%E2%80%93244-273"},{"link_name":"[273]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2020245%E2%80%93246-274"},{"link_name":"[274]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019251-275"},{"link_name":"[275]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVidmar_Horvat2021447%E2%80%93448-276"},{"link_name":"[276]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVidmar_Horvat2021448-277"},{"link_name":"[277]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPu%C5%A1nikJontes2021464%E2%80%93465-278"},{"link_name":"personality rights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality_rights"},{"link_name":"[278]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett201949%E2%80%9350-279"},{"link_name":"[279]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElderFrederickBurrell2018107-280"},{"link_name":"[280]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019148-281"},{"link_name":"[154]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaroli2019341-155"},{"link_name":"[241]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaroli2019344-242"},{"link_name":"[281]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019216%E2%80%93217-282"},{"link_name":"[282]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-283"},{"link_name":"[280]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2019148-281"},{"link_name":"[283]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-284"},{"link_name":"[284]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-285"},{"link_name":"Siena College Research Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siena_College_Research_Institute"},{"link_name":"[285]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-286"},{"link_name":"[286]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-287"}],"text":"A 2017 Women's March protestor with a Free Melania signTrump limits her interactions with the public, creating a public image heavily influenced by speculation.[261] She worked to protect her privacy as first lady,[262] and her staff was instructed not to answer any questions about her whereabouts at a given time.[183] With limited information, commentators have portrayed her as being a reluctant companion to her husband or as a woman who has no independence of her own.[263] Several incidents during her husband's presidency led to rumors that she had a secret animosity toward her husband, such as her delay in moving to the White House and allegations that he had committed adultery.[215][262] The rumors led to popular use of the hashtag #FreeMelania by those who believed them.[264] Though she disliked the idea that people saw her as helpless, Melania found the campaign amusing.[265] This became less common by 2020 as she took a more active role in the administration.[266] She is often seen as cold by the public, though people who interact with her describe her as a warm presence.[1][267]As with previous first ladies, Trump's fashion was heavily scrutinized, and particularly expensive pieces were criticized.[191] More than other first ladies, her fashion was scrutinized in the context of her past as a fashion model and her marriage to a billionaire.[268] She did her own clothes shopping,[269][270] but she was assisted by designer Hervé Pierre,[271] hair stylist Mordechai Alvow, and make up artist Nicole Byrl.[272] When preparing for speeches, she dedicated more attention to her physical appearance than content or delivery, which her staff felt affected her ability to promote her causes.[273] Despite her experience in fashion, she disliked that it was such a major aspect of news coverage about her as first lady.[274]Since the only previous foreign-born first lady had an American father, Melania has been seen by the American public as the first foreigner first lady.[275] Having a Slovenian-born woman as the American first lady became a point of national pride in Slovenia, and it gave the nation a sense of recognition on the world stage.[276][277] Melania Trump's hometown Sevnica has developed a small tourist industry around her, and Melania-themed merchandise was common during her tenure as first lady. These items never used Melania's full name, substituting it with \"first lady\" or \"M\", as she is protective of her personality rights.[278]During the 2016 presidential election, Trump became the only candidate's spouse to have a negative approval rating since polling began in 1988.[279] Her approval rating stood at 36–37% in the months leading up to becoming first lady in January 2017,[280][154] but it increased to 57% in a CNN poll in April 2018 after she received public sympathy amid allegations that her husband had committed adultery.[241][281] Trump finished her tenure in 2021 as the least popular first lady since polling began with a rating of 42%.[282] Multiple polls during her tenure as first lady showed her as the most popular member of the Trump family.[280][283][284]In December 2020, the Siena College Research Institute released a study surveying scholars and historians on their assessments of American first ladies. It was the fifth such first ladies study that the Institute had conducted since 1982, and the first in which Trump appeared. Trump was ranked as being the worst of 40 assessed American first ladies,[285] receiving the lowest assessments in all of the metrics that were weighed.[286]","title":"Public image"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"/məˈlɑːniə/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"mə-LAH-nee-ə","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key"},{"link_name":"name prior to her marriage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A9e"},{"link_name":"[meˈlaːni̯a ˈknaʊs]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German"},{"link_name":"Germanization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthographic_transcription"},{"link_name":"[mɛˈlaːnija ˈknaːws]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Slovene"}],"text":"^ Pronounced /məˈlɑːniə/ mə-LAH-nee-ə; name prior to her marriage: Melania Knauss (IPA: [meˈlaːni̯a ˈknaʊs]), a Germanization of her Slovene birth name Melanija Knavs (IPA: [mɛˈlaːnija ˈknaːws]).","title":"Footnotes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-CollinsModel_2-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-CollinsModel_2-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-CollinsModel_2-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-CollinsModel_2-3"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-CollinsModel_2-4"},{"link_name":"f","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-CollinsModel_2-5"},{"link_name":"\"The Model American: Melania Trump is the exception to her husband's nativist politics\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/05/09/who-is-melania-trump"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20181119152650/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/05/09/who-is-melania-trump"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"\"O Melaniji je prvi poročal Dolenjski list\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.dolenjskilist.si/2016/11/10/165255/novice/dolenjska/O_Melaniji_je_prvi_porocal_Dolenjski_list/"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20161111154144/http://www.dolenjskilist.si/2016/11/10/165255/novice/dolenjska/O_Melaniji_je_prvi_porocal_Dolenjski_list/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBennett201948%E2%80%9349_4-0"},{"link_name":"Bennett 2019","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFBennett2019"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBennett201951_5-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBennett201951_5-1"},{"link_name":"Bennett 2019","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFBennett2019"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaroli2019336_6-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaroli2019336_6-1"},{"link_name":"Caroli 2019","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFCaroli2019"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJordan202056_7-0"},{"link_name":"Jordan 2020","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFJordan2020"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJordan202050_8-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJordan202050_8-1"},{"link_name":"Jordan 2020","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFJordan2020"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"\"Melania Trump only the second Catholic first lady to meet a pope\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.philly.com/philly/columnists/elizabeth_wellington/melania-trump-catholic-pope-visit-meaning-20170525.html"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20170525162931/http://www.philly.com/philly/columnists/elizabeth_wellington/melania-trump-catholic-pope-visit-meaning-20170525.html"},{"link_name":"Communist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/League_of_Communists_of_Slovenia"},{"link_name":"Slovenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Slovenia"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"},{"link_name":"\"Melania Trump spoke with Slovenian cardinal about her 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Trump on Her Rise, Her Family Secrets, and Her True Political Views: \"Nobody Will Ever Know\"\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.gq.com/story/melania-trump-gq-interview"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20170906042714/https://www.gq.com/story/melania-trump-gq-interview"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaroli2019337_13-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaroli2019337_13-1"},{"link_name":"Caroli 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Consult","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morning_Consult"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20210111060622/https://morningconsult.com/2020/08/24/north-carolina-rnc-trump-biden-polling/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-286"},{"link_name":"\"Eleanor Roosevelt America's Top First Lady for 6th Consecutive Time Abigail Adams Finishes a Close Second; Michelle Obama Moves to Third First Lady Initiatives – Lady Bird Johnson (Environmental Protection) Did Most to Raise Awareness and Address the Issue; Obama (Childhood Obesity), Betty Ford (Women's Rights), and Barbara Bush (Literacy) Made Major Contributions Jackie Kennedy - 4th but First on Being a White House Steward & Public Image\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//scri.siena.edu/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/FirstLadies2020Release.pdf"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20240308234420/https://scri.siena.edu/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/FirstLadies2020Release.pdf"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-287"},{"link_name":"\"Copy of FirstLadies_Full Rankings_working_dl_2.xls\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//scri.siena.edu/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/First-Ladies-Full-Rankings-2020.pdf"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20240330064515/https://scri.siena.edu/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/First-Ladies-Full-Rankings-2020.pdf"}],"text":"^ a b c d e f Collins, Lauren (May 9, 2016). \"The Model American: Melania Trump is the exception to her husband's nativist politics\". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on November 19, 2018. Retrieved May 3, 2016.\n\n^ \"O Melaniji je prvi poročal Dolenjski list\" [The First to Report about Melania was Dolenjski List]. Dolenjski list [Lower Carniola Newspaper] (in Slovenian). November 10, 2016. Archived from the original on November 11, 2016. Retrieved November 11, 2016.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 48–49.\n\n^ a b Bennett 2019, p. 51.\n\n^ a b Caroli 2019, p. 336.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, p. 56.\n\n^ a b Jordan 2020, p. 50.\n\n^ Wellington, Elizabeth (May 25, 2017). \"Melania Trump only the second Catholic first lady to meet a pope\". Archived from the original on May 25, 2017. Retrieved May 25, 2017. Trump's father was a member of the Communist Party in Slovenia, which meant the family were officially atheists. Donald Trump is Presbyterian; the couple married in an Episcopal church.\n\n^ Požar, Bojan (February 18, 2016). Melania Trump – The Inside Story: The Potential First Lady. Zalozba Ombo d.o.o. Ljubljana. pp. 111–113. Melanija Knavs was baptized on 14 June 1970 in Raka (the village where her mother came from). The church was called St. Lawrence, and the master of the ceremony was pastor Franc Campa. Her sister Ines had also been baptized there, and there had been a church service following the official civil marriage of her parents in 1967 (Požar, p. 94). This was not what was officially allowed for members of the Communist Party. Still, it was nevertheless quite common to do it secretly.\n\n^ Alvarez, Inma; Vombergar, Marko (June 5, 2017). \"Melania Trump spoke with Slovenian cardinal about her baptism\". Aleteia. Archived from the original on June 5, 2017. Retrieved June 14, 2017. In the interview, the cardinal reports that Melania spoke with him of her baptism in Raka (her mother's hometown), close to Melania's birthplace of Novo Mesto.\n\n^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Ioffe, Julia (April 27, 2016). \"Melania Trump on Her Rise, Her Family Secrets, and Her True Political Views: \"Nobody Will Ever Know\"\". GQ. Archived from the original on September 6, 2017. Retrieved April 29, 2016.\n\n^ a b Caroli 2019, p. 337.\n\n^ a b c d e f Peretz, Evgenia (April 21, 2017). \"Inside the Trump Marriage: Melania's Burden\". Vanity Fair. Archived from the original on July 18, 2017.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 52–53.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 52.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, p. 54.\n\n^ \"Melania Trump's Past Took Her From A River Town In Slovenia To Trump Tower\" Archived February 15, 2016, at the Wayback Machine. HuffPost. February 12, 2016.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 55–57.\n\n^ a b c d e Caroli 2019, p. 338.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 53–54.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 54.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 57.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 54–55.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 57–60.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 61–63.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, p. 63.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 25–26.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 67–69.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 72–73.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 76–77.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, p. 83.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 59.\n\n^ a b c d Caroli 2019, p. 334.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 81–82.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 63.\n\n^ a b c Caroli 2019, p. 335.\n\n^ a b Bennett 2019, p. 64.\n\n^ a b Jordan 2020, pp. 86–89.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 89–92.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 95–96.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, p. 97.\n\n^ Horowitz, Jason (August 31, 2016). \"When Donald Met Melanie, Paolo Was There\". The New York Times. Archived from the original on November 17, 2017. Retrieved June 15, 2023.\n\n^ a b Jordan 2020, p. 109.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 66.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 109–110.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 66–67.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, p. 112.\n\n^ a b Jordan 2020, p. 48.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 72.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 67, 72.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 29–30.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 93–94.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 99–102.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 106–107.\n\n^ a b Jordan 2020, p. 108.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 101, 104–105.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 68.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, p. 113.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, p. 114.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 115, 118–119.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 74.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 141–144.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 199–200.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 128–129.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 144–145.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 139–140.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 119–123.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 129–130.\n\n^ a b Jordan 2020, pp. 132–135.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 74–75.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 78–79.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 151–156.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 80.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 81.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 83.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 86–87.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 84.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 83–87.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 91.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 100.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 101.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 178–179.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, p. 176.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 96–97.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 176–177.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 177–178.\n\n^ a b Jordan 2020, p. 185.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 210–213.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 87–88.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 92–93.\n\n^ a b Jordan 2020, p. 214.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, p. 183.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 73.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 110–111.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 113–114.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 112.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 114.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 183–184.\n\n^ Schneider, Karen S. (May 1, 2006). \"Billion Dollar Baby: He Has Mom's Eyes, Dad's Lips, His Own Floor in Trump Tower and Doting Parents: Welcome to the World of Barron William Trump\". People. Archived from the original on September 25, 2015. Retrieved September 7, 2015.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 114–115.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, p. 184.\n\n^ a b Bennett 2019, p. 118.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 24, 117.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 184–185.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 125.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, p. 186.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 193–194.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 112–113.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 191–192.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, p. 224.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 125–126.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 200–201.\n\n^ a b Bennett 2019, pp. 126–127.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 204–205.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 207–209.\n\n^ a b Bennett 2019, p. 128.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, p. 22.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 20–22.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 23.\n\n^ a b c Caroli 2019, p. 339.\n\n^ a b Elder, Frederick & Burrell 2018, p. 108.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 120–121.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 3–4.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 22.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 227–228.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 27.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 224, 226.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, p. 18.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 222–223.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 25–26.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 24–25, 42.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 28.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 42–43.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 39.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 77.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 29–31.\n\n^ a b c Caroli 2019, p. 340.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 7–8.\n\n^ Stump, Scott (July 19, 2016). \"Melania Trump On Convention Speech: 'I Wrote It with as Little Help as Possible'\". Today. Archived from the original on July 19, 2016. Retrieved July 19, 2016.\n\n^ a b Bennett 2019, p. 8.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 11–12.\n\n^ Diamond, Jeremy (November 10, 2016). \"America, meet your new first lady\". CNN. Archived from the original on November 20, 2016. Retrieved November 20, 2016.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 15–16.\n\n^ Elder, Frederick & Burrell 2018, p. 110.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 1–3.\n\n^ \"'Locker room talk' defense was Melania Trump's idea, Michael Cohen testifies\". ABC News. March 13, 2024. Retrieved May 14, 2024.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 34–35.\n\n^ a b Jordan 2020, p. 4.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 35.\n\n^ a b Jordan 2020, p. 7.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 32.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 45.\n\n^ a b \"Melania Trump: Fulfilling the first lady's role her way - CBS News\". CBS News. January 23, 2017. Archived from the original on January 24, 2017. Retrieved March 9, 2024.\n\n^ a b c Caroli 2019, p. 341.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 144.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, p. 34.\n\n^ \"Melania Trump\". White House Historical Association. Archived from the original on February 25, 2024. Retrieved March 9, 2024.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 238–241.\n\n^ Sieczkowski, Cavan (May 25, 2017). \"Melania Trump Will Be The First Catholic To Live At The White House Since JFK\". HuffPost. Archived from the original on May 26, 2017. Retrieved May 26, 2017.\n\n^ \"US First Lady Melania Trump Is Catholic, Spokeswoman Confirms\". The Catholic Herald. May 26, 2017. Archived from the original on May 26, 2017. Retrieved May 26, 2017.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, p. 30.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 161.\n\n^ Baker & Glasser 2022, pp. 26–27.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 34–35.\n\n^ a b c d e Terris, Ben; Dawsey, Josh (November 10, 2023). \"Where's Melania?\". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on November 11, 2023. Retrieved March 6, 2024.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, p. 36.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 144–145.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 134.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 137.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, p. 37.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 128–129.\n\n^ Puente, Maria (February 7, 2017). \"Melanie Trump's 'Daily Mail' Lawsuit: A FLOTUS First?\". USA Today. Archived from the original on February 10, 2017. Retrieved February 10, 2017.\n\n^ Bennett, Kate (February 22, 2017). \"Melania Trump drops controversial language from $150 million defamation suit\". CNN. Archived from the original on March 19, 2017. Retrieved March 16, 2017.\n\n^ Betsy Klein; Kate Bennett. \"First lady touts equality at International Women's Day luncheon\". CNN. Archived from the original on March 9, 2017. Retrieved March 10, 2017.\n\n^ \"Melania Trump 'recalls her immigrant past' as she pushes for equality on International Women's Day\". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on March 9, 2017. Retrieved March 10, 2017.\n\n^ Pulliam Bailey, Sarah (May 25, 2017). \"Melania Trump is Catholic, she confirms after Vatican visit\". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on May 27, 2019. Retrieved October 18, 2018.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 257–262.\n\n^ Baker & Glasser 2022, p. 145.\n\n^ a b c Caroli 2019, pp. 341–342.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 138.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 139–140.\n\n^ a b Bennett 2019, p. 156.\n\n^ a b Jordan 2020, p. 251.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 139.\n\n^ a b c Jordan 2020, p. 243.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 185.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 211–212.\n\n^ a b Jordan 2020, p. 44.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 208.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, p. 244.\n\n^ a b Caroli 2019, p. 342.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 241–242.\n\n^ a b c d e f Rogers, Katie (February 17, 2024). \"How Two First Ladies Weathered a Most Unusual Presidential Transition\". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on February 27, 2024. Retrieved March 8, 2024.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, p. 255.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, p. 271.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 156–157.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 142.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 105.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 150.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 151.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 157.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 142–144.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 130.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 237–238.\n\n^ a b Caroli 2019, pp. 343–344.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 194–195.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, p. 11.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 202.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 196–197.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 215–216.\n\n^ a b Bennett 2019, pp. 218–219.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 218.\n\n^ a b Bennett 2019, p. 220.\n\n^ a b Caroli 2019, p. 345.\n\n^ a b Caroli 2019, p. 346.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 220–221.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 222–223.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 224.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, p. 234.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, p. 236.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 226–230.\n\n^ Caroli 2019, p. 347.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 261–263.\n\n^ a b c d e Rogers, Katie; Haberman, Maggie (January 19, 2021). \"Melania Trump's Legacy: Missteps, Mystery and, in the End, Absence\". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 19, 2021.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 264–267.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 184–185.\n\n^ a b c Bennett 2019, p. 186.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 183–184.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 187.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 170–172.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 40–41.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 2–3.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 213.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, p. 41.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 154–156.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, p. 274.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 3.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, p. 253.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 200–201.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, p. 254, 269–271.\n\n^ a b Caroli 2019, p. 344.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, p. 259.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 176.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 3, 176.\n\n^ a b Kelly, Caroline. \"Secretly recorded tapes show Melania Trump's frustration at criticism for family separation policy and her bashing of Christmas decorations\". CNN. Archived from the original on October 8, 2020. Retrieved October 2, 2020.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 178.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 178–179.\n\n^ Bennett, Kate. \"Melania Trump makes surprise visit to border facilities\". CNN. Archived from the original on June 21, 2018. Retrieved June 21, 2018.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 260–261.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 179.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, p. 247.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 216.\n\n^ a b Bennett 2019, p. 158.\n\n^ a b Jordan 2020, pp. 247–248.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 271–272.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 276–277.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 279–281.\n\n^ Shear, Michael D. (October 2, 2020). \"In Profane Rant, Melania Trump Takes Aim at Migrant Children and Critics\". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 14, 2021. Retrieved October 2, 2020.\n\n^ \"Biden Admin DOJ Drops Lawsuit Against Melania Trump's Ex-Friend Stephanie Winston Wolkoff\". February 9, 2021. Archived from the original on February 14, 2021. Retrieved February 9, 2021.\n\n^ Poonia, Gitanjali (September 21, 2022). \"Melania Trump, once critical of White House decorating, now selling Christmas ornaments\". Deseret News. Archived from the original on October 13, 2022. Retrieved October 13, 2022.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 26–27.\n\n^ a b Bennett 2019, p. 2.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, p. 27.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, p. 21.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 275–276.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 281–282.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 152.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 247.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 37.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 227.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 226–228.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 243–244.\n\n^ Jordan 2020, pp. 245–246.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, p. 251.\n\n^ Vidmar Horvat 2021, pp. 447–448.\n\n^ Vidmar Horvat 2021, p. 448.\n\n^ Pušnik & Jontes 2021, pp. 464–465.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 49–50.\n\n^ Elder, Frederick & Burrell 2018, p. 107.\n\n^ a b Bennett 2019, p. 148.\n\n^ Bennett 2019, pp. 216–217.\n\n^ Enten, Harry (January 19, 2021). \"The worst final popularity rating ever for a first lady belongs to Melania Trump\". CNN. Archived from the original on February 9, 2021. Retrieved January 19, 2021.\n\n^ Frankovic, Kathy (March 7, 2019). \"Melania remains the most popular Trump; Kushner security clearance seen as problematic\". today.yougov.com. YouGov. Archived from the original on February 4, 2021. Retrieved January 19, 2021.\n\n^ Easley, Cameron (August 25, 2020). \"As Trump family dominates RNC, poll shows they're most popular GOP figures\". Morning Consult. Archived from the original on January 11, 2021. Retrieved January 22, 2021.\n\n^ \"Eleanor Roosevelt America's Top First Lady for 6th Consecutive Time Abigail Adams Finishes a Close Second; Michelle Obama Moves to Third First Lady Initiatives – Lady Bird Johnson (Environmental Protection) Did Most to Raise Awareness and Address the Issue; Obama (Childhood Obesity), Betty Ford (Women's Rights), and Barbara Bush (Literacy) Made Major Contributions Jackie Kennedy - 4th but First on Being a White House Steward & Public Image\" (PDF). scri.siena.edu. Siena College Research Institute. December 9, 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 8, 2024. Retrieved March 6, 2024.\n\n^ \"Copy of FirstLadies_Full Rankings_working_dl_2.xls\" (PDF). scri.siena.edu. Siena College Research Institute. December 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 30, 2024. Retrieved March 6, 2024.","title":"Notes"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Donald Trump and Melania Knauss in 1999","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Donald_and_Melania_1999.jpg/170px-Donald_and_Melania_1999.jpg"},{"image_text":"Melania Knauss with then-president Bill Clinton in 2000","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Clinton_Trump_2000_08_%28cropped1%29.jpg/170px-Clinton_Trump_2000_08_%28cropped1%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Melania and Donald in 2006","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Donald_Trump_and_wife_Melania.jpg/220px-Donald_Trump_and_wife_Melania.jpg"},{"image_text":"Melania Trump in 2011","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Melania_Trump_2011.jpg/130px-Melania_Trump_2011.jpg"},{"image_text":"Melania at a campaign event with Donald and Barron in November 2015","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/First_Lady_Melania_Trump_speaking_in_2015_%28cropped2%29.jpg/220px-First_Lady_Melania_Trump_speaking_in_2015_%28cropped2%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Melania Trump in 2016","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Melania_Trump_%288_February_2016%29.jpg/170px-Melania_Trump_%288_February_2016%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"With Donald, Liberty Ball, January 20, 2017","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Donald_Trump_and_Melania_Trump_at_Liberty_Ball_Inauguration_2017.jpg/170px-Donald_Trump_and_Melania_Trump_at_Liberty_Ball_Inauguration_2017.jpg"},{"image_text":"Melania Trump with Pope Francis, the Vatican, May 2017","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Donald_Trump_Pope_Francis_Melania_Trump_in_2017.jpg/220px-Donald_Trump_Pope_Francis_Melania_Trump_in_2017.jpg"},{"image_text":"Melania Trump with Argentine first lady Juliana Awada in 2017","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Juliana_Awada_and_Melania_Trump_walk_along_the_Colonnade_of_the_White_House%2C_April_2017_%28cropped%29.jpg/170px-Juliana_Awada_and_Melania_Trump_walk_along_the_Colonnade_of_the_White_House%2C_April_2017_%28cropped%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Melania Trump examining the 2018 White House Christmas decorations","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/White_House_Christmas_2018_%2846060476411%29.jpg/220px-White_House_Christmas_2018_%2846060476411%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Left to right: Brigitte Macron, Melania Trump, Emmanuel Macron, Donald Trump","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Arrival_Ceremony_-_The_Official_State_Visit_of_France_%2839892882240%29.jpg/220px-Arrival_Ceremony_-_The_Official_State_Visit_of_France_%2839892882240%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Melania Trump wearing a pith helmet in Kenya","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/First_Lady_Melania_Trump%27s_Visit_to_Kenya_14.jpg/220px-First_Lady_Melania_Trump%27s_Visit_to_Kenya_14.jpg"},{"image_text":"Melania working with children at a 2017 Christmas event; children's welfare was among the most important issues to Melania.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/White_House_Christmas_%2838121595104%29.jpg/220px-White_House_Christmas_%2838121595104%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Melania Trump celebrating the second anniversary of the Be Best campaign","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/First_Lady_Melania_Trump_Participates_in_a_Zoom_Call_with_Students_for_the_Second_Anniversary_of_Be_Best_%2849883203437%29.jpg/220px-First_Lady_Melania_Trump_Participates_in_a_Zoom_Call_with_Students_for_the_Second_Anniversary_of_Be_Best_%2849883203437%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Melania with first responders during the COVID-19 pandemic","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/The_First_Lady_Visits_with_First_Responders_%2850123337337%29.jpg/220px-The_First_Lady_Visits_with_First_Responders_%2850123337337%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"A 2017 Women's March protestor with a Free Melania sign","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Women%27s_March_in_San_Francisco_%2832348786991%29.jpg/220px-Women%27s_March_in_San_Francisco_%2832348786991%29.jpg"}]
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[{"reference":"Collins, Lauren (May 9, 2016). \"The Model American: Melania Trump is the exception to her husband's nativist politics\". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on November 19, 2018. Retrieved May 3, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/05/09/who-is-melania-trump","url_text":"\"The Model American: Melania Trump is the exception to her husband's nativist politics\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20181119152650/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/05/09/who-is-melania-trump","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"O Melaniji je prvi poročal Dolenjski list\" [The First to Report about Melania was Dolenjski List]. Dolenjski list [Lower Carniola Newspaper] (in Slovenian). November 10, 2016. Archived from the original on November 11, 2016. Retrieved November 11, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.dolenjskilist.si/2016/11/10/165255/novice/dolenjska/O_Melaniji_je_prvi_porocal_Dolenjski_list/","url_text":"\"O Melaniji je prvi poročal Dolenjski list\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161111154144/http://www.dolenjskilist.si/2016/11/10/165255/novice/dolenjska/O_Melaniji_je_prvi_porocal_Dolenjski_list/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Wellington, Elizabeth (May 25, 2017). \"Melania Trump only the second Catholic first lady to meet a pope\". Archived from the original on May 25, 2017. Retrieved May 25, 2017. Trump's father was a member of the Communist Party in Slovenia, which meant the family were officially atheists. Donald Trump is Presbyterian; the couple married in an Episcopal church.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.philly.com/philly/columnists/elizabeth_wellington/melania-trump-catholic-pope-visit-meaning-20170525.html","url_text":"\"Melania Trump only the second Catholic first lady to meet a pope\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170525162931/http://www.philly.com/philly/columnists/elizabeth_wellington/melania-trump-catholic-pope-visit-meaning-20170525.html","url_text":"Archived"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/League_of_Communists_of_Slovenia","url_text":"Communist Party"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Slovenia","url_text":"Slovenia"}]},{"reference":"Požar, Bojan (February 18, 2016). Melania Trump – The Inside Story: The Potential First Lady. Zalozba Ombo d.o.o. Ljubljana. pp. 111–113. Melanija Knavs was baptized on 14 June 1970 in Raka (the village where her mother came from). The church was called St. Lawrence, and the master of the ceremony was pastor Franc Campa. Her sister Ines had also been baptized there, and there had been a church service following the official civil marriage of her parents in 1967 (Požar, p. 94). This was not what was officially allowed for members of the Communist Party. Still, it was nevertheless quite common to do it secretly.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Alvarez, Inma; Vombergar, Marko (June 5, 2017). \"Melania Trump spoke with Slovenian cardinal about her baptism\". Aleteia. Archived from the original on June 5, 2017. Retrieved June 14, 2017. In the interview, the cardinal reports that Melania spoke with him of her baptism in Raka (her mother's hometown), close to Melania's birthplace of Novo Mesto.","urls":[{"url":"https://aleteia.org/2017/06/05/melanie-trump-was-baptized-catholic-confirms-slovenian-cardinal-franc-rode/","url_text":"\"Melania Trump spoke with Slovenian cardinal about her baptism\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170605222222/https://aleteia.org/2017/06/05/melanie-trump-was-baptized-catholic-confirms-slovenian-cardinal-franc-rode/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Ioffe, Julia (April 27, 2016). \"Melania Trump on Her Rise, Her Family Secrets, and Her True Political Views: \"Nobody Will Ever Know\"\". GQ. Archived from the original on September 6, 2017. Retrieved April 29, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gq.com/story/melania-trump-gq-interview","url_text":"\"Melania Trump on Her Rise, Her Family Secrets, and Her True Political Views: \"Nobody Will Ever Know\"\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170906042714/https://www.gq.com/story/melania-trump-gq-interview","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Peretz, Evgenia (April 21, 2017). \"Inside the Trump Marriage: Melania's Burden\". Vanity Fair. Archived from the original on July 18, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170718230215/http://www.vanityfair.com/news/2017/04/donald-melania-trump-marriage","url_text":"\"Inside the Trump Marriage: Melania's Burden\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanity_Fair_(magazine)","url_text":"Vanity Fair"},{"url":"http://www.vanityfair.com/news/2017/04/donald-melania-trump-marriage","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Horowitz, Jason (August 31, 2016). \"When Donald Met Melanie, Paolo Was There\". The New York Times. Archived from the original on November 17, 2017. Retrieved June 15, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171117190228/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/01/fashion/donald-trump-melania-modeling-agent-paolo-zampolli-daily-mail.html","url_text":"\"When Donald Met Melanie, Paolo Was There\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"},{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/01/fashion/donald-trump-melania-modeling-agent-paolo-zampolli-daily-mail.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Schneider, Karen S. (May 1, 2006). \"Billion Dollar Baby: He Has Mom's Eyes, Dad's Lips, His Own Floor in Trump Tower and Doting Parents: Welcome to the World of Barron William Trump\". People. Archived from the original on September 25, 2015. 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Archived (PDF) from the original on March 8, 2024. Retrieved March 6, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://scri.siena.edu/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/FirstLadies2020Release.pdf","url_text":"\"Eleanor Roosevelt America's Top First Lady for 6th Consecutive Time Abigail Adams Finishes a Close Second; Michelle Obama Moves to Third First Lady Initiatives – Lady Bird Johnson (Environmental Protection) Did Most to Raise Awareness and Address the Issue; Obama (Childhood Obesity), Betty Ford (Women's Rights), and Barbara Bush (Literacy) Made Major Contributions Jackie Kennedy - 4th but First on Being a White House Steward & Public Image\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20240308234420/https://scri.siena.edu/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/FirstLadies2020Release.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Copy of FirstLadies_Full Rankings_working_dl_2.xls\" (PDF). scri.siena.edu. Siena College Research Institute. December 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 30, 2024. Retrieved March 6, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://scri.siena.edu/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/First-Ladies-Full-Rankings-2020.pdf","url_text":"\"Copy of FirstLadies_Full Rankings_working_dl_2.xls\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20240330064515/https://scri.siena.edu/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/First-Ladies-Full-Rankings-2020.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Baker, Peter; Glasser, Susan (2022). The Divider: Trump in the White House, 2017-2021. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-385-54654-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/dividertrumpinwh0000bake/","url_text":"The Divider: Trump in the White House, 2017-2021"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-54654-6","url_text":"978-0-385-54654-6"}]},{"reference":"Bennett, Kate (2019). Free, Melania. Flatiron Books. ISBN 978-1-250-30737-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/freemelaniaunaut0000benn/","url_text":"Free, Melania"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-250-30737-8","url_text":"978-1-250-30737-8"}]},{"reference":"Caroli, Betty Boyd (2019). \"Chapter 11: The Ever-Changing Role of First Lady\". First Ladies: The Ever Changing Role, from Martha Washington to Melania Trump. Oxford University Press. pp. 333–348. ISBN 978-0-19-066913-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betty_Boyd_Caroli","url_text":"Caroli, Betty Boyd"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-066913-3","url_text":"978-0-19-066913-3"}]},{"reference":"Elder, Laurel; Frederick, Brian; Burrell, Barbara (2018). American Presidential Candidate Spouses: The Public's Perspective. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-3-319-73878-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbara_Burrell","url_text":"Burrell, Barbara"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-73878-9","url_text":"978-3-319-73878-9"}]},{"reference":"Jordan, Mary (2020). The Art of Her Deal: The Untold Story of Melania Trump. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-9821-1340-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Jordan_(journalist)","url_text":"Jordan, Mary"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/artofherdealunto0000jord/","url_text":"The Art of Her Deal: The Untold Story of Melania Trump"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-9821-1340-7","url_text":"978-1-9821-1340-7"}]},{"reference":"Pušnik, Maruša; Jontes, Dejan (2021). \"Mediji in Spontani Nacionalizem: Primer Melanie Trump\" [Media and Spontaneous Nationalism: The Case of Melania Trump] (PDF). Teorija in Praksa (in Slovenian). 58 (2): 464–480. doi:10.51936/tip.58.2.464-480. ISSN 0040-3598.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.fdv.uni-lj.si/docs/default-source/tip/mediji-in-spontani-nacionalizem-primer-melanie-trump.pdf","url_text":"\"Mediji in Spontani Nacionalizem: Primer Melanie Trump\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teorija_in_Praksa","url_text":"Teorija in Praksa"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.51936%2Ftip.58.2.464-480","url_text":"10.51936/tip.58.2.464-480"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0040-3598","url_text":"0040-3598"}]},{"reference":"Vidmar Horvat, Ksenija (2021). \"Postimperialni Patriarhat In Karnevaleskna Periferija: Melania Trump V Transnacionalni Javnosti\" [Post-Imperial Patriarchy and the Carnivalesque Periphery: Melania Trump Within a Transnational Public] (PDF). Teorija in Praksa (in Slovenian). 58 (2): 447–463. doi:10.51936/tip.58.2.447-463. ISSN 0040-3598.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.fdv.uni-lj.si/docs/default-source/tip/postimperialni-patriarhat-in-karnevaleskna-periferija-melania-trump-v-transnacionalni-javnosti.pdf","url_text":"\"Postimperialni Patriarhat In Karnevaleskna Periferija: Melania Trump V Transnacionalni Javnosti\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teorija_in_Praksa","url_text":"Teorija in Praksa"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.51936%2Ftip.58.2.447-463","url_text":"10.51936/tip.58.2.447-463"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0040-3598","url_text":"0040-3598"}]}]
|
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver_sulphide
|
Silver sulfide
|
["1 Formation","2 Structure and properties","3 Exceptional ductility of α-Ag2S","4 History","5 References","6 External links"]
|
Silver sulfide
Names
IUPAC name
Silver(I) sulfide
Other names
Silver sulfide Argentous sulfide
Identifiers
CAS Number
21548-73-2 Y
3D model (JSmol)
Interactive image
ChemSpider
145878 N
ECHA InfoCard
100.040.384
EC Number
244-438-2
PubChem CID
166738
UNII
9ZB10YHC1C N
CompTox Dashboard (EPA)
DTXSID60925902 DTXSID80893679, DTXSID60925902
InChI
InChI=1S/2Ag.S/q2*+1;-2 NKey: XUARKZBEFFVFRG-UHFFFAOYSA-N N
SMILES
S(Ag)Ag
Properties
Chemical formula
Ag2S
Molar mass
247.80 g·mol−1
Appearance
Grayish-blackish crystal
Odor
Odorless
Density
7.234 g/cm3 (25 °C) 7.12 g/cm3 (117 °C)
Melting point
836 °C (1,537 °F; 1,109 K)
Solubility in water
6.21·10−15 g/L (25 °C)
Solubility product (Ksp)
6.31·10−50
Solubility
Soluble in aq. HCN, aq. citric acid with KNO3 Insoluble in acids, alkalies, aqueous ammoniums
Structure
Crystal structure
Cubic, cI8 (α-form) Monoclinic, mP12 (β-form) Cubic, cF12 (γ-form)
Space group
Im3m, No. 229 (α-form) P21/n, No. 14 (β-form) Fm3m, No. 225 (γ-form)
Point group
2/m (α-form) 4/m 3 2/m (β-form, γ-form)
Lattice constant
a = 4.23 Å, b = 6.91 Å, c = 7.87 Å (α-form)α = 90°, β = 99.583°, γ = 90°
Thermochemistry
Heat capacity (C)
76.57 J/mol·K
Std molarentropy (S⦵298)
143.93 J/mol·K
Std enthalpy offormation (ΔfH⦵298)
−32.59 kJ/mol
Gibbs free energy (ΔfG⦵)
−40.71 kJ/mol
Hazards
Occupational safety and health (OHS/OSH):
Main hazards
May cause irritation
GHS labelling:
Pictograms
Signal word
Warning
Hazard statements
H315, H319, H335
Precautionary statements
P261, P305+P351+P338
NFPA 704 (fire diamond)
0
0
0
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C , 100 kPa).
N verify (what is YN ?)
Infobox references
Chemical compound
Silver sulfide is an inorganic compound with the formula Ag2S. A dense black solid, it is the only sulfide of silver. It is useful as a photosensitizer in photography. It constitutes the tarnish that forms over time on silverware and other silver objects. Silver sulfide is insoluble in most solvents, but is degraded by strong acids. Silver sulfide is a network solid made up of silver (electronegativity of 1.98) and sulfur (electronegativity of 2.58) where the bonds have low ionic character (approximately 10%).
Formation
Silver sulfide naturally occurs as the tarnish on silverware. When combined with silver, hydrogen sulfide gas creates a layer of black silver sulfide patina on the silver, protecting the inner silver from further conversion to silver sulfide. Silver whiskers can form when silver sulfide forms on the surface of silver electrical contacts operating in an atmosphere rich in hydrogen sulfide and high humidity. Such atmospheres can exist in sewage treatment and paper mills.
Structure and properties
Three forms are known: monoclinic acanthite (β-form), stable below 179 °C, body centered cubic so-called argentite (α-form), stable above 180 °C, and a high temperature face-centred cubic (γ-form) stable above 586 °C. The higher temperature forms are electrical conductors. It is found in nature as relatively low temperature mineral acanthite. Acanthite is an important ore of silver. The acanthite, monoclinic, form features two kinds of silver centers, one with two and the other with three near neighbour sulfur atoms. Argentite refers to a cubic form, which, due to instability in "normal" temperatures, is found in form of the pseudomorphosis of acanthite after argentite.
Exceptional ductility of α-Ag2S
Relative to most inorganic materials, α-Ag2S displays exceptional ductility at room temperature. This material can undergo extensive deformation, akin to metals, without fracturing. Such behavior is evident in various mechanical tests; for instance, α-Ag2S can be easily machined into cylindrical or bar shapes and can withstand substantial deformation under compression, three-point bending, and tensile stresses. The material sustains over 50% engineering strain in compression tests and up to 20% or more in bending tests.
The intrinsic ductility of alpha-phase silver sulfide (α-Ag2S) is underpinned by its unique structural and chemical bonding characteristics. At the atomic level, its monoclinic crystal structure, which remains stable up to 451 K, enables the movement of atoms and dislocations along well-defined crystallographic planes known as slip planes. Additionally, the dynamic bonding within the crystal structure supports both the sliding of atomic layers and the maintenance of material integrity during deformation. The interatomic forces within the slip planes are sufficiently strong to prevent the material from cleaving while still allowing for considerable flexibility. Further insights into α-Ag2S's ductility come from density functional theory calculations, which reveal that the primary slip planes align with the direction and slipping occurs along the direction. This arrangement permits atoms to glide over each other under stress through minute adjustments in the interlayer distances, which are energetically favorable as indicated by low slipping energy barriers (ΔEB) and high cleavage energies (ΔEC). These properties ensure significant deformation capability without fracture. Silver and sulfur atoms in α-Ag2S form transient, yet robust interactions that enable the material to retain its integrity while deforming. This behavior is akin to that of metals, where dislocations move with relative ease, providing α-Ag2S with a unique combination of flexibility and strength, making it exceptionally resistant to cracking under mechanical stress.
History
In 1833 Michael Faraday noticed that the resistance of silver sulfide decreased dramatically as temperature increased. This constituted the first report of a semiconducting material.
Silver sulfide is a component of classical qualitative inorganic analysis.
References
^ a b Lide, David R., ed. (2009). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (90th ed.). Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4200-9084-0.
^ a b c d Sigma-Aldrich Co., Silver sulfide. Retrieved on 2014-07-13.
^ a b c d Tonkov, E. Yu (1992). High Pressure Phase Transformations: A Handbook. Vol. 1. Gordon and Breach Science Publishers. p. 13. ISBN 978-2-88124-761-3.
^ Comey, Arthur Messinger; Hahn, Dorothy A. (February 1921). A Dictionary of Chemical Solubilities: Inorganic (2nd ed.). New York: The MacMillan Company. p. 835.
^ a b c d e "Silver sulfide (Ag2S) crystal structure". Non-Tetrahedrally Bonded Elements and Binary Compounds I. Landolt-Börnstein - Group III Condensed Matter. Vol. 41C. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. 1998. pp. 1–4. doi:10.1007/10681727_86. ISBN 978-3-540-31360-1.
^ a b c d Pradyot, Patnaik (2003). Handbook of Inorganic Chemicals. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. p. 845. ISBN 978-0-07-049439-8.
^ "MSDS of Silver Sulfide". saltlakemetals.com. Utah, USA: Salt Lake Metals. Archived from the original on 2014-08-10. Retrieved 2014-07-13.
^ Zumdahl, Steven S.; DeCoste, Donald J. (2013). Chemical Principles (7th ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 505. ISBN 978-1-111-58065-0.
^ "Degradation of Power Contacts in Industrial Atmosphere: Silver Corrosion and Whiskers" (PDF). 2002.
^ Dutta, Paritam K.; Rabaey, Korneel; Yuan, Zhiguo; Rozendal, René A.; Keller, Jürg (2010). "Electrochemical sulfide removal and recovery from paper mill anaerobic treatment effluent". Water Research. 44 (8): 2563–2571. Bibcode:2010WatRe..44.2563D. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2010.01.008. ISSN 0043-1354. PMID 20163816.
^ "Control of Hydrogen Sulfide Generation | Water & Wastes Digest". www.wwdmag.com. 5 March 2012. Retrieved 2018-07-05.
^ Frueh, A. J. (1958). The crystallography of silver sulfide, Ag2S. Zeitschrift für Kristallographie-Crystalline Materials, 110(1-6), 136-144.
^ a b c d Chen, Lidong (2018). "Room-temperature ductile inorganic semiconductor". Nature Materials. 17: 421–426.
^ Chen, Lidong. "Flexible thermoelectrics based on ductile semiconductors". Science. 377 (6608): 854–858.
^ "1833 - First Semiconductor Effect is Recorded". Computer History Museum. Retrieved 24 June 2014.
^ Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-08-037941-8.
External links
Tarnishing of Silver: A Short Review V&A Conservation Journal
Images of silver whiskers NASA
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Silver sulfide.
vteSilver compoundsSilver(0,I)
Ag2F
Silver(I)
AgBF4
AgBr
AgBrO3
AgCN
AgCNO
AgCl
AgClO
AgClO2
AgClO3
AgClO4
AgF
AgI
AgIO3
AgMnO4
AgNO2
AgNO3
AgN3
Ag3N
AgReO4
AgOCN
AgSCN
AgCF3SO3
AgPF6
Ag2CO3
Ag2C2
Ag2C2O4
Ag2CrO4
Ag2Cr2O7
Ag2MoO4
Ag2O
Ag2S
Ag2SO3
Ag2S2O3
Ag2SO4
AgHSO4
Ag2Se
Ag2SeO3
Ag2Te
Ag3AsO4
Ag3PO4
KAg(CN)2
RbAg4I5
Ag(NH3)2OH
Ag2N2O2
Ag2WO4Organosilver(I) compounds
AgC2H3O2
AgC22H43O2
CH3CH(OH)COOAg
C18H36AgO2
AgC4H3N2NSO2C6H4NH2
AgC11H23COO
Silver(II)
AgF2
S2O8
Silver(III)
Ag2O3
AgF3
Ag2S3
Silver(I,III)
Ag4O4
vteSulfides (S2−)
H2S
He
Li2S
BeS
B2S3+BO3
CS2COS
(NH4)SH
O
F
Ne
Na2S
MgS
Al2S3
SiSSiS2-Si
PxSy-P
-S2−2
Cl
Ar
K2S
CaS
ScSSc2S3
TiSTiS2Ti2S3TiS3
VSVS2V2S3
CrSCr2S3
MnSMnS2
FeSFe3S4
CoS
NiS
Cu2SCuS
ZnS
GaSGa2S3
GeSGeS2-Ge
As2S3As4S3-As
SeS2+Se
Br
Kr
Rb2S
SrS
Y2S3
ZrS2
NbS2
MoS2MoS3
Tc
Ru
Rh2S3
PdS
Ag2S
CdS
In2S3
SnSSnS2-Sn
Sb2S3Sb2S5-Sb
TeS2
I
Xe
Cs2S
BaS
*
LuSLu2S3
HfS2
TaS2
WS2WS3
ReS2Re2S7
OsS4
Ir2S3IrS2
PtSPtS2
Au2SAu2S3
HgS
Tl2S
PbSPbS2
Bi2S3
PoS
At
Rn
Fr
Ra
**
Lr
Rf
Db
Sg
Bh
Hs
Mt
Ds
Rg
Cn
Nh
Fl
Mc
Lv
Ts
Og
*
LaSLa2S3
CeSCe2S3
PrSPr2S3
NdSNd2S3
Pm2S3
SmSSm2S3
EuSEu2S3
GdSGd2S3
TbSTb2S3
DySDy2S3
HoSHo2S3
ErSEr2S3
TmSTm2S3
YbSYb2S3
**
Ac2S3
ThS2
Pa
USUS2
Np
Pu
Am
Cm
Bk
Cf
Es
Fm
Md
No
Authority control databases: National
Germany
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"inorganic compound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inorganic_compound"},{"link_name":"sulfide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfide"},{"link_name":"silver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver"},{"link_name":"photosensitizer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosensitizer"},{"link_name":"photography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photography"},{"link_name":"tarnish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarnish"},{"link_name":"insoluble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solubility"}],"text":"Chemical compoundSilver sulfide is an inorganic compound with the formula Ag2S. A dense black solid, it is the only sulfide of silver. It is useful as a photosensitizer in photography. It constitutes the tarnish that forms over time on silverware and other silver objects. Silver sulfide is insoluble in most solvents, but is degraded by strong acids. Silver sulfide is a network solid made up of silver (electronegativity of 1.98) and sulfur (electronegativity of 2.58) where the bonds have low ionic character (approximately 10%).","title":"Silver sulfide"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"hydrogen sulfide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide"},{"link_name":"patina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patina"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"whiskers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whisker_(metallurgy)"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"sewage treatment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sewage_treatment"},{"link_name":"paper mills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper_mill"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"Silver sulfide naturally occurs as the tarnish on silverware. When combined with silver, hydrogen sulfide gas creates a layer of black silver sulfide patina on the silver, protecting the inner silver from further conversion to silver sulfide.[8] Silver whiskers can form when silver sulfide forms on the surface of silver electrical contacts operating in an atmosphere rich in hydrogen sulfide and high humidity.[9] Such atmospheres can exist in sewage treatment and paper mills.[10][11]","title":"Formation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"forms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymorphism_(materials_science)"},{"link_name":"acanthite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acanthite"},{"link_name":"argentite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentite"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-spring-5"},{"link_name":"acanthite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acanthite"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"pseudomorphosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudomorphosis"}],"text":"Three forms are known: monoclinic acanthite (β-form), stable below 179 °C, body centered cubic so-called argentite (α-form), stable above 180 °C, and a high temperature face-centred cubic (γ-form) stable above 586 °C.[5] The higher temperature forms are electrical conductors. It is found in nature as relatively low temperature mineral acanthite. Acanthite is an important ore of silver. The acanthite, monoclinic, form features two kinds of silver centers, one with two and the other with three near neighbour sulfur atoms.[12] Argentite refers to a cubic form, which, due to instability in \"normal\" temperatures, is found in form of the pseudomorphosis of acanthite after argentite.","title":"Structure and properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-13"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-13"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-13"}],"text":"Relative to most inorganic materials, α-Ag2S displays exceptional ductility at room temperature.[13][14] This material can undergo extensive deformation, akin to metals, without fracturing. Such behavior is evident in various mechanical tests; for instance, α-Ag2S can be easily machined into cylindrical or bar shapes and can withstand substantial deformation under compression, three-point bending, and tensile stresses. The material sustains over 50% engineering strain in compression tests and up to 20% or more in bending tests.[13]The intrinsic ductility of alpha-phase silver sulfide (α-Ag2S) is underpinned by its unique structural and chemical bonding characteristics. At the atomic level, its monoclinic crystal structure, which remains stable up to 451 K, enables the movement of atoms and dislocations along well-defined crystallographic planes known as slip planes. Additionally, the dynamic bonding within the crystal structure supports both the sliding of atomic layers and the maintenance of material integrity during deformation. The interatomic forces within the slip planes are sufficiently strong to prevent the material from cleaving while still allowing for considerable flexibility.[13] Further insights into α-Ag2S's ductility come from density functional theory calculations, which reveal that the primary slip planes align with the [100] direction and slipping occurs along the [001] direction. This arrangement permits atoms to glide over each other under stress through minute adjustments in the interlayer distances, which are energetically favorable as indicated by low slipping energy barriers (ΔEB) and high cleavage energies (ΔEC). These properties ensure significant deformation capability without fracture. Silver and sulfur atoms in α-Ag2S form transient, yet robust interactions that enable the material to retain its integrity while deforming. This behavior is akin to that of metals, where dislocations move with relative ease, providing α-Ag2S with a unique combination of flexibility and strength, making it exceptionally resistant to cracking under mechanical stress.[13]","title":"Exceptional ductility of α-Ag2S"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Michael Faraday","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Faraday"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CHM-semicon-15"},{"link_name":"qualitative inorganic analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualitative_inorganic_analysis"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"text":"In 1833 Michael Faraday noticed that the resistance of silver sulfide decreased dramatically as temperature increased. This constituted the first report of a semiconducting material.[15]Silver sulfide is a component of classical qualitative inorganic analysis.[16]","title":"History"}]
|
[{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/NFPA_704.svg/80px-NFPA_704.svg.png"}]
| null |
[{"reference":"Lide, David R., ed. (2009). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (90th ed.). Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4200-9084-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRC_Handbook_of_Chemistry_and_Physics","url_text":"CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boca_Raton,_Florida","url_text":"Boca Raton, Florida"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRC_Press","url_text":"CRC Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4200-9084-0","url_text":"978-1-4200-9084-0"}]},{"reference":"Tonkov, E. Yu (1992). High Pressure Phase Transformations: A Handbook. Vol. 1. Gordon and Breach Science Publishers. p. 13. ISBN 978-2-88124-761-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=uo8wVw9Gq7wC&pg=PA13","url_text":"High Pressure Phase Transformations: A Handbook"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-88124-761-3","url_text":"978-2-88124-761-3"}]},{"reference":"Comey, Arthur Messinger; Hahn, Dorothy A. (February 1921). A Dictionary of Chemical Solubilities: Inorganic (2nd ed.). New York: The MacMillan Company. p. 835.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.171090","url_text":"A Dictionary of Chemical Solubilities: Inorganic"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.171090/page/n861","url_text":"835"}]},{"reference":"\"Silver sulfide (Ag2S) crystal structure\". Non-Tetrahedrally Bonded Elements and Binary Compounds I. Landolt-Börnstein - Group III Condensed Matter. Vol. 41C. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. 1998. pp. 1–4. doi:10.1007/10681727_86. ISBN 978-3-540-31360-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://link.springer.com/static-content/lookinside/996/chp%253A10.1007%252F10681727_86/000.png","url_text":"\"Silver sulfide (Ag2S) crystal structure\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F10681727_86","url_text":"10.1007/10681727_86"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-31360-1","url_text":"978-3-540-31360-1"}]},{"reference":"Pradyot, Patnaik (2003). Handbook of Inorganic Chemicals. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. p. 845. ISBN 978-0-07-049439-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-049439-8","url_text":"978-0-07-049439-8"}]},{"reference":"\"MSDS of Silver Sulfide\". saltlakemetals.com. Utah, USA: Salt Lake Metals. Archived from the original on 2014-08-10. Retrieved 2014-07-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140810063028/http://www.saltlakemetals.com/MSDS_Silver_Sulfide.htm","url_text":"\"MSDS of Silver Sulfide\""},{"url":"http://www.saltlakemetals.com/MSDS_Silver_Sulfide.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Zumdahl, Steven S.; DeCoste, Donald J. (2013). Chemical Principles (7th ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 505. ISBN 978-1-111-58065-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=hsuV9JTGaP8C&pg=PA505","url_text":"Chemical Principles"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-111-58065-0","url_text":"978-1-111-58065-0"}]},{"reference":"\"Degradation of Power Contacts in Industrial Atmosphere: Silver Corrosion and Whiskers\" (PDF). 2002.","urls":[{"url":"https://nepp.nasa.gov/whisker/reference/tech_papers/chudnovsky2002-paper-silver-corrosion-whiskers.pdf","url_text":"\"Degradation of Power Contacts in Industrial Atmosphere: Silver Corrosion and Whiskers\""}]},{"reference":"Dutta, Paritam K.; Rabaey, Korneel; Yuan, Zhiguo; Rozendal, René A.; Keller, Jürg (2010). \"Electrochemical sulfide removal and recovery from paper mill anaerobic treatment effluent\". Water Research. 44 (8): 2563–2571. Bibcode:2010WatRe..44.2563D. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2010.01.008. ISSN 0043-1354. PMID 20163816.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010WatRe..44.2563D","url_text":"2010WatRe..44.2563D"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.watres.2010.01.008","url_text":"10.1016/j.watres.2010.01.008"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0043-1354","url_text":"0043-1354"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20163816","url_text":"20163816"}]},{"reference":"\"Control of Hydrogen Sulfide Generation | Water & Wastes Digest\". www.wwdmag.com. 5 March 2012. Retrieved 2018-07-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wwdmag.com/corrosion/control-hydrogen-sulfide-generation","url_text":"\"Control of Hydrogen Sulfide Generation | Water & Wastes Digest\""}]},{"reference":"Chen, Lidong (2018). \"Room-temperature ductile inorganic semiconductor\". Nature Materials. 17: 421–426.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nature.com/articles/s41563-018-0047-z","url_text":"\"Room-temperature ductile inorganic semiconductor\""}]},{"reference":"Chen, Lidong. \"Flexible thermoelectrics based on ductile semiconductors\". Science. 377 (6608): 854–858.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/science.abq0682","url_text":"\"Flexible thermoelectrics based on ductile semiconductors\""}]},{"reference":"\"1833 - First Semiconductor Effect is Recorded\". Computer History Museum. Retrieved 24 June 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/1833-first.html","url_text":"\"1833 - First Semiconductor Effect is Recorded\""}]},{"reference":"Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-08-037941-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_Greenwood","url_text":"Greenwood, Norman N."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterworth-Heinemann","url_text":"Butterworth-Heinemann"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-037941-8","url_text":"978-0-08-037941-8"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_C._Earle
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Stephen C. Earle
|
["1 Selected works","1.1 Worcester, Massachusetts","1.2 Other Massachusetts","1.3 Connecticut","1.4 Rhode Island","1.5 Iowa","1.6 Nova Scotia, Canada","2 Gallery","3 References","4 Further reading","5 External links"]
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American architect
"Stephen Earle" redirects here. For the musician, see Steve Earle. For the footballer, see Steve Earle (footballer).
Stephen Carpenter EarleBorn(1839-01-04)January 4, 1839Leicester, MassachusettsDiedDecember 12, 1913(1913-12-12) (aged 74)Worcester, MassachusettsNationalityAmericanOccupationArchitectParent(s)Hannah CarpenterAmos S. EarleBuildingsSlater Memorial MuseumJonas Clark HallOld ChapelWhitcomb MansionUnion Congregational ChurchPilgrim Congregational ChurchCarroll BuildingProjectsGrinnell College
Signature
Stephen Carpenter Earle (January 4, 1839 – December 12, 1913) was an architect who designed a number of buildings in Massachusetts and Connecticut that were built in the late 19th century, with many in Worcester, Massachusetts. He trained in the office of Calvert Vaux in New York City. He worked for a time in partnership with James E. Fuller, under the firm "Earle & Fuller". In 1891, he formed a partnership with Vermont architect Clellan W. Fisher under the name "Earle & Fisher".
Earle's most noted work is the Richardsonian Romanesque Slater Memorial Museum on the campus of the Norwich Free Academy in Norwich, Connecticut, where he had a generous budget and a sympathetic patron. In 2015, the Hartford Courant called the Slater Museum the "crown jewel among Norwich's cultural treasures" and "a masterpiece of Romanesque revival design."
In December 1913, Earle died at Memorial Hospital in Worcester after becoming ill with pneumonia. He is buried in the Quaker Cemetery, Leicester, Massachusetts.
Selected works
He designed university buildings, commercial buildings, churches, and more. Among his university clients were Clark University, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, and Grinnell College.
Worcester, Massachusetts
Armsby Block, 144-148 Main St.
Bancroft Tower, Bancroft Tower Rd. (Earle & Fisher)
Boynton Hall, the first building at Worcester Polytechnic Institute (1868); Earle's son Ralph later became WPI's sixth president.
Central Congregational Church, corner of Grove St. and Institute Rd. (1886)
Hope Cemetery, 119 Webster St.
Jonas Clark Hall, Clark University campus (1887)
John Legg House, 5 Claremont St.
One or more structures in Oxford-Crown Historic District, Roughly bounded by Chatham, Congress, Crown, Pleasant, Oxford Sts. and Oxford Pl.
Pilgrim Congregational Church, 909 Main St.
Providence Street Firehouse, 98 Providence St. (Earle & Fisher)
Salisbury Factory Building 2, 49-51 Union St.
South Unitarian Church, 888 Main St. (Earle & Fisher)
St. Mark's Episcopal Church (Worcester, Massachusetts), Freeland St., a Romanesque building built in 1888, listed on the NRHP
St. Matthew's Episcopal Church (Worcester, Massachusetts), 693 Southbridge St. (Earle & Fisher)
D. Wheeler Swift House, 22 Oak Ave.
Union Congregational Church, 5 Chestnut St. (Earle,Stephen & C. Fisher)
Walker-White House, a Queen Anne house at 47 Harvard Street in Worcester
One or more structures in Washburn Square-Leicester Common Historic District, Main St., Washburn Sq., 3 Paxton St. Leicester MA (Earle & Fisher)
Whitcomb Mansion, 51 Harvard St.
Worcester Art Museum original building, 55 Salisbury St.
Worcester County Courthouse, 2 Main Street, 1878 addition to original structure
Worcester Five Cents Savings Bank, 316 Main St., built in 1891
Other Massachusetts
Christ Church Cathedral, Springfield, Massachusetts, built in 1876
Old Chapel, University of Massachusetts campus, Amherst, Massachusetts
Leicester Public Library, 1136 Main Street, Leicester, Massachusetts
Pilgrim Congregational Church, Columbia Rd, Dorchester, Massachusetts
Lyon Memorial Library (Monson Free Library), 2 High St., Monson, Massachusetts
One or more structures in Princeton Center Historic District, Jct. of Hubbardston and Mountain Rds., Princeton, Massachusetts
Old Chapel, at the University of Massachusetts Amherst, built in 1885
Rock Castle School, Prospect St., Webster, Massachusetts, (Earle & Fuller)
Memorial Hall, Canton, Massachusetts
Sacred Heart R. C. Church, Gardner, Massachusetts, 1887-93
Connecticut
Carroll Building, 9-15 Main St., and 14-20 Water St., Norwich, Connecticut, a building built in 1887, listed on the National Register of Historic Places
Slater Library and Fanning Annex, 26 Main St., Griswold, Connecticut
Slater Memorial Museum, said to be perhaps his finest work.
Park Congregational Church
Rhode Island
Burnside Memorial Hall in Bristol, Rhode Island, is a two-story Richardsonian Romanesque public building on Hope Street. It was dedicated in 1883 by President Chester A. Arthur and Governor Augustus O. Bourn, to the memory of Ambrose Burnside, Civil War General and Rhode Island Governor.
Rogers Free Library, Bristol, Rhode Island
Iowa
Goodnow Hall, the oldest building on the Grinnell College campus (Grinnell, Iowa), built after most of the campus was destroyed by tornado in 1882
Mears Hall, Grinnell College campus, Grinnell, Iowa
Nova Scotia, Canada
Trinity Anglican Church, Digby, Nova Scotia built in 1878. It was declared a National Historic Site in 1990. It replaced the original church built by Loyalist settlers on the site in 1788.
Christ Church (Anglican), Windsor, Nova Scotia, constructed in 1882. Designed by Earle, it was built by a local contractor, Joseph Taylor. The building is a fine example of the carpenter gothic style architecture that influenced many church buildings from the mid-nineteenth century onwards in the Maritimes.
Gallery
Boynton Hall, Worcester Polytechnic Institute (1868)
Slater Memorial Museum (1886)
Jonas Clark Hall, Clark University (1887)
Old Chapel, Amherst
South Unitarian Church in Worcester
Bristol, Rhode Island Town Hall (1883)
References
^ UMass people:Stephen C Earle
^ "An Architect Co-Partnership". The Burlington Free Press and Times. June 30, 1891. p. 5 – via Newspapers.com.
^ Norwich Free Academy: Slater Memorial Museum: History.
^ "Daycation". Hartford Courant. September 6, 2015. p. F5 – via Newspapers.com.
^ "Old Worcester Architect Dead". Fitchburg Daily Sentinel. December 13, 1913. p. 12 – via Newspapers.com.
^ "Bankers at services". Boston Globe. December 15, 1913. p. 14.
^ "Boynton Hall". Buildings & Facilities Locations. Worcester Polytechnic Institute. Retrieved August 2, 2020.
^ a b Martinez, Ciera. "Stephen C. Earle's Romanesque Revival Architecture". College of the Holy Cross. Retrieved August 2, 2020.
^ a b "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. March 13, 2009.
^ a b c d "Buildings of Stephen C. Earle". Historic Buildings of Massachusetts. January 5, 2014. Retrieved July 8, 2017.
^ John J. McCoy, "Diocese of Springfield" in History of the Catholic Church in the New England States, vol. 2 (Boston: Hurd & Everts Company, 1899): 772-775.
^ Marshall, Philip C. "Hope Street Survey Descriptions". Philip C. Marshall. Retrieved September 6, 2015. Stephen C. Earle ... designed this elaborate, polychromed, 2-story Richardsonian Romesque public building.
^ Rhode Island Historical Preservation Commission (1990). Historic and architectural resources of Bristol, Rhode Island. Rhode Island Historical Preservation Commission. p. 22. OCLC 936128320.
^ "Visit Grinnell". The Des Moines Register. December 21, 2006. p. 14GR – via Newspapers.com.
^ "Trinity Anglican Church National Historic Site of Canada". Parks Canada. Government of Canada. Retrieved May 8, 2024.
^ "Welcome". Christ Church. March 8, 2009. Retrieved July 7, 2021.
Further reading
Diaries of Ruth Earle Southwick 1921–1925, ISBN 9781512128819. Ruth was the fourth of Stephen C. Earle's five children and his only daughter.
Stephen C. Earle, Architect: Shaping Worcester's Image, available through the Worcester Historical Museum
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Stephen C. Earle.
Stephen C. Earle at Find a Grave
Authority control databases International
VIAF
Artists
ULAN
Other
SNAC
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Steve Earle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Earle"},{"link_name":"Steve Earle (footballer)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Earle_(footballer)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Worcester, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worcester,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Calvert Vaux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calvert_Vaux"},{"link_name":"James E. Fuller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_E._Fuller"},{"link_name":"Clellan W. Fisher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clellan_W._Fisher"},{"link_name":"Earle & Fisher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earle_%26_Fisher"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Richardsonian Romanesque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richardsonian_Romanesque"},{"link_name":"Slater Memorial Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slater_Memorial_Museum"},{"link_name":"Norwich Free Academy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwich_Free_Academy"},{"link_name":"Norwich, Connecticut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwich,_Connecticut"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Quaker Cemetery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaker_Cemetery"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"\"Stephen Earle\" redirects here. For the musician, see Steve Earle. For the footballer, see Steve Earle (footballer).Stephen Carpenter Earle (January 4, 1839 – December 12, 1913)[1] was an architect who designed a number of buildings in Massachusetts and Connecticut that were built in the late 19th century, with many in Worcester, Massachusetts. He trained in the office of Calvert Vaux in New York City. He worked for a time in partnership with James E. Fuller, under the firm \"Earle & Fuller\". In 1891, he formed a partnership with Vermont architect Clellan W. Fisher under the name \"Earle & Fisher\".[2]Earle's most noted work is the Richardsonian Romanesque Slater Memorial Museum on the campus of the Norwich Free Academy in Norwich, Connecticut, where he had a generous budget and a sympathetic patron.[3] In 2015, the Hartford Courant called the Slater Museum the \"crown jewel among Norwich's cultural treasures\" and \"a masterpiece of Romanesque revival design.\"[4]In December 1913, Earle died at Memorial Hospital in Worcester after becoming ill with pneumonia.[5] He is buried in the Quaker Cemetery, Leicester, Massachusetts.[6]","title":"Stephen C. Earle"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Clark University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clark_University"},{"link_name":"Worcester Polytechnic Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worcester_Polytechnic_Institute"},{"link_name":"Grinnell College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grinnell_College"}],"text":"He designed university buildings, commercial buildings, churches, and more. Among his university clients were Clark University, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, and Grinnell College.","title":"Selected works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Armsby Block","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armsby_Block"},{"link_name":"Bancroft Tower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bancroft_Tower"},{"link_name":"Worcester Polytechnic Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worcester_Polytechnic_Institute"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WPI-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Martinez-8"},{"link_name":"Hope Cemetery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hope_Cemetery_(Worcester,_Massachusetts)"},{"link_name":"Clark University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clark_University"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Martinez-8"},{"link_name":"John Legg House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Legg_House"},{"link_name":"Oxford-Crown Historic District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford-Crown_Historic_District"},{"link_name":"Pilgrim Congregational Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilgrim_Congregational_Church_(Worcester,_Massachusetts)"},{"link_name":"Providence Street Firehouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Providence_Street_Firehouse"},{"link_name":"Salisbury Factory Building 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salisbury_Factory_Building_2"},{"link_name":"South Unitarian Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Unitarian_Church"},{"link_name":"St. Mark's Episcopal Church (Worcester, Massachusetts)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Mark%27s_Episcopal_Church_(Worcester,_Massachusetts)"},{"link_name":"Romanesque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanesque_Revival_architecture"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nris-9"},{"link_name":"St. Matthew's Episcopal Church (Worcester, Massachusetts)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Matthew%27s_Episcopal_Church_(Worcester,_Massachusetts)"},{"link_name":"D. Wheeler Swift House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D._Wheeler_Swift_House"},{"link_name":"Union Congregational Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Congregational_Church_(Worcester,_Massachusetts)"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HBM-10"},{"link_name":"Washburn Square-Leicester Common Historic District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washburn_Square-Leicester_Common_Historic_District"},{"link_name":"Whitcomb Mansion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitcomb_Mansion"},{"link_name":"Worcester Art Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worcester_Art_Museum"},{"link_name":"Worcester County Courthouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worcester_County_Courthouse"},{"link_name":"Worcester Five Cents Savings Bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worcester_Five_Cents_Savings_Bank"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HBM-10"}],"sub_title":"Worcester, Massachusetts","text":"Armsby Block, 144-148 Main St.\nBancroft Tower, Bancroft Tower Rd. (Earle & Fisher)\nBoynton Hall, the first building at Worcester Polytechnic Institute (1868); Earle's son Ralph later became WPI's sixth president.[7]\nCentral Congregational Church, corner of Grove St. and Institute Rd. (1886)[8]\nHope Cemetery, 119 Webster St.\nJonas Clark Hall, Clark University campus (1887)[8]\nJohn Legg House, 5 Claremont St.\nOne or more structures in Oxford-Crown Historic District, Roughly bounded by Chatham, Congress, Crown, Pleasant, Oxford Sts. and Oxford Pl.\nPilgrim Congregational Church, 909 Main St.\nProvidence Street Firehouse, 98 Providence St. (Earle & Fisher)\nSalisbury Factory Building 2, 49-51 Union St.\nSouth Unitarian Church, 888 Main St. (Earle & Fisher)\nSt. Mark's Episcopal Church (Worcester, Massachusetts), Freeland St., a Romanesque building built in 1888, listed on the NRHP[9]\nSt. Matthew's Episcopal Church (Worcester, Massachusetts), 693 Southbridge St. (Earle & Fisher)\nD. Wheeler Swift House, 22 Oak Ave.\nUnion Congregational Church, 5 Chestnut St. (Earle,Stephen & C. Fisher)\nWalker-White House, a Queen Anne house at 47 Harvard Street in Worcester[10]\nOne or more structures in Washburn Square-Leicester Common Historic District, Main St., Washburn Sq., 3 Paxton St. Leicester MA (Earle & Fisher)\nWhitcomb Mansion, 51 Harvard St.\nWorcester Art Museum original building, 55 Salisbury St.\nWorcester County Courthouse, 2 Main Street, 1878 addition to original structure\nWorcester Five Cents Savings Bank, 316 Main St., built in 1891[10]","title":"Selected works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Christ Church Cathedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christ_Church_Cathedral_(Springfield,_Massachusetts)"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HBM-10"},{"link_name":"Old Chapel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Chapel_(Amherst,_Massachusetts)"},{"link_name":"University of Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Massachusetts_Amherst"},{"link_name":"Monson, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monson,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Princeton Center Historic District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton_Center_Historic_District"},{"link_name":"Princeton, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Old Chapel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Chapel_(Amherst,_Massachusetts)"},{"link_name":"University of Massachusetts Amherst","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Massachusetts_Amherst"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HBM-10"},{"link_name":"Rock Castle School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_Castle_School"},{"link_name":"Webster, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Webster,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Canton, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canton,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Gardner, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardner,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"sub_title":"Other Massachusetts","text":"Christ Church Cathedral, Springfield, Massachusetts, built in 1876[10]\nOld Chapel, University of Massachusetts campus, Amherst, Massachusetts\nLeicester Public Library, 1136 Main Street, Leicester, Massachusetts\nPilgrim Congregational Church, Columbia Rd, Dorchester, Massachusetts\nLyon Memorial Library (Monson Free Library), 2 High St., Monson, Massachusetts\nOne or more structures in Princeton Center Historic District, Jct. of Hubbardston and Mountain Rds., Princeton, Massachusetts\nOld Chapel, at the University of Massachusetts Amherst, built in 1885[10]\nRock Castle School, Prospect St., Webster, Massachusetts, (Earle & Fuller)\nMemorial Hall, Canton, Massachusetts\nSacred Heart R. C. Church, Gardner, Massachusetts, 1887-93[11]","title":"Selected works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Carroll Building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carroll_Building_(Norwich,_Connecticut)"},{"link_name":"Norwich, Connecticut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwich,_Connecticut"},{"link_name":"National Register of Historic Places","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nris-9"},{"link_name":"Slater Library and Fanning Annex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slater_Library_and_Fanning_Annex"},{"link_name":"Griswold, Connecticut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griswold,_Connecticut"},{"link_name":"Slater Memorial Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slater_Memorial_Museum"}],"sub_title":"Connecticut","text":"Carroll Building, 9-15 Main St., and 14-20 Water St., Norwich, Connecticut, a building built in 1887, listed on the National Register of Historic Places[9]\nSlater Library and Fanning Annex, 26 Main St., Griswold, Connecticut\nSlater Memorial Museum, said to be perhaps his finest work.\nPark Congregational Church","title":"Selected works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bristol, Rhode Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol,_Rhode_Island"},{"link_name":"Chester A. Arthur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chester_A._Arthur"},{"link_name":"Augustus O. Bourn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus_O._Bourn"},{"link_name":"Ambrose Burnside","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambrose_Burnside"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Bristol, Rhode Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol,_Rhode_Island"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"sub_title":"Rhode Island","text":"Burnside Memorial Hall in Bristol, Rhode Island, is a two-story Richardsonian Romanesque public building on Hope Street. It was dedicated in 1883 by President Chester A. Arthur and Governor Augustus O. Bourn, to the memory of Ambrose Burnside, Civil War General and Rhode Island Governor.[12]\nRogers Free Library, Bristol, Rhode Island[13]","title":"Selected works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Goodnow Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goodnow_Hall_(Grinnell_College)"},{"link_name":"Grinnell College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grinnell_College"},{"link_name":"Grinnell, Iowa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grinnell,_Iowa"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Grinnell College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grinnell_College"},{"link_name":"Grinnell, Iowa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grinnell,_Iowa"}],"sub_title":"Iowa","text":"Goodnow Hall, the oldest building on the Grinnell College campus (Grinnell, Iowa), built after most of the campus was destroyed by tornado in 1882[14]\nMears Hall, Grinnell College campus, Grinnell, Iowa","title":"Selected works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Digby, Nova Scotia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digby,_Nova_Scotia"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Windsor, Nova Scotia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windsor,_Nova_Scotia"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"sub_title":"Nova Scotia, Canada","text":"Trinity Anglican Church, Digby, Nova Scotia built in 1878. It was declared a National Historic Site in 1990. It replaced the original church built by Loyalist settlers on the site in 1788.[15]\nChrist Church (Anglican), Windsor, Nova Scotia, constructed in 1882. Designed by Earle, it was built by a local contractor, Joseph Taylor. The building is a fine example of the carpenter gothic style architecture that influenced many church buildings from the mid-nineteenth century onwards in the Maritimes.[16]","title":"Selected works"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boynton_Hall,_Worcester_Polytechnic_Institute.jpg"},{"link_name":"Worcester Polytechnic Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worcester_Polytechnic_Institute"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:John_Fox_Slater_Memorial_Museum,_108_Crescent_Street,_Norwich_(New_London_County,_Connecticut).jpg"},{"link_name":"Slater Memorial Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slater_Memorial_Museum"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:JonasClarkBuilding.JPG"},{"link_name":"Clark University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clark_University"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_Chapel_6.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:888_Main_Street_Worcester.jpg"},{"link_name":"South Unitarian Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Unitarian_Church"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Burnside_Memorial_Building_and_Civil_War_Memorial.jpg"},{"link_name":"Bristol, Rhode Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol,_Rhode_Island"}],"text":"Boynton Hall, Worcester Polytechnic Institute (1868)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSlater Memorial Museum (1886)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tJonas Clark Hall, Clark University (1887)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tOld Chapel, Amherst\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSouth Unitarian Church in Worcester\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tBristol, Rhode Island Town Hall (1883)","title":"Gallery"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9781512128819","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781512128819"}],"text":"Diaries of Ruth Earle Southwick 1921–1925, ISBN 9781512128819. Ruth was the fourth of Stephen C. Earle's five children and his only daughter.\nStephen C. Earle, Architect: Shaping Worcester's Image, available through the Worcester Historical Museum","title":"Further reading"}]
|
[]
| null |
[{"reference":"\"An Architect Co-Partnership\". The Burlington Free Press and Times. June 30, 1891. p. 5 – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/12250671/an_architect_copartnership_earle/","url_text":"\"An Architect Co-Partnership\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newspapers.com","url_text":"Newspapers.com"}]},{"reference":"\"Daycation\". Hartford Courant. September 6, 2015. p. F5 – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/12250475/daycation/","url_text":"\"Daycation\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newspapers.com","url_text":"Newspapers.com"}]},{"reference":"\"Old Worcester Architect Dead\". Fitchburg Daily Sentinel. December 13, 1913. p. 12 – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/12250268/old_worcester_architect_dead/","url_text":"\"Old Worcester Architect Dead\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newspapers.com","url_text":"Newspapers.com"}]},{"reference":"\"Bankers at services\". Boston Globe. December 15, 1913. p. 14.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Boynton Hall\". Buildings & Facilities Locations. Worcester Polytechnic Institute. Retrieved August 2, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wpi.edu/about/locations/boynton-hall","url_text":"\"Boynton Hall\""}]},{"reference":"Martinez, Ciera. \"Stephen C. Earle's Romanesque Revival Architecture\". College of the Holy Cross. Retrieved August 2, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://college.holycross.edu/projects/ArtandChurch1900/Central_Con_1.html","url_text":"\"Stephen C. Earle's Romanesque Revival Architecture\""}]},{"reference":"\"National Register Information System\". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. March 13, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP","url_text":"\"National Register Information System\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places","url_text":"National Register of Historic Places"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Park_Service","url_text":"National Park Service"}]},{"reference":"\"Buildings of Stephen C. Earle\". Historic Buildings of Massachusetts. January 5, 2014. Retrieved July 8, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://mass.historicbuildingsct.com/?tag=stephen-c-earle","url_text":"\"Buildings of Stephen C. Earle\""}]},{"reference":"Marshall, Philip C. \"Hope Street Survey Descriptions\". Philip C. Marshall. Retrieved September 6, 2015. Stephen C. Earle ... designed this elaborate, polychromed, 2-story Richardsonian Romesque public building.","urls":[{"url":"http://philipmarshall.net/Teaching/rwuhp175/descriptions_hope_street.htm","url_text":"\"Hope Street Survey Descriptions\""}]},{"reference":"Rhode Island Historical Preservation Commission (1990). Historic and architectural resources of Bristol, Rhode Island. Rhode Island Historical Preservation Commission. p. 22. OCLC 936128320.","urls":[{"url":"http://worldcat.org/oclc/936128320","url_text":"Historic and architectural resources of Bristol, Rhode Island"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/936128320","url_text":"936128320"}]},{"reference":"\"Visit Grinnell\". The Des Moines Register. December 21, 2006. p. 14GR – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/12250793/visit_grinnell/","url_text":"\"Visit Grinnell\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newspapers.com","url_text":"Newspapers.com"}]},{"reference":"\"Trinity Anglican Church National Historic Site of Canada\". Parks Canada. Government of Canada. Retrieved May 8, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pc.gc.ca/apps/dfhd/page_nhs_eng.aspx?id=263","url_text":"\"Trinity Anglican Church National Historic Site of Canada\""}]},{"reference":"\"Welcome\". Christ Church. March 8, 2009. Retrieved July 7, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://christchurchwindsor.ca/welcome/","url_text":"\"Welcome\""}]}]
|
[{"Link":"http://people.umass.edu/amae000/scearle.htm","external_links_name":"UMass people:Stephen C Earle"},{"Link":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/12250671/an_architect_copartnership_earle/","external_links_name":"\"An Architect Co-Partnership\""},{"Link":"http://www.nfaschool.org/page.cfm?p=469","external_links_name":"Norwich Free Academy: Slater Memorial Museum: History"},{"Link":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/12250475/daycation/","external_links_name":"\"Daycation\""},{"Link":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/12250268/old_worcester_architect_dead/","external_links_name":"\"Old Worcester Architect Dead\""},{"Link":"https://www.wpi.edu/about/locations/boynton-hall","external_links_name":"\"Boynton Hall\""},{"Link":"https://college.holycross.edu/projects/ArtandChurch1900/Central_Con_1.html","external_links_name":"\"Stephen C. Earle's Romanesque Revival Architecture\""},{"Link":"https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP","external_links_name":"\"National Register Information System\""},{"Link":"http://mass.historicbuildingsct.com/?tag=stephen-c-earle","external_links_name":"\"Buildings of Stephen C. Earle\""},{"Link":"http://philipmarshall.net/Teaching/rwuhp175/descriptions_hope_street.htm","external_links_name":"\"Hope Street Survey Descriptions\""},{"Link":"http://worldcat.org/oclc/936128320","external_links_name":"Historic and architectural resources of Bristol, Rhode Island"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/936128320","external_links_name":"936128320"},{"Link":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/12250793/visit_grinnell/","external_links_name":"\"Visit Grinnell\""},{"Link":"https://www.pc.gc.ca/apps/dfhd/page_nhs_eng.aspx?id=263","external_links_name":"\"Trinity Anglican Church National Historic Site of Canada\""},{"Link":"http://christchurchwindsor.ca/welcome/","external_links_name":"\"Welcome\""},{"Link":"https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/6143089","external_links_name":"Stephen C. Earle"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/96092785","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://www.getty.edu/vow/ULANFullDisplay?find=&role=&nation=&subjectid=500060936","external_links_name":"ULAN"},{"Link":"https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6ht466f","external_links_name":"SNAC"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodney_riots
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Rodney riots
|
["1 See also","2 External links"]
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1968 civil unrest in Kingston, Jamaica
This article is about riots in Jamaica in 1968. For information about the so-called "Rodney King Riots", see 1992 Los Angeles riots.
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Rodney riots" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
The Rodney riots were riots and civil disturbances in Kingston, Jamaica in October 1968.
The riots were sparked by the Jamaican government of Hugh Shearer banning Guyanese university lecturer Dr. Walter Rodney from returning to his teaching position at the University of the West Indies. Rodney, a historian of Africa had been active in the Black power movement, and had been sharply critical of the middle class in many Caribbean countries. Rodney was an avowed socialist who worked with the poor of Jamaica in an attempt to raise their political and cultural consciousness.
When Rodney attended a black writers' conference in Montreal, Quebec, Canada in October 1968 the government took the opportunity to ban him from returning, citing among other things trips to Cuba and the USSR as justification.
On learning of the ban, students at UWI, Mona began a demonstration under the leadership of the Guild of Undergraduates, closing down the campus. They then proceeded to march first to the prime minister's residence, and then to the parliament building in Kingston. On the way many more demonstrators joined in, and eventually the disturbance became increasingly violent spreading across the city. Eventually, several people were killed and there were millions of dollars in property damages.
The riots were part of an emerging black consciousness movement in the Caribbean, and helped inspire the 1970 Black Power Revolution in Trinidad and Tobago.
See also
Protests of 1968
Black Power Revolution
External links
Michael O. West (November 2005). "WALTER RODNEY AND BLACK POWER: JAMAICAN INTELLIGENCE AND US DIPLOMACY" (PDF). African Journal of Criminology and Justice Studies. 1 (2). ISSN 1554-3897. Retrieved 26 June 2011.
Walter Rodney and Heresy
vteProtests of 1968Movements
1968–69 Japanese university protests
Zenkyōtō
1968 movement in Italy
1968 movement in Pakistan
Civil Rights Movement
Anti-nuclear movement
Black Consciousness Movement
Black power movement
Black Power Revolution
Chicano Movement
Cultural Revolution
Gay liberation
Hippie movement
Human rights movement in the Soviet Union
Mexican Movement of 1968
Movement of 22 March
Northern Ireland civil rights movement
Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War
Red Power movement
Sexual revolution
The Troubles
West German student movement
Women's liberation movement
Events
1968 Democratic National Convention protests
"The whole world is watching"
1968 Polish political crisis
1968 protests in Egypt
1968 student demonstrations in Yugoslavia
1968 Miami riot
1968 Red Square demonstration
1968 uprising in Senegal
Båstad riots
Battle of Valle Giulia
Ceaușescu's speech of 21 August 1968
Central Park be-ins
Columbia University protests of 1968
Delano grape strike
East L.A. walkouts
King assassination riots
Mafeje affair
March of the One Hundred Thousand
May 1968 in France
Memphis sanitation strike
Miss America protest
Occupation of the Student Union Building
Poor People's Campaign
Prague Spring
Presidio mutiny
Rodney riots
Shinjuku riot
Silence March
Takeover of Vanha
Third World Liberation Front strikes of 1968
Tlatelolco massacre
Related
1968 Summer Olympics
Anti-capitalism
Black power
Counterculture of the 1960s
Flower power
Free love
Hippie
Antisemitism in Poland
Hot Autumn
New Left
Racism in the United States
School discipline
Second-wave feminism
Years of Lead (Italy)
Morocco
Segregation in Northern Ireland
Student activism
Vietnam War
Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"1992 Los Angeles riots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992_Los_Angeles_riots"},{"link_name":"riots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riot"},{"link_name":"Kingston, Jamaica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingston,_Jamaica"},{"link_name":"Hugh Shearer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Shearer"},{"link_name":"Walter Rodney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Rodney"},{"link_name":"University of the West Indies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_the_West_Indies"},{"link_name":"Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa"},{"link_name":"Black power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_power"},{"link_name":"middle class","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_class"},{"link_name":"socialist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist"},{"link_name":"Montreal, Quebec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montreal,_Quebec"},{"link_name":"Cuba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuba"},{"link_name":"USSR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USSR"},{"link_name":"Kingston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingston,_Jamaica"},{"link_name":"black consciousness movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_consciousness_movement"},{"link_name":"Black Power Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Power_Revolution"},{"link_name":"Trinidad and Tobago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinidad_and_Tobago"}],"text":"This article is about riots in Jamaica in 1968. For information about the so-called \"Rodney King Riots\", see 1992 Los Angeles riots.The Rodney riots were riots and civil disturbances in Kingston, Jamaica in October 1968.The riots were sparked by the Jamaican government of Hugh Shearer banning Guyanese university lecturer Dr. Walter Rodney from returning to his teaching position at the University of the West Indies. Rodney, a historian of Africa had been active in the Black power movement, and had been sharply critical of the middle class in many Caribbean countries. Rodney was an avowed socialist who worked with the poor of Jamaica in an attempt to raise their political and cultural consciousness.When Rodney attended a black writers' conference in Montreal, Quebec, Canada in October 1968 the government took the opportunity to ban him from returning, citing among other things trips to Cuba and the USSR as justification.On learning of the ban, students at UWI, Mona began a demonstration under the leadership of the Guild of Undergraduates, closing down the campus. They then proceeded to march first to the prime minister's residence, and then to the parliament building in Kingston. On the way many more demonstrators joined in, and eventually the disturbance became increasingly violent spreading across the city. Eventually, several people were killed and there were millions of dollars in property damages.The riots were part of an emerging black consciousness movement in the Caribbean, and helped inspire the 1970 Black Power Revolution in Trinidad and Tobago.","title":"Rodney riots"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"Protests of 1968","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protests_of_1968"},{"title":"Black Power Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Power_Revolution"}]
|
[{"reference":"Michael O. West (November 2005). \"WALTER RODNEY AND BLACK POWER: JAMAICAN INTELLIGENCE AND US DIPLOMACY\" (PDF). African Journal of Criminology and Justice Studies. 1 (2). ISSN 1554-3897. Retrieved 26 June 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.umes.edu/cms300uploadedFiles/AJCJS/VOL1.2.WEST%20FINAL.pdf","url_text":"\"WALTER RODNEY AND BLACK POWER: JAMAICAN INTELLIGENCE AND US DIPLOMACY\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1554-3897","url_text":"1554-3897"}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Rodney+riots%22","external_links_name":"\"Rodney riots\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Rodney+riots%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Rodney+riots%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Rodney+riots%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Rodney+riots%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Rodney+riots%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"http://www.umes.edu/cms300uploadedFiles/AJCJS/VOL1.2.WEST%20FINAL.pdf","external_links_name":"\"WALTER RODNEY AND BLACK POWER: JAMAICAN INTELLIGENCE AND US DIPLOMACY\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1554-3897","external_links_name":"1554-3897"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20041105060409/http://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/%7Emarto/pbs/roberts.htm","external_links_name":"Walter Rodney and Heresy"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memorandum_opinion
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Memorandum opinion
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["1 See also","2 References"]
|
Legal and judicial opinions
Majority opinion
Dissenting opinion
Plurality opinion
Concurring opinion
Memorandum opinion
Per curiam opinion
Seriatim opinion
vte
Under United States legal practice, a memorandum opinion is usually unpublished and cannot be cited as precedent. It is formally defined as: " unanimous appellate opinion that succinctly states the decision of the court; an opinion that briefly reports the court's conclusion, usu. without elaboration because the decision follows a well-established legal principle or does not relate to any point of law."
Generally, memorandum opinions follow ordinary rules, including the application of precedent and the rule of stare decisis. However, in many courts (for example, the Appellate Division of the Supreme Court of New York), the style of analysis in memorandum opinions is much more concise and conclusory than it would be in an opinion intended for publication. That is, long strings of case citations are often inserted without explication or analysis of the applicability of the cited cases. In contrast, the California Constitution requires that all appellate decisions in California must be decided "in writing with reasons stated," which the Supreme Court of California has interpreted as requiring detailed written opinions even in frivolous cases. Nonetheless, the Courts of Appeal have the discretion not to certify opinions in frivolous cases for publication.
Memorandum opinions are often issued in areas of well-settled law or where a particular set of facts may create imprudent case law.
See also
Published opinion
Legal opinion
References
^ Black's Law Dictionary, 1201 (9th ed. 2009).
^ People v. Kelly, 40 Cal. 4th 106 (2006).
^ Schmier v. Supreme Court, 78 Cal. App. 4th 703 (2000).
This law-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"precedent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precedent"},{"link_name":"stare decisis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stare_decisis"},{"link_name":"Appellate Division of the Supreme Court of New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Supreme_Court,_Appellate_Division"},{"link_name":"California Constitution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Constitution"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"Under United States legal practice, a memorandum opinion is usually unpublished and cannot be cited as precedent. It is formally defined as: \"[a] unanimous appellate opinion that succinctly states the decision of the court; an opinion that briefly reports the court's conclusion, usu. without elaboration because the decision follows a well-established legal principle or does not relate to any point of law.\"[1]Generally, memorandum opinions follow ordinary rules, including the application of precedent and the rule of stare decisis. However, in many courts (for example, the Appellate Division of the Supreme Court of New York), the style of analysis in memorandum opinions is much more concise and conclusory than it would be in an opinion intended for publication. That is, long strings of case citations are often inserted without explication or analysis of the applicability of the cited cases. In contrast, the California Constitution requires that all appellate decisions in California must be decided \"in writing with reasons stated,\" which the Supreme Court of California has interpreted as requiring detailed written opinions even in frivolous cases.[2] Nonetheless, the Courts of Appeal have the discretion not to certify opinions in frivolous cases for publication.[3]Memorandum opinions are often issued in areas of well-settled law or where a particular set of facts may create imprudent case law.","title":"Memorandum opinion"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"Published opinion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Published_opinion"},{"title":"Legal opinion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_opinion"}]
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[]
|
[{"Link":"http://online.ceb.com/calcases/C4/40C4t106.htm","external_links_name":"40 Cal. 4th 106"},{"Link":"http://online.ceb.com/calcases/CA4/78CA4t703.htm","external_links_name":"78 Cal. App. 4th 703"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Memorandum_opinion&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mullions
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Mullion
|
["1 History","2 Design","3 See also","4 Citations","5 General and cited references","6 External links"]
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Architectural element
For other uses, see Mullion (disambiguation).
A mullioned window in the church of San Francesco of Lodi, Lombardy
A mullion is a vertical element that forms a division between units of a window or screen, or is used decoratively. It is also often used as a division between double doors. When dividing adjacent window units its primary purpose is a rigid support to the glazing of the window. Its secondary purpose is to provide structural support to an arch or lintel above the window opening. Horizontal elements separating the head of a door from a window above are called transoms.
History
Stone mullions were used in Armenian, Saxon and Islamic architecture prior to the 10th century. They became a common and fashionable architectural feature across Europe in Romanesque architecture, with paired windows divided by a mullion, set beneath a single arch. The same structural form was used for open arcades as well as windows, and is found in galleries and cloisters.
In Gothic architecture, windows became larger and arrangements of multiple mullions and openings were used, both for structure and ornament. This is particularly the case in Gothic cathedrals and churches where stained glass was set in lead and ferramenta between the stone mullions. Mullioned windows of a simpler form continued to be used into the Renaissance and various Revival styles. Italian windows with a single mullion, dividing the window into two equal elements are said to be biforate, or to parallel the Italian bifore windows.
Design
A Moorish mullioned window in the Alhambra of Granada
Mullions may be made of any material, but wood and aluminium are most common, although glass is also used between windows. I. M. Pei used all-glass mullions in his design of JFK Airport's Terminal 6 (National Airlines Sundrome), unprecedented at the time.
Mullions are vertical elements and are often confused with transoms, which lie horizontally. In US parlance, the word is also confused with the "muntin" ("glazing bar" in the UK) which is the precise word for the very small strips of wood or metal that divide a sash into smaller glass "panes" or "lights".
A mullion acts as a structural member, in most applications the mullion transfers wind loads and weight of the glazing and upper levels into the structure below. In a curtain wall screen, however, the mullions only support the weight of the transoms, glass and any opening vents. Also in the case of a curtain wall screen the weight of glazing can be supported from above (providing the structure can take the required loads) this puts the mullions under tension rather than compression.
When a very large glazed area was desired before the middle of the nineteenth century, such as in the large windows seen in Gothic churches or Elizabethan palaces, the openings necessarily required division into a framework of mullions and transoms, often of stone. It was further necessary for each glazed panel, sash or casement to be further subdivided by muntins or lead cames because large panes of glass were reserved primarily for use as mirrors, being far too costly to use for glazing windows or doors.
In traditional designs today, mullions and transoms are normally used in combination with divided-light windows and doors when glazing porches or other large areas.
See also
Bifora, a mullioned window
Mullion wall
Citations
^ "Definition of MULLION". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2017-09-20.
^ "Biforate window – Oxford Reference". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ "building construction". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2017-09-20.
^ "I.M. Pei's JFK in Terminal Trouble - Archpaper.com". archpaper.com. Retrieved 2017-09-20.
General and cited references
Müller, W.; G. Vogel (1992). Atlante di architettura. Milan: Hoepli. ISBN 88-203-1977-2.
External links
Media related to Mullions at Wikimedia Commons
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mullion (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mullion_(disambiguation)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Open-sky-bifora-SanFrancesco-Lodi.JPG"},{"link_name":"San Francesco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francesco_(Lodi)"},{"link_name":"Lodi, Lombardy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lodi,_Lombardy"},{"link_name":"element","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_element"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"window","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Window"},{"link_name":"lintel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lintel"},{"link_name":"transoms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transom_(architectural)"}],"text":"For other uses, see Mullion (disambiguation).A mullioned window in the church of San Francesco of Lodi, LombardyA mullion is a vertical element that forms a division between units of a window or screen, or is used decoratively.[1] It is also often used as a division between double doors. When dividing adjacent window units its primary purpose is a rigid support to the glazing of the window. Its secondary purpose is to provide structural support to an arch or lintel above the window opening. Horizontal elements separating the head of a door from a window above are called transoms.","title":"Mullion"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Armenian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_architecture"},{"link_name":"Saxon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_architecture"},{"link_name":"Islamic architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture"},{"link_name":"Romanesque architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanesque_architecture"},{"link_name":"Gothic architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_architecture"},{"link_name":"Gothic cathedrals and churches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_cathedrals_and_churches"},{"link_name":"stained glass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stained_glass"},{"link_name":"Renaissance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance"},{"link_name":"Revival styles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_architecture"},{"link_name":"bifore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bifora_(architecture)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Stone mullions were used in Armenian, Saxon and Islamic architecture prior to the 10th century. They became a common and fashionable architectural feature across Europe in Romanesque architecture, with paired windows divided by a mullion, set beneath a single arch. The same structural form was used for open arcades as well as windows, and is found in galleries and cloisters.In Gothic architecture, windows became larger and arrangements of multiple mullions and openings were used, both for structure and ornament. This is particularly the case in Gothic cathedrals and churches where stained glass was set in lead and ferramenta between the stone mullions. Mullioned windows of a simpler form continued to be used into the Renaissance and various Revival styles. Italian windows with a single mullion, dividing the window into two equal elements are said to be biforate, or to parallel the Italian bifore windows.[2]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ventanas_con_arabescos_en_la_Alhambra.JPG"},{"link_name":"Moorish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moorish_architecture"},{"link_name":"Alhambra of Granada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alhambra_of_Granada"},{"link_name":"wood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood"},{"link_name":"aluminium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"I. M. Pei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I._M._Pei"},{"link_name":"all-glass mullions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_mullion_system"},{"link_name":"National Airlines Sundrome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sundrome"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"transoms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transom_(architectural)"},{"link_name":"muntin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muntin"},{"link_name":"sash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sash_window"},{"link_name":"curtain wall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curtain_wall_(architecture)"},{"link_name":"Gothic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_architecture"},{"link_name":"Elizabethan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabethan_architecture"},{"link_name":"casement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Window#Casement"},{"link_name":"cames","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Came"}],"text":"A Moorish mullioned window in the Alhambra of GranadaMullions may be made of any material, but wood and aluminium are most common, although glass is also used between windows.[3] I. M. Pei used all-glass mullions in his design of JFK Airport's Terminal 6 (National Airlines Sundrome), unprecedented at the time.[4]Mullions are vertical elements and are often confused with transoms, which lie horizontally. In US parlance, the word is also confused with the \"muntin\" (\"glazing bar\" in the UK) which is the precise word for the very small strips of wood or metal that divide a sash into smaller glass \"panes\" or \"lights\".A mullion acts as a structural member, in most applications the mullion transfers wind loads and weight of the glazing and upper levels into the structure below. In a curtain wall screen, however, the mullions only support the weight of the transoms, glass and any opening vents. Also in the case of a curtain wall screen the weight of glazing can be supported from above (providing the structure can take the required loads) this puts the mullions under tension rather than compression.When a very large glazed area was desired before the middle of the nineteenth century, such as in the large windows seen in Gothic churches or Elizabethan palaces, the openings necessarily required division into a framework of mullions and transoms, often of stone. It was further necessary for each glazed panel, sash or casement to be further subdivided by muntins or lead cames because large panes of glass were reserved primarily for use as mirrors, being far too costly to use for glazing windows or doors.In traditional designs today, mullions and transoms are normally used in combination with divided-light windows and doors when glazing porches or other large areas.","title":"Design"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"\"Definition of MULLION\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/mullion"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"\"Biforate window – Oxford Reference\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095504957?rskey=2OcdPs&result=1"},{"link_name":"cite journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_journal"},{"link_name":"help","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"\"building construction\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/83859/building-construction/60138/Development-of-building-service-and-support-systems#ref=ref105210"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"\"I.M. Pei's JFK in Terminal Trouble - Archpaper.com\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archpaper.com/2010/06/im-peis-jfk-in-terminal-trouble/"}],"text":"^ \"Definition of MULLION\". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2017-09-20.\n\n^ \"Biforate window – Oxford Reference\". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)\n\n^ \"building construction\". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2017-09-20.\n\n^ \"I.M. Pei's JFK in Terminal Trouble - Archpaper.com\". archpaper.com. Retrieved 2017-09-20.","title":"Citations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"88-203-1977-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/88-203-1977-2"}],"text":"Müller, W.; G. Vogel (1992). Atlante di architettura. Milan: Hoepli. ISBN 88-203-1977-2.","title":"General and cited references"}]
|
[{"image_text":"A mullioned window in the church of San Francesco of Lodi, Lombardy","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Open-sky-bifora-SanFrancesco-Lodi.JPG/220px-Open-sky-bifora-SanFrancesco-Lodi.JPG"},{"image_text":"A Moorish mullioned window in the Alhambra of Granada","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Ventanas_con_arabescos_en_la_Alhambra.JPG/220px-Ventanas_con_arabescos_en_la_Alhambra.JPG"}]
|
[{"title":"Bifora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bifora_(architecture)"},{"title":"Mullion wall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mullion_wall"}]
|
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|
[{"Link":"http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/mullion","external_links_name":"\"Definition of MULLION\""},{"Link":"http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095504957?rskey=2OcdPs&result=1","external_links_name":"\"Biforate window – Oxford Reference\""},{"Link":"https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/83859/building-construction/60138/Development-of-building-service-and-support-systems#ref=ref105210","external_links_name":"\"building construction\""},{"Link":"https://archpaper.com/2010/06/im-peis-jfk-in-terminal-trouble/","external_links_name":"\"I.M. Pei's JFK in Terminal Trouble - Archpaper.com\""}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scree_plot
|
Scree plot
|
["1 Etymology","2 Criticism","3 See also","4 References"]
|
Diagnostic plot
A sample scree plot produced in R. The Kaiser criterion is shown in red.
In multivariate statistics, a scree plot is a line plot of the eigenvalues of factors or principal components in an analysis. The scree plot is used to determine the number of factors to retain in an exploratory factor analysis (FA) or principal components to keep in a principal component analysis (PCA). The procedure of finding statistically significant factors or components using a scree plot is also known as a scree test. Raymond B. Cattell introduced the scree plot in 1966.
A scree plot always displays the eigenvalues in a downward curve, ordering the eigenvalues from largest to smallest. According to the scree test, the "elbow" of the graph where the eigenvalues seem to level off is found and factors or components to the left of this point should be retained as significant.
Etymology
The scree plot is named after the elbow's resemblance to a scree in nature.
Criticism
This test is sometimes criticized for its subjectivity. Scree plots can have multiple "elbows" that make it difficult to know the correct number of factors or components to retain, making the test unreliable. There is also no standard for the scaling of the x and y axes, which means that different statistical programs can produce different plots from the same data.
The test has also been criticized for producing too few factors or components for factor retention.
As the "elbow" point has been defined as point of maximum curvature, as maximum curvature captures the leveling off effect operators use to identify knees, this has led to the creation of a Kneedle algorithm.
See also
Biplot
Parallel analysis
Elbow method
Determining the number of clusters in a data set
References
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Scree plot.
^ a b George Thomas Lewith; Wayne B. Jonas; Harald Walach (23 November 2010). Clinical Research in Complementary Therapies: Principles, Problems and Solutions. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 354. ISBN 978-0-7020-4916-3.
^ Cattell, Raymond B. (1966). "The Scree Test For The Number Of Factors". Multivariate Behavioral Research. 1 (2): 245–276. doi:10.1207/s15327906mbr0102_10. PMID 26828106.
^ Alex Dmitrienko; Christy Chuang-Stein; Ralph B. D'Agostino (2007). Pharmaceutical Statistics Using SAS: A Practical Guide. SAS Institute. p. 380. ISBN 978-1-59994-357-2.
^ Norman, Geoffrey R.; Streiner, David L. (15 September 2007). Biostatistics: The bare essentials. PMPH-USA. p. 201. ISBN 978-1-55009-400-8 – via Google Books.
^ Satopaa, Ville; Albrecht, Jeannie; Irwin, David; Raghavan, Barath (2011-06-20). Finding a "kneedle" in a haystack: Detecting knee points in system behavior. 2011 / 31st International Conference on Distributed Computing Systems. IEEE Workshops. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. pp. 166–171. doi:10.1109/ICDCSW.2011.20 – via IEEE Explore.
vteStatistics
Outline
Index
Descriptive statisticsContinuous dataCenter
Mean
Arithmetic
Arithmetic-Geometric
Cubic
Generalized/power
Geometric
Harmonic
Heronian
Heinz
Lehmer
Median
Mode
Dispersion
Average absolute deviation
Coefficient of variation
Interquartile range
Percentile
Range
Standard deviation
Variance
Shape
Central limit theorem
Moments
Kurtosis
L-moments
Skewness
Count data
Index of dispersion
Summary tables
Contingency table
Frequency distribution
Grouped data
Dependence
Partial correlation
Pearson product-moment correlation
Rank correlation
Kendall's τ
Spearman's ρ
Scatter plot
Graphics
Bar chart
Biplot
Box plot
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[{"image_text":"A sample scree plot produced in R. The Kaiser criterion is shown in red.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Screeplotr.png/250px-Screeplotr.png"}]
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[{"title":"Biplot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biplot"},{"title":"Parallel analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_analysis"},{"title":"Elbow method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elbow_method_(clustering)"},{"title":"Determining the number of clusters in a data set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Determining_the_number_of_clusters_in_a_data_set"}]
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[{"reference":"George Thomas Lewith; Wayne B. Jonas; Harald Walach (23 November 2010). Clinical Research in Complementary Therapies: Principles, Problems and Solutions. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 354. ISBN 978-0-7020-4916-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=CSNw-spnFdkC&pg=PA354","url_text":"Clinical Research in Complementary Therapies: Principles, Problems and Solutions"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7020-4916-3","url_text":"978-0-7020-4916-3"}]},{"reference":"Cattell, Raymond B. (1966). \"The Scree Test For The Number Of Factors\". Multivariate Behavioral Research. 1 (2): 245–276. doi:10.1207/s15327906mbr0102_10. PMID 26828106.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1207%2Fs15327906mbr0102_10","url_text":"10.1207/s15327906mbr0102_10"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26828106","url_text":"26828106"}]},{"reference":"Alex Dmitrienko; Christy Chuang-Stein; Ralph B. D'Agostino (2007). Pharmaceutical Statistics Using SAS: A Practical Guide. SAS Institute. p. 380. ISBN 978-1-59994-357-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=FlXwIvSHND8C&pg=PA380","url_text":"Pharmaceutical Statistics Using SAS: A Practical Guide"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59994-357-2","url_text":"978-1-59994-357-2"}]},{"reference":"Norman, Geoffrey R.; Streiner, David L. (15 September 2007). Biostatistics: The bare essentials. PMPH-USA. p. 201. ISBN 978-1-55009-400-8 – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=8rkqWafdpuoC&pg=PA201","url_text":"Biostatistics: The bare essentials"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55009-400-8","url_text":"978-1-55009-400-8"}]},{"reference":"Satopaa, Ville; Albrecht, Jeannie; Irwin, David; Raghavan, Barath (2011-06-20). Finding a \"kneedle\" in a haystack: Detecting knee points in system behavior. 2011 / 31st International Conference on Distributed Computing Systems. IEEE Workshops. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. pp. 166–171. doi:10.1109/ICDCSW.2011.20 – via IEEE Explore.","urls":[{"url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/5961514","url_text":"Finding a \"kneedle\" in a haystack: Detecting knee points in system behavior"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Electrical_and_Electronics_Engineers","url_text":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FICDCSW.2011.20","url_text":"10.1109/ICDCSW.2011.20"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_methylation
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Protein methylation
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["1 Methylation by substrate","1.1 Arginine","1.2 Lysine","1.3 N-terminal methylation","1.4 Prenylcysteine","1.5 Protein phosphatase 2","1.6 L-isoaspartyl","2 Physical effects","3 References"]
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Type of post-translational modification
Protein methylation is a type of post-translational modification featuring the addition of methyl groups to proteins. It can occur on the nitrogen-containing side-chains of arginine and lysine, but also at the amino- and carboxy-termini of a number of different proteins. In biology, methyltransferases catalyze the methylation process, activated primarily by S-adenosylmethionine.
Protein methylation has been most studied in histones, where the transfer of methyl groups from S-adenosyl methionine is catalyzed by histone methyltransferases. Histones that are methylated on certain residues can act epigenetically to repress or activate gene expression.
Methylation by substrate
Multiple sites of proteins can be methylated. For some types of methylation, such as N-terminal methylation and prenylcysteine methylation, additional processing is required, whereas other types of methylation such as arginine methylation and lysine methylation do not require pre-processing.
Arginine
Arginine methylation by type I and II PRMTs
Arginine can be methylated once (monomethylated arginine) or twice (dimethylated arginine). Methylation of arginine residues is catalyzed by three different classes of protein arginine methyltransferases (PRMTs): Type I PRMTs (PRMT1, PRMT2, PRMT3, PRMT4, PRMT6, and PRMT8) attach two methyl groups to a single terminal nitrogen atom, producing asymmetric dimethylarginine (N G,N G-dimethylarginine). In contrast, type II PRMTs (PRMT5 and PRMT9) catalyze the formation of symmetric dimethylarginine with one methyl group on each terminal nitrogen (symmetric N G,N' G-dimethylarginine). Type I and II PRMTs both generate N G-monomethylarginine intermediates; PRMT7, the only known type III PRMT, produces only monomethylated arginine.
Arginine-methylation usually occurs at glycine and arginine-rich regions referred to as "GAR motifs", which is likely due to the enhanced flexibility of these regions that enables insertion of arginine into the PRMT active site. Nevertheless, PRMTs with non-GAR consensus sequences exist. PRMTs are present in the nucleus as well as in the cytoplasm. In interactions of proteins with nucleic acids, arginine residues are important hydrogen bond donors for the phosphate backbone — many arginine-methylated proteins have been found to interact with DNA or RNA.
Enzymes that facilitate histone acetylation as well as histones themselves can be arginine methylated. Arginine methylation affects the interactions between proteins and has been implicated in a variety of cellular processes, including protein trafficking, signal transduction and transcriptional regulation. In epigenetics, arginine methylation of histones H3 and H4 is associated with a more accessible chromatin structure and thus higher levels of transcription. The existence of arginine demethylases that could reverse arginine methylation is controversial.
Lysine
Lysine methylation by PKMTs and demethylation by PKDMs
Lysine can be methylated once, twice, or three times by lysine methyltransferases (PKMTs). Most lysine methyltransferases contain an evolutionarily conserved SET domain, which possesses S-adenosylmethionine-dependent methyltransferase activity, but are structurally distinct from other S-adenosylmethionine binding proteins. Lysine methylation plays a central part in how histones interact with proteins. Lysine methylation can be reverted by lysine demethylases (PKDMs).
Different SET domain-containing proteins possess distinct substrate specificities. For example, SET1, SET7 and MLL methylate lysine 4 of histone H3, whereas Suv39h1, ESET and G9a specifically methylate lysine 9 of histone H3. Methylation at lysine 4 and lysine 9 are mutually exclusive and the epigenetic consequences of site-specific methylation are diametrically opposed: Methylation at lysine 4 correlates with an active state of transcription, whereas methylation at lysine 9 is associated with transcriptional repression and heterochromatin. Other lysine residues on histone H3 and histone H4 are also important sites of methylation by specific SET domain-containing enzymes. Although histones are the prime target of lysine methyltransferases, other cellular proteins carry N-methyllysine residues, including elongation factor 1A and the calcium sensing protein calmodulin.
N-terminal methylation
Many eukaryotic proteins are post-translationally modified on their N-terminus. A common form of N-terminal modification is N-terminal methylation (Nt-methylation) by N-terminal methyltransferases (NTMTs). Proteins containing the consensus motif H2N-X-Pro-Lys- (where X can be Ala, Pro or Ser) after removal of the initiator methionine (iMet) can be subject to N-terminal α-amino-methylation. Monomethylation may have slight effects on α-amino nitrogen nucleophilicity and basicity, whereas trimethylation (or dimethylation in case of proline) will result in abolition of nucleophilicity and a permanent positive charge on the N-terminal amino group. Although from a biochemical point of view demethylation of amines is possible, Nt-methylation is considered irreversible as no N-terminal demethylase has been described to date.
Histone variants CENP-A and CENP-B have been found to be Nt-methylated in vivo.
Prenylcysteine
Eukaryotic proteins with C-termini that end in a CAAX motif are often subjected to a series of posttranslational modifications. The CAAX-tail processing takes place in three steps: First, a prenyl lipid anchor is attached to the cysteine through a thioester linkage. Then endoproteolysis occurs to remove the last three amino acids of the protein to expose the prenylcysteine α-COOH group. Finally, the exposed prenylcysteine group is methylated. The importance of this modification can be seen in targeted disruption of the methyltransferase for mouse CAAX proteins, where loss of isoprenylcysteine carboxyl methyltransferase resulted in mid-gestation lethality.
The biological function of prenylcysteine methylation is to facilitate the targeting of CAAX proteins to membrane surfaces within cells. Prenylcysteine can be demethylated and this reverse reaction is catalyzed by isoprenylcysteine carboxyl methylesterases. CAAX box containing proteins that are prenylcysteine methylated include Ras, GTP-binding proteins, nuclear lamins and certain protein kinases. Many of these proteins participate in cell signaling, and they utilize prenylcysteine methylation to concentrate them on the cytosolic surface of the plasma membrane where they are functional.
Methylations on the C-terminus can increase a protein's chemical repertoire and are known to have a major effect on the functions of a protein.
Protein phosphatase 2
In eukaryotic cells, phosphatases catalyze the removal of phosphate groups from tyrosine, serine and threonine phosphoproteins. The catalytic subunit of the major serine/threonine phosphatases, like Protein phosphatase 2 is covalently modified by the reversible methylation of its C-terminus to form a leucine carboxy methyl ester. Unlike CAAX motif methylation, no C-terminal processing is required to facilitate methylation. This C-terminal methylation event regulates the recruitment of regulatory proteins into complexes through the stimulation of protein–protein interactions, thus indirectly regulating the activity of the serine-threonine phosphatases complex. Methylation is catalyzed by a unique protein phosphatase methyltransferase. The methyl group is removed by a specific protein phosphatase methylesterase. These two opposed enzymes make serine-threonine phosphatases methylation a dynamic process in response to stimuli.
L-isoaspartyl
Damaged proteins accumulate isoaspartyl which causes protein instability, loss of biological activity and stimulation of autoimmune responses. The spontaneous age-dependent degradation of L-aspartyl residues results in the formation of a succinimidyl intermediate, a succinimide radical. This is spontaneously hydrolyzed either back to L-aspartyl or, in a more favorable reaction, to abnormal L-isoaspartyl. A methyltransferase dependent pathway exists for the conversion of L-isoaspartyl back to L-aspartyl. To prevent the accumulation of L-isoaspartyl, this residue is methylated by the protein L-isoaspartyl methyltransferase, which catalyzes the formation of a methyl ester, which in turn is converted back to a succinimidyl intermediate.
Loss and gain of function mutations have unmasked the biological importance of the L-isoaspartyl O-methyltransferase in age-related processes: Mice lacking the enzyme die young of fatal epilepsy, whereas flies engineered to over-express it have an increase in life span of over 30%.
Physical effects
A common theme with methylated proteins, as with phosphorylated proteins, is the role this modification plays in the regulation of protein–protein interactions. The arginine methylation of proteins can either inhibit or promote protein–protein interactions depending on the type of methylation. The asymmetric dimethylation of arginine residues in close proximity to proline-rich motifs can inhibit the binding to SH3 domains. The opposite effect is seen with interactions between the survival of motor neurons protein and the snRNP proteins SmD1, SmD3 and SmB/B', where binding is promoted by symmetric dimethylation of arginine residues in the snRNP proteins.
A well-characterized example of a methylation dependent protein–protein interaction is related to the selective methylation of lysine 9, by SUV39H1 on the N-terminal tail of the histone H3. Di- and tri-methylation of this lysine residue facilitates the binding of heterochromatin protein 1 (HP1). Because HP1 and Suv39h1 interact, it is thought the binding of HP1 to histone H3 is maintained and even allowed that to spread along the chromatin. The HP1 protein harbors a chromodomain which is responsible for the methyl-dependent interaction between it and lysine 9 of histone H3. It is likely that additional chromodomain-containing proteins will bind the same site as HP1, and to other lysine methylated positions on histones H3 and Histone H4.
C-terminal protein methylation regulates the assembly of protein phosphatase. Methylation of the protein phosphatase 2A catalytic subunit enhances the binding of the regulatory B subunit and facilitates holoenzyme assembly.
References
^ a b Schubert, H.; Blumenthal, R.; Cheng, X. (2007). "1 Protein methyltransferases: Their distribution among the five structural classes of adomet-dependent methyltransferases 1". The Enzymes. 24: 3–22. doi:10.1016/S1874-6047(06)80003-X. ISBN 9780121227258. PMID 26718035.
^ Walsh, Christopher (2006). "Chapter 5 – Protein Methylation" (PDF). Posttranslational modification of proteins: expanding nature's inventory. Roberts and Co. Publishers. ISBN 0-9747077-3-2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-12-29.
^ Grewal, S. I.; Rice, J. C. (2004). "Regulation of heterochromatin by histone methylation and small RNAs". Current Opinion in Cell Biology. 16 (3): 230–238. doi:10.1016/j.ceb.2004.04.002. PMID 15145346.
^ Nakayama, J. -I.; Rice, J. C.; Strahl, B. D.; Allis, C. D.; Grewal, S. I. (2001). "Role of Histone H3 Lysine 9 Methylation in Epigenetic Control of Heterochromatin Assembly". Science. 292 (5514): 110–113. Bibcode:2001Sci...292..110N. doi:10.1126/science.1060118. PMID 11283354. S2CID 16975534.
^ a b c Blanc, Roméo S.; Richard, Stéphane (2017). "Arginine Methylation: The Coming of Age". Molecular Cell. 65 (1): 8–24. doi:10.1016/j.molcel.2016.11.003. PMID 28061334.
^ a b c McBride, A.; Silver, P. (2001). "State of the Arg: Protein Methylation at Arginine Comes of Age". Cell. 106 (1): 5–8. doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(01)00423-8. PMID 11461695. S2CID 17755108.
^ Bedford, Mark T.; Clarke, Steven G. (2009). "Protein Arginine Methylation in Mammals: Who, What, and Why". Molecular Cell. 33 (1): 1–13. doi:10.1016/j.molcel.2008.12.013. PMC 3372459. PMID 19150423.
^ a b Wang, Yu-Chieh; Peterson, Suzanne E.; Loring, Jeanne F. (2013). "Protein post-translational modifications and regulation of pluripotency in human stem cells". Cell Research. 24 (2): 143–160. doi:10.1038/cr.2013.151. PMC 3915910. PMID 24217768.
^ a b c Kouzarides, T (2002). "Histone methylation in transcriptional control". Current Opinion in Genetics & Development. 12 (2): 198–209. doi:10.1016/S0959-437X(02)00287-3. PMID 11893494.
^ a b c Varland, Sylvia; Osberg, Camilla; Arnesen, Thomas (2015). "N-terminal modifications of cellular proteins: The enzymes involved, their substrate specificities and biological effects". Proteomics. 15 (14): 2385–2401. doi:10.1002/pmic.201400619. PMC 4692089. PMID 25914051.
^ a b Bergo, M (2000). "Isoprenylcysteine Carboxyl Methyltransferase Deficiency in Mice". Journal of Biological Chemistry. 276 (8): 5841–5845. doi:10.1074/jbc.c000831200. PMID 11121396.
^ Clarke, S (1993). "Protein methylation". Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 5 (6): 977–83. doi:10.1016/0955-0674(93)90080-A. PMID 8129951. S2CID 27529138.
^ a b c d Tolstykh, T (2000). "Carboxyl methylation regulates phosphoprotein phosphatase 2A by controlling the association of regulatory B subunits". The EMBO Journal. 19 (21): 5682–5691. doi:10.1093/emboj/19.21.5682. PMC 305779. PMID 11060019.
^ a b Clarke, S (2003). "Aging as war between chemical and biochemical processes: Protein methylation and the recognition of age-damaged proteins for repair". Ageing Research Reviews. 2 (3): 263–285. doi:10.1016/S1568-1637(03)00011-4. PMID 12726775. S2CID 18135051.
^ Bedford, M (2000). "Arginine Methylation Inhibits the Binding of Proline-rich Ligands to Src Homology 3, but Not WW, Domains". Journal of Biological Chemistry. 275 (21): 16030–16036. doi:10.1074/jbc.m909368199. PMID 10748127.
^ Friesen, W.; Massenet, S.; Paushkin, S.; Wyce, A.; Dreyfuss, G. (2001). "SMN, the Product of the Spinal Muscular Atrophy Gene, Binds Preferentially to Dimethylarginine-Containing Protein Targets". Molecular Cell. 7 (5): 1111–1117. doi:10.1016/S1097-2765(01)00244-1. PMID 11389857.
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"post-translational modification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-translational_modification"},{"link_name":"methyl groups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methyl_group"},{"link_name":"proteins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein"},{"link_name":"arginine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arginine"},{"link_name":"lysine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysine"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schubert_2007-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-isbn0-9747077-3-2.-2"},{"link_name":"methyltransferases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methyltransferase"},{"link_name":"S-adenosylmethionine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-adenosylmethionine"},{"link_name":"methylation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methylation"},{"link_name":"histones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histone"},{"link_name":"histone methyltransferases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histone_methyltransferase"},{"link_name":"epigenetically","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigenetics"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Grewal2004-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nakayama2001-4"}],"text":"Protein methylation is a type of post-translational modification featuring the addition of methyl groups to proteins. It can occur on the nitrogen-containing side-chains of arginine and lysine,[1][2] but also at the amino- and carboxy-termini of a number of different proteins. In biology, methyltransferases catalyze the methylation process, activated primarily by S-adenosylmethionine. \nProtein methylation has been most studied in histones, where the transfer of methyl groups from S-adenosyl methionine is catalyzed by histone methyltransferases. Histones that are methylated on certain residues can act epigenetically to repress or activate gene expression.[3][4]","title":"Protein methylation"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Multiple sites of proteins can be methylated. For some types of methylation, such as N-terminal methylation and prenylcysteine methylation, additional processing is required, whereas other types of methylation such as arginine methylation and lysine methylation do not require pre-processing.","title":"Methylation by substrate"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arginine_methylation.svg"},{"link_name":"asymmetric dimethylarginine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymmetric_dimethylarginine"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Blanc_2017-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McBride_2001-6"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Blanc_2017-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McBride_2001-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bedford_2009-7"},{"link_name":"histone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histone"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McBride_2001-6"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Blanc_2017-5"}],"sub_title":"Arginine","text":"Arginine methylation by type I and II PRMTsArginine can be methylated once (monomethylated arginine) or twice (dimethylated arginine). Methylation of arginine residues is catalyzed by three different classes of protein arginine methyltransferases (PRMTs): Type I PRMTs (PRMT1, PRMT2, PRMT3, PRMT4, PRMT6, and PRMT8) attach two methyl groups to a single terminal nitrogen atom, producing asymmetric dimethylarginine (N G,N G-dimethylarginine). In contrast, type II PRMTs (PRMT5 and PRMT9) catalyze the formation of symmetric dimethylarginine with one methyl group on each terminal nitrogen (symmetric N G,N' G-dimethylarginine). Type I and II PRMTs both generate N G-monomethylarginine intermediates; PRMT7, the only known type III PRMT, produces only monomethylated arginine. [5]Arginine-methylation usually occurs at glycine and arginine-rich regions referred to as \"GAR motifs\",[6] which is likely due to the enhanced flexibility of these regions that enables insertion of arginine into the PRMT active site. Nevertheless, PRMTs with non-GAR consensus sequences exist.[5] PRMTs are present in the nucleus as well as in the cytoplasm. In interactions of proteins with nucleic acids, arginine residues are important hydrogen bond donors for the phosphate backbone — many arginine-methylated proteins have been found to interact with DNA or RNA.[6][7]Enzymes that facilitate histone acetylation [citation needed] as well as histones themselves can be arginine methylated. Arginine methylation affects the interactions between proteins and has been implicated in a variety of cellular processes, including protein trafficking, signal transduction and transcriptional regulation.[6] In epigenetics, arginine methylation of histones H3 and H4 is associated with a more accessible chromatin structure and thus higher levels of transcription. The existence of arginine demethylases that could reverse arginine methylation is controversial.[5]","title":"Methylation by substrate"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lysine_methylation.svg"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wang_2013-8"},{"link_name":"SET domain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SET_domain"},{"link_name":"S-adenosylmethionine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-adenosylmethionine"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kouzarides_2002-9"},{"link_name":"demethylases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demethylase"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wang_2013-8"},{"link_name":"histone H3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histone_H3"},{"link_name":"histone H4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histone_H4"},{"link_name":"calmodulin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calmodulin"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kouzarides_2002-9"}],"sub_title":"Lysine","text":"Lysine methylation by PKMTs and demethylation by PKDMsLysine can be methylated once, twice, or three times by lysine methyltransferases (PKMTs).[8] Most lysine methyltransferases contain an evolutionarily conserved SET domain, which possesses S-adenosylmethionine-dependent methyltransferase activity, but are structurally distinct from other S-adenosylmethionine binding proteins. Lysine methylation plays a central part in how histones interact with proteins.[9] Lysine methylation can be reverted by lysine demethylases (PKDMs).[8]Different SET domain-containing proteins possess distinct substrate specificities. For example, SET1, SET7 and MLL methylate lysine 4 of histone H3, whereas Suv39h1, ESET and G9a specifically methylate lysine 9 of histone H3. Methylation at lysine 4 and lysine 9 are mutually exclusive and the epigenetic consequences of site-specific methylation are diametrically opposed: Methylation at lysine 4 correlates with an active state of transcription, whereas methylation at lysine 9 is associated with transcriptional repression and heterochromatin. Other lysine residues on histone H3 and histone H4 are also important sites of methylation by specific SET domain-containing enzymes. Although histones are the prime target of lysine methyltransferases, other cellular proteins carry N-methyllysine residues, including elongation factor 1A and the calcium sensing protein calmodulin.[9]","title":"Methylation by substrate"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Varland_2015-10"},{"link_name":"demethylation of amines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demethylase"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Varland_2015-10"},{"link_name":"CENP-A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CENP-A"},{"link_name":"CENP-B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CENPB"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Varland_2015-10"}],"sub_title":"N-terminal methylation","text":"Many eukaryotic proteins are post-translationally modified on their N-terminus. A common form of N-terminal modification is N-terminal methylation (Nt-methylation) by N-terminal methyltransferases (NTMTs). Proteins containing the consensus motif H2N-X-Pro-Lys- (where X can be Ala, Pro or Ser) after removal of the initiator methionine (iMet) can be subject to N-terminal α-amino-methylation.[10] Monomethylation may have slight effects on α-amino nitrogen nucleophilicity and basicity, whereas trimethylation (or dimethylation in case of proline) will result in abolition of nucleophilicity and a permanent positive charge on the N-terminal amino group. Although from a biochemical point of view demethylation of amines is possible, Nt-methylation is considered irreversible as no N-terminal demethylase has been described to date.[10] \nHistone variants CENP-A and CENP-B have been found to be Nt-methylated in vivo.[10]","title":"Methylation by substrate"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Eukaryotic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryotic"},{"link_name":"prenyl lipid anchor is attached","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prenylation"},{"link_name":"thioester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thioester"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bergo_2000-11"},{"link_name":"Ras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ras_subfamily"},{"link_name":"nuclear lamins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_lamins"},{"link_name":"protein kinases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_kinase"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bergo_2000-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Clarke_1993-12"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schubert_2007-1"}],"sub_title":"Prenylcysteine","text":"Eukaryotic proteins with C-termini that end in a CAAX motif are often subjected to a series of posttranslational modifications. The CAAX-tail processing takes place in three steps: First, a prenyl lipid anchor is attached to the cysteine through a thioester linkage. Then endoproteolysis occurs to remove the last three amino acids of the protein to expose the prenylcysteine α-COOH group. Finally, the exposed prenylcysteine group is methylated. The importance of this modification can be seen in targeted disruption of the methyltransferase for mouse CAAX proteins, where loss of isoprenylcysteine carboxyl methyltransferase resulted in mid-gestation lethality.[11]The biological function of prenylcysteine methylation is to facilitate the targeting of CAAX proteins to membrane surfaces within cells. Prenylcysteine can be demethylated and this reverse reaction is catalyzed by isoprenylcysteine carboxyl methylesterases. CAAX box containing proteins that are prenylcysteine methylated include Ras, GTP-binding proteins, nuclear lamins and certain protein kinases. Many of these proteins participate in cell signaling, and they utilize prenylcysteine methylation to concentrate them on the cytosolic surface of the plasma membrane where they are functional.[11]Methylations on the C-terminus can increase a protein's chemical repertoire[12] and are known to have a major effect on the functions of a protein.[1]","title":"Methylation by substrate"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"phosphatases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphatase"},{"link_name":"Protein phosphatase 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_phosphatase_2"},{"link_name":"leucine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucine"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tolstykh_2000-13"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tolstykh_2000-13"}],"sub_title":"Protein phosphatase 2","text":"In eukaryotic cells, phosphatases catalyze the removal of phosphate groups from tyrosine, serine and threonine phosphoproteins. The catalytic subunit of the major serine/threonine phosphatases, like Protein phosphatase 2 is covalently modified by the reversible methylation of its C-terminus to form a leucine carboxy methyl ester. Unlike CAAX motif methylation, no C-terminal processing is required to facilitate methylation. This C-terminal methylation event regulates the recruitment of regulatory proteins into complexes through the stimulation of protein–protein interactions, thus indirectly regulating the activity of the serine-threonine phosphatases complex.[13] Methylation is catalyzed by a unique protein phosphatase methyltransferase. The methyl group is removed by a specific protein phosphatase methylesterase. These two opposed enzymes make serine-threonine phosphatases methylation a dynamic process in response to stimuli.[13]","title":"Methylation by substrate"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"isoaspartyl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isoaspartate"},{"link_name":"succinimide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Succinimide"},{"link_name":"L-isoaspartyl methyltransferase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L-isoaspartyl_methyltransferase"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Clarke_2003-14"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Clarke_2003-14"}],"sub_title":"L-isoaspartyl","text":"Damaged proteins accumulate isoaspartyl which causes protein instability, loss of biological activity and stimulation of autoimmune responses. The spontaneous age-dependent degradation of L-aspartyl residues results in the formation of a succinimidyl intermediate, a succinimide radical. This is spontaneously hydrolyzed either back to L-aspartyl or, in a more favorable reaction, to abnormal L-isoaspartyl. A methyltransferase dependent pathway exists for the conversion of L-isoaspartyl back to L-aspartyl. To prevent the accumulation of L-isoaspartyl, this residue is methylated by the protein L-isoaspartyl methyltransferase, which catalyzes the formation of a methyl ester, which in turn is converted back to a succinimidyl intermediate.[14] \nLoss and gain of function mutations have unmasked the biological importance of the L-isoaspartyl O-methyltransferase in age-related processes: Mice lacking the enzyme die young of fatal epilepsy, whereas flies engineered to over-express it have an increase in life span of over 30%.[14]","title":"Methylation by substrate"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"protein–protein interactions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein%E2%80%93protein_interaction"},{"link_name":"SH3 domains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SH3_domain"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bedford_2000-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Friesen_2001-16"},{"link_name":"SUV39H1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SUV39H1"},{"link_name":"histone H3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histone_H3"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kouzarides_2002-9"},{"link_name":"heterochromatin protein 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterochromatin_protein_1"},{"link_name":"chromodomain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromodomain"},{"link_name":"Histone H4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histone_H4"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tolstykh_2000-13"},{"link_name":"protein phosphatase 2A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_phosphatase_2A"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tolstykh_2000-13"}],"text":"A common theme with methylated proteins, as with phosphorylated proteins, is the role this modification plays in the regulation of protein–protein interactions. The arginine methylation of proteins can either inhibit or promote protein–protein interactions depending on the type of methylation. The asymmetric dimethylation of arginine residues in close proximity to proline-rich motifs can inhibit the binding to SH3 domains.[15] The opposite effect is seen with interactions between the survival of motor neurons protein and the snRNP proteins SmD1, SmD3 and SmB/B', where binding is promoted by symmetric dimethylation of arginine residues in the snRNP proteins.[16]A well-characterized example of a methylation dependent protein–protein interaction is related to the selective methylation of lysine 9, by SUV39H1 on the N-terminal tail of the histone H3.[9] Di- and tri-methylation of this lysine residue facilitates the binding of heterochromatin protein 1 (HP1). Because HP1 and Suv39h1 interact, it is thought the binding of HP1 to histone H3 is maintained and even allowed that to spread along the chromatin. The HP1 protein harbors a chromodomain which is responsible for the methyl-dependent interaction between it and lysine 9 of histone H3. It is likely that additional chromodomain-containing proteins will bind the same site as HP1, and to other lysine methylated positions on histones H3 and Histone H4.[13]C-terminal protein methylation regulates the assembly of protein phosphatase. Methylation of the protein phosphatase 2A catalytic subunit enhances the binding of the regulatory B subunit and facilitates holoenzyme assembly.[13]","title":"Physical effects"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Arginine methylation by type I and II PRMTs","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Arginine_methylation.svg/400px-Arginine_methylation.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Lysine methylation by PKMTs and demethylation by PKDMs","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Lysine_methylation.svg/400px-Lysine_methylation.svg.png"}]
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[{"reference":"Schubert, H.; Blumenthal, R.; Cheng, X. (2007). \"1 Protein methyltransferases: Their distribution among the five structural classes of adomet-dependent methyltransferases 1\". The Enzymes. 24: 3–22. doi:10.1016/S1874-6047(06)80003-X. ISBN 9780121227258. PMID 26718035.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1874-6047%2806%2980003-X","url_text":"10.1016/S1874-6047(06)80003-X"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780121227258","url_text":"9780121227258"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26718035","url_text":"26718035"}]},{"reference":"Walsh, Christopher (2006). \"Chapter 5 – Protein Methylation\" (PDF). Posttranslational modification of proteins: expanding nature's inventory. Roberts and Co. Publishers. ISBN 0-9747077-3-2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-12-29.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20091229022607/http://www.roberts-publishers.com/walsh/chapter5.pdf","url_text":"\"Chapter 5 – Protein Methylation\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9747077-3-2","url_text":"0-9747077-3-2"},{"url":"http://www.roberts-publishers.com/walsh/chapter5.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Grewal, S. I.; Rice, J. C. (2004). \"Regulation of heterochromatin by histone methylation and small RNAs\". Current Opinion in Cell Biology. 16 (3): 230–238. doi:10.1016/j.ceb.2004.04.002. PMID 15145346.","urls":[{"url":"https://zenodo.org/record/1258832","url_text":"\"Regulation of heterochromatin by histone methylation and small RNAs\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ceb.2004.04.002","url_text":"10.1016/j.ceb.2004.04.002"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15145346","url_text":"15145346"}]},{"reference":"Nakayama, J. -I.; Rice, J. C.; Strahl, B. D.; Allis, C. D.; Grewal, S. I. (2001). \"Role of Histone H3 Lysine 9 Methylation in Epigenetic Control of Heterochromatin Assembly\". Science. 292 (5514): 110–113. Bibcode:2001Sci...292..110N. doi:10.1126/science.1060118. PMID 11283354. 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PMID 25914051.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4692089","url_text":"\"N-terminal modifications of cellular proteins: The enzymes involved, their substrate specificities and biological effects\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fpmic.201400619","url_text":"10.1002/pmic.201400619"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4692089","url_text":"4692089"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25914051","url_text":"25914051"}]},{"reference":"Bergo, M (2000). \"Isoprenylcysteine Carboxyl Methyltransferase Deficiency in Mice\". Journal of Biological Chemistry. 276 (8): 5841–5845. doi:10.1074/jbc.c000831200. PMID 11121396.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1074%2Fjbc.c000831200","url_text":"\"Isoprenylcysteine Carboxyl Methyltransferase Deficiency in Mice\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1074%2Fjbc.c000831200","url_text":"10.1074/jbc.c000831200"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11121396","url_text":"11121396"}]},{"reference":"Clarke, S (1993). \"Protein methylation\". Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 5 (6): 977–83. doi:10.1016/0955-0674(93)90080-A. PMID 8129951. S2CID 27529138.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0955-0674%2893%2990080-A","url_text":"10.1016/0955-0674(93)90080-A"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8129951","url_text":"8129951"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:27529138","url_text":"27529138"}]},{"reference":"Tolstykh, T (2000). \"Carboxyl methylation regulates phosphoprotein phosphatase 2A by controlling the association of regulatory B subunits\". The EMBO Journal. 19 (21): 5682–5691. doi:10.1093/emboj/19.21.5682. PMC 305779. PMID 11060019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC305779","url_text":"\"Carboxyl methylation regulates phosphoprotein phosphatase 2A by controlling the association of regulatory B subunits\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Femboj%2F19.21.5682","url_text":"10.1093/emboj/19.21.5682"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC305779","url_text":"305779"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11060019","url_text":"11060019"}]},{"reference":"Clarke, S (2003). \"Aging as war between chemical and biochemical processes: Protein methylation and the recognition of age-damaged proteins for repair\". Ageing Research Reviews. 2 (3): 263–285. doi:10.1016/S1568-1637(03)00011-4. PMID 12726775. S2CID 18135051.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1568-1637%2803%2900011-4","url_text":"10.1016/S1568-1637(03)00011-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12726775","url_text":"12726775"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18135051","url_text":"18135051"}]},{"reference":"Bedford, M (2000). \"Arginine Methylation Inhibits the Binding of Proline-rich Ligands to Src Homology 3, but Not WW, Domains\". Journal of Biological Chemistry. 275 (21): 16030–16036. doi:10.1074/jbc.m909368199. PMID 10748127.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1074%2Fjbc.m909368199","url_text":"\"Arginine Methylation Inhibits the Binding of Proline-rich Ligands to Src Homology 3, but Not WW, Domains\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1074%2Fjbc.m909368199","url_text":"10.1074/jbc.m909368199"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10748127","url_text":"10748127"}]},{"reference":"Friesen, W.; Massenet, S.; Paushkin, S.; Wyce, A.; Dreyfuss, G. (2001). \"SMN, the Product of the Spinal Muscular Atrophy Gene, Binds Preferentially to Dimethylarginine-Containing Protein Targets\". Molecular Cell. 7 (5): 1111–1117. doi:10.1016/S1097-2765(01)00244-1. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Mydorge
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Claude Mydorge
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["1 Works","2 External links"]
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French mathematician
Prodromi catoptricorum et dioptricorum sive Conicorum operis ad abdita radii reflexi et refracti mysteria praevij et facem praeferentis, 1639
Claude Mydorge (1585 – July 1647) was a French mathematician. His primary contributions were in geometry and physics.
Mydorge served on a scientific committee (whose members included Pierre Hérigone and Étienne Pascal) set up to determine whether Jean-Baptiste Morin's scheme for determining longitude from the Moon's motion was practical.
Works
Mydorge, Claude (1625). Usage de l'un et l'autre astrolabe particulier et universel (in French). Jean Moreau.
Mydorge, Claude (1639). Prodromi catoptricorum et dioptricorum sive Conicorum operis ad abdita radii reflexi et refracti mysteria praevij et facem praeferentis (in Latin). Isaac Dedin.
External links
O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Claude Mydorge", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews
Authority control databases International
ISNI
VIAF
WorldCat
National
France
BnF data
Germany
Italy
United States
Sweden
Czech Republic
Poland
People
Deutsche Biographie
Other
IdRef
This article about a French mathematician is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_Liberation_Army
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Korean Liberation Army
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["1 Background","1.1 Precursor to Korean Liberation Army","1.2 Second Sino-Japanese War","2 History","2.1 Establishment","2.2 Difficulty gaining Kuomintang and US support","2.3 Merging with the Korean Volunteers Army","2.4 Eagle Project","2.5 End of World War II","3 Postwar","4 Army ranks","5 Gallery","6 See also","7 Notes","8 References","8.1 Sources"]
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1940–1946 arm of the Korean Provisional Government
Korean Liberation Army한국 광복군韓國 光復軍FounderKim KuDates of operation17 September 1940 – May 1946CountryKorea, Empire of JapanAllegiance Provisional Government of the Republic of KoreaHeadquartersChongqing, Republic of China (1940; 1942–1945)
Xi'an, Republic of China (1940–1942)Size339 to 5643,600 (1943)Allies China United StatesOpponents Empire of JapanFlag
The Korean Liberation Army (Korean: 한국 광복군; Hanja: 韓國 光復軍), also known as the Korean Restoration Army, was the armed forces of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea. It was established on September 17, 1940, in Chongqing, Republic of China, with significant financial and personnel support from the Kuomintang. It participated in various battles and intelligence activities against the Japanese, including alongside the British Army in India and with the United States in the Eagle Project.
Its commandant was General Ji Cheong-cheon and chief of staff General Lee Beom-seok, the future first prime minister of South Korea. The group reached several hundred personnel at its peak. It experienced frequent funding issues, infighting, and difficulty achieving recognition from global powers.
Background
Main articles: Korea under Japanese rule and Korean independence movement
Since the Japan-Korea Treaty of 1910, the Korean Peninsula had been formally annexed by the Empire of Japan. After the brutal suppression by Japanese authorities of the pro-independence March 1st Movement of 1919, thousands of Koreans fled the peninsula. A number of prominent Koreans congregated in Shanghai, Republic of China, where they founded a government-in-exile: the Korean Provisional Government (KPG). However, it was not the only Korean independence organization; numerous others formed that often differed by ideology and location.
The KPG went on to conduct various anti-Japanese activities, including a nearly successful assassination attempt on the Emperor of Japan Hirohito. After KPG member Yun Bong-gil detonated a bomb in Shanghai's Hongkou Park that killed several Japanese military and colonial government officials, the KPG was pursued across China by the Japanese government. Most of them eventually ended up in Nanjing, where the Kuomintang offered them financial support and protection from the Japanese.
Precursor to Korean Liberation Army
The KPG had actually wanted to create an army since 1919. They made various efforts to coordinate with the various Korean guerrilla warfare groups in Manchuria, but lacked the funds and manpower to do so.
In July 1932, Kim Gu requested to meet with Chiang Kai-shek, leader of the Kuomintang. One of Kim's main asks at the meeting was assistance and funding in establishing a cavalry training school for the numerous Koreans in Manchuria. Chiang agreed to meet Kim, but was skeptical of the viability of the cavalry school. They eventually met in May 1933, and Chiang granted permission for Kim to train resistance fighters in the Luoyang branch of the Republic of China Military Academy.
Thus, Kim trained 92 students in the 17th Army Officer Training Class of the 4th Battalion (제2총대 제4대대 육군군관훈련반 제17대), around 30 km north of Luoyang. Kim's class was named and presented as if it were yet another all-Chinese class (the previous 16 classes had graduated only Chinese students), in order to avoid detection from the Japanese. Training covered topics such as tactics, weapons, politics, communication, physical education, riding, and shooting. They trained with great urgency, as there was a prevailing sense that a second Sino-Japanese conflict and/or World War would erupt within one to two years.
He had made a special point of recruiting the armed forces (한국독립군; 韓國獨立軍; lit. Korea Liberation Army) of the 1930 Korea Independence Party (different from Kim's party). These fighters had sided with Chinese forces during the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. Also in attendance were 20 students of the Joseon Revolutionary Military and Political Officers School (조선혁명군사정치간부학교; 朝鮮革命軍事政治幹部學校) in Nanjing.
On 9 April 1935, the school stopped after only operating for about a year. Of the original 92 students, 62 graduated. The school was closed for a variety of reasons, including internal conflicts between left and right leaning members and 21 January 1935 negotiations between the Kuomintang and Japanese governments. Most of the fighters trained here eventually joined the KLA.
Second Sino-Japanese War
Main article: Second Sino-Japanese War
In early July 1937, the anticipated conflict between the Chinese and Japanese finally began. The KPG made a plan to quickly raise an army to join the Chinese in fighting the Japanese, but they abandoned this within months as they escaped across the country alongside the Kuomintang. They eventually ended up in Chongqing around 1939.
History
Establishment
On 11 November 1939, the KPG announced a plan, created by Jo So-ang, to create an army. Like their failed proposal in 1938, it was wildly ambitious, calling for 110,000 party members, 1,200 officers, 100,000 soldiers, and 350,000 guerrillas raised after four years, totaling 541,200 personnel across six countries. It had an astronomical price-tag of 70.18 million yuan. By contrast, the total budget of the KPG in 1939 was 29,123 yuan. Son Sae-il, a journalist, Korean historian, and former politician, described the plan as "wildly removed from reality", and called Jo and the State Council that approved the plan "hopeless utopians". Once Kim took the reins of creating the army, he took a more realist approach.
On 11 April 1940, Chiang approved Kim's proposal for creating a KPG army, albeit with funding granted only depending on immediate needs. However, a disagreement between the Kuomintang and Kim arose, as Chiang wanted the army to be subordinate to the Kuomintang army, and Kim wanted greater independence in order to establish the army's credibility and legitimacy. The Kuomintang pulled out of the deal, refusing to provide funding. Kim moved forward anyway with creating the army.
The inauguration of the Korean Liberation Army (17 September 1940)
On 17 September 1940, the formal establishment of the Korean Liberation Army (KLA) was announced. General Ji Cheong-cheon was to be its commander. They held a grand ceremony at then-luxurious Jialing Hotel (Chinese: 嘉陵賓館), in order to establish the army's credibility and reputation. It was held early in the morning, at 6am, as to avoid Japanese air raids. Over 200 people were in attendance, including foreign ambassadors and Kuomintang officials.
The KLA became a rallying point for the Korean-American community, and donations came in greater volume. The San Francisco-based Sinhan Minbo newspaper regularly and prominently reported on the KLA's activities. Many in the KLA were adamantly convinced that around 30 million Koreans on the peninsula would eventually rise up against the Japanese and support the KLA's cause.
On 12 November, the KLA announced their intent to switch from guerrilla warfare to conventional battle. They also moved their headquarters to Xi'an around this time. There, they began carrying out covert operations, recruiting youths, and publishing Chinese and Korean language newsletters. By 1 January 1941, they created five divisions, with over 100 people in the fifth division alone.
Difficulty gaining Kuomintang and US support
The KLA had a strained relationship with the Kuomintang for much of its history, due to disagreements over authority and funding. The Kuomintang put off formally recognizing the KLA for months and providing support for even longer. The KLA was growing rapidly, as hundreds of Koreans from all over China flocked to join, but the soldiers were sitting idle and underfunded. In February 1941, the Kuomintang even ordered its armed forces to block or restrict KLA activities. However, they began easing up around March, and by 28 May 1941, formally recognized the KLA. The Regulation Regarding the Activities of the Korean Liberation Army, imposed by the Kuomintang upon the KPG in 1941, placed the KLA under the supreme authority of the commander-in-chief of the Chinese Army. But aid was still slow to come. One reason for this delay was Kim Won-bong's interference, as he naturally viewed the KLA as competition, especially because the Volunteers Army was subordinate to the Kuomintang and the KLA was more politically aligned with the Kuomintang. Another reason was concern about international pushback, particularly from the United States and the Soviet Union, by approving the KLA.
The US government hesitated on approving not just the KLA, but also the KPG. Kim sent multiple letters to President Franklin D. Roosevelt asking for the establishment of formal KPG-US ties, including one sent via President Roosevelt's son, James Roosevelt, who visited Chongqing in July. But these were all ignored. Especially after the December 1941 Attack on Pearl Harbor, many in the US government were actually open to supporting Korean independence, but were cautious because of how it could impact the Pacific War, how it could cause other independence movements to demand US support, and because of the internal political division amongst Koreans. Also, around December 1941, the KPG declared war on Japan.
On 10 April 1942, the Kuomintang informed the US that it wished to solely recognize the KPG, and asked if the US would too. However, the US rejected this request in early May. As a result, the Kuomintang also abandoned this.
Merging with the Korean Volunteers Army
In early 1942, Kim became aware that the Kuomintang had been privately negotiating with Kim's left-leaning rival Kim Won-bong to absorb the two dozen officers of the Korean Volunteer Army (Korean: 조선의용대; Hanja: 朝鮮義勇隊) in Chongqing into the KLA. Kim Won-bong relented to this, on the condition that he become the Deputy Commander (Korean: 부사령), a position that did not yet exist in the KLA.
On 13 May, the KPG relented and approved the merger. Thus, the Korean Volunteers Army became absorbed into the KLA. This decision displeased both sides. Kim protested to the Kuomintang in multiple letters, insisting they avoid directly interfering in the KLA's affairs. Kim Won-bong reportedly cried and drank all night on 15 May, and delayed taking up his position until 5 December. Kim Won-bong's relationship to the KPG would continue to be strained, even as he was elected as head of the Armed Forces on 11 April 1944. This position was notably weakened, and he would continue to be excluded in other ways.
In an effort to gain greater control over the KLA, the Kuomintang quickly began reducing funding and placing numerous Chinese officers in vacant KLA administration positions. This effectively made any significant military activities impossible.
The KLA sent troops to fight alongside the British Indian Army in the South-East Asian Theatre of World War II by the request of the British Army, as they needed Japanese speakers. On 29 August 1943, nine KLA personnel were sent to Calcutta. The Supreme Allied Commander South East Asia Command Louis Mountbatten requested more troops, so the Kuomintang reluctantly arranged for 16 more KLA personnel to go, but this was delayed. The soldiers were deployed on the outskirts of Burma and India (especially the Battle of Imphal during the Burma Campaign).
Eagle Project
Main article: Eagle Project
Finally, on 1 May 1945, after a few months of negotiations, the KPG gained full control over the KLA under an agreement with the Kuomintang entitled Measures to Aid the Korean Liberation Army (원조한국광복군판법; 援助韓國光復軍辦法). The agreement also specified that the Kuomintang would fund KLA operations by loaning funds. This effectively allowed the KLA to more freely collaborate with other Allied countries.
Beginning in late 1944, KLA officials began discussing cooperation with agents from the US Office of Strategic Services (OSS). While there was a prevailing sentiment that the Allies would win the war, they expected the war with Japan to last at least another full year and possibly involve an invasion of Korea and mainland Japan. Thus, the KLA sought to offer its services to the OSS in exchange for improved status of the KPG after the war.
In September 1944, Lee Beom-seok, then Chief of Staff of the KLA, met with Colonel Joseph Dickey of the US Military Intelligence Service in Chongqing. Lee then met with OSS Agent Captain Clyde Bailey Sargent, who was fluent in Chinese and a former professor at Chengdu University. Sargent then suggested to the head of the OSS General William J. Donovan that the OSS collaborate with the KLA. An agreement to collaborate was reached in October 1944.
On 24 February, the OSS finished planning the Eagle Project (독수리작전), and it was approved by US military headquarters on 13 March.
End of World War II
Main article: Surrender of Japan
The KLA prepared for the Eagle Project, and expected to depart to Korea on August 20, with General Lee in command.
However, the surprise of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki interrupted the progress of the mission. The declaration of Japan's intent to surrender on August 15 threw the Korean Peninsula into chaos, and the Soviet Union continued its attacks. The Red Army quickly overwhelmed Japanese forces and gained the north of the Korean Peninsula, but the US landed in the South and accepted the formal surrender of Japanese forces in the south, marking the division of the Korean Peninsula into de facto spheres of influence between the Americans and the Soviets. Korean independence was reaffirmed in the Treaty of San Francisco. With Japanese colonial rule over Korea having ended, the KLA disbanded in June 1946.
Korean Liberation Army lated became Korea Armed Forces when some commissioned officers participated to organise ROK Armed Forces after 1948.
Postwar
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The members of the KLA returned to Korea during late 1945 and 1946. Many of its members, including Generals Ji and Lee, became part of the Government of the Republic of Korea and some Generals and Commissioned officers participated to form ROK Armed Forces.
There has been a movement in South Korea for years to change the National Armed Forces Day from October 1 to September 17 in honour of the foundation of the Korean Liberation Army in 1941.
Army ranks
Rank group
General / flag officers
Senior officers
Junior officers
Officer cadet
Korean Liberation Army
정장Jeongjang
부장Bujang
참장Chamjang
정령Jeonglyeong
중령Junglyeong
참령Chamlyeong
정위Jeongwi
부위Buwi
부사Busa
Warrant officer
Insignia
Korean
준위Junwi
English translation
Warrant Officer
Rank group
Senior NCOs
Junior NCOs
Enlisted
Korean Liberation Army
특무상사Teugmusangsa
상사Sangsa
중사Jungsa
하사Hasa
상등병Sangdeungbyeong
일등병Ildeungbyeong
이등병Ideungbyeong
Gallery
KLA Soldier
Lee Beom-seok with Korean Liberation Army and OSS agents.
Former Korean Liberation Army headquarter in Chongqing
See also
History of Korea
Korean independence movement
Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea
List of militant Korean independence activist organizations
Korean Volunteer Army
Korean Volunteer Corps
Righteous army
Notes
^ Different army from the Yan'an faction army that eventually became led by Kim Il Sung
^ Dickey was one of the planners of the Dixie Mission, which investigated whether the US should cooperate with the Chinese Communist Party. Dickey reportedly took interested in Lee's request and suggested he visit Washington. Kim began arranging Lee's trip to the US, but the trip never occurred.
References
^ a b c Naver KLA.
^ Park, Chan-Seung. "책머리에, 한국 독립운동사를 어떻게 볼 것인가" . terms.naver.com (in Korean). Retrieved 2023-04-15.
^ Lee, Se-yeong (2019-08-30). " 임정로드를 가다…난징ㆍ충칭의 독립운동 숨결" . Yonhap News Agency (in Korean). Retrieved 2023-04-15.
^ Kim (2019), pp. 12–13.
^ a b c d Son 54 (2006).
^ a b c d e f g h Timeline.
^ a b Son 56 (2006).
^ Son 57 (2006).
^ a b c d Son 59 (2007).
^ a b Son 62 (2007).
^ a b c Son 61 (2007).
^ a b c Son 64 (2007).
^ Jo (1995), pp. 267.
^ General Inaugurated (1942).
^ General Speech (1942).
^ Son 65 (2007).
^ a b c d Son 69 (2007).
^ Kim (2017), p. 99.
^ a b "한국광복군 (韓國光復軍)" , Encyclopedia of Korean Culture (in Korean), retrieved 4 April 2023
^ Streifer (2012), pp. 34.
^ Streifer (2012), pp. 33.
^ Son 70 (2008).
Sources
Books
Kim, Byeong-gi (2019), 대한민국 임시정부사 (in Korean), 이학사 (published 11 March 2019), ISBN 9788961473361, retrieved 3 April 2023
Kim, Robert S. (2017), Project Eagle: The American Christians of North Korea in World War II, U of Nebraska Press, ISBN 978-1-61234-930-5
Jo, Dong-geol (6 February 1995), 독립군의 길따라 대륙을 가다 , 지식산업사, retrieved 4 April 2023
Journal and newspaper articles
Streifer, Bill (2012), "The OSS in Korea: Operation Eagle", American Intelligence Journal, 30 (1), National Military Intelligence Foundation: 33–38, JSTOR 26201981, retrieved 3 April 2023
"김약산쟝군의 취임과 션서" , Sinhan Minbo (in Korean), pp. 33–38, 10 December 1942, retrieved 4 April 2023
"김약산 장군의 연설" , Sinhan Minbo (in Korean), p. 1, 10 December 1942, retrieved 4 April 2023
Online
"한국광복군" , Naver Encyclopedia of Knowledge (in Korean), retrieved 3 April 2023
Son, Sae-il (25 August 2006), "孫世一의 비교 評傳 (54) 한국 민족주의의 두 類型 - 李承晩과 金九" , Monthly Chosun (in Korean) (published September 2006), retrieved 3 April 2023
Son, Sae-il (29 October 2006), "孫世一의 비교 評傳 (56) 한국 민족주의의 두 類型 - 李承晩과 金九" , Monthly Chosun (in Korean) (published November 2006), retrieved 3 April 2023
Son, Sae-il (4 December 2006), "孫世一의 비교 評傳 (57) 한국 민족주의의 두 類型 - 李承晩과 金九" , Monthly Chosun (in Korean) (published December 2006), retrieved 3 April 2023
Son, Sae-il (2 February 2007), "孫世一의 비교 評傳 (59) 한국 민족주의의 두 類型 - 李承晩과 金九" , Monthly Chosun (in Korean) (published February 2007), retrieved 3 April 2023
Son, Sae-il (8 April 2007), "孫世一의 비교 評傳 (61) 한국 민족주의의 두 類型 - 李承晩과 金九" , Monthly Chosun (in Korean) (published April 2007), retrieved 3 April 2023
Son, Sae-il (May 2007), "孫世一의 비교 評傳 (62) 한국 민족주의의 두 類型 - 李承晩과 金九" , Monthly Chosun (in Korean), retrieved 3 April 2023
Son, Sae-il (2 July 2007), "孫世一의 비교 評傳 (64) 한국 민족주의의 두 類型 - 李承晩과 金九" , Monthly Chosun (in Korean) (published July 2007), retrieved 3 April 2023
Son, Sae-il (2 August 2007), "孫世一의 비교 評傳 (65) 한국 민족주의의 두 類型 - 李承晩과 金九" , Monthly Chosun (in Korean) (published August 2007), retrieved 3 April 2023
Son, Sae-il (5 December 2007), "孫世一의 비교 評傳 (69) 한국 민족주의의 두 類型 - 李承晩과 金九" , Monthly Chosun (in Korean) (published December 2007), retrieved 3 April 2023
Son, Sae-il (2008-01-07), "孫世一의 비교 傳記 (70)" , Monthly Chosun (in Korean), archived from the original on 29 March 2023, retrieved 2023-05-01
"연보" , The Association of Commemorative Services for Patriot Kim Koo (in Korean), retrieved 4 April 2023
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It was established on September 17, 1940, in Chongqing, Republic of China, with significant financial and personnel support from the Kuomintang. It participated in various battles and intelligence activities against the Japanese, including alongside the British Army in India and with the United States in the Eagle Project.Its commandant was General Ji Cheong-cheon and chief of staff General Lee Beom-seok, the future first prime minister of South Korea. The group reached several hundred personnel at its peak. It experienced frequent funding issues, infighting, and difficulty achieving recognition from global powers.[1]","title":"Korean Liberation Army"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Japan-Korea Treaty of 1910","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Korea_Treaty_of_1910"},{"link_name":"Empire of Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"March 1st Movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_1st_Movement"},{"link_name":"Shanghai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai"},{"link_name":"Republic of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"nearly successful assassination attempt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakuradamon_incident_(1932)"},{"link_name":"Emperor of Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"Yun Bong-gil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yun_Bong-gil"},{"link_name":"Hongkou Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lu_Xun_Park"},{"link_name":"Kuomintang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalist_government"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"Since the Japan-Korea Treaty of 1910, the Korean Peninsula had been formally annexed by the Empire of Japan. After the brutal suppression by Japanese authorities of the pro-independence March 1st Movement of 1919, thousands of Koreans fled the peninsula. A number of prominent Koreans congregated in Shanghai, Republic of China, where they founded a government-in-exile: the Korean Provisional Government (KPG). However, it was not the only Korean independence organization; numerous others formed that often differed by ideology and location.[2]The KPG went on to conduct various anti-Japanese activities, including a nearly successful assassination attempt on the Emperor of Japan Hirohito. After KPG member Yun Bong-gil detonated a bomb in Shanghai's Hongkou Park that killed several Japanese military and colonial government officials, the KPG was pursued across China by the Japanese government. Most of them eventually ended up in Nanjing, where the Kuomintang offered them financial support and protection from the Japanese.[3]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"various Korean guerrilla warfare groups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_Independence_Military_Groups_(1920s-1930s)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim201912%E2%80%9313-4"},{"link_name":"Chiang Kai-shek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESon_542006-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTETimeline-6"},{"link_name":"Luoyang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luoyang"},{"link_name":"Republic of China Military Academy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_China_Military_Academy"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESon_542006-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTETimeline-6"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESon_542006-5"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESon_542006-5"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESon_562006-7"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTETimeline-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESon_562006-7"}],"sub_title":"Precursor to Korean Liberation Army","text":"The KPG had actually wanted to create an army since 1919. They made various efforts to coordinate with the various Korean guerrilla warfare groups in Manchuria, but lacked the funds and manpower to do so.[4]In July 1932, Kim Gu requested to meet with Chiang Kai-shek, leader of the Kuomintang. One of Kim's main asks at the meeting was assistance and funding in establishing a cavalry training school for the numerous Koreans in Manchuria. Chiang agreed to meet Kim, but was skeptical of the viability of the cavalry school.[5][6] They eventually met in May 1933, and Chiang granted permission for Kim to train resistance fighters in the Luoyang branch of the Republic of China Military Academy.[5]Thus, Kim trained 92 students in the 17th Army Officer Training Class of the 4th Battalion (제2총대 제4대대 육군군관훈련반 제17대), around 30 km north of Luoyang.[6][5] Kim's class was named and presented as if it were yet another all-Chinese class (the previous 16 classes had graduated only Chinese students), in order to avoid detection from the Japanese. Training covered topics such as tactics, weapons, politics, communication, physical education, riding, and shooting.[5] They trained with great urgency, as there was a prevailing sense that a second Sino-Japanese conflict and/or World War would erupt within one to two years.[7]He had made a special point of recruiting the armed forces (한국독립군; 韓國獨立軍; lit. Korea Liberation Army) of the 1930 Korea Independence Party (different from Kim's party). These fighters had sided with Chinese forces during the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. Also in attendance were 20 students of the Joseon Revolutionary Military and Political Officers School (조선혁명군사정치간부학교; 朝鮮革命軍事政治幹部學校) in Nanjing.On 9 April 1935, the school stopped after only operating for about a year.[6][7] Of the original 92 students, 62 graduated. The school was closed for a variety of reasons, including internal conflicts between left and right leaning members and 21 January 1935 negotiations between the Kuomintang and Japanese governments. Most of the fighters trained here eventually joined the KLA.","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESon_572006-8"}],"sub_title":"Second Sino-Japanese War","text":"In early July 1937, the anticipated conflict between the Chinese and Japanese finally began. The KPG made a plan to quickly raise an army to join the Chinese in fighting the Japanese, but they abandoned this within months as they escaped across the country alongside the Kuomintang. They eventually ended up in Chongqing around 1939.[8]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jo So-ang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jo_So-ang"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESon_592007-9"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESon_592007-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Korea_Independence_Army.jpg"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTETimeline-6"},{"link_name":"Ji Cheong-cheon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ji_Cheong-cheon"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESon_592007-9"},{"link_name":"Sinhan Minbo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinhan_Minbo"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESon_592007-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESon_622007-10"},{"link_name":"Xi'an","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xi%27an"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTETimeline-6"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESon_612007-11"}],"sub_title":"Establishment","text":"On 11 November 1939, the KPG announced a plan, created by Jo So-ang, to create an army. Like their failed proposal in 1938, it was wildly ambitious, calling for 110,000 party members, 1,200 officers, 100,000 soldiers, and 350,000 guerrillas raised after four years, totaling 541,200 personnel across six countries. It had an astronomical price-tag of 70.18 million yuan. By contrast, the total budget of the KPG in 1939 was 29,123 yuan. Son Sae-il, a journalist, Korean historian, and former politician, described the plan as \"wildly removed from reality\", and called Jo and the State Council that approved the plan \"hopeless utopians\".[9] Once Kim took the reins of creating the army, he took a more realist approach.On 11 April 1940, Chiang approved Kim's proposal for creating a KPG army, albeit with funding granted only depending on immediate needs. However, a disagreement between the Kuomintang and Kim arose, as Chiang wanted the army to be subordinate to the Kuomintang army, and Kim wanted greater independence in order to establish the army's credibility and legitimacy. The Kuomintang pulled out of the deal, refusing to provide funding. Kim moved forward anyway with creating the army.[9]The inauguration of the Korean Liberation Army (17 September 1940)On 17 September 1940, the formal establishment of the Korean Liberation Army (KLA) was announced.[6] General Ji Cheong-cheon was to be its commander. They held a grand ceremony at then-luxurious Jialing Hotel (Chinese: 嘉陵賓館), in order to establish the army's credibility and reputation. It was held early in the morning, at 6am, as to avoid Japanese air raids. Over 200 people were in attendance, including foreign ambassadors and Kuomintang officials.[9]The KLA became a rallying point for the Korean-American community, and donations came in greater volume. The San Francisco-based Sinhan Minbo newspaper regularly and prominently reported on the KLA's activities.[9] Many in the KLA were adamantly convinced that around 30 million Koreans on the peninsula would eventually rise up against the Japanese and support the KLA's cause.[10]On 12 November, the KLA announced their intent to switch from guerrilla warfare to conventional battle. They also moved their headquarters to Xi'an around this time.[6] There, they began carrying out covert operations, recruiting youths, and publishing Chinese and Korean language newsletters. By 1 January 1941, they created five divisions, with over 100 people in the fifth division alone.[11]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaver_KLA-1"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESon_612007-11"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESon_622007-10"},{"link_name":"President","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Franklin D. Roosevelt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt"},{"link_name":"James Roosevelt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Roosevelt"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESon_612007-11"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTETimeline-6"},{"link_name":"Attack on Pearl Harbor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESon_642007-12"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTETimeline-6"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESon_642007-12"}],"sub_title":"Difficulty gaining Kuomintang and US support","text":"The KLA had a strained relationship with the Kuomintang for much of its history, due to disagreements over authority and funding. The Kuomintang put off formally recognizing the KLA for months and providing support for even longer. The KLA was growing rapidly, as hundreds of Koreans from all over China flocked to join, but the soldiers were sitting idle and underfunded. In February 1941, the Kuomintang even ordered its armed forces to block or restrict KLA activities. However, they began easing up around March, and by 28 May 1941, formally recognized the KLA. The Regulation Regarding the Activities of the Korean Liberation Army, imposed by the Kuomintang upon the KPG in 1941, placed the KLA under the supreme authority of the commander-in-chief of the Chinese Army.[1] But aid was still slow to come.[11] One reason for this delay was Kim Won-bong's interference, as he naturally viewed the KLA as competition, especially because the Volunteers Army was subordinate to the Kuomintang and the KLA was more politically aligned with the Kuomintang. Another reason was concern about international pushback, particularly from the United States and the Soviet Union, by approving the KLA.[10]The US government hesitated on approving not just the KLA, but also the KPG. Kim sent multiple letters to President Franklin D. Roosevelt asking for the establishment of formal KPG-US ties, including one sent via President Roosevelt's son, James Roosevelt, who visited Chongqing in July. But these were all ignored.[11][6] Especially after the December 1941 Attack on Pearl Harbor, many in the US government were actually open to supporting Korean independence, but were cautious because of how it could impact the Pacific War, how it could cause other independence movements to demand US support, and because of the internal political division amongst Koreans.[12] Also, around December 1941, the KPG declared war on Japan.[6]On 10 April 1942, the Kuomintang informed the US that it wished to solely recognize the KPG, and asked if the US would too. However, the US rejected this request in early May. As a result, the Kuomintang also abandoned this.[12]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kim Won-bong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_Won-bong"},{"link_name":"Korean Volunteer Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_Volunteer_Army"},{"link_name":"Korean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_language"},{"link_name":"Hanja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanja"},{"link_name":"[note 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Korean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_language"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESon_642007-12"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTETimeline-6"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJo1995267-14"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeneral_Inaugurated1942-15"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeneral_Speech1942-16"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESon_652007-17"},{"link_name":"British Indian Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Indian_Army"},{"link_name":"South-East Asian Theatre of World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South-East_Asian_Theatre_of_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"British Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Army"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESon_692007-18"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim201799-19"},{"link_name":"Calcutta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolkata"},{"link_name":"Supreme Allied Commander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Allied_Commander"},{"link_name":"South East Asia Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_East_Asia_Command"},{"link_name":"Louis Mountbatten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Mountbatten,_1st_Earl_Mountbatten_of_Burma"},{"link_name":"Kuomintang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalist_government"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESon_692007-18"},{"link_name":"Battle of Imphal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Imphal"},{"link_name":"Burma Campaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma_Campaign"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Merging with the Korean Volunteers Army","text":"In early 1942, Kim became aware that the Kuomintang had been privately negotiating with Kim's left-leaning rival Kim Won-bong to absorb the two dozen officers of the Korean Volunteer Army (Korean: 조선의용대; Hanja: 朝鮮義勇隊)[note 1] in Chongqing into the KLA. Kim Won-bong relented to this, on the condition that he become the Deputy Commander (Korean: 부사령), a position that did not yet exist in the KLA.[12]On 13 May, the KPG relented and approved the merger.[6] Thus, the Korean Volunteers Army became absorbed into the KLA. This decision displeased both sides. Kim protested to the Kuomintang in multiple letters, insisting they avoid directly interfering in the KLA's affairs. Kim Won-bong reportedly cried and drank all night on 15 May, and delayed taking up his position until 5 December.[13][14][15] Kim Won-bong's relationship to the KPG would continue to be strained, even as he was elected as head of the Armed Forces on 11 April 1944. This position was notably weakened, and he would continue to be excluded in other ways.In an effort to gain greater control over the KLA, the Kuomintang quickly began reducing funding and placing numerous Chinese officers in vacant KLA administration positions. This effectively made any significant military activities impossible.[16]The KLA sent troops to fight alongside the British Indian Army in the South-East Asian Theatre of World War II by the request of the British Army,[17] as they needed Japanese speakers.[18] On 29 August 1943, nine KLA personnel were sent to Calcutta. The Supreme Allied Commander South East Asia Command Louis Mountbatten requested more troops, so the Kuomintang reluctantly arranged for 16 more KLA personnel to go, but this was delayed.[17] The soldiers were deployed on the outskirts of Burma and India (especially the Battle of Imphal during the Burma Campaign).[citation needed]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESon_692007-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Culture_KLA-20"},{"link_name":"Office of Strategic Services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_Strategic_Services"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESon_692007-18"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreifer201234-21"},{"link_name":"Lee Beom-seok","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Beom-seok_(prime_minister)"},{"link_name":"Colonel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonel_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Military Intelligence Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_Intelligence_Service_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"[note 2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Captain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captain_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Chengdu University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chengdu_University"},{"link_name":"General","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_general_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"William J. Donovan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_J._Donovan"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreifer201233-23"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Culture_KLA-20"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESon_702008-24"}],"sub_title":"Eagle Project","text":"Finally, on 1 May 1945, after a few months of negotiations, the KPG gained full control over the KLA under an agreement with the Kuomintang entitled Measures to Aid the Korean Liberation Army (원조한국광복군판법; 援助韓國光復軍辦法). The agreement also specified that the Kuomintang would fund KLA operations by loaning funds.[17][19] This effectively allowed the KLA to more freely collaborate with other Allied countries.Beginning in late 1944, KLA officials began discussing cooperation with agents from the US Office of Strategic Services (OSS). While there was a prevailing sentiment that the Allies would win the war, they expected the war with Japan to last at least another full year and possibly involve an invasion of Korea and mainland Japan. Thus, the KLA sought to offer its services to the OSS in exchange for improved status of the KPG after the war.[17][20]In September 1944, Lee Beom-seok, then Chief of Staff of the KLA, met with Colonel Joseph Dickey of the US Military Intelligence Service in Chongqing.[note 2] Lee then met with OSS Agent Captain Clyde Bailey Sargent, who was fluent in Chinese and a former professor at Chengdu University. Sargent then suggested to the head of the OSS General William J. Donovan that the OSS collaborate with the KLA. An agreement to collaborate was reached in October 1944.[21]On 24 February, the OSS finished planning the Eagle Project (독수리작전), and it was approved by US military headquarters on 13 March.[19][22]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki"},{"link_name":"declaration of Japan's intent to surrender on August 15","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewel_Voice_Broadcast"},{"link_name":"Korean Peninsula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_Peninsula"},{"link_name":"Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"Red Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Army"},{"link_name":"Korean Peninsula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_Peninsula"},{"link_name":"Korean independence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_independence"},{"link_name":"Treaty of San Francisco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_San_Francisco"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaver_KLA-1"},{"link_name":"Korea Armed Forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Korea_Armed_Forces"}],"sub_title":"End of World War II","text":"The KLA prepared for the Eagle Project, and expected to depart to Korea on August 20, with General Lee in command.However, the surprise of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki interrupted the progress of the mission. The declaration of Japan's intent to surrender on August 15 threw the Korean Peninsula into chaos, and the Soviet Union continued its attacks. The Red Army quickly overwhelmed Japanese forces and gained the north of the Korean Peninsula, but the US landed in the South and accepted the formal surrender of Japanese forces in the south, marking the division of the Korean Peninsula into de facto spheres of influence between the Americans and the Soviets. Korean independence was reaffirmed in the Treaty of San Francisco. With Japanese colonial rule over Korea having ended, the KLA disbanded in June 1946.[1]Korean Liberation Army lated became Korea Armed Forces when some commissioned officers participated to organise ROK Armed Forces after 1948.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Government of the Republic of Korea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_South_Korea"},{"link_name":"ROK Armed Forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Korea_Armed_Forces"}],"text":"The members of the KLA returned to Korea during late 1945 and 1946. Many of its members, including Generals Ji and Lee, became part of the Government of the Republic of Korea and some Generals and Commissioned officers participated to form ROK Armed Forces.There has been a movement in South Korea for years to change the National Armed Forces Day from October 1 to September 17 in honour of the foundation of the Korean Liberation Army in 1941.","title":"Postwar"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Army ranks"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:KLA_Soldier.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%EC%B2%A0%EA%B8%B0_%EC%9D%B4%EB%B2%94%EC%84%9D%EA%B3%BC_%EA%B4%91%EB%B3%B5%EA%B5%B0,_%EB%AF%B8_OSS_%EC%9A%94%EC%9B%90.jpg"},{"link_name":"Lee Beom-seok","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Beom-seok_(Prime_Minister)"},{"link_name":"OSS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_Strategic_Services"},{"link_name":"agents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secret_agent"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Former_site_of_Korean_Liberation_Army_headquarter_(Wide).jpg"}],"text":"KLA Soldier\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tLee Beom-seok with Korean Liberation Army and OSS agents.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tFormer Korean Liberation Army headquarter in Chongqing","title":"Gallery"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-13"},{"link_name":"Yan'an faction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yan%27an_faction"},{"link_name":"Kim Il Sung","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_Il_Sung"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-22"}],"text":"^ Different army from the Yan'an faction army that eventually became led by Kim Il Sung\n\n^ Dickey was one of the planners of the Dixie Mission, which investigated whether the US should cooperate with the Chinese Communist Party. Dickey reportedly took interested in Lee's request and suggested he visit Washington. Kim began arranging Lee's trip to the US, but the trip never occurred.","title":"Notes"}]
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[{"image_text":"The inauguration of the Korean Liberation Army (17 September 1940)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Korea_Independence_Army.jpg/220px-Korea_Independence_Army.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"History of Korea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Korea"},{"title":"Korean independence movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_independence_movement"},{"title":"Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_Korea"},{"title":"List of militant Korean independence activist organizations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_militant_Korean_independence_activist_organizations"},{"title":"Korean Volunteer Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_Volunteer_Army"},{"title":"Korean Volunteer Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_Volunteer_Corps"},{"title":"Righteous army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Righteous_army"}]
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[{"reference":"Park, Chan-Seung. \"책머리에, 한국 독립운동사를 어떻게 볼 것인가\" [How to View Korean Independence Movement History]. terms.naver.com (in Korean). Retrieved 2023-04-15.","urls":[{"url":"https://terms.naver.com/entry.naver?cid=62049&docId=2829596&categoryId=62049&anchorTarget=TABLE_OF_CONTENT1","url_text":"\"책머리에, 한국 독립운동사를 어떻게 볼 것인가\""}]},{"reference":"Lee, Se-yeong (2019-08-30). \"[Y스페셜] 임정로드를 가다…난징ㆍ충칭의 독립운동 숨결\" [Going to Imjeong Road...The Breath of the Independence Movement in Nanjing and Chongqing]. Yonhap News Agency (in Korean). 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Syngman Rhee and Kim Gu], Monthly Chosun (in Korean) (published July 2007), retrieved 3 April 2023","urls":[{"url":"http://monthly.chosun.com/client/news/viw.asp?ctcd=&nNewsNumb=200707100074","url_text":"\"孫世一의 비교 評傳 (64) 한국 민족주의의 두 類型 - 李承晩과 金九\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monthly_Chosun","url_text":"Monthly Chosun"}]},{"reference":"Son, Sae-il (2 August 2007), \"孫世一의 비교 評傳 (65) 한국 민족주의의 두 類型 - 李承晩과 金九\" [Son Sae-il's Comparative Critical Biography (65) Korean Democracy's Two Paradigms - Syngman Rhee and Kim Gu], Monthly Chosun (in Korean) (published August 2007), retrieved 3 April 2023","urls":[{"url":"http://monthly.chosun.com/client/news/viw.asp?ctcd=&nNewsNumb=200708100072","url_text":"\"孫世一의 비교 評傳 (65) 한국 민족주의의 두 類型 - 李承晩과 金九\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monthly_Chosun","url_text":"Monthly Chosun"}]},{"reference":"Son, Sae-il (5 December 2007), \"孫世一의 비교 評傳 (69) 한국 민족주의의 두 類型 - 李承晩과 金九\" [Son Sae-il's Comparative Critical Biography (69) Korean Democracy's Two Paradigms - Syngman Rhee and Kim Gu], Monthly Chosun (in Korean) (published December 2007), retrieved 3 April 2023","urls":[{"url":"http://monthly.chosun.com/client/news/viw.asp?ctcd=&nNewsNumb=200712100068","url_text":"\"孫世一의 비교 評傳 (69) 한국 민족주의의 두 類型 - 李承晩과 金九\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monthly_Chosun","url_text":"Monthly Chosun"}]},{"reference":"Son, Sae-il (2008-01-07), \"孫世一의 비교 傳記 (70)\" [Son Sae-il's Comparative Critical Biography (70)], Monthly Chosun (in Korean), archived from the original on 29 March 2023, retrieved 2023-05-01","urls":[{"url":"http://monthly.chosun.com/client/news/viw.asp?ctcd=&nNewsNumb=200801100075","url_text":"\"孫世一의 비교 傳記 (70)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monthly_Chosun","url_text":"Monthly Chosun"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230329223225/http://monthly.chosun.com/client/news/viw.asp?ctcd=&nNewsNumb=200801100075","url_text":"archived"}]},{"reference":"\"연보\" [Timeline], The Association of Commemorative Services for Patriot Kim Koo (in Korean), retrieved 4 April 2023","urls":[{"url":"http://kimkoo.or.kr/sub/sub02_02.asp","url_text":"\"연보\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T
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T
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["1 History","2 Use in writing systems","2.1 English","2.2 Other languages","2.3 Other systems","3 Other uses","4 Related characters","4.1 Descendants and related characters in the Latin alphabet","4.2 Ancestors and siblings in other alphabets","4.3 Derived signs, symbols and abbreviations","5 Other representations","5.1 Computing","5.2 Other","6 Explanatory notes","7 References","8 External links"]
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20th letter of the Latin alphabet
This article is about the letter of the Latin alphabet. For the same letterform in the Cyrillic and Greek alphabets, see Te (Cyrillic) and Tau. For other uses, see T (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with ㅜ, Tea, Tee, or various box-drawing characters.
TT tUsageWriting systemLatin scriptTypeAlphabetic and LogographicLanguage of originLatin languagePhonetic usage /tiː/Unicode codepointU+0054, U+0074Alphabetical position20HistoryDevelopment 𐤕Ττ𐌕T tTime period~-700 to presentDescendants • Th (digraph) • ™ • ₮ • ₸ • Ŧ • Ť • Ţ • ꞱSisters𐍄ТҬЋҴתتܬةࠕ𐎚𐎙ተፐՏ տՑ ցतटતટⶊOtherOther letters commonly used witht(x), th, tzschWriting directionLeft-to-rightThis article contains phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. For the distinction between , / / and ⟨ ⟩, see IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters.
This article contains uncommon Unicode characters. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of the intended characters.
ISO basicLatin alphabet
AaBbCcDdEeFfGgHhIiJjKkLlMmNnOoPpQqRrSsTtUuVvWwXxYyZz
vte
T, or t, is the twentieth letter of the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its name in English is tee (pronounced /ˈtiː/), plural tees.
It is derived from the Semitic Taw 𐤕 of the Phoenician and Paleo-Hebrew script (Aramaic and Hebrew Taw ת/𐡕/, Syriac Taw ܬ, and Arabic ت Tāʼ) via the Greek letter τ (tau). In English, it is most commonly used to represent the voiceless alveolar plosive, a sound it also denotes in the International Phonetic Alphabet. It is the most commonly used consonant and the second-most commonly used letter in English-language texts.
History
PhoenicianTaw
Western GreekTau
EtruscanT
LatinT
Taw was the last letter of the Western Semitic and Hebrew alphabets. The sound value of Semitic Taw, Greek alphabet Tαυ (Tau), Old Italic and Latin T has remained fairly constant, representing in each of these; and it has also kept its original basic shape in most of these alphabets.
Use in writing systems
Pronunciation of ⟨t⟩ by language
Orthography
Phonemes
Standard Chinese (Pinyin)
/tʰ/
English
/t/, silent
French
/t/, silent
German
/t/
Portuguese
/t/
Spanish
/t/
Turkish
/t/
English
In English, ⟨t⟩ usually denotes the voiceless alveolar plosive (International Phonetic Alphabet and X-SAMPA: /t/), as in tart, tee, or ties, often with aspiration at the beginnings of words or before stressed vowels.
The digraph ⟨ti⟩ often corresponds to the sound /ʃ/ (a voiceless palato-alveolar sibilant) word-medially when followed by a vowel, as in nation, ratio, negotiation, and Croatia.
The letter ⟨t⟩ corresponds to the affricate /t͡ʃ/ in some words as a result of yod-coalescence (for example, in words ending in "-ture", such as future).
A common digraph is ⟨th⟩, which usually represents a dental fricative, but occasionally represents /t/ (as in Thomas and thyme.)
In a few words of modern French origin, the letter T is silent at the end of a word; these include croquet and debut.
Other languages
In the orthographies of other languages, ⟨t⟩ is often used for /t/, the voiceless dental plosive /t̪/, or similar sounds.
Other systems
In the International Phonetic Alphabet, ⟨t⟩ denotes the voiceless alveolar plosive.
Other uses
Main article: T (disambiguation)
Unit prefix T, meaning 1,000,000,000,000 times.
Related characters
Descendants and related characters in the Latin alphabet
A curly T pictured in the coat of arms of the former Teisko municipality, which was consolidated to Tampere.
T with diacritics: Ť ť Ṫ ṫ ẗ Ţ ţ Ṭ ṭ Ʈ ʈ Ț ț ƫ Ṱ ṱ Ṯ ṯ Ŧ ŧ Ⱦ ⱦ Ƭ ƭ ᵵ ᶵ
Ꞇ ꞇ : Insular T, also used by William Pryce to designate the voiceless dental fricative
ᫎ : Combining small insular t was used in the Ormulum
ʇ : Turned small t is used in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)
𐞯 : Modifier letter small t with retroflex hook is a superscript IPA letter
𝼉 : Latin small letter t with hook and retroflex hook is a symbol for a voiceless retroflex implosive
𝼍 : Latin small turned t with curl is a click letter
Uralic Phonetic Alphabet-specific symbols related to T:
U+1D1B ᴛ LATIN LETTER SMALL CAPITAL T
U+1D40 ᵀ MODIFIER LETTER CAPITAL T
U+1D57 ᵗ MODIFIER LETTER SMALL T
U+1E97 ẗ LATIN SMALL LETTER T WITH DIAERESIS
ₜ : Subscript small t was used in the Uralic Phonetic Alphabet prior to its formal standardization in 1902
ȶ : T with curl is used in Sino-Tibetanist linguistics
Ʇ ʇ : Turned capital T and turned small t were used in transcriptions of the Dakota language in publications of the American Board of Ethnology in the late 19th century
𝼪 : Small t with mid-height left hook was used by the British and Foreign Bible Society in the early 20th century for romanization of the Malayalam language.
Ancestors and siblings in other alphabets
𐤕 : Semitic letter Taw, from which the following symbols originally derive
Τ τ : Greek letter Tau
Ⲧ ⲧ : Coptic letter Taw, which derives from Greek Tau
Т т : Cyrillic letter Te, also derived from Tau
𐍄 : Gothic letter tius, which derives from Greek Tau
𐌕 : Old Italic T, which derives from Greek Tau, and is the ancestor of modern Latin T
ᛏ : Runic letter teiwaz, which probably derives from old Italic T
ፐ : One of the 26 consonantal letters of Ge'ez script. The Ge'ez abugida developed under the influence of Christian scripture by adding obligatory vocalic diacritics to the consonantal letters. Pesa ፐ is based on Tawe ተ.
Derived signs, symbols and abbreviations
™ : Trademark symbol
₮ : Mongolian tögrög
₸ : Kazakhstani tenge
৳ : Bangladeshi taka
Other representations
Computing
Character information
Preview
T
t
Ｔ
ｔ
Unicode name
LATIN CAPITAL LETTER T
LATIN SMALL LETTER T
FULLWIDTH LATIN CAPITAL LETTER T
FULLWIDTH LATIN SMALL LETTER T
Encodings
decimal
hex
dec
hex
dec
hex
dec
hex
Unicode
84
U+0054
116
U+0074
65332
U+FF34
65364
U+FF54
UTF-8
84
54
116
74
239 188 180
EF BC B4
239 189 148
EF BD 94
Numeric character reference
T
T
t
t
Ｔ
Ｔ
ｔ
ｔ
EBCDIC family
227
E3
163
A3
ASCII 1
84
54
116
74
1 Also for encodings based on ASCII, including the DOS, Windows, ISO-8859 and Macintosh families of encodings.
Other
NATO phonetic
Morse code
Tango
▄▄▄ ⓘ
Signal flag
Flag semaphore
American manual alphabet (ASL fingerspelling)
British manual alphabet (BSL fingerspelling)
Braille dots-2345 Unified English Braille
The letter T in German Sign Language
Explanatory notes
^ Unicode treats representation of letters of the Latin alphabet written in insular script as a typeface choice that needs no separate coding. U+A786 Ꞇ LATIN CAPITAL LETTER INSULAR T and U+A787 ꞇ LATIN SMALL LETTER INSULAR T are provided for use by phonetics specialists.
References
^ "T", Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition (1989); Merriam-Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged (1993); "tee", op. cit.
^ Lewand, Robert. "Relative Frequencies of Letters in General English Plain text". Cryptographical Mathematics. Central College. Archived from the original on 2008-07-08. Retrieved 2008-06-25.
^ Constable, Peter (2003-09-30). "L2/03-174R2: Proposal to Encode Phonetic Symbols with Middle Tilde in the UCS" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-10-11. Retrieved 2018-03-24.
^ Constable, Peter (2004-04-19). "L2/04-132 Proposal to add additional phonetic characters to the UCS" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-10-11. Retrieved 2018-03-24.
^ a b Everson, Michael (2006-08-06). "L2/06-266: Proposal to add Latin letters and a Greek symbol to the UCS" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2013-08-19. Retrieved 2018-03-24.
^ Everson, Michael; West, Andrew (2020-10-05). "L2/20-268: Revised proposal to add ten characters for Middle English to the UCS" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-10-24. Retrieved 2022-10-13.
^ Miller, Kirk; Ashby, Michael (2020-11-08). "L2/20-252R: Unicode request for IPA modifier-letters (a), pulmonic" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-07-30. Retrieved 2022-10-13.
^ Miller, Kirk (2020-07-11). "L2/20-125R: Unicode request for expected IPA retroflex letters and similar letters with hooks" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-08. Retrieved 2022-10-13.
^ a b Anderson, Deborah (2020-12-07). "L2/21-021: Reference doc numbers for L2/20-266R "Consolidated code chart of proposed phonetic characters" and IPA etc. code point and name changes" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-01-08. Retrieved 2022-10-13.
^ Miller, Kirk; Sands, Bonny (2020-07-10). "L2/20-115R: Unicode request for additional phonetic click letters" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-08. Retrieved 2022-10-13.
^ Everson, Michael; et al. (2002-03-20). "L2/02-141: Uralic Phonetic Alphabet characters for the UCS" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-02-19. Retrieved 2018-03-24.
^ Ruppel, Klaas; Aalto, Tero; Everson, Michael (2009-01-27). "L2/09-028: Proposal to encode additional characters for the Uralic Phonetic Alphabet" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-10-11. Retrieved 2018-03-24.
^ Cook, Richard; Everson, Michael (2001-09-20). "L2/01-347: Proposal to add six phonetic characters to the UCS" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-10-11. Retrieved 2018-03-24.
^ Everson, Michael; Jacquerye, Denis; Lilley, Chris (2012-07-26). "L2/12-270: Proposal for the addition of ten Latin characters to the UCS" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2019-03-30. Retrieved 2018-03-24.
^ Miller, Kirk; Rees, Neil (2021-07-16). "L2/21-156: Unicode request for legacy Malayalam" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-09-07. Retrieved 2022-10-13.
External links
Media related to T at Wikimedia Commons
The dictionary definition of T at Wiktionary
The dictionary definition of t at Wiktionary
vteLatin script
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Ss
Tt
Uu
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Ww
Xx
Yy
Zz
Letter T with diacritics
Ťť
Ṫṫ
Ţţ
Ṭṭ
Țț
Ṱṱ
Ṯṯ
Ŧŧ
Ⱦⱦ
Ƭƭ
Ʈʈ
T̈ẗ
ᵵ
ƫ
ȶ
𝼉
𝼪
MultigraphsDigraphs
Ch
Dz
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Gh
IJ
Lj
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Sh
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Trigraphs
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Diacritics
Palaeography
Authority control databases: National
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|
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For the same letterform in the Cyrillic and Greek alphabets, see Te (Cyrillic) and Tau. For other uses, see T (disambiguation).Not to be confused with ㅜ, Tea, Tee, or various box-drawing characters.This article contains uncommon Unicode characters. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of the intended characters.T, or t, is the twentieth letter of the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its name in English is tee (pronounced /ˈtiː/), plural tees.[1]It is derived from the Semitic Taw 𐤕 of the Phoenician and Paleo-Hebrew script (Aramaic and Hebrew Taw ת/𐡕/, Syriac Taw ܬ, and Arabic ت Tāʼ) via the Greek letter τ (tau). In English, it is most commonly used to represent the voiceless alveolar plosive, a sound it also denotes in the International Phonetic Alphabet. It is the most commonly used consonant and the second-most commonly used letter in English-language texts.[2]","title":"T"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Taw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taw"},{"link_name":"Semitic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semitic_alphabets"},{"link_name":"Hebrew alphabets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet"},{"link_name":"Greek alphabet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_alphabet"},{"link_name":"Old Italic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Italic_alphabet"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive"}],"text":"Taw was the last letter of the Western Semitic and Hebrew alphabets. The sound value of Semitic Taw, Greek alphabet Tαυ (Tau), Old Italic and Latin T has remained fairly constant, representing [t] in each of these; and it has also kept its original basic shape in most of these alphabets.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Use in writing systems"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"voiceless alveolar plosive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive"},{"link_name":"International Phonetic Alphabet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA"},{"link_name":"X-SAMPA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-SAMPA"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive"},{"link_name":"aspiration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspirated_consonant"},{"link_name":"stressed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)"},{"link_name":"voiceless palato-alveolar sibilant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_palato-alveolar_sibilant"},{"link_name":"yod-coalescence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_consonant_clusters#Yod-coalescence"},{"link_name":"digraph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digraph_(orthography)"},{"link_name":"dental fricative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental_fricative"}],"sub_title":"English","text":"In English, ⟨t⟩ usually denotes the voiceless alveolar plosive (International Phonetic Alphabet and X-SAMPA: /t/), as in tart, tee, or ties, often with aspiration at the beginnings of words or before stressed vowels.The digraph ⟨ti⟩ often corresponds to the sound /ʃ/ (a voiceless palato-alveolar sibilant) word-medially when followed by a vowel, as in nation, ratio, negotiation, and Croatia.The letter ⟨t⟩ corresponds to the affricate /t͡ʃ/ in some words as a result of yod-coalescence (for example, in words ending in \"-ture\", such as future).A common digraph is ⟨th⟩, which usually represents a dental fricative, but occasionally represents /t/ (as in Thomas and thyme.)In a few words of modern French origin, the letter T is silent at the end of a word; these include croquet and debut.","title":"Use in writing systems"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"orthographies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthographies"},{"link_name":"voiceless dental plosive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_dental_plosive"}],"sub_title":"Other languages","text":"In the orthographies of other languages, ⟨t⟩ is often used for /t/, the voiceless dental plosive /t̪/, or similar sounds.","title":"Use in writing systems"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"International Phonetic Alphabet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet"},{"link_name":"voiceless alveolar plosive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive"}],"sub_title":"Other systems","text":"In the International Phonetic Alphabet, ⟨t⟩ denotes the voiceless alveolar plosive.","title":"Use in writing systems"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Unit prefix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_prefix"}],"text":"Unit prefix T, meaning 1,000,000,000,000 times.","title":"Other uses"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Related characters"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Teisko.vaakuna.svg"},{"link_name":"Teisko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teisko"},{"link_name":"Tampere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tampere"},{"link_name":"diacritics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diacritic"},{"link_name":"Ť ť","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A4"},{"link_name":"Ṫ ṫ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dot_(diacritic)"},{"link_name":"ẗ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%CC%88"},{"link_name":"Ţ ţ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A2"},{"link_name":"Ṭ ṭ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B9%AC"},{"link_name":"Ʈ ʈ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%AE"},{"link_name":"Ț ț","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C8%9A"},{"link_name":"ƫ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%AB"},{"link_name":"Ṱ ṱ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumflex"},{"link_name":"Ṯ ṯ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macron_below"},{"link_name":"Ŧ ŧ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A6"},{"link_name":"Ⱦ ⱦ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C8%BE"},{"link_name":"Ƭ ƭ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%AC"},{"link_name":"ᵵ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B5%B5"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"ᶵ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B6%B5"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Insular","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insular_script"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"William Pryce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Pryce"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Insular-5"},{"link_name":"Ormulum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ormulum"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-L220268-7"},{"link_name":"ʇ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenuis_dental_click"},{"link_name":"International Phonetic Alphabet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet"},{"link_name":"superscript IPA letter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet#Superscript_IPA"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-L220252-8"},{"link_name":"voiceless retroflex implosive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_implosive"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-L220125-9"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-L221021-10"},{"link_name":"click letter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Click_letter"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-L220115-11"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-L221021-10"},{"link_name":"Uralic Phonetic Alphabet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uralic_Phonetic_Alphabet"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"LATIN SMALL LETTER T WITH DIAERESIS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-diaeresis"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"ȶ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C8%B6"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Dakota language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dakota_language"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"British and Foreign Bible Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_and_Foreign_Bible_Society"},{"link_name":"romanization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization"},{"link_name":"Malayalam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayalam"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-L221156-16"}],"sub_title":"Descendants and related characters in the Latin alphabet","text":"A curly T pictured in the coat of arms of the former Teisko municipality, which was consolidated to Tampere.T with diacritics: Ť ť Ṫ ṫ ẗ Ţ ţ Ṭ ṭ Ʈ ʈ Ț ț ƫ Ṱ ṱ Ṯ ṯ Ŧ ŧ Ⱦ ⱦ Ƭ ƭ ᵵ[3] ᶵ[4]\nꞆ ꞇ : Insular T,[a] also used by William Pryce to designate the voiceless dental fricative [θ][5]\nᫎ : Combining small insular t was used in the Ormulum[6]\nʇ : Turned small t is used in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)\n𐞯 : Modifier letter small t with retroflex hook is a superscript IPA letter[7]\n𝼉 : Latin small letter t with hook and retroflex hook is a symbol for a voiceless retroflex implosive[8][9]\n𝼍 : Latin small turned t with curl is a click letter[10][9]\nUralic Phonetic Alphabet-specific symbols related to T:[11]\nU+1D1B ᴛ LATIN LETTER SMALL CAPITAL T\nU+1D40 ᵀ MODIFIER LETTER CAPITAL T\nU+1D57 ᵗ MODIFIER LETTER SMALL T\nU+1E97 ẗ LATIN SMALL LETTER T WITH DIAERESIS\nₜ : Subscript small t was used in the Uralic Phonetic Alphabet prior to its formal standardization in 1902[12]\nȶ : T with curl is used in Sino-Tibetanist linguistics[13]\nꞱ ʇ : Turned capital T and turned small t were used in transcriptions of the Dakota language in publications of the American Board of Ethnology in the late 19th century[14]\n𝼪 : Small t with mid-height left hook was used by the British and Foreign Bible Society in the early 20th century for romanization of the Malayalam language.[15]","title":"Related characters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Semitic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenician_alphabet"},{"link_name":"Taw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taw"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_alphabet"},{"link_name":"Tau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tau"},{"link_name":"Coptic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_alphabet"},{"link_name":"Cyrillic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic"},{"link_name":"Te","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Te_(Cyrillic)"},{"link_name":"Gothic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_alphabet"},{"link_name":"Old Italic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Italic_script"},{"link_name":"Runic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runes"},{"link_name":"teiwaz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiwaz_rune"},{"link_name":"Ge'ez script","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ge%27ez_script"},{"link_name":"abugida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abugida"},{"link_name":"ተ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%89%B0"}],"sub_title":"Ancestors and siblings in other alphabets","text":"𐤕 : Semitic letter Taw, from which the following symbols originally derive\nΤ τ : Greek letter Tau\nⲦ ⲧ : Coptic letter Taw, which derives from Greek Tau\nТ т : Cyrillic letter Te, also derived from Tau\n𐍄 : Gothic letter tius, which derives from Greek Tau\n𐌕 : Old Italic T, which derives from Greek Tau, and is the ancestor of modern Latin T\nᛏ : Runic letter teiwaz, which probably derives from old Italic T\nፐ : One of the 26 consonantal letters of Ge'ez script. The Ge'ez abugida developed under the influence of Christian scripture by adding obligatory vocalic diacritics to the consonantal letters. Pesa ፐ is based on Tawe ተ.","title":"Related characters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Trademark symbol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trademark_symbol"},{"link_name":"Mongolian tögrög","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolian_t%C3%B6gr%C3%B6g"},{"link_name":"Kazakhstani tenge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstani_tenge"},{"link_name":"Bangladeshi taka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladeshi_taka"}],"sub_title":"Derived signs, symbols and abbreviations","text":"™ : Trademark symbol\n₮ : Mongolian tögrög\n₸ : Kazakhstani tenge\n৳ : Bangladeshi taka","title":"Related characters"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Other representations"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Computing","text":"1 Also for encodings based on ASCII, including the DOS, Windows, ISO-8859 and Macintosh families of encodings.","title":"Other representations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"NATO phonetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NATO_spelling_alphabet"},{"link_name":"Morse code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morse_code"},{"link_name":"▄▄▄","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/ba/T_morse_code.ogg/T_morse_code.ogg.mp3"},{"link_name":"ⓘ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:T_morse_code.ogg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ICS_Tango.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Semaphore_Tango.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sign_language_T.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BSL_letter_T.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Braille_T.svg"},{"link_name":"Signal flag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_maritime_signal_flags"},{"link_name":"Flag semaphore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag_semaphore"},{"link_name":"American manual alphabet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_manual_alphabet"},{"link_name":"ASL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Sign_Language"},{"link_name":"fingerspelling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fingerspelling"},{"link_name":"British manual alphabet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_manual_alphabet"},{"link_name":"BSL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Sign_Language"},{"link_name":"fingerspelling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fingerspelling"},{"link_name":"Braille dots-2345","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Braille_pattern_dots-2345"},{"link_name":"Unified English Braille","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified_English_Braille"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:German_Sign_Language_letter_T.svg"},{"link_name":"German Sign Language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Sign_Language"}],"sub_title":"Other","text":"NATO phonetic\n\nMorse code\n\n\nTango\n\n ▄▄▄ ⓘ\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSignal flag\n\nFlag semaphore\n\nAmerican manual alphabet (ASL fingerspelling)\n\nBritish manual alphabet (BSL fingerspelling)\n\nBraille dots-2345 Unified English BrailleThe letter T in German Sign Language","title":"Other representations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"Latin alphabet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_alphabet"},{"link_name":"insular script","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insular_script"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Insular-5"}],"text":"^ Unicode treats representation of letters of the Latin alphabet written in insular script as a typeface choice that needs no separate coding. U+A786 Ꞇ LATIN CAPITAL LETTER INSULAR T and U+A787 ꞇ LATIN SMALL LETTER INSULAR T are provided for use by phonetics specialists.[5]","title":"Explanatory notes"}]
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[{"image_text":"A curly T pictured in the coat of arms of the former Teisko municipality, which was consolidated to Tampere.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Teisko.vaakuna.svg/150px-Teisko.vaakuna.svg.png"}]
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[{"reference":"Lewand, Robert. \"Relative Frequencies of Letters in General English Plain text\". Cryptographical Mathematics. Central College. Archived from the original on 2008-07-08. Retrieved 2008-06-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080708193159/http://pages.central.edu/emp/LintonT/classes/spring01/cryptography/letterfreq.html","url_text":"\"Relative Frequencies of Letters in General English Plain text\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_College_(Pella,_Iowa)","url_text":"Central College"},{"url":"http://pages.central.edu/emp/LintonT/classes/spring01/cryptography/letterfreq.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Constable, Peter (2003-09-30). \"L2/03-174R2: Proposal to Encode Phonetic Symbols with Middle Tilde in the UCS\" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-10-11. Retrieved 2018-03-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2003/03174r2-mid-tilde.pdf","url_text":"\"L2/03-174R2: Proposal to Encode Phonetic Symbols with Middle Tilde in the UCS\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171011013938/http://www.unicode.org/L2/L2003/03174r2-mid-tilde.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Constable, Peter (2004-04-19). \"L2/04-132 Proposal to add additional phonetic characters to the UCS\" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-10-11. Retrieved 2018-03-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2004/04132-n2740-phonetic.pdf","url_text":"\"L2/04-132 Proposal to add additional phonetic characters to the UCS\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171011014355/http://www.unicode.org/L2/L2004/04132-n2740-phonetic.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Everson, Michael (2006-08-06). \"L2/06-266: Proposal to add Latin letters and a Greek symbol to the UCS\" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2013-08-19. Retrieved 2018-03-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2006/06266-n3122-insular.pdf","url_text":"\"L2/06-266: Proposal to add Latin letters and a Greek symbol to the UCS\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130819182322/http://www.unicode.org/L2/L2006/06266-n3122-insular.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Everson, Michael; West, Andrew (2020-10-05). \"L2/20-268: Revised proposal to add ten characters for Middle English to the UCS\" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-10-24. Retrieved 2022-10-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2020/20268-n5145-ormulum.pdf","url_text":"\"L2/20-268: Revised proposal to add ten characters for Middle English to the UCS\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201024033958/https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2020/20268-n5145-ormulum.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Miller, Kirk; Ashby, Michael (2020-11-08). \"L2/20-252R: Unicode request for IPA modifier-letters (a), pulmonic\" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-07-30. Retrieved 2022-10-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2020/20252r-mod-ipa-a.pdf","url_text":"\"L2/20-252R: Unicode request for IPA modifier-letters (a), pulmonic\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210730010133/https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2020/20252r-mod-ipa-a.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Miller, Kirk (2020-07-11). \"L2/20-125R: Unicode request for expected IPA retroflex letters and similar letters with hooks\" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-08. Retrieved 2022-10-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2020/20125r-ipa-retroflex.pdf","url_text":"\"L2/20-125R: Unicode request for expected IPA retroflex letters and similar letters with hooks\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20221008020733/http://www.unicode.org/L2/L2020/20125r-ipa-retroflex.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Anderson, Deborah (2020-12-07). \"L2/21-021: Reference doc numbers for L2/20-266R \"Consolidated code chart of proposed phonetic characters\" and IPA etc. code point and name changes\" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-01-08. Retrieved 2022-10-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2021/21021-consolidated-ipa.pdf","url_text":"\"L2/21-021: Reference doc numbers for L2/20-266R \"Consolidated code chart of proposed phonetic characters\" and IPA etc. code point and name changes\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210108092102/http://www.unicode.org/L2/L2021/21021-consolidated-ipa.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Miller, Kirk; Sands, Bonny (2020-07-10). \"L2/20-115R: Unicode request for additional phonetic click letters\" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-08. Retrieved 2022-10-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2020/20115r-click-letters.pdf","url_text":"\"L2/20-115R: Unicode request for additional phonetic click letters\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20221008020935/http://www.unicode.org/L2/L2020/20115r-click-letters.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Everson, Michael; et al. (2002-03-20). \"L2/02-141: Uralic Phonetic Alphabet characters for the UCS\" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-02-19. Retrieved 2018-03-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Everson","url_text":"Everson, Michael"},{"url":"https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2002/02141-n2419-uralic-phonetic.pdf","url_text":"\"L2/02-141: Uralic Phonetic Alphabet characters for the UCS\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180219081033/http://www.unicode.org/L2/L2002/02141-n2419-uralic-phonetic.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Ruppel, Klaas; Aalto, Tero; Everson, Michael (2009-01-27). \"L2/09-028: Proposal to encode additional characters for the Uralic Phonetic Alphabet\" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-10-11. Retrieved 2018-03-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2009/09028-n3571-upa-additions.pdf","url_text":"\"L2/09-028: Proposal to encode additional characters for the Uralic Phonetic Alphabet\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171011014359/http://www.unicode.org/L2/L2009/09028-n3571-upa-additions.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Cook, Richard; Everson, Michael (2001-09-20). \"L2/01-347: Proposal to add six phonetic characters to the UCS\" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-10-11. Retrieved 2018-03-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2001/01347-n2366r.pdf","url_text":"\"L2/01-347: Proposal to add six phonetic characters to the UCS\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171011014401/http://www.unicode.org/L2/L2001/01347-n2366r.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Everson, Michael; Jacquerye, Denis; Lilley, Chris (2012-07-26). \"L2/12-270: Proposal for the addition of ten Latin characters to the UCS\" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2019-03-30. Retrieved 2018-03-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Lilley_(computer_scientist)","url_text":"Lilley, Chris"},{"url":"https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2012/12270-n4297-beta-etc.pdf","url_text":"\"L2/12-270: Proposal for the addition of ten Latin characters to the UCS\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190330042809/https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2012/12270-n4297-beta-etc.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Miller, Kirk; Rees, Neil (2021-07-16). \"L2/21-156: Unicode request for legacy Malayalam\" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-09-07. Retrieved 2022-10-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2021/21156-legacy-malayalam.pdf","url_text":"\"L2/21-156: Unicode request for legacy Malayalam\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210907191404/https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2021/21156-legacy-malayalam.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]}]
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newspaper_circulation
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Print circulation
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["1 Concept","2 World newspapers with the largest circulation","3 Individual countries","3.1 Australia","3.2 Belgium","3.3 Canada","3.4 India","3.5 Japan","3.6 Norway","3.7 Turkey","3.8 United Kingdom","3.9 United States","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]
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Number of printed copies of a publication
This article is about a principal type of circulation as a measure of readership. For the other principal type, see Library circulation.
Part of a newspaper print circulation
Print circulation is the average number of copies of a publication. The number of copies of a non-periodical publication (such as a book) are usually called print run. Circulation is not always the same as copies sold, often called paid circulation, since some issues are distributed without cost to the reader. Readership figures are usually higher than circulation figures because of the assumption that a typical copy is read by more than one person.
Concept
Print circulation is a good proxy measure of print readership and is thus one of the principal factors used to set print advertising rates (prices). In many countries, circulations are audited by independent bodies such as the Audit Bureau of Circulations to assure advertisers that a given newspaper does reach the number of people claimed by the publisher. There are international open access directories such as Mondo Times, but these generally rely on numbers reported by newspapers themselves.
World newspapers with the largest circulation
The World Association of Newspapers and News Publishers (WAN-IFRA) publishes a list of newspapers with the largest circulation. In 2011, India led the world in terms of newspaper circulation with nearly 330 million newspapers circulated daily. In 2010, China topped the list in term of total newspaper circulation with 110.78 million a day, ahead of India in second with 100.993 million, followed by Japan, with 50.4 million; the United States, with 48.5 million; and Germany, with 19.7 million. In the 2019 survey, among the top 10 newspapers, all were Asian newspapers and four were Japanese newspapers.
The Japanese Yomiuri Shimbun (読売新聞), Asahi Shimbun (朝日新聞) are still the largest circulated newspapers in the world. The Times of India is the largest circulated English-language daily newspaper in the world, across all formats (Broadsheet, Compact, Berliner and Online). Reference News (《参考消息》) is the most popular paper in China.
According to the Guinness Book of Records, the daily circulation of the Soviet newspaper Komsomolskaya Pravda exceeded 21,500,000 in 1990, while the Soviet weekly Argumenty i Fakty boasted a circulation of 33,500,000 in 1991.
In many developed countries, print circulation is falling due to social and technological changes such as the availability of news on the internet. On the other hand, in some developing countries circulation is increasing as these factors are more than cancelled out by rising incomes, population, and literacy.
Individual countries
Australia
For a more comprehensive list, see List of newspapers in Australia by circulation.
The Herald Sun has the highest circulation in Australia. Based in one of the country's two major cities, Melbourne, it is the result of the amalgamation of the original Sun and Herald newspapers.
Belgium
The Belgian institution CIM (Centre for Information about Media) publishes national circulation figures for all written, audiovisual and web-based media in Belgium. The top ten best-selling papers according to their website are Het Laatste Nieuws, 317,715; Het Nieuwsblad, 245,209; SUD Presse (group of papers focused on community specific content), 147,749; Het Belang van Limburg, 121,428; Le Soir, 113,780; Vers l'avenir, 109,287 (group of papers focused on community specific content); La Dernière Heure, 107,583; De Standaard, 104,758.
Canada
For a more comprehensive list, see List of Canadian newspapers by circulation.This section needs to be updated. The reason given is: Toronto Star is no longer the most circulated newspaper in Canada. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (May 2021)
The most widely read paper in the country is the Toronto Star, which, as of the six-month period ending on March 31, 2007, averaged 634,886 copies sold on Saturday, 436,694 Monday to Friday, and 442,265 on Sunday. The second most widely read paper is Toronto-based national newspaper The Globe and Mail, which averaged 374,000 copies on Saturdays, and 303,000 Monday to Friday. The most widely read French-language newspaper is Le Journal de Montréal, which averaged 319,899 copies on Saturday, 267,404 Monday to Friday, and 264,733 on Sunday. Unlike in the United States, newspapers in Canada published their biggest and mostly widely read editions on Saturdays.
India
For a more comprehensive list, see List of newspapers in India by circulation.
The Audit Bureau of Circulations shows that the largest read local language newspapers to be Dainik Bhaskar (with 4.320 million readers) and Dainik Jagran (with 3.410 million readers), both published in Hindi. The Times of India is the most widely read English language newspaper ( 3.029 million), followed by Malayala Manorama (2.370 million), Amar Ujala (2.067 million), Hindustan Times (1.132 million), Eenadu (1.732 million), Daily Thanthi is a Tamil daily (1.498 million), Anandabazar Patrika is Bengali language newspaper(1.075 million). Malayala Manorama newspaper which is published in Malayalam from Kerala, currently has a readership of over 2.370 million (with a circulation base of over 2.4 million copies) has the most circulation in other languages.
Japan
For a more comprehensive list, see List of newspapers in Japan.
The 2022 circulation figures for the morning and evening editions of Japan's newspapers: Yomiuri Shimbun, 6,870,000; The Asahi Shimbun, 5,890,000; Mainichi Shimbun, 2,572,000; Nihon Keizai Shimbun, 1,731,000; Chunichi Shimbun/Tokyo Shimbun,2,871 ,000; Sankei Shimbun, 1,330 ,000; Nikkan Sports, 1,661 ,828; Hokkaido Shimbun, 1,896,594; Shizuoka Shimbun, 1,479,000; .
Norway
The Norwegian Media Businesses' Association publishes national circulation figures for every newspaper in Norway every year. In 2011 the most read newspaper was the Oslo-based national newspaper Aftenposten, with a circulation of 235,795 followed by the tabloid Verdens Gang with 211,588. The local evening newspaper Aften averages 101,574 and the tabloid Dagbladet had 98,989 readers. The financial newspaper Dagens Næringsliv averaged 82,595. In the top ten list it is followed by five local newspapers: Bergens Tidende, 79,467; Adresseavisen, 71,657; Stavanger Aftenblad, 63,283; Fædrelandsvennen, 36,604 and Drammens Tidende, 33,352.
Turkey
For a more comprehensive list, see List of newspapers in Turkey.
As of August 2016, the top 6 best-selling papers are respectively: Hürriyet, 340,898; Sözcü, 322,829; Sabah, 313,989; Posta, 302,919; Habertürk, 253,256 and Milliyet, 143,577.
United Kingdom
For a more comprehensive list, see List of newspapers in the United Kingdom by circulation.
According to the Audit Bureau of Circulations the newspaper with the UK's highest paid circulation is the Daily Mail at 800,110 as of November 2022.
United States
For a more comprehensive list, see List of newspapers in the United States by circulation.
The heyday of the newspaper industry was the 1940s, but the percentage of Americans reading newspapers began to decline with the increased competition from radio, television and, more recently, the Internet. A growing population helped the absolute circulation numbers continue to increase until the 1970s, where it remained stable until the 1990s, when absolute circulation numbers began declining.
Newspaper circulation numbers are reported to the Alliance for Audited Media. The best-selling papers in America, measured by combined daily average circulation as of March 31, 2013, are the Wall Street Journal with 2,378,827 in circulation; The New York Times at 1,865,318; and USA Today with 1,674,306. Overall, for the 593 reporting newspapers, daily circulation declined 0.7 percent year-over-year between March 2012 and March 2013. Sunday circulation was down 1.4 percent over the same period.
See also
List of newspapers by circulation
List of magazines by circulation
Newspaper delivery: The circulation department of a newspaper, in addition to soliciting subscriptions, also distributes them to subscribers to the print edition. The last step is newspaper delivery consisting of newspaper routes run either by motor vehicle or traditional adolescent "paper boys."
Printer's key
References
^ "Aboriginal Curriculum Resources". Queen's University Library. December 9, 2016. Archived from the original on December 26, 2016. Retrieved December 25, 2016.
^ "Print Media grows by 6.25%; Urdu at No. 3". twocircles.net. December 29, 2011. Archived from the original on June 1, 2012.
^ "Canadian Circulation Data". Archived from the original on September 27, 2007. Retrieved October 20, 2009.
^ "Highest Circulated Daily Newspapers (language wise)" (PDF). Audit Bureau of Circulations. Retrieved January 5, 2019.
^ Opplagstallene for aviser, magasin og ukeblader for 2011 Archived 2012-06-18 at the Wayback Machine. Opplag.no
^ "National press ABCs: Daily Mail dips below 800,000 for first time in January". February 22, 2023.
^ "Top 25 U.S. Newspapers For March 2013". April 30, 2013. Archived from the original on June 11, 2013. Retrieved June 9, 2013.
External links
Newspaper Map (circulation worldwide)
BPA Worldwide: Media Auditing
The State of the Media 2004 from journalism.org
Alliance for Audited Media web site
The Front Pages of the Main Newspapers of the World
Editor & Publisher Yearbook On-line with circulation statistics
Searchable database of Canadian newspaper circulation figures from the Canadian Newspaper Association
English Newspaper in Spain
Authority control databases: National
Germany
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Library circulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_circulation"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_stack_of_newspapers.jpg"},{"link_name":"publication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publication"}],"text":"This article is about a principal type of circulation as a measure of readership. For the other principal type, see Library circulation.Part of a newspaper print circulationPrint circulation is the average number of copies of a publication. The number of copies of a non-periodical publication (such as a book) are usually called print run. Circulation is not always the same as copies sold, often called paid circulation, since some issues are distributed without cost to the reader. Readership figures are usually higher than circulation figures because of the assumption that a typical copy is read by more than one person.","title":"Print circulation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"proxy measure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proxy_(statistics)"},{"link_name":"readership","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Target_audience"},{"link_name":"advertising","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advertising"},{"link_name":"audited","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audit"},{"link_name":"Audit Bureau of Circulations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audit_Bureau_of_Circulations_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"open access","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_access"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"Print circulation is a good proxy measure of print readership and is thus one of the principal factors used to set print advertising rates (prices). In many countries, circulations are audited by independent bodies such as the Audit Bureau of Circulations to assure advertisers that a given newspaper does reach the number of people claimed by the publisher. There are international open access directories such as Mondo Times,[1] but these generally rely on numbers reported by newspapers themselves.","title":"Concept"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"World Association of Newspapers and News Publishers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Association_of_Newspapers_and_News_Publishers"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Yomiuri Shimbun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yomiuri_Shimbun"},{"link_name":"Asahi Shimbun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asahi_Shimbun"},{"link_name":"largest circulated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_newspapers_in_the_world_by_circulation"},{"link_name":"The Times of India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Times_of_India"},{"link_name":"largest circulated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_newspapers_in_the_world_by_circulation"},{"link_name":"Reference News","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reference_News"},{"link_name":"Guinness Book of Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guinness_Book_of_Records"},{"link_name":"Komsomolskaya Pravda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komsomolskaya_Pravda"},{"link_name":"Argumenty i Fakty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argumenty_i_Fakty"}],"text":"The World Association of Newspapers and News Publishers (WAN-IFRA) publishes a list of newspapers with the largest circulation. In 2011, India led the world in terms of newspaper circulation with nearly 330 million newspapers circulated daily.[2] In 2010, China topped the list in term of total newspaper circulation with 110.78 million a day, ahead of India in second with 100.993 million, followed by Japan, with 50.4 million; the United States, with 48.5 million; and Germany, with 19.7 million. In the 2019 survey, among the top 10 newspapers, all were Asian newspapers and four were Japanese newspapers.The Japanese Yomiuri Shimbun (読売新聞), Asahi Shimbun (朝日新聞) are still the largest circulated newspapers in the world. The Times of India is the largest circulated English-language daily newspaper in the world, across all formats (Broadsheet, Compact, Berliner and Online). Reference News (《参考消息》) is the most popular paper in China.According to the Guinness Book of Records, the daily circulation of the Soviet newspaper Komsomolskaya Pravda exceeded 21,500,000 in 1990, while the Soviet weekly Argumenty i Fakty boasted a circulation of 33,500,000 in 1991.In many developed countries, print circulation is falling due to social and technological changes such as the availability of news on the internet. On the other hand, in some developing countries circulation is increasing as these factors are more than cancelled out by rising incomes, population, and literacy.","title":"World newspapers with the largest circulation"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Individual countries"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of newspapers in Australia by circulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_newspapers_in_Australia_by_circulation"},{"link_name":"The Herald Sun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Herald_Sun"},{"link_name":"Melbourne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melbourne"}],"sub_title":"Australia","text":"For a more comprehensive list, see List of newspapers in Australia by circulation.The Herald Sun has the highest circulation in Australia. Based in one of the country's two major cities, Melbourne, it is the result of the amalgamation of the original Sun and Herald newspapers.","title":"Individual countries"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.cim.be/auth/en/d/dp.html"},{"link_name":"Het Laatste Nieuws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Het_Laatste_Nieuws"},{"link_name":"Het Nieuwsblad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Het_Nieuwsblad"},{"link_name":"SUD Presse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SUD_Presse&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Het Belang van Limburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Het_Belang_van_Limburg"},{"link_name":"Le Soir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Soir"},{"link_name":"La Dernière Heure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Derni%C3%A8re_Heure"},{"link_name":"De Standaard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Standaard"}],"sub_title":"Belgium","text":"The Belgian institution CIM (Centre for Information about Media) publishes national circulation figures for all written, audiovisual and web-based media in Belgium. The top ten best-selling papers according to their website [1] are Het Laatste Nieuws, 317,715; Het Nieuwsblad, 245,209; SUD Presse (group of papers focused on community specific content), 147,749; Het Belang van Limburg, 121,428; Le Soir, 113,780; Vers l'avenir, 109,287 (group of papers focused on community specific content); La Dernière Heure, 107,583; De Standaard, 104,758.","title":"Individual countries"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of Canadian newspapers by circulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Canadian_newspapers_by_circulation"},{"link_name":"Toronto Star","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto_Star"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"The Globe and Mail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Globe_and_Mail"},{"link_name":"Le Journal de Montréal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Journal_de_Montr%C3%A9al"}],"sub_title":"Canada","text":"For a more comprehensive list, see List of Canadian newspapers by circulation.The most widely read paper in the country is the Toronto Star, which, as of the six-month period ending on March 31, 2007, averaged 634,886 copies sold on Saturday, 436,694 Monday to Friday, and 442,265 on Sunday.[3] The second most widely read paper is Toronto-based national newspaper The Globe and Mail, which averaged 374,000 copies on Saturdays, and 303,000 Monday to Friday. The most widely read French-language newspaper is Le Journal de Montréal, which averaged 319,899 copies on Saturday, 267,404 Monday to Friday, and 264,733 on Sunday. Unlike in the United States, newspapers in Canada published their biggest and mostly widely read editions on Saturdays.","title":"Individual countries"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of newspapers in India by circulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_newspapers_in_India_by_circulation"},{"link_name":"Audit Bureau of Circulations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audit_Bureau_of_Circulations_(India)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ABCIND-4"},{"link_name":"Dainik Bhaskar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dainik_Bhaskar"},{"link_name":"Dainik Jagran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dainik_Jagran"},{"link_name":"Hindi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindi"},{"link_name":"Times of India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Times_of_India"},{"link_name":"English language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language"},{"link_name":"Malayala Manorama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayala_Manorama"},{"link_name":"Amar Ujala","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amar_Ujala"},{"link_name":"Hindustan Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindustan_Times"},{"link_name":"Eenadu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eenadu"},{"link_name":"Daily Thanthi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daily_Thanthi"},{"link_name":"Anandabazar Patrika","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anandabazar_Patrika"},{"link_name":"Malayala Manorama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayala_Manorama"},{"link_name":"Malayalam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayalam"}],"sub_title":"India","text":"For a more comprehensive list, see List of newspapers in India by circulation.The Audit Bureau of Circulations[4] shows that the largest read local language newspapers to be Dainik Bhaskar (with 4.320 million readers) and Dainik Jagran (with 3.410 million readers), both published in Hindi. The Times of India is the most widely read English language newspaper ( 3.029 million), followed by Malayala Manorama (2.370 million), Amar Ujala (2.067 million), Hindustan Times (1.132 million), Eenadu (1.732 million), Daily Thanthi is a Tamil daily (1.498 million), Anandabazar Patrika is Bengali language newspaper(1.075 million). Malayala Manorama newspaper which is published in Malayalam from Kerala, currently has a readership of over 2.370 million (with a circulation base of over 2.4 million copies) has the most circulation in other languages.","title":"Individual countries"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of newspapers in Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_newspapers_in_Japan"},{"link_name":"Yomiuri Shimbun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yomiuri_Shimbun"},{"link_name":"Asahi Shimbun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asahi_Shimbun"},{"link_name":"Mainichi Shimbun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainichi_Shimbun"},{"link_name":"Nihon Keizai Shimbun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nihon_Keizai_Shimbun"},{"link_name":"Chunichi Shimbun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chunichi_Shimbun"},{"link_name":"Tokyo Shimbun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo_Shimbun"},{"link_name":"Sankei Shimbun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sankei_Shimbun"},{"link_name":"Nikkan Sports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikkan_Sports"},{"link_name":"Hokkaido Shimbun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hokkaido_Shimbun"},{"link_name":"Shizuoka Shimbun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shizuoka_Shimbun"}],"sub_title":"Japan","text":"For a more comprehensive list, see List of newspapers in Japan.The 2022 circulation figures for the morning and evening editions of Japan's newspapers: Yomiuri Shimbun, 6,870,000; The Asahi Shimbun, 5,890,000; Mainichi Shimbun, 2,572,000; Nihon Keizai Shimbun, 1,731,000; Chunichi Shimbun/Tokyo Shimbun,2,871 ,000; Sankei Shimbun, 1,330 ,000; Nikkan Sports, 1,661 ,828; Hokkaido Shimbun, 1,896,594; Shizuoka Shimbun, 1,479,000; .","title":"Individual countries"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Norwegian Media Businesses' Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_Media_Businesses%27_Association"},{"link_name":"Oslo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oslo"},{"link_name":"Aftenposten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftenposten"},{"link_name":"Verdens Gang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verdens_Gang"},{"link_name":"Aften","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftenposten"},{"link_name":"Dagbladet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dagbladet"},{"link_name":"Dagens Næringsliv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dagens_N%C3%A6ringsliv"},{"link_name":"Bergens Tidende","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergens_Tidende"},{"link_name":"Adresseavisen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adresseavisen"},{"link_name":"Stavanger Aftenblad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stavanger_Aftenblad"},{"link_name":"Fædrelandsvennen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A6drelandsvennen"},{"link_name":"Drammens Tidende","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drammens_Tidende"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"sub_title":"Norway","text":"The Norwegian Media Businesses' Association publishes national circulation figures for every newspaper in Norway every year. In 2011 the most read newspaper was the Oslo-based national newspaper Aftenposten, with a circulation of 235,795 followed by the tabloid Verdens Gang with 211,588. The local evening newspaper Aften averages 101,574 and the tabloid Dagbladet had 98,989 readers. The financial newspaper Dagens Næringsliv averaged 82,595. In the top ten list it is followed by five local newspapers: Bergens Tidende, 79,467; Adresseavisen, 71,657; Stavanger Aftenblad, 63,283; Fædrelandsvennen, 36,604 and Drammens Tidende, 33,352.[5]","title":"Individual countries"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of newspapers in Turkey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_newspapers_in_Turkey"},{"link_name":"Hürriyet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%BCrriyet"},{"link_name":"Sözcü","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B6zc%C3%BC"},{"link_name":"Sabah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabah_(newspaper)"},{"link_name":"Posta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posta_(newspaper)"},{"link_name":"Habertürk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habert%C3%BCrk"},{"link_name":"Milliyet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milliyet"}],"sub_title":"Turkey","text":"For a more comprehensive list, see List of newspapers in Turkey.As of August 2016, the top 6 best-selling papers are respectively: Hürriyet, 340,898; Sözcü, 322,829; Sabah, 313,989; Posta, 302,919; Habertürk, 253,256 and Milliyet, 143,577.","title":"Individual countries"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of newspapers in the United Kingdom by circulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_newspapers_in_the_United_Kingdom_by_circulation"},{"link_name":"Audit Bureau of Circulations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audit_Bureau_of_Circulations_(UK)"},{"link_name":"Daily Mail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daily_Mail"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"sub_title":"United Kingdom","text":"For a more comprehensive list, see List of newspapers in the United Kingdom by circulation.According to the Audit Bureau of Circulations the newspaper with the UK's highest paid circulation is the Daily Mail at 800,110 as of November 2022.[6]","title":"Individual countries"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of newspapers in the United States by circulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_newspapers_in_the_United_States_by_circulation"},{"link_name":"Alliance for Audited Media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alliance_for_Audited_Media"},{"link_name":"Wall Street Journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wall_Street_Journal"},{"link_name":"The New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"USA Today","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USA_Today"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"sub_title":"United States","text":"For a more comprehensive list, see List of newspapers in the United States by circulation.The heyday of the newspaper industry was the 1940s, but the percentage of Americans reading newspapers began to decline with the increased competition from radio, television and, more recently, the Internet. A growing population helped the absolute circulation numbers continue to increase until the 1970s, where it remained stable until the 1990s, when absolute circulation numbers began declining.Newspaper circulation numbers are reported to the Alliance for Audited Media. The best-selling papers in America, measured by combined daily average circulation as of March 31, 2013, are the Wall Street Journal with 2,378,827 in circulation; The New York Times at 1,865,318; and USA Today with 1,674,306. Overall, for the 593 reporting newspapers, daily circulation declined 0.7 percent year-over-year between March 2012 and March 2013. Sunday circulation was down 1.4 percent over the same period.[7]","title":"Individual countries"}]
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[{"image_text":"Part of a newspaper print circulation","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/A_stack_of_newspapers.jpg/200px-A_stack_of_newspapers.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"List of newspapers by circulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_newspapers_by_circulation"},{"title":"List of magazines by circulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_magazines_by_circulation"},{"title":"Newspaper delivery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newspaper_delivery"},{"title":"Printer's key","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printer%27s_key"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Aboriginal Curriculum Resources\". Queen's University Library. December 9, 2016. Archived from the original on December 26, 2016. Retrieved December 25, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://guides.library.queensu.ca/aboriginal-curriculum-resources/native-studies-resources/aboriginal-publishers","url_text":"\"Aboriginal Curriculum Resources\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen%27s_University_at_Kingston#Libraries,_museums,_and_galleries","url_text":"Queen's University Library"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161226060358/http://guides.library.queensu.ca/aboriginal-curriculum-resources/native-studies-resources/aboriginal-publishers","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Print Media grows by 6.25%; Urdu at No. 3\". twocircles.net. December 29, 2011. Archived from the original on June 1, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://twocircles.net/2011dec30/print_media_grows_625_urdu_no_3.html","url_text":"\"Print Media grows by 6.25%; Urdu at No. 3\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120601000336/http://twocircles.net/2011dec30/print_media_grows_625_urdu_no_3.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Canadian Circulation Data\". Archived from the original on September 27, 2007. Retrieved October 20, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070927005853/http://www.cna-acj.ca/client/cna/ult.nsf/CCData/Toronto%20Star","url_text":"\"Canadian Circulation Data\""},{"url":"http://www.cna-acj.ca/client/cna/ult.nsf/CCData/Toronto%20Star","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Highest Circulated Daily Newspapers (language wise)\" (PDF). Audit Bureau of Circulations. Retrieved January 5, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.auditbureau.org/files/JD2018%20Highest%20Circulated%20(language%20wise).pdf","url_text":"\"Highest Circulated Daily Newspapers (language wise)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audit_Bureau_of_Circulations_(India)","url_text":"Audit Bureau of Circulations"}]},{"reference":"\"National press ABCs: Daily Mail dips below 800,000 for first time in January\". February 22, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://pressgazette.co.uk/media-audience-and-business-data/media_metrics/most-popular-newspapers-uk-abc-monthly-circulation-figures-2/","url_text":"\"National press ABCs: Daily Mail dips below 800,000 for first time in January\""}]},{"reference":"\"Top 25 U.S. Newspapers For March 2013\". April 30, 2013. Archived from the original on June 11, 2013. Retrieved June 9, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130611122852/http://www.auditedmedia.com/news/blog/top-25-us-newspapers-for-march-2013.aspx","url_text":"\"Top 25 U.S. Newspapers For March 2013\""},{"url":"http://www.auditedmedia.com/news/blog/top-25-us-newspapers-for-march-2013.aspx","url_text":"the original"}]}]
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[{"Link":"http://www.cim.be/auth/en/d/dp.html","external_links_name":"[1]"},{"Link":"http://guides.library.queensu.ca/aboriginal-curriculum-resources/native-studies-resources/aboriginal-publishers","external_links_name":"\"Aboriginal Curriculum Resources\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161226060358/http://guides.library.queensu.ca/aboriginal-curriculum-resources/native-studies-resources/aboriginal-publishers","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://twocircles.net/2011dec30/print_media_grows_625_urdu_no_3.html","external_links_name":"\"Print Media grows by 6.25%; Urdu at No. 3\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120601000336/http://twocircles.net/2011dec30/print_media_grows_625_urdu_no_3.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070927005853/http://www.cna-acj.ca/client/cna/ult.nsf/CCData/Toronto%20Star","external_links_name":"\"Canadian Circulation Data\""},{"Link":"http://www.cna-acj.ca/client/cna/ult.nsf/CCData/Toronto%20Star","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.auditbureau.org/files/JD2018%20Highest%20Circulated%20(language%20wise).pdf","external_links_name":"\"Highest Circulated Daily Newspapers (language wise)\""},{"Link":"http://www.opplag.no/index.php/download_file/view/79/80/","external_links_name":"Opplagstallene for aviser, magasin og ukeblader for 2011"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120618122811/http://www.opplag.no/index.php/download_file/view/79/80/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://pressgazette.co.uk/media-audience-and-business-data/media_metrics/most-popular-newspapers-uk-abc-monthly-circulation-figures-2/","external_links_name":"\"National press ABCs: Daily Mail dips below 800,000 for first time in January\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130611122852/http://www.auditedmedia.com/news/blog/top-25-us-newspapers-for-march-2013.aspx","external_links_name":"\"Top 25 U.S. Newspapers For March 2013\""},{"Link":"http://www.auditedmedia.com/news/blog/top-25-us-newspapers-for-march-2013.aspx","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.newstornado.com/map//","external_links_name":"Newspaper Map (circulation worldwide)"},{"Link":"http://www.bpaww.com/","external_links_name":"BPA Worldwide: Media Auditing"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170828204802/http://www.stateofthemedia.org/2004/newspapers-intro/audience/","external_links_name":"The State of the Media 2004 from journalism.org"},{"Link":"http://auditedmedia.com/","external_links_name":"Alliance for Audited Media web site"},{"Link":"http://en.kiosko.net/","external_links_name":"The Front Pages of the Main Newspapers of the World"},{"Link":"http://www.editorandpublisher.com/eandp/yearbook/reports_trends.jsp","external_links_name":"Editor & Publisher Yearbook On-line with circulation statistics"},{"Link":"http://www.cna-acj.ca/client/cna/ult.nsf/ccsearch","external_links_name":"Searchable database of Canadian newspaper circulation figures from the Canadian Newspaper Association"},{"Link":"https://www.euroweeklynews.com/","external_links_name":"English Newspaper in Spain"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/4498328-1","external_links_name":"Germany"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_intelligence
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Software intelligence
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["1 History","2 Capabilities","3 Components","4 User aspect","5 Applications","6 Marketplace","7 References"]
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For intelligence demonstrated by machines through software, see artificial intelligence.
Software intelligence is insight into the inner workings and structural condition of software assets produced by software designed to analyze database structure, software framework and source code to better understand and control complex software systems in information technology environments. Similarly to business intelligence (BI), software intelligence is produced by a set of software tools and techniques for the mining of data and the software's inner-structure. Results are automatically produced and feed a knowledge base containing technical documentation and blueprints of the innerworking of applications, and make it available to all to be used by business and software stakeholders to make informed decisions, measure the efficiency of software development organizations, communicate about the software health, prevent software catastrophes.
History
Software intelligence has been used by Kirk Paul Lafler, an American engineer, entrepreneur, and consultant, and founder of Software Intelligence Corporation in 1979. At that time, it was mainly related to SAS activities, in which he has been an expert since 1979.
In the early 1980s, Victor R. Basili participated in different papers detailing a methodology for collecting valid software engineering data relating to software engineering, evaluation of software development, and variations.
In 2004, different software vendors in software analysis started using the terms as part of their product naming and marketing strategy.
Then in 2010, Ahmed E. Hassan and Tao Xie defined software intelligence as a "practice offering software practitioners up-to-date and pertinent information to support their daily decision-making processes and Software Intelligence should support decision-making processes throughout the lifetime of a software system". They go on by defining software intelligence as a "strong impact on modern software practice" for the upcoming decades.
Capabilities
Because of the complexity and wide range of components and subjects implied in software, software intelligence is derived from different aspects of software:
Software composition is the construction of software application components. Components result from software coding, as well as the integration of the source code from external components: Open source, 3rd party components, or frameworks. Other components can be integrated using application programming interface call to libraries or services.
Software architecture refers to the structure and organization of elements of a system, relations, and properties among them.
Software flaws designate problems that can cause security, stability, resiliency, and unexpected results. There is no standard definition of software flaws but the most accepted is from The MITRE Corporation where common flaws are cataloged as Common Weakness Enumeration.
Software grades assess attributes of the software. Historically, the classification and terminology of attributes have been derived from the ISO 9126-3 and the subsequent ISO 25000:2005 quality model.
Software economics refers to the resource evaluation of software in the past, present, or future to make decisions and to govern.
Components
The capabilities of software intelligence platforms include an increasing number of components:
Code analyzer to serve as an information basis for other software intelligence components identifying objects created by the programming language, external objects from Open source, third parties objects, frameworks, API, or services
Graphical visualization and blueprinting of the inner structure of the software product or application considered including dependencies, from data acquisition (automated and real-time data capture, end-user entries) up to data storage, the different layers within the software, and the coupling between all elements.
Navigation capabilities within components and impact analysis features
List of flaws, architectural and coding violations, against standardized best practices, cloud blocker preventing migration to a Cloud environment, and rogue data-call entailing the security and integrity of software
Grades or scores of the structural and software quality aligned with industry-standard like OMG, CISQ or SEI assessing the reliability, security, efficiency, maintainability, and scalability to cloud or other systems.
Metrics quantifying and estimating software economics including work effort, sizing, and technical debt
Industry references and benchmarking allowing comparisons between outputs of analysis and industry standards
User aspect
Some considerations must be made in order to successfully integrate the usage of software Intelligence systems in a company. Ultimately the software intelligence system must be accepted and utilized by the users in order for it to add value to the organization. If the system does not add value to the users' mission, they simply don't use it as stated by M. Storey in 2003.
At the code level and system representation, software intelligence systems must provide a different level of abstractions: an abstract view for designing, explaining and documenting and a detailed view for understanding and analyzing the software system.
At the governance level, the user acceptance for software intelligence covers different areas related to the inner functioning of the system as well as the output of the system. It encompasses these requirements:
Comprehensive: missing information may lead to a wrong or inappropriate decision, as well as it is a factor influencing the user acceptance of a system.
Accurate: accuracy depends on how the data is collected to ensure fair and indisputable opinion and judgment.
Precise: precision is usually judged by comparing several measurements from the same or different sources.
Scalable: lack of scalability in the software industry is a critical factor leading to failure.
Credible: outputs must be trusted and believed.
Deploy-able and usable.
Applications
Software intelligence has many applications in all businesses relating to the software environment, whether it is software for professionals, individuals, or embedded software.
Depending on the association and the usage of the components, applications will relate to:
Change and modernization: uniform documentation and blueprinting on all inner components, external code integrated, or call to internal or external components of the software
Resiliency and security: measuring against industry standards to diagnose structural flaws in an IT environment. Compliance validation regarding security, specific regulations or technical matters.
Decisions making and governance: Providing analytics about the software itself or stakeholders involved in the development of the software, e.g. productivity measurement to inform business and IT leaders about progress towards business goals.
Assessment and Benchmarking to help business and IT leaders to make informed, fact-based decision about software.
Marketplace
Software intelligence is a high-level discipline and has been gradually growing covering the applications listed above. There are several markets driving the need for it:
Application Portfolio Analysis (APA) aiming at improving the enterprise performance.
Software Assessment for producing the software KPI and improving quality and productivity.
Software security and resiliency measures and validation.
Software evolution or legacy modernization, for which blueprinting the software systems are needed nor tools improving and facilitating modifications.
References
^ Dąbrowski R. (2012) On Architecture Warehouses and Software Intelligence. In: Kim T., Lee Y., Fang W. (eds) Future Generation Information Technology. FGIT 2012. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol 7709. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
^ Hinchey, Mike; Jain, Amit; Kaushik, Manju; Misra, Sanjay (Jan 2023). "Guest Editorial: Intelligence for systems and software engineering". Innovations in Systems and Software Engineering. 19 (1). Springer: 1–4. doi:10.1007/s11334-023-00526-1. PMC 9886201. PMID 36744022.
^ Bartoszuk, C., Dąbrowski, R., Stencel, K., & Timoszuk, G. "On quick comprehension and assessment of software.", In Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on Computer Systems and Technologies, June 2013, pp. 161-168 doi:10.1145/2516775.2516806
^ Raymond PL Buse, and Thomas Zimmermann. "Information needs for software development analytics." 2012 34th International Conference on Software Engineering (ICSE). IEEE, June 2012, pp. 987-996 doi:10.1109/ICSE.2012.6227122
^ Ahmed E. Hassan and Tao Xie. 2010. Software intelligence: the future of mining software engineering data. In Proceedings of the FSE/SDP workshop on Future of software engineering research (FoSER '10). ACM, New York, NY, USA, 161–166
^ "Mr. Kirk Paul Lafler". 21 December 2015.
^
Basili, Victor R. (1981). Data collection, validation and analysis. Software Metrics: An Analysis and Evaluation (PDF). MIT Press. p. 143. ISBN 0-262-16083-8.
^
Basili, Victor R.; Weiss, David M. (Nov 1984). "A Methodology for Collecting Valid Software Engineering Data". IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering (6). IEEE Trans. Softw. Eng. 10, 6 (November 1984): 728–738. doi:10.1109/TSE.1984.5010301. hdl:1903/7513.
^ Ahmed E. Hassan and Tao Xie. 2010. Software intelligence: the future of mining software engineering data. In Proceedings of the FSE/SDP workshop on Future of software engineering research (FoSER '10). ACM, New York, NY, USA, 161–166. doi:10.1145/1882362.1882397
^ Nierstrasz, Oscar, and Theo Dirk Meijler. "Research directions in software composition." ACM Computing Surveys 27.2 (1995): 262-264 doi:10.1145/210376.210389
^ Kanashiro, L., et al. "Predicting software flaws with low complexity models based on static analysis data." Journal of Information Systems Engineering & Management 3.2 (2018): 17 doi:10.20897/jisem.201817
^ "ISO 25000:2005" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2013-04-14. Retrieved 2013-10-18.
^ Boehm, Barry W., and Kevin J. Sullivan. "Software economics: a roadmap." Proceedings of the conference on The future of Software engineering. 2000. doi:10.1145/336512.336584
^ Renato Novais, José Amancio Santos, Manoel Mendonça,
Experimentally assessing the combination of multiple visualization strategies for software evolution analysis, Journal of Systems and Software, Volume 128, 2017, pp. 56–71, ISSN 0164-1212, doi:10.1016/j.jss.2017.03.006.
^
Rolia, Jerome A., and Kenneth C. Sevcik. "The method of layers." IEEE transactions on software engineering 21.8,1995, 689-700,doi:10.1109/32.403785
^ "Software Engineering Rules on code quality". Object Management Group, Inc. 2023. Retrieved 15 December 2023.
^ Balalaie, Armin, , Abbas Heydarnoori, and Pooyan Jamshidi. "Microservices architecture enables devops: Migration to a cloud-native architecture." Ieee Software 33.3 ,May–June 2016, 42-52,doi:10.1109/MS.2016.64
^
Q. Feng, R. Kazman, Y. Cai, R. Mo and L. Xiao, "Towards an Architecture-Centric Approach to Security Analysis," 2016 13th Working IEEE/IFIP Conference on Software Architecture (WICSA), Venice, 2016, pp. 221-230, doi:10.1109/WICSA.2016.41
^
R. Haas, R. Niedermayr and E. Juergens, "Teamscale: Tackle Technical Debt and Control the Quality of Your Software," 2019 IEEE/ACM International Conference on Technical Debt (TechDebt), Montreal, QC, Canada, 2019, pp. 55-56, doi:10.1109/TechDebt.2019.00016
^ Storey MA. (2003) Designing a Software Exploration Tool Using a Cognitive Framework. In: Zhang K. (eds) Software Visualization. The Springer International Series in Engineering and Computer Science, vol 734. Springer, Boston, MA.
^ Seonah Lee, Sungwon Kang, What situational information would help developers when using a graphical code recommender?, Journal of Systems and Software, Volume 117, 2016, pp. 199–217, ISSN 0164-1212, doi:10.1016/j.jss.2016.02.050.
^ Linda G. Wallace, Steven D. Sheetz, The adoption of software measures: A technology acceptance model (TAM) perspective, Information & Management, Volume 51, Issue 2, 2014, pp. 249–259, ISSN 0378-7206, doi:10.1016/j.im.2013.12.003
^ Lippert, S.K.; Forman, H. (August 2005). "Utilization of information technology: examining cognitive and experiential factors of post-adoption behavior". IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management. pp. 363–381. Retrieved 8 December 2023.
^ Banker, R.D.; Kemerer, C.F. (December 1992). "Performance Evaluation Metrics for Information Systems Development: A Principal-Agent Model". Information Systems Research. 3 (4): 379–400. Retrieved 8 December 2023.
^ Crowne, M. (9 July 2003). "Why software product startups fail and what to do about it. Evolution of software product development in startup companies". IEEE International Engineering Management Conference. pp. 338–343. doi:10.1109/IEMC.2002.1038454. Retrieved 8 December 2023.
^ Parnas, David Lorge, Precise Documentation: The Key to Better Software, The Future of Software Engineering, 2011, 125–148, doi:10.1007/978-3-642-15187-3_8
^ LaValle, S.; Lesser, E.; Shockley, R.; Hopkins, M.S. (21 December 2010). "Big data, analytics and the path from insights to value". MIT Sloan Management Review. pp. 21–32. Retrieved 8 December 2023.
^ Janez Prašnikar; Žiga Debeljak; Aleš Ahčan (3 December 2010). "Benchmarking as a tool of strategic management". Total Quality Management & Business Excellence. 16 (2): 257–275. doi:10.1080/14783360500054400. Retrieved 8 December 2023.
^ "Gartner Glossary - Applications Portfolio Analysis (APA)". Gartner, Inc. 2023. Retrieved 7 December 2023.
^ "Gartner Research - Effective Strategies to Deliver Sustainable Cost Optimization in Application Services". Gartner, Inc. 4 October 2017. Retrieved 7 December 2017.
^ "About the Automated Function Points Specification Version 1.0". Object Management Group. December 2013. Retrieved 7 December 2023.
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"artificial intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence"},{"link_name":"software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software"},{"link_name":"database","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database"},{"link_name":"software framework","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_framework"},{"link_name":"source code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_code"},{"link_name":"information technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technology"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"business intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_intelligence"},{"link_name":"mining of data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_mining"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"For intelligence demonstrated by machines through software, see artificial intelligence.Software intelligence is insight into the inner workings and structural condition of software assets produced by software designed to analyze database structure, software framework and source code to better understand and control complex software systems in information technology environments.[1][2] Similarly to business intelligence (BI), software intelligence is produced by a set of software tools and techniques for the mining of data and the software's inner-structure. Results are automatically produced and feed a knowledge base containing technical documentation and blueprints of the innerworking of applications,[3] and make it available to all to be used by business and software stakeholders to make informed decisions,[4] measure the efficiency of software development organizations, communicate about the software health, prevent software catastrophes.[5]","title":"Software intelligence"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SAS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAS_Institute"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"Software intelligence has been used by Kirk Paul Lafler, an American engineer, entrepreneur, and consultant, and founder of Software Intelligence Corporation in 1979. At that time, it was mainly related to SAS activities, in which he has been an expert since 1979.[6]In the early 1980s, Victor R. Basili participated in different papers detailing a methodology for collecting valid software engineering data relating to software engineering, evaluation of software development, and variations.\n[7]\n[8]\nIn 2004, different software vendors in software analysis started using the terms as part of their product naming and marketing strategy.Then in 2010, Ahmed E. Hassan and Tao Xie defined software intelligence as a \"practice offering software practitioners up-to-date and pertinent information to support their daily decision-making processes and Software Intelligence should support decision-making processes throughout the lifetime of a software system\". They go on by defining software intelligence as a \"strong impact on modern software practice\" for the upcoming decades.[9]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"application programming interface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_programming_interface"},{"link_name":"Software architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_architecture"},{"link_name":"The MITRE Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitre_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Common Weakness Enumeration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Weakness_Enumeration"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"ISO 9126-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_9126"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-iso25000-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"text":"Because of the complexity and wide range of components and subjects implied in software, software intelligence is derived from different aspects of software:Software composition is the construction of software application components.[10] Components result from software coding, as well as the integration of the source code from external components: Open source, 3rd party components, or frameworks. Other components can be integrated using application programming interface call to libraries or services.\nSoftware architecture refers to the structure and organization of elements of a system, relations, and properties among them.\nSoftware flaws designate problems that can cause security, stability, resiliency, and unexpected results. There is no standard definition of software flaws but the most accepted is from The MITRE Corporation where common flaws are cataloged as Common Weakness Enumeration.[11]\nSoftware grades assess attributes of the software. Historically, the classification and terminology of attributes have been derived from the ISO 9126-3 and the subsequent ISO 25000:2005[12] quality model.\nSoftware economics refers to the resource evaluation of software in the past, present, or future to make decisions and to govern.[13]","title":"Capabilities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Code analyzer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_code_review"},{"link_name":"objects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"Open source","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_source"},{"link_name":"frameworks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_framework"},{"link_name":"API","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_programming_interface"},{"link_name":"services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_(systems_architecture)"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"coupling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coupling_(computer_programming)"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SE_1-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"software quality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_quality"},{"link_name":"OMG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_Management_Group"},{"link_name":"CISQ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CISQ"},{"link_name":"SEI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_Engineering_Institute"},{"link_name":"technical debt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_debt"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"text":"The capabilities of software intelligence platforms include an increasing number of components:Code analyzer to serve as an information basis for other software intelligence components identifying objects created by the programming language, external objects from Open source, third parties objects, frameworks, API, or services\nGraphical visualization and blueprinting of the inner structure of the software product or application considered[14] including dependencies, from data acquisition (automated and real-time data capture, end-user entries) up to data storage, the different layers[15] within the software, and the coupling between all elements.\nNavigation capabilities within components and impact analysis features\nList of flaws, architectural and coding violations, against standardized best practices,[16] cloud blocker preventing migration to a Cloud environment,[17] and rogue data-call entailing the security and integrity of software [18]\nGrades or scores of the structural and software quality aligned with industry-standard like OMG, CISQ or SEI assessing the reliability, security, efficiency, maintainability, and scalability to cloud or other systems.\nMetrics quantifying and estimating software economics including work effort, sizing, and technical debt[19]\nIndustry references and benchmarking allowing comparisons between outputs of analysis and industry standards","title":"Components"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UIT_1-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PEM_1-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WSP_1-25"}],"text":"Some considerations must be made in order to successfully integrate the usage of software Intelligence systems in a company. Ultimately the software intelligence system must be accepted and utilized by the users in order for it to add value to the organization. If the system does not add value to the users' mission, they simply don't use it as stated by M. Storey in 2003.[20]At the code level and system representation, software intelligence systems must provide a different level of abstractions: an abstract view for designing, explaining and documenting and a detailed view for understanding and analyzing the software system.[21]At the governance level, the user acceptance for software intelligence covers different areas related to the inner functioning of the system as well as the output of the system. It encompasses these requirements:Comprehensive: missing information may lead to a wrong or inappropriate decision, as well as it is a factor influencing the user acceptance of a system.[22]\nAccurate: accuracy depends on how the data is collected to ensure fair and indisputable opinion and judgment.[23]\nPrecise: precision is usually judged by comparing several measurements from the same or different sources.[24]\nScalable: lack of scalability in the software industry is a critical factor leading to failure.[25]\nCredible: outputs must be trusted and believed.\nDeploy-able and usable.","title":"User aspect"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BDA_1-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BTS_1-28"}],"text":"Software intelligence has many applications in all businesses relating to the software environment, whether it is software for professionals, individuals, or embedded software.\nDepending on the association and the usage of the components, applications will relate to:Change and modernization: uniform documentation and blueprinting on all inner components, external code integrated, or call to internal or external components of the software[26]\nResiliency and security: measuring against industry standards to diagnose structural flaws in an IT environment.[citation needed] Compliance validation regarding security, specific regulations or technical matters.\nDecisions making and governance: Providing analytics about the software itself or stakeholders involved in the development of the software, e.g. productivity measurement to inform business and IT leaders about progress towards business goals.[27]\nAssessment and Benchmarking to help business and IT leaders to make informed, fact-based decision about software.[28]","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DAP_1-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ESD_1-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ATA_1-31"},{"link_name":"Software security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_development_security"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Software intelligence is a high-level discipline and has been gradually growing covering the applications listed above. There are several markets driving the need for it:Application Portfolio Analysis (APA) aiming at improving the enterprise performance.[29][30]\nSoftware Assessment for producing the software KPI and improving quality and productivity.[31]\nSoftware security and resiliency measures and validation.\nSoftware evolution or legacy modernization, for which blueprinting the software systems are needed nor tools improving and facilitating modifications.[citation needed]","title":"Marketplace"}]
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[]
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[{"reference":"Hinchey, Mike; Jain, Amit; Kaushik, Manju; Misra, Sanjay (Jan 2023). \"Guest Editorial: Intelligence for systems and software engineering\". Innovations in Systems and Software Engineering. 19 (1). Springer: 1–4. doi:10.1007/s11334-023-00526-1. PMC 9886201. PMID 36744022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9886201","url_text":"\"Guest Editorial: Intelligence for systems and software engineering\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11334-023-00526-1","url_text":"10.1007/s11334-023-00526-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9886201","url_text":"9886201"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36744022","url_text":"36744022"}]},{"reference":"\"Mr. Kirk Paul Lafler\". 21 December 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ithistory.org/honor-roll/mr-kirk-paul-lafler","url_text":"\"Mr. Kirk Paul Lafler\""}]},{"reference":"Basili, Victor R. (1981). Data collection, validation and analysis. Software Metrics: An Analysis and Evaluation (PDF). MIT Press. p. 143. ISBN 0-262-16083-8.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cs.umd.edu/~basili/publications/chapters/C12.pdf","url_text":"Data collection, validation and analysis. Software Metrics: An Analysis and Evaluation"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-16083-8","url_text":"0-262-16083-8"}]},{"reference":"Basili, Victor R.; Weiss, David M. (Nov 1984). \"A Methodology for Collecting Valid Software Engineering Data\". IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering (6). IEEE Trans. Softw. Eng. 10, 6 (November 1984): 728–738. doi:10.1109/TSE.1984.5010301. hdl:1903/7513.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/220070466","url_text":"\"A Methodology for Collecting Valid Software Engineering Data\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTSE.1984.5010301","url_text":"10.1109/TSE.1984.5010301"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)","url_text":"hdl"},{"url":"https://hdl.handle.net/1903%2F7513","url_text":"1903/7513"}]},{"reference":"\"ISO 25000:2005\" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2013-04-14. Retrieved 2013-10-18.","urls":[{"url":"http://webstore.iec.ch/preview/info_isoiec25000%7Bed1.0%7Den.pdf","url_text":"\"ISO 25000:2005\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130414112148/http://webstore.iec.ch/preview/info_isoiec25000%7Bed1.0%7Den.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Software Engineering Rules on code quality\". Object Management Group, Inc. 2023. Retrieved 15 December 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.it-cisq.org/standards/code-quality-standards","url_text":"\"Software Engineering Rules on code quality\""}]},{"reference":"Lippert, S.K.; Forman, H. (August 2005). \"Utilization of information technology: examining cognitive and experiential factors of post-adoption behavior\". IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management. pp. 363–381. Retrieved 8 December 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1468406","url_text":"\"Utilization of information technology: examining cognitive and experiential factors of post-adoption behavior\""}]},{"reference":"Banker, R.D.; Kemerer, C.F. (December 1992). \"Performance Evaluation Metrics for Information Systems Development: A Principal-Agent Model\". Information Systems Research. 3 (4): 379–400. Retrieved 8 December 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/23010648","url_text":"\"Performance Evaluation Metrics for Information Systems Development: A Principal-Agent Model\""}]},{"reference":"Crowne, M. (9 July 2003). \"Why software product startups fail and what to do about it. Evolution of software product development in startup companies\". IEEE International Engineering Management Conference. pp. 338–343. doi:10.1109/IEMC.2002.1038454. Retrieved 8 December 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1038454","url_text":"\"Why software product startups fail and what to do about it. Evolution of software product development in startup companies\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FIEMC.2002.1038454","url_text":"10.1109/IEMC.2002.1038454"}]},{"reference":"LaValle, S.; Lesser, E.; Shockley, R.; Hopkins, M.S. (21 December 2010). \"Big data, analytics and the path from insights to value\". MIT Sloan Management Review. pp. 21–32. Retrieved 8 December 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://sloanreview.mit.edu/article/big-data-analytics-and-the-path-from-insights-to-value","url_text":"\"Big data, analytics and the path from insights to value\""}]},{"reference":"Janez Prašnikar; Žiga Debeljak; Aleš Ahčan (3 December 2010). \"Benchmarking as a tool of strategic management\". Total Quality Management & Business Excellence. 16 (2): 257–275. doi:10.1080/14783360500054400. Retrieved 8 December 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tandfonline.com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.1080%2F14783360500054400","url_text":"\"Benchmarking as a tool of strategic management\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14783360500054400","url_text":"10.1080/14783360500054400"}]},{"reference":"\"Gartner Glossary - Applications Portfolio Analysis (APA)\". Gartner, Inc. 2023. Retrieved 7 December 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gartner.com/en/information-technology/glossary/application-portfolio-analysis","url_text":"\"Gartner Glossary - Applications Portfolio Analysis (APA)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Gartner Research - Effective Strategies to Deliver Sustainable Cost Optimization in Application Services\". Gartner, Inc. 4 October 2017. Retrieved 7 December 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gartner.com/en/documents/3812067","url_text":"\"Gartner Research - Effective Strategies to Deliver Sustainable Cost Optimization in Application Services\""}]},{"reference":"\"About the Automated Function Points Specification Version 1.0\". Object Management Group. December 2013. Retrieved 7 December 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.omg.org/spec/AFP","url_text":"\"About the Automated Function Points Specification Version 1.0\""}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9886201","external_links_name":"\"Guest Editorial: Intelligence for systems and software engineering\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11334-023-00526-1","external_links_name":"10.1007/s11334-023-00526-1"},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9886201","external_links_name":"9886201"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36744022","external_links_name":"36744022"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F2516775.2516806","external_links_name":"10.1145/2516775.2516806"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FICSE.2012.6227122","external_links_name":"10.1109/ICSE.2012.6227122"},{"Link":"https://www.ithistory.org/honor-roll/mr-kirk-paul-lafler","external_links_name":"\"Mr. Kirk Paul Lafler\""},{"Link":"http://www.cs.umd.edu/~basili/publications/chapters/C12.pdf","external_links_name":"Data collection, validation and analysis. Software Metrics: An Analysis and Evaluation"},{"Link":"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/220070466","external_links_name":"\"A Methodology for Collecting Valid Software Engineering Data\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTSE.1984.5010301","external_links_name":"10.1109/TSE.1984.5010301"},{"Link":"https://hdl.handle.net/1903%2F7513","external_links_name":"1903/7513"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F1882362.1882397","external_links_name":"10.1145/1882362.1882397"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F210376.210389","external_links_name":"10.1145/210376.210389"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.20897%2Fjisem.201817","external_links_name":"10.20897/jisem.201817"},{"Link":"http://webstore.iec.ch/preview/info_isoiec25000%7Bed1.0%7Den.pdf","external_links_name":"\"ISO 25000:2005\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130414112148/http://webstore.iec.ch/preview/info_isoiec25000%7Bed1.0%7Den.pdf","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F336512.336584","external_links_name":"10.1145/336512.336584"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0164-1212","external_links_name":"0164-1212"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jss.2017.03.006","external_links_name":"10.1016/j.jss.2017.03.006"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2F32.403785","external_links_name":"10.1109/32.403785"},{"Link":"https://www.it-cisq.org/standards/code-quality-standards","external_links_name":"\"Software Engineering Rules on code quality\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FMS.2016.64","external_links_name":"10.1109/MS.2016.64"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FWICSA.2016.41","external_links_name":"10.1109/WICSA.2016.41"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTechDebt.2019.00016","external_links_name":"10.1109/TechDebt.2019.00016"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0164-1212","external_links_name":"0164-1212"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jss.2016.02.050","external_links_name":"10.1016/j.jss.2016.02.050"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0378-7206","external_links_name":"0378-7206"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.im.2013.12.003","external_links_name":"10.1016/j.im.2013.12.003"},{"Link":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1468406","external_links_name":"\"Utilization of information technology: examining cognitive and experiential factors of post-adoption behavior\""},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/23010648","external_links_name":"\"Performance Evaluation Metrics for Information Systems Development: A Principal-Agent Model\""},{"Link":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1038454","external_links_name":"\"Why software product startups fail and what to do about it. Evolution of software product development in startup companies\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FIEMC.2002.1038454","external_links_name":"10.1109/IEMC.2002.1038454"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-15187-3_8","external_links_name":"10.1007/978-3-642-15187-3_8"},{"Link":"https://sloanreview.mit.edu/article/big-data-analytics-and-the-path-from-insights-to-value","external_links_name":"\"Big data, analytics and the path from insights to value\""},{"Link":"https://www.tandfonline.com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.1080%2F14783360500054400","external_links_name":"\"Benchmarking as a tool of strategic management\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14783360500054400","external_links_name":"10.1080/14783360500054400"},{"Link":"https://www.gartner.com/en/information-technology/glossary/application-portfolio-analysis","external_links_name":"\"Gartner Glossary - Applications Portfolio Analysis (APA)\""},{"Link":"https://www.gartner.com/en/documents/3812067","external_links_name":"\"Gartner Research - Effective Strategies to Deliver Sustainable Cost Optimization in Application Services\""},{"Link":"https://www.omg.org/spec/AFP","external_links_name":"\"About the Automated Function Points Specification Version 1.0\""}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ravenna
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Ravenna
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["1 History","1.1 Ancient era","1.2 Ostrogothic Kingdom","1.3 Exarchate of Ravenna","1.4 Middle Ages and Renaissance","1.5 Modern age","2 Government","3 Major monuments","4 Music","5 In literature","6 In film","7 Transport","8 Amusement parks","9 Twin towns – sister cities","10 Sports","11 People","12 See also","13 References","14 Sources","15 External links"]
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Coordinates: 44°24′58″N 12°12′06″E / 44.41611°N 12.20167°E / 44.41611; 12.20167City in Emilia-Romagna, Italy
This article is about the city in Italy. For other uses, see Ravenna (disambiguation).
Comune in Emilia-Romagna, ItalyRavenna
Ravèna, Ravêna (Romagnol)ComuneRavenna CathedralBasilica of San VitaleMausoleum of Galla PlacidiaBasilica of Sant'Apollinare NuovoFontanella Piazza del Popolo
FlagCoat of armsLocation of Ravenna
RavennaLocation of Ravenna in Emilia-RomagnaShow map of ItalyRavennaRavenna (Emilia-Romagna)Show map of Emilia-RomagnaCoordinates: 44°24′58″N 12°12′06″E / 44.41611°N 12.20167°E / 44.41611; 12.20167CountryItalyRegionEmilia-RomagnaProvinceRavenna (RA)Frazioni
(subdivisions)
Casalborsetti, Lido di Savio, Lido di Classe, Lido di Dante, Lido Adriano, Marina di Ravenna, Punta Marina Terme, Porto Corsini, Porto Fuori, Marina Romea, Ammonite, Camerlona, Mandriole, Savarna, Grattacoppa, Conventello, Torri, Mezzano, Sant'Antonio, San Romualdo, Sant'Alberto, Borgo Montone, Fornace Zarattini, Piangipane, San Marco, San Michele, Santerno, Villanova di Ravenna, Borgo Sisa, Bastia, Borgo Faina, Carraie, Campiano, Casemurate, Caserma, Castiglione di Ravenna, Classe, Coccolia, Ducenta, Durazzano, Filetto, Fosso Ghiaia, Gambellara, Ghibullo, Longana, Madonna dell'Albero, Massa Castello, Mensa Matellica, Osteria, Pilastro, Roncalceci, Ragone, Santo Stefano, San Bartolo, San Zaccaria, Savio, S. Pietro in Trento, San Pietro in Vincoli, San Pietro in Campiano
Government • MayorMichele De Pascale (PD)Area • Total652.89 km2 (252.08 sq mi)Elevation4 m (13 ft)Population (1 January 2014) • Total158,784 • Density240/km2 (630/sq mi)Demonym(s)Ravennate, RavenneseTime zoneUTC+1 (CET) • Summer (DST)UTC+2 (CEST)Postal code48100Dialing code0544Patron saintSaint ApollinarisSaint dayJuly 23WebsiteOfficial website
Early Christian Monuments of RavennaUNESCO World Heritage SiteMosaic of the Emperor Justinian I from the Basilica of San Vitale, RavennaCriteriaCultural: i, ii, iii, ivReference788Inscription1996 (20th Session)Area1.32 ha
Ravenna (/rəˈvɛnə/ rə-VEN-ə, Italian: , also local pronunciation: ⓘ; Romagnol: Ravèna, Ravêna) is the capital city of the Province of Ravenna, in the Emilia-Romagna region of Northern Italy. It was the capital city of the Western Roman Empire during the 5th century until its collapse in 476, after which it served as the capital of the Ostrogothic Kingdom and then the Byzantine Exarchate of Ravenna.Historical populationYearPop.±%186155,973— 187158,544+4.6%188159,696+2.0%190162,723+5.1%191169,802+11.3%192170,502+1.0%193176,335+8.3%193680,658+5.7%195191,248+13.1%1961114,854+25.9%1971131,176+14.2%1981137,375+4.7%1991135,844−1.1%2001134,631−0.9%2011153,740+14.2%2021155,836+1.4%Source: ISTATInitially settled by the Umbri people, Ravenna came under Roman Republic control in 89 BC. Octavian built the military harbor of Classis at Ravenna, and the city remained an important seaport on the Adriatic until the early Middle Ages. The city prospered under imperial rule. In 402, Western Roman emperor Honorius moved his court from Mediolanum to Ravenna; it then served as capital of the empire for most of the 5th century.
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Ravenna became the capital of Odoacer until he was defeated by the Ostrogoth king Theodoric. In 540 Belisarius conquered Ravenna for the Byzantine Empire, and the city became the capital of Byzantine Italy. After a brief Lombard control, Ravenna came under the authority of the Papacy and, save for minor interruptions, remained part of the Papal States until the mid-19th century when it was incorporated into the newly unified Kingdom of Italy.
Although it is an inland city, Ravenna is connected to the Adriatic Sea by the Candiano Canal. It is known for its well-preserved late Roman and Byzantine architecture, with eight buildings comprising the UNESCO World Heritage Site "Early Christian Monuments of Ravenna". Because of the high concentration of mosaics, the city has been associated with workshops and schools teaching mosaics, and is often given titles like the "capital of mosaics".
History
For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Ravenna.
The origin of the name Ravenna is unclear. Some have speculated that "Ravenna" is related to "Rasenna" (or "Rasna"), the term that the Etruscans used for themselves, but there is no agreement on this point.
Ancient era
The origins of Ravenna are uncertain. The oldest archaeological evidence found dates the Umbri presence in Ravenna at least to the 5th century BC, where it was undisturbed until the 3rd century BC, when first contact with Roman civilization began. Its territory was settled also by the Senones, especially the southern countryside of the city (that was not part of the lagoon), the Ager Decimanus. Ravenna consisted of houses built on piles on a series of small islands in a marshy lagoon – a situation similar to Venice several centuries later. The Romans ignored it during their conquest of the Po River Delta, but later accepted it into the Roman Republic as a federated town in 89 BC.
In 49 BC, it was where Julius Caesar gathered his forces before crossing the Rubicon. Later Octavian, after his battle against Mark Antony in 31 BC, founded the military harbor of Classis. This harbor, protected at first by its own walls, was an important station of the Roman Imperial Fleet. Nowadays the city is landlocked, but Ravenna remained an important seaport on the Adriatic until the early Middle Ages. During the Germanic campaigns, Thusnelda, widow of Arminius, and Marbod, King of the Marcomanni, were confined at Ravenna.
The city of Ravenna in the 4th century as shown on the Peutinger Map
Ravenna greatly prospered under Roman rule. Emperor Trajan built a 70 km (43.50 mi) long aqueduct at the beginning of the 2nd century. During the Marcomannic Wars, Germanic settlers in Ravenna revolted and managed to seize possession of the city. For this reason, Marcus Aurelius decided not only against bringing more barbarians into Italy, but even banished those who had previously been brought there. In AD 402, Emperor Honorius transferred the capital of the Western Roman Empire from Mediolanum (current Milan) to Ravenna; it subsequently served as the capital of the empire for most of the 5th century and the last de facto western emperor Romulus Augustulus was deposed there in AD 476. At that time it was home to 50,000 people. The transfer was made partly for defensive purposes: Ravenna was surrounded by swamps and marshes, and was perceived to be easily defensible (although in fact the city fell to opposing forces numerous times in its history); it is also likely that the move to Ravenna was due to the city's port and good sea-borne connections to the Eastern Roman Empire. In 409, King Alaric I of the Visigoths simply bypassed Ravenna, and went on to sack Rome in 410 and to take Galla Placidia, daughter of Emperor Theodosius I, hostage.
After many vicissitudes, Galla Placidia returned to Ravenna with her son, Emperor Valentinian III, due to the support of her nephew Theodosius II. Ravenna enjoyed a period of peace, during which time the Christian religion was favoured by the imperial court, and the city gained some of its most famous monuments, including the Orthodox Baptistry, the misnamed Mausoleum of Galla Placidia (she was not actually buried there), and San Giovanni Evangelista.
Ostrogothic Kingdom
See also: Ostrogothic Ravenna
The late 5th century saw the dissolution of Roman authority in the west, and Romulus Augustulus was deposed in 476 by the general Odoacer. Odoacer ruled as King of Italy for 13 years, but in 489 the Eastern Emperor Zeno sent the Ostrogoth King Theodoric the Great to re-take the Italian peninsula. After losing the Battle of Verona, Odoacer retreated to Ravenna, where he withstood a siege of three years by Theodoric, until the taking of Rimini deprived Ravenna of supplies. Theodoric took Ravenna in 493, supposedly slew Odoacer with his own hands, and Ravenna became the capital of the Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy. Theodoric, following his imperial predecessors, also built many splendid buildings in and around Ravenna, including his palace church Sant'Apollinare Nuovo, an Arian cathedral (now Santo Spirito) and Baptistery, and his own Mausoleum just outside the walls.
The Mausoleum of Theodoric
Both Odoacer and Theodoric and their followers were Arian Christians, but co-existed peacefully with the Latins, who were largely Catholic Orthodox. Ravenna's Orthodox bishops carried out notable building projects, of which the sole surviving one is the Cappella Arcivescovile. Theodoric allowed Roman citizens within his kingdom to be subject to Roman law and the Roman judicial system. The Goths, meanwhile, lived under their own laws and customs. In 519, when a mob had burned down the synagogues of Ravenna, Theodoric ordered the town to rebuild them at its own expense.
Theodoric died in 526 and was succeeded by his young grandson Athalaric under the authority of his daughter Amalasunta, but by 535 both were dead and Theodoric's line was represented only by Amalasuntha's daughter Matasuntha. Various Ostrogothic military leaders took the Kingdom of Italy, but none were as successful as Theodoric had been. Meanwhile, the orthodox Christian Byzantine Emperor Justinian I opposed both Ostrogoth rule and the Arian variety of Christianity. In 535 his general Belisarius invaded Italy and in 540 conquered Ravenna. After the conquest of Italy was completed in 554, Ravenna became the seat of Byzantine government in Italy.
From 540 to 600, Ravenna's bishops embarked upon a notable building program of churches in Ravenna and in and around the port city of Classe. Surviving monuments include the Basilica of San Vitale and the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe, as well as the partially surviving San Michele in Africisco.
Exarchate of Ravenna
Transfiguration of Jesus. Allegorical image with Crux gemmata and lambs represent apostles, 533–549, apse of Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe.
Main article: Exarchate of Ravenna
Following the conquests of Belisarius for Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian I in the 6th century, Ravenna became the seat of the Byzantine governor of Italy, the Exarch, and was known as the Exarchate of Ravenna. It was at this time that the Ravenna Cosmography was written.
Under Byzantine rule, the archbishop of the Archdiocese of Ravenna was temporarily granted autocephaly from the Roman Church by the emperor, in 666, but this was soon revoked. Nevertheless, the archbishop of Ravenna held the second place in Italy after the pope, and played an important role in many theological controversies during this period.
Middle Ages and Renaissance
The Lombards, under King Liutprand, occupied Ravenna in 712, but were forced to return it to the Byzantines. In 751, the Lombard king, Aistulf, conquered Ravenna, thus ending Byzantine rule in northern Italy.
King Pepin of the Franks attacked the Lombards under orders of Pope Stephen II. Ravenna then gradually came under the direct authority of the Popes, although this was contested by the archbishops at various times. Pope Adrian I authorized Charlemagne to take away anything from Ravenna that he liked, and an unknown quantity of Roman columns, mosaics, statues, and other portable items were taken north to enrich his capital of Aachen.
In 1198 Ravenna led a league of Romagna cities against the Emperor, and the Pope was able to subdue it. After the war of 1218 the Traversari family was able to impose its rule in the city, which lasted until 1240. After a short period under an Imperial vicar, Ravenna was returned to the Papal States in 1248 and again to the Traversari until, in 1275, the Da Polenta established their long-lasting seigniory. One of the most illustrious residents of Ravenna at this time was the exiled Florentine poet Dante. The last of the Da Polenta, Ostasio III, was ousted by the Republic of Venice in February 1441, and the city was annexed to the Venetian territories in the Treaty of Cremona.
Ravenna was ruled by Venice until 1509, when the area was invaded in the course of the Italian Wars. In 1512, during the Holy League wars, Ravenna was sacked by the French following the Battle of Ravenna. Ravenna was also known during the Renaissance as the birthplace of the Monster of Ravenna.
After the Venetian withdrawal, Ravenna was again ruled by legates of the Pope as part of the Papal States. The city was damaged in a tremendous flood in May 1636. Over the next 300 years, a network of canals diverted nearby rivers and drained nearby swamps, thus reducing the possibility of flooding and creating a large belt of agricultural land around the city.
An 18th-century quattrino from Ravenna depicting Saint Apollinaris
Modern age
Apart from another short occupation by Venice (1527–1529), Ravenna was part of the Papal States until 1796, when it was annexed to the French puppet state of the Cisalpine Republic (Italian Republic from 1802, and Kingdom of Italy from 1805). It was returned to the Papal States in 1814. Occupied by Piedmontese troops in 1859, Ravenna and the surrounding Romagna area became part of the new unified Kingdom of Italy in 1861.
During World War II, the town suffered severe damage. Fifty-two Allied bombing raids during the course of the Second World War had taken their toll, destroying some of Ravenna's noteworthy, unequalled early Christian art. Bombs intended for the railway station and its sidings had pulverised the Basilica of San Giovanni Evangelista in August 1944. On 5 November 1944 troops of 4th Princess Louise Dragoon Guards, 5th Canadian Armoured Division and the British 27th Lancers entered and liberated Ravenna. A total of 937 Commonwealth soldiers who died in the winter of 1944–45 are buried in Ravenna War Cemetery, including 438 Canadians.
Government
See also: List of mayors of Ravenna
Major monuments
Triumphal arch mosaics of the Basilica of San Vitale
Garden of Eden mosaic in mausoleum of Galla Placidia (5th century CE)
Arian Baptistry ceiling mosaic
6th-century mosaic in Sant'Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna, portrays Jesus long-haired and bearded, dressed in Byzantine style.
The Arian Baptistery
Dante's tomb exterior and interior, built in 1780
The so-called "Mausoleum of Galla Placidia" in Ravenna
Mosaic of the Palace of Theodoric in Sant'Apollinare Nuovo
Eight early Christian buildings of Ravenna are inscribed on the World Heritage List. These are
Orthodox Baptistery also called Baptistery of Neon (c. 430)
Mausoleum of Galla Placidia (c. 430)
Arian Baptistery (c. 500)
Archiepiscopal Chapel (c. 500)
Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo (c. 500)
Mausoleum of Theodoric (520)
Basilica of San Vitale (548)
Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe (549)
Other historic sites include:
The church of San Giovanni Evangelista is from the 5th century, erected by Galla Placidia after she survived a storm at sea. It was restored after the World War II bombings. The belltower contains four bells, the two majors dating back to 1208.
The 6th-century church of the Spirito Santo, which has been quite drastically altered since the 6th century. It was originally the Arian cathedral. The façade has a 16th-century portico with five arcades.
The Basilica of San Francesco, rebuilt in the 10th–11th centuries over a precedent edifice dedicated to the Apostles and later to St. Peter. Behind the humble brick façade, it has a nave and two aisles. Fragments of mosaics from the first church are visible on the floor, which is usually covered by water after heavy rains (together with the crypt). Here the funeral ceremony of Dante Alighieri was held in 1321. The poet is buried in a tomb annexed to the church, the local authorities having resisted for centuries all demands by Florence for the return of the remains of its most famous exile.
The Baroque church of Santa Maria Maggiore (525–532, rebuilt in 1671). It houses a picture by Luca Longhi.
The church of San Giovanni Battista (1683), also in Baroque style, with a Middle Ages campanile.
The basilica of Santa Maria in Porto (16th century), with a rich façade from the 18th century. It has a nave and two aisles, with a high cupola. It houses the image of famous Greek Madonna, which was allegedly brought to Ravenna from Constantinople.
The nearby Communal Gallery has various works from Romagnoli painters.
The Rocca Brancaleone (Brancaleone Castle), built by the Venetians in 1457. Once part of the city walls, it is now a public park. It is divided into two parts: the true Castle and the Citadel, the latter having an extent of 14,000 m2 (150,694.75 sq ft).
The "so-called Palace of Theodoric", in fact the entrance to the former church of San Salvatore. It includes mosaics from the true palace of the Ostrogoth king.
The church of Sant'Eufemia (18th century), gives access to the so-called Stone Carpets Domus (6th–7th century): this houses splendid mosaics from a Byzantine palace.
The National Museum
The Archiepiscopal Museum
The Capanno Garibaldi, a hunting cabin on the road to Porto Corsini known for having sheltered Giuseppe Garibaldi on the night of 6–7 August 1849
Music
The city annually hosts the Ravenna Festival, one of Italy's prominent classical music gatherings. Opera performances are held at the Teatro Alighieri while concerts take place at the Palazzo Mauro de André as well as in the ancient Basilica of San Vitale and Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe. Chicago Symphony Orchestra music director Riccardo Muti, a longtime resident of the city, regularly participates in the festival, which invites orchestras and other performers from around the world.
In literature
Dante Alighieri presenting Giotto to Guido da Polenta, painting by Giovanni Mochi (19th century), Galleria d'Arte Moderna, Florence
After his banishment from his native Florence, Dante spent most of the rest of his life in Ravenna, and he mentions the city in Canto V of his Inferno.
Also in the 16th century, Nostradamus provides four prophecies:
"The Magnavacca (canal) at Ravenna in great trouble, Canals by fifteen shut up at Fornase", in reference to fifteen French saboteurs.
As the place of a battle extending to Perugia and a sacred escape in its aftermath, leaving rotting horses left to eat.
In relation to the snatching of a lady "near Ravenna" and then the legate of Lisbon seizing 70 souls at sea.
Ravenna is one of three-similarly named contenders for the birth of the third and final Antichrist who enslaves Slovenia (see Ravne na Koroškem).
Ravenna is the setting for The Witch, a play by Thomas Middleton.
Lord Byron lived in Ravenna between 1819 and 1821, led by the love for a local aristocratic and married young woman, Teresa Guiccioli. Here he continued Don Juan and wrote Ravenna Diary, My Dictionary and Recollections.
Ravenna is the location where Lionel, the protagonist of Mary Shelley's post-apocalyptic novel The Last Man, comes ashore after losing his companions to a howling storm in the Aegean Sea.
Oscar Wilde (1854–1900) wrote a poem Ravenna in 1878.
Symbolist, lyrical poet Alexander Blok (1880–1921) wrote a poem entitled Ravenna (May–June 1909) inspired by his Italian journey (spring 1909).
During his travels, German poet and philosopher Hermann Hesse (1877–1962) came across Ravenna and was inspired to write two poems of the city. They are entitled Ravenna (1) and Ravenna (2).
T. S. Eliot's (1888–1965) poem "Lune de Miel" (written in French) describes a honeymooning couple from Indiana sleeping not far from the ancient Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe (just outside Ravenna), famous for the carved capitals of its columns, which depict acanthus leaves buffeted by the wind, unlike the leaves in repose on similar columns elsewhere.
J.R.R. Tolkien (1892–1973) may have based his city of Minas Tirith at least in part on Ravenna.
In film
Michelangelo Antonioni filmed his 1964 movie Red Desert (Deserto Rosso) within the industrialised areas of the Pialassa valley.
Transport
Ravenna has an important commercial and tourist port.
Ravenna railway station has direct Trenitalia service to Bologna, Ferrara, Lecce, Milan, Parma, Rimini, and Verona.
Ravenna Airport is located in Ravenna. The nearest commercial airports are those of Forlì, Rimini and Bologna.
Freeways crossing Ravenna include: A14-bis from the hub of Bologna; on the north–south axis of EU routes E45 (from Rome) and E55 (SS-309 "Romea" from Venice); and on the regional Ferrara-Rimini axis of SS-16 (partially called "Adriatica").
Amusement parks
Mirabilandia
Safari Ravenna
Twin towns – sister cities
See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in Italy
Ravenna is twinned with:
Chichester, United Kingdom, since 1996
Speyer, Germany, since 1989
Chartres, France, since 1957
Sports
The traditional football club of the city is Ravenna F.C. Currently it plays in the fourth tier of Italian football, Serie D.
A.P.D. Ribelle 1927 is the football club of Castiglione di Ravenna, a town to the south of Ravenna.
The beaches of Ravenna hosted the 2011 FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup, in September 2011.
People
Valentinian III (419–455), Roman Emperor
Matteo Plazzi, Italian sailor
Giacomo Anziani (1681–1723), Italian architect, painter, and engraver
Laura Pausini (born 1974), Italian pop singer-songwriter, record producer and television personality
Raul Gardini (1933–1993), Italian businessman
Franco Manzecchi (1931–1979), Jazz drummer
Andrea Montanari (born 1965), Italian sprinter
Arcangelo Corelli (1653–1713), Baroque violinist and composer
Luigi Legnani (1790–1877), guitarist and luthier
Tullio Bassi (born 1937), Italian violin maker
Peter Damian (c. 988 – 1072 or 1073), Catholic Saint and Cardinal
Francesco Ingoli (1578–1649), Theatine scientist, lawyer, and disputer of Galileo
Francesca da Rimini (1255 – c. 1285), historical person
Guido I da Polenta (died 1310), lord of Ravenna
Francesco Baracca (1888–1918), Italy's top fighter ace of World War I
Federico Caricasulo (born 1996), motorcycle road racer
Marco Melandri (born 1982), motorcycle road racer
Davide Tardozzi (born 1959), Superbike racer and team manager
Ivano Marescotti (1946–2023), actor
Amadeus (presenter) (born 1962), presenter
Romolo Gessi (1831–1881), explorer
Romuald (c. 951 – c. 1025/27), abbot, founder of the Camaldolese order
Marco Dente (1493–1527), engraver
Paolo Roversi (born 1947), fashion photographer
Angelo Mariani (conductor) (1821–1873), conductor
Giuseppe Vitali (1875–1932), mathematician
Evangelista Torricelli (1606–1647), physicist and mathematician
Federico Marchetti (businessman) (born 1969), founder of YOOX
Gianluca Costantini (born 1971), artist
Luigi Legnani (1790–1877), musician and composer
Luigi Rossini (1790–1857), artist
Alex Majoli (born 1971), photographer
Gianluca de Lorenzi (born 1972), racing driver and team owner
Fabio Fabiani (born 1974), racing driver
Eugenio Pisani (born 1991), racing driver
See also
Italy portalEuropean Union portalCities portal
References
^ "Superficie di Comuni Province e Regioni italiane al 9 ottobre 2011". Italian National Institute of Statistics. Retrieved 16 March 2019.
^ GeoDemo - Istat.it
^ Generally speaking, adjectival "Ravenna" and "Ravennate" are more common for most adjectival uses—the Ravenna Cosmography, Ravenna grass, the Ravennate fleet—while "Ravennese" is more common in reference to people. The neologism "Ravennan" is also encountered. The Italian form is ravennate; in Latin, Ravennatus, Ravennatis, and Ravennatensis are all encountered.
^ "Storia dell'Esarcato d'Italia". www.homolaicus.com. Retrieved 2024-01-05.
^ a b c "Ravenna - Treccani". Treccani (in Italian). Retrieved 2024-01-05.
^ "Early Christian Monuments of Ravenna".
^ "Day Trip to Ravenna: What to See in Italy's Mosaic Capital". ITALY Magazine. Retrieved 2023-05-18.
^ Franceschini |, Giulia (2023-04-24). "Ravenna, the capital of Italian mosaic". L'Italo-Americano – Italian American bilingual news source. Retrieved 2023-05-18.
^ Fiorentino, Sara; Chinni, Tania; Vandini, Mariangela (2020-11-01). "Ravenna, its mosaics and the contribution of archaeometry. A systematic reassessment on literature data related to glass tesserae and new considerations". Journal of Cultural Heritage. 46: 335–349. doi:10.1016/j.culher.2020.06.003. hdl:11585/764608. ISSN 1296-2074. S2CID 225764842.
^ Names, All Things Baby (2019-05-31). "Ravenna Name Meaning, Origin, Popularity, and More". All Things Baby Names. Retrieved 2023-01-11.
^ Tourism in Ravenna – Official site – History. Turismo.ravenna.it (2010-06-20). Retrieved on 2011-06-20.
^ Deborah M. Deliyannis, Ravenna in Late Antiquity (Cambridge University Press, 2010), for this and much of the information that follows
^ Mascanzoni, Leardo (1990). Ravenna: Una storia millenaria (in Italian). Giunti Barbera Editore. pp. 3–50.
^ From the Latin for "fleet".
^ Dio 72.11.4-5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius
^ Fischer, Svante; Victor, Helena. "The Fall and Decline of the Roman Urban Mind". Academia.
^ "Storia di Ravenna. Dalla preistoria all'anno Duemila". ilpontevecchio (in Italian). Retrieved 2024-01-05.
^ Noble, Thomas F. X. (1984). The Republic of St. Peter: The Birth of the Papal State, 680–825. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-1239-8.
^ "The riches of Ravenna". 10 December 2020.
^ "Canada - Italy 1943-1945 - the Second World War - History - Remembrance - Veterans Affairs Canada". 23 June 2021.
^ "La storia del capanno Garibaldi, in vetrina al Private Banking foto d'epoca e dipinti" . Il Resto del Carlino (in Italian). 21 May 2022. Retrieved 4 April 2024.
^ "Al "Private Banking" de La Cassa di Ravenna una nuova mostra dedicata al Capanno Garibaldi" . ravennanotizie.it (in Italian). 20 May 2022. Retrieved 4 April 2024.
^ Jones, Tom (2012). Nostradamus. Pittsburgh, PA: Dorrance Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4349-1823-9.
^ Reading, Mario (2009). The Complete Prophesies of Nostradamus. London: Watkins Publishing. ISBN 978-1-906787-39-4.
^ "Sito Ufficiale – Ufficio Turismo del Comune di Ravenna – I grandi scrittori". Turismo.ra.it. Retrieved 2009-05-06.
^ Ravenna
^ "Tolkien's annotated map of Middle-earth discovered inside copy of Lord of the Rings". TheGuardian.com. 23 October 2015.
^ "Città gemellate". comune.ra.it (in Italian). Ravenna. Retrieved 2021-03-28.
Sources
See also: Bibliography of the history of Ravenna
Cameron, Averil. "Ravenna: Capital of Empire, Crucible of Europe". History Today (September 2020) pp 94–97.
Janet Nelson, Judith Herrin, Ravenna: its role in earlier medieval change and exchange, London, Institute of Historical Research, 2016, ISBN 978-1-909646-14-8
External links
Ravenna - Catholic encyclopedia
Tourism and culture Official website (in Italian and English)
Ravenna, A Study (1913) by Edward Hutton, from Project Gutenberg
Ravenna's early history and its monuments - Catholic Encyclopedia
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Ravenna at Wikipedia's sister projects:Definitions from WiktionaryMedia from CommonsTexts from WikisourceTravel guides from Wikivoyage
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For other uses, see Ravenna (disambiguation).Comune in Emilia-Romagna, ItalyRavenna\n Ravèna, Ravêna (Romagnol)ComuneRavenna CathedralBasilica of San VitaleMausoleum of Galla PlacidiaBasilica of Sant'Apollinare NuovoFontanella Piazza del Popolo\n\nFlagCoat of armsLocation of Ravenna\nRavennaLocation of Ravenna in Emilia-RomagnaShow map of ItalyRavennaRavenna (Emilia-Romagna)Show map of Emilia-RomagnaCoordinates: 44°24′58″N 12°12′06″E / 44.41611°N 12.20167°E / 44.41611; 12.20167CountryItalyRegionEmilia-RomagnaProvinceRavenna (RA)Frazioni\n(subdivisions)\nCasalborsetti, Lido di Savio, Lido di Classe, Lido di Dante, Lido Adriano, Marina di Ravenna, Punta Marina Terme, Porto Corsini, Porto Fuori, Marina Romea, Ammonite, Camerlona, Mandriole, Savarna, Grattacoppa, Conventello, Torri, Mezzano, Sant'Antonio, San Romualdo, Sant'Alberto, Borgo Montone, Fornace Zarattini, Piangipane, San Marco, San Michele, Santerno, Villanova di Ravenna, Borgo Sisa, Bastia, Borgo Faina, Carraie, Campiano, Casemurate, Caserma, Castiglione di Ravenna, Classe, Coccolia, Ducenta, Durazzano, Filetto, Fosso Ghiaia, Gambellara, Ghibullo, Longana, Madonna dell'Albero, Massa Castello, Mensa Matellica, Osteria, Pilastro, Roncalceci, Ragone, Santo Stefano, San Bartolo, San Zaccaria, Savio, S. Pietro in Trento, San Pietro in Vincoli, San Pietro in Campiano\n\nGovernment • MayorMichele De Pascale (PD)Area[1] • Total652.89 km2 (252.08 sq mi)Elevation4 m (13 ft)Population (1 January 2014)[2] • Total158,784 • Density240/km2 (630/sq mi)Demonym(s)Ravennate, Ravennese[3]Time zoneUTC+1 (CET) • Summer (DST)UTC+2 (CEST)Postal code48100Dialing code0544Patron saintSaint ApollinarisSaint dayJuly 23WebsiteOfficial website\nEarly Christian Monuments of RavennaUNESCO World Heritage SiteMosaic of the Emperor Justinian I from the Basilica of San Vitale, RavennaCriteriaCultural: i, ii, iii, ivReference788Inscription1996 (20th Session)Area1.32 haRavenna (/rəˈvɛnə/ rə-VEN-ə, Italian: [raˈvenna], also local pronunciation: [raˈvɛnna] ⓘ; Romagnol: Ravèna, Ravêna) is the capital city of the Province of Ravenna, in the Emilia-Romagna region of Northern Italy. It was the capital city of the Western Roman Empire during the 5th century until its collapse in 476, after which it served as the capital of the Ostrogothic Kingdom and then the Byzantine Exarchate of Ravenna.[4]Initially settled by the Umbri people, Ravenna came under Roman Republic control in 89 BC. Octavian built the military harbor of Classis at Ravenna, and the city remained an important seaport on the Adriatic until the early Middle Ages. The city prospered under imperial rule. In 402, Western Roman emperor Honorius moved his court from Mediolanum to Ravenna; it then served as capital of the empire for most of the 5th century.After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Ravenna became the capital of Odoacer until he was defeated by the Ostrogoth king Theodoric. In 540 Belisarius conquered Ravenna for the Byzantine Empire, and the city became the capital of Byzantine Italy. After a brief Lombard control, Ravenna came under the authority of the Papacy and, save for minor interruptions, remained part of the Papal States until the mid-19th century when it was incorporated into the newly unified Kingdom of Italy.[5]Although it is an inland city, Ravenna is connected to the Adriatic Sea by the Candiano Canal. It is known for its well-preserved late Roman and Byzantine architecture, with eight buildings comprising the UNESCO World Heritage Site \"Early Christian Monuments of Ravenna\".[6] Because of the high concentration of mosaics, the city has been associated with workshops and schools teaching mosaics, and is often given titles like the \"capital of mosaics\".[7][8][9]","title":"Ravenna"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Timeline of Ravenna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Ravenna"},{"link_name":"Etruscans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruscan_civilization"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Ravenna.The origin of the name Ravenna is unclear. Some have speculated that \"Ravenna\" is related to \"Rasenna\" (or \"Rasna\"), the term that the Etruscans used for themselves, but there is no agreement on this point.[10][11]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Umbri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umbri"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Senones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senones"},{"link_name":"Venice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venice"},{"link_name":"Po River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Po_River"},{"link_name":"Roman Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Republic"},{"link_name":"BC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Era"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-5"},{"link_name":"Julius Caesar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Caesar"},{"link_name":"Rubicon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubicon"},{"link_name":"Octavian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus"},{"link_name":"Mark Antony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Antony"},{"link_name":"Classis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classe,_ancient_port_of_Ravenna"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Roman Imperial Fleet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Navy"},{"link_name":"seaport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seaport"},{"link_name":"Adriatic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adriatic"},{"link_name":"Middle Ages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages"},{"link_name":"Thusnelda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thusnelda"},{"link_name":"Arminius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arminius"},{"link_name":"Marbod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marbod"},{"link_name":"Marcomanni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcomanni"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ravenna(Peutinger_Map).png"},{"link_name":"Peutinger Map","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peutinger_Map"},{"link_name":"Trajan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trajan"},{"link_name":"aqueduct","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqueduct_(Roman)"},{"link_name":"Marcomannic Wars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcomannic_Wars"},{"link_name":"Germanic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_peoples"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Emperor Honorius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Honorius"},{"link_name":"Western Roman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Mediolanum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediolanum"},{"link_name":"Romulus Augustulus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romulus_Augustulus"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Eastern Roman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Alaric I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaric_I"},{"link_name":"Visigoths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Visigoths"},{"link_name":"sack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(410)"},{"link_name":"Rome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome"},{"link_name":"Galla Placidia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galla_Placidia"},{"link_name":"Theodosius I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodosius_I"},{"link_name":"Valentinian III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valentinian_III"},{"link_name":"Theodosius II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodosius_II"},{"link_name":"Mausoleum of Galla Placidia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Galla_Placidia"},{"link_name":"San Giovanni Evangelista","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Giovanni_Evangelista,_Ravenna"}],"sub_title":"Ancient era","text":"The origins of Ravenna are uncertain.[12] The oldest archaeological evidence found dates the Umbri presence in Ravenna at least to the 5th century BC, where it was undisturbed until the 3rd century BC, when first contact with Roman civilization began.[13] Its territory was settled also by the Senones, especially the southern countryside of the city (that was not part of the lagoon), the Ager Decimanus. Ravenna consisted of houses built on piles on a series of small islands in a marshy lagoon – a situation similar to Venice several centuries later. The Romans ignored it during their conquest of the Po River Delta, but later accepted it into the Roman Republic as a federated town in 89 BC.[5]In 49 BC, it was where Julius Caesar gathered his forces before crossing the Rubicon. Later Octavian, after his battle against Mark Antony in 31 BC, founded the military harbor of Classis.[14] This harbor, protected at first by its own walls, was an important station of the Roman Imperial Fleet. Nowadays the city is landlocked, but Ravenna remained an important seaport on the Adriatic until the early Middle Ages. During the Germanic campaigns, Thusnelda, widow of Arminius, and Marbod, King of the Marcomanni, were confined at Ravenna.[5]The city of Ravenna in the 4th century as shown on the Peutinger MapRavenna greatly prospered under Roman rule. Emperor Trajan built a 70 km (43.50 mi) long aqueduct at the beginning of the 2nd century. During the Marcomannic Wars, Germanic settlers in Ravenna revolted and managed to seize possession of the city. For this reason, Marcus Aurelius decided not only against bringing more barbarians into Italy, but even banished those who had previously been brought there.[15] In AD 402, Emperor Honorius transferred the capital of the Western Roman Empire from Mediolanum (current Milan) to Ravenna; it subsequently served as the capital of the empire for most of the 5th century and the last de facto western emperor Romulus Augustulus was deposed there in AD 476. At that time it was home to 50,000 people.[16] The transfer was made partly for defensive purposes: Ravenna was surrounded by swamps and marshes, and was perceived to be easily defensible (although in fact the city fell to opposing forces numerous times in its history); it is also likely that the move to Ravenna was due to the city's port and good sea-borne connections to the Eastern Roman Empire. In 409, King Alaric I of the Visigoths simply bypassed Ravenna, and went on to sack Rome in 410 and to take Galla Placidia, daughter of Emperor Theodosius I, hostage.After many vicissitudes, Galla Placidia returned to Ravenna with her son, Emperor Valentinian III, due to the support of her nephew Theodosius II. Ravenna enjoyed a period of peace, during which time the Christian religion was favoured by the imperial court, and the city gained some of its most famous monuments, including the Orthodox Baptistry, the misnamed Mausoleum of Galla Placidia (she was not actually buried there), and San Giovanni Evangelista.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ostrogothic Ravenna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostrogothic_Ravenna"},{"link_name":"Romulus Augustulus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romulus_Augustulus"},{"link_name":"Odoacer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odoacer"},{"link_name":"Zeno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeno_(emperor)"},{"link_name":"Ostrogoth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostrogoth"},{"link_name":"Theodoric the Great","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodoric_the_Great"},{"link_name":"Battle of Verona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Verona_(489)"},{"link_name":"Odoacer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odoacer"},{"link_name":"Rimini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimini"},{"link_name":"Ostrogothic Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostrogothic_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Sant'Apollinare Nuovo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sant%27Apollinare_Nuovo"},{"link_name":"Mausoleum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Theodoric"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mausoleum_of_Theoderic.JPG"},{"link_name":"Mausoleum of Theodoric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Theodoric"},{"link_name":"Arian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arianism"},{"link_name":"Cappella Arcivescovile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archbishop%27s_Chapel,_Ravenna"},{"link_name":"Athalaric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athalaric"},{"link_name":"Amalasunta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amalasunta"},{"link_name":"Matasuntha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matasuntha"},{"link_name":"orthodox Christian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthodoxy"},{"link_name":"Byzantine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_emperors"},{"link_name":"Justinian I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justinian_I"},{"link_name":"Arian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arianism"},{"link_name":"Belisarius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belisarius"},{"link_name":"invaded Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_War_(535%E2%80%93554)"},{"link_name":"Basilica of San Vitale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilica_of_San_Vitale"},{"link_name":"Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilica_of_Sant%27Apollinare_in_Classe"}],"sub_title":"Ostrogothic Kingdom","text":"See also: Ostrogothic RavennaThe late 5th century saw the dissolution of Roman authority in the west, and Romulus Augustulus was deposed in 476 by the general Odoacer. Odoacer ruled as King of Italy for 13 years, but in 489 the Eastern Emperor Zeno sent the Ostrogoth King Theodoric the Great to re-take the Italian peninsula. After losing the Battle of Verona, Odoacer retreated to Ravenna, where he withstood a siege of three years by Theodoric, until the taking of Rimini deprived Ravenna of supplies. Theodoric took Ravenna in 493, supposedly slew Odoacer with his own hands, and Ravenna became the capital of the Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy. Theodoric, following his imperial predecessors, also built many splendid buildings in and around Ravenna, including his palace church Sant'Apollinare Nuovo, an Arian cathedral (now Santo Spirito) and Baptistery, and his own Mausoleum just outside the walls.The Mausoleum of TheodoricBoth Odoacer and Theodoric and their followers were Arian Christians, but co-existed peacefully with the Latins, who were largely Catholic Orthodox. Ravenna's Orthodox bishops carried out notable building projects, of which the sole surviving one is the Cappella Arcivescovile. Theodoric allowed Roman citizens within his kingdom to be subject to Roman law and the Roman judicial system. The Goths, meanwhile, lived under their own laws and customs. In 519, when a mob had burned down the synagogues of Ravenna, Theodoric ordered the town to rebuild them at its own expense.Theodoric died in 526 and was succeeded by his young grandson Athalaric under the authority of his daughter Amalasunta, but by 535 both were dead and Theodoric's line was represented only by Amalasuntha's daughter Matasuntha. Various Ostrogothic military leaders took the Kingdom of Italy, but none were as successful as Theodoric had been. Meanwhile, the orthodox Christian Byzantine Emperor Justinian I opposed both Ostrogoth rule and the Arian variety of Christianity. In 535 his general Belisarius invaded Italy and in 540 conquered Ravenna. After the conquest of Italy was completed in 554, Ravenna became the seat of Byzantine government in Italy.From 540 to 600, Ravenna's bishops embarked upon a notable building program of churches in Ravenna and in and around the port city of Classe. Surviving monuments include the Basilica of San Vitale and the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe, as well as the partially surviving San Michele in Africisco.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ravenna_SantApollinare_Classe3.jpg"},{"link_name":"Transfiguration of Jesus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transfiguration_of_Jesus"},{"link_name":"Crux gemmata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crux_gemmata"},{"link_name":"apse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apse"},{"link_name":"Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilica_of_Sant%27Apollinare_in_Classe"},{"link_name":"Belisarius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belisarius"},{"link_name":"Justinian I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justinian_I"},{"link_name":"Byzantine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire"},{"link_name":"Exarch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exarch"},{"link_name":"Exarchate of Ravenna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exarchate_of_Ravenna"},{"link_name":"Ravenna Cosmography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ravenna_Cosmography"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Archdiocese of Ravenna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archbishopric_of_Ravenna"},{"link_name":"autocephaly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autocephaly"}],"sub_title":"Exarchate of Ravenna","text":"Transfiguration of Jesus. Allegorical image with Crux gemmata and lambs represent apostles, 533–549, apse of Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe.Following the conquests of Belisarius for Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian I in the 6th century, Ravenna became the seat of the Byzantine governor of Italy, the Exarch, and was known as the Exarchate of Ravenna. It was at this time that the Ravenna Cosmography was written.[17]Under Byzantine rule, the archbishop of the Archdiocese of Ravenna was temporarily granted autocephaly from the Roman Church by the emperor, in 666, but this was soon revoked. Nevertheless, the archbishop of Ravenna held the second place in Italy after the pope, and played an important role in many theological controversies during this period.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lombards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lombards"},{"link_name":"King Liutprand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Liutprand"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Aistulf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aistulf"},{"link_name":"Pepin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pepin_the_Short"},{"link_name":"Franks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_the_Franks"},{"link_name":"Pope Stephen II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Stephen_II"},{"link_name":"Popes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope"},{"link_name":"Pope Adrian I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Adrian_I"},{"link_name":"Charlemagne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlemagne"},{"link_name":"mosaics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosaic"},{"link_name":"Aachen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aachen"},{"link_name":"Romagna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romagna"},{"link_name":"Traversari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traversari"},{"link_name":"Papal States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_States"},{"link_name":"Da Polenta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Da_Polenta"},{"link_name":"Dante","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dante"},{"link_name":"Ostasio III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostasio_III_da_Polenta"},{"link_name":"Republic of Venice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Venice"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Cremona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Cremona_(1441)"},{"link_name":"Italian Wars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Wars"},{"link_name":"Holy League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_the_League_of_Cambrai"},{"link_name":"Battle of Ravenna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ravenna_(1512)"},{"link_name":"Monster of Ravenna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monster_of_Ravenna"},{"link_name":"canals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canals"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ravenna_quattrino.jpg"},{"link_name":"quattrino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quattrino"},{"link_name":"Saint Apollinaris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollinaris_of_Ravenna"}],"sub_title":"Middle Ages and Renaissance","text":"The Lombards, under King Liutprand, occupied Ravenna in 712, but were forced to return it to the Byzantines.[18] In 751, the Lombard king, Aistulf, conquered Ravenna, thus ending Byzantine rule in northern Italy.King Pepin of the Franks attacked the Lombards under orders of Pope Stephen II. Ravenna then gradually came under the direct authority of the Popes, although this was contested by the archbishops at various times. Pope Adrian I authorized Charlemagne to take away anything from Ravenna that he liked, and an unknown quantity of Roman columns, mosaics, statues, and other portable items were taken north to enrich his capital of Aachen.In 1198 Ravenna led a league of Romagna cities against the Emperor, and the Pope was able to subdue it. After the war of 1218 the Traversari family was able to impose its rule in the city, which lasted until 1240. After a short period under an Imperial vicar, Ravenna was returned to the Papal States in 1248 and again to the Traversari until, in 1275, the Da Polenta established their long-lasting seigniory. One of the most illustrious residents of Ravenna at this time was the exiled Florentine poet Dante. The last of the Da Polenta, Ostasio III, was ousted by the Republic of Venice in February 1441, and the city was annexed to the Venetian territories in the Treaty of Cremona.Ravenna was ruled by Venice until 1509, when the area was invaded in the course of the Italian Wars. In 1512, during the Holy League wars, Ravenna was sacked by the French following the Battle of Ravenna. Ravenna was also known during the Renaissance as the birthplace of the Monster of Ravenna.After the Venetian withdrawal, Ravenna was again ruled by legates of the Pope as part of the Papal States. The city was damaged in a tremendous flood in May 1636. Over the next 300 years, a network of canals diverted nearby rivers and drained nearby swamps, thus reducing the possibility of flooding and creating a large belt of agricultural land around the city.An 18th-century quattrino from Ravenna depicting Saint Apollinaris","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cisalpine Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisalpine_Republic"},{"link_name":"Italian Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Republic_(Napoleonic)"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(Napoleonic)"},{"link_name":"Romagna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romagna"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unification_of_Italy"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Basilica of San Giovanni Evangelista","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Giovanni_Evangelista,_Ravenna"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"27th Lancers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/27th_Lancers"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"sub_title":"Modern age","text":"Apart from another short occupation by Venice (1527–1529), Ravenna was part of the Papal States until 1796, when it was annexed to the French puppet state of the Cisalpine Republic (Italian Republic from 1802, and Kingdom of Italy from 1805). It was returned to the Papal States in 1814. Occupied by Piedmontese troops in 1859, Ravenna and the surrounding Romagna area became part of the new unified Kingdom of Italy in 1861.During World War II, the town suffered severe damage. Fifty-two Allied bombing raids during the course of the Second World War had taken their toll, destroying some of Ravenna's noteworthy, unequalled early Christian art. Bombs intended for the railway station and its sidings had pulverised the Basilica of San Giovanni Evangelista in August 1944.[19] On 5 November 1944 troops of 4th Princess Louise Dragoon Guards, 5th Canadian Armoured Division and the British 27th Lancers entered and liberated Ravenna. A total of 937 Commonwealth soldiers who died in the winter of 1944–45 are buried in Ravenna War Cemetery, including 438 Canadians.[20]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of mayors of Ravenna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mayors_of_Ravenna"}],"text":"See also: List of mayors of Ravenna","title":"Government"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Basilica_of_San_Vitale_-_triumphal_arch_mosaics.jpg"},{"link_name":"Basilica of San Vitale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilica_of_San_Vitale"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mausoleum_of_Galla_Placidia_ceiling_mosaics.jpg"},{"link_name":"Garden of Eden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden_of_Eden"},{"link_name":"mausoleum of Galla Placidia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Galla_Placidia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arian_Baptistry_ceiling_mosaic_-_Ravenna.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christus_Ravenna_Mosaic.jpg"},{"link_name":"mosaic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosaic"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Baptistery.Arians02.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dante%27s_tomb_(Ravenna)_-_Facade.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dante_Alieghri_tomb_in_Ravenna_(interior).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mausoleum_of_Galla_Placidia_in_Ravenna.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Theodoric%27s_Palace_-_Sant%27Apollinare_Nuovo_-_Ravenna_2016_(crop).jpg"},{"link_name":"World Heritage List","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Heritage_List"},{"link_name":"Orthodox Baptistery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptistery_of_Neon"},{"link_name":"Mausoleum of Galla Placidia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Galla_Placidia"},{"link_name":"Arian Baptistery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arian_Baptistery"},{"link_name":"Archiepiscopal Chapel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archbishop%27s_Chapel,_Ravenna"},{"link_name":"Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilica_of_Sant%27Apollinare_Nuovo"},{"link_name":"Mausoleum of Theodoric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Theodoric"},{"link_name":"Basilica of San Vitale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilica_of_San_Vitale"},{"link_name":"Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilica_of_Sant%27Apollinare_in_Classe"},{"link_name":"San Giovanni Evangelista","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Giovanni_Evangelista,_Ravenna"},{"link_name":"Galla Placidia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galla_Placidia"},{"link_name":"Basilica of San Francesco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilica_of_San_Francesco,_Ravenna"},{"link_name":"Dante Alighieri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dante_Alighieri"},{"link_name":"Baroque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baroque"},{"link_name":"Luca Longhi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luca_Longhi"},{"link_name":"San Giovanni Battista","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Giovanni_Battista,_Ravenna"},{"link_name":"Santa Maria in Porto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Maria_in_Porto_Basilica"},{"link_name":"cupola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cupola"},{"link_name":"Venetians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Venice"},{"link_name":"San Salvatore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Saviour"},{"link_name":"true palace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palace_of_Theodoric"},{"link_name":"Sant'Eufemia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sant%27Eufemia,_Ravenna"},{"link_name":"Archiepiscopal Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archiepiscopal_Museum,_Ravenna"},{"link_name":"Capanno Garibaldi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capanno_Garibaldi"},{"link_name":"hunting cabin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunting_cabin"},{"link_name":"Porto Corsini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Porto_Corsini&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"it","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porto_Corsini"},{"link_name":"Giuseppe Garibaldi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-22"}],"text":"Triumphal arch mosaics of the Basilica of San VitaleGarden of Eden mosaic in mausoleum of Galla Placidia (5th century CE)Arian Baptistry ceiling mosaic6th-century mosaic in Sant'Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna, portrays Jesus long-haired and bearded, dressed in Byzantine style.The Arian BaptisteryDante's tomb exterior and interior, built in 1780The so-called \"Mausoleum of Galla Placidia\" in RavennaMosaic of the Palace of Theodoric in Sant'Apollinare NuovoEight early Christian buildings of Ravenna are inscribed on the World Heritage List. These areOrthodox Baptistery also called Baptistery of Neon (c. 430)\nMausoleum of Galla Placidia (c. 430)\nArian Baptistery (c. 500)\nArchiepiscopal Chapel (c. 500)\nBasilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo (c. 500)\nMausoleum of Theodoric (520)\nBasilica of San Vitale (548)\nBasilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe (549)Other historic sites include:The church of San Giovanni Evangelista is from the 5th century, erected by Galla Placidia after she survived a storm at sea. It was restored after the World War II bombings. The belltower contains four bells, the two majors dating back to 1208.\nThe 6th-century church of the Spirito Santo, which has been quite drastically altered since the 6th century. It was originally the Arian cathedral. The façade has a 16th-century portico with five arcades.\nThe Basilica of San Francesco, rebuilt in the 10th–11th centuries over a precedent edifice dedicated to the Apostles and later to St. Peter. Behind the humble brick façade, it has a nave and two aisles. Fragments of mosaics from the first church are visible on the floor, which is usually covered by water after heavy rains (together with the crypt). Here the funeral ceremony of Dante Alighieri was held in 1321. The poet is buried in a tomb annexed to the church, the local authorities having resisted for centuries all demands by Florence for the return of the remains of its most famous exile.\nThe Baroque church of Santa Maria Maggiore (525–532, rebuilt in 1671). It houses a picture by Luca Longhi.\nThe church of San Giovanni Battista (1683), also in Baroque style, with a Middle Ages campanile.\nThe basilica of Santa Maria in Porto (16th century), with a rich façade from the 18th century. It has a nave and two aisles, with a high cupola. It houses the image of famous Greek Madonna, which was allegedly brought to Ravenna from Constantinople.\nThe nearby Communal Gallery has various works from Romagnoli painters.\nThe Rocca Brancaleone (Brancaleone Castle), built by the Venetians in 1457. Once part of the city walls, it is now a public park. It is divided into two parts: the true Castle and the Citadel, the latter having an extent of 14,000 m2 (150,694.75 sq ft).\nThe \"so-called Palace of Theodoric\", in fact the entrance to the former church of San Salvatore. It includes mosaics from the true palace of the Ostrogoth king.\nThe church of Sant'Eufemia (18th century), gives access to the so-called Stone Carpets Domus (6th–7th century): this houses splendid mosaics from a Byzantine palace.\nThe National Museum\nThe Archiepiscopal Museum\nThe Capanno Garibaldi, a hunting cabin on the road to Porto Corsini [it] known for having sheltered Giuseppe Garibaldi on the night of 6–7 August 1849[21][22]","title":"Major monuments"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ravenna Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ravenna_Festival"},{"link_name":"Teatro Alighieri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatro_Comunale_Alighieri"},{"link_name":"Basilica of San Vitale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilica_of_San_Vitale"},{"link_name":"Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilica_of_Sant%27Apollinare_in_Classe"},{"link_name":"Riccardo Muti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riccardo_Muti"}],"text":"The city annually hosts the Ravenna Festival, one of Italy's prominent classical music gatherings. Opera performances are held at the Teatro Alighieri while concerts take place at the Palazzo Mauro de André as well as in the ancient Basilica of San Vitale and Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe. Chicago Symphony Orchestra music director Riccardo Muti, a longtime resident of the city, regularly participates in the festival, which invites orchestras and other performers from around the world.","title":"Music"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Giovanni_Mochi_-_Dante_Alighieri_in_atto_di_presentare_Giotto_a_Guido_da_Polenta.jpg"},{"link_name":"Dante Alighieri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dante_Alighieri"},{"link_name":"Giotto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giotto"},{"link_name":"Guido da Polenta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guido_I_da_Polenta"},{"link_name":"Giovanni Mochi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Mochi"},{"link_name":"Galleria d'Arte Moderna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallery_of_Modern_Art,_Florence"},{"link_name":"Florence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florence"},{"link_name":"Dante","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dante_Alighieri"},{"link_name":"Inferno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inferno_(Dante)"},{"link_name":"Nostradamus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nostradamus"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Perugia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perugia"},{"link_name":"legate of Lisbon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piedmont"},{"link_name":"Antichrist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antichrist"},{"link_name":"Slovenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovenia"},{"link_name":"Ravne na Koroškem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ravne_na_Koro%C5%A1kem"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"The Witch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Witch_(play)"},{"link_name":"Thomas Middleton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Middleton"},{"link_name":"Lord Byron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Byron"},{"link_name":"Teresa Guiccioli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teresa,_Contessa_Guiccioli"},{"link_name":"Don Juan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don_Juan_(poem)"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Mary Shelley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Shelley"},{"link_name":"The Last Man","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Last_Man"},{"link_name":"Oscar Wilde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscar_Wilde"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Alexander Blok","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Blok"},{"link_name":"Hermann Hesse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Hesse"},{"link_name":"T. S. Eliot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T._S._Eliot"},{"link_name":"Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilica_of_Sant%27Apollinare_in_Classe"},{"link_name":"acanthus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acanthus_(ornament)"},{"link_name":"J.R.R. Tolkien","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._R._R._Tolkien"},{"link_name":"Minas Tirith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondor"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"}],"text":"Dante Alighieri presenting Giotto to Guido da Polenta, painting by Giovanni Mochi (19th century), Galleria d'Arte Moderna, FlorenceAfter his banishment from his native Florence, Dante spent most of the rest of his life in Ravenna, and he mentions the city in Canto V of his Inferno.\nAlso in the 16th century, Nostradamus provides four prophecies:\n\"The Magnavacca (canal) at Ravenna in great trouble, Canals by fifteen shut up at Fornase\", in reference to fifteen French saboteurs.[23]\nAs the place of a battle extending to Perugia and a sacred escape in its aftermath, leaving rotting horses left to eat.\nIn relation to the snatching of a lady \"near Ravenna\" and then the legate of Lisbon seizing 70 souls at sea.\nRavenna is one of three-similarly named contenders for the birth of the third and final Antichrist who enslaves Slovenia (see Ravne na Koroškem).[24]\nRavenna is the setting for The Witch, a play by Thomas Middleton.\nLord Byron lived in Ravenna between 1819 and 1821, led by the love for a local aristocratic and married young woman, Teresa Guiccioli. Here he continued Don Juan and wrote Ravenna Diary, My Dictionary and Recollections.[25]\nRavenna is the location where Lionel, the protagonist of Mary Shelley's post-apocalyptic novel The Last Man, comes ashore after losing his companions to a howling storm in the Aegean Sea.\nOscar Wilde (1854–1900) wrote a poem Ravenna in 1878.[26]\nSymbolist, lyrical poet Alexander Blok (1880–1921) wrote a poem entitled Ravenna (May–June 1909) inspired by his Italian journey (spring 1909).\nDuring his travels, German poet and philosopher Hermann Hesse (1877–1962) came across Ravenna and was inspired to write two poems of the city. They are entitled Ravenna (1) and Ravenna (2).\nT. S. Eliot's (1888–1965) poem \"Lune de Miel\" (written in French) describes a honeymooning couple from Indiana sleeping not far from the ancient Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe (just outside Ravenna), famous for the carved capitals of its columns, which depict acanthus leaves buffeted by the wind, unlike the leaves in repose on similar columns elsewhere.\nJ.R.R. Tolkien (1892–1973) may have based his city of Minas Tirith at least in part on Ravenna.[27]","title":"In literature"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Michelangelo Antonioni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelangelo_Antonioni"},{"link_name":"Red Desert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Desert_(film)"}],"text":"Michelangelo Antonioni filmed his 1964 movie Red Desert (Deserto Rosso) within the industrialised areas of the Pialassa valley.","title":"In film"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"port","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_of_Ravenna"},{"link_name":"Ravenna railway station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ravenna_railway_station"},{"link_name":"Trenitalia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trenitalia"},{"link_name":"Bologna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bologna"},{"link_name":"Ferrara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrara"},{"link_name":"Lecce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lecce"},{"link_name":"Milan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milan"},{"link_name":"Parma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parma"},{"link_name":"Rimini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimini"},{"link_name":"Verona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verona"},{"link_name":"Ravenna Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ravenna_Airport"},{"link_name":"Forlì","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forl%C3%AC_Airport"},{"link_name":"Rimini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federico_Fellini_International_Airport"},{"link_name":"Bologna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bologna_Guglielmo_Marconi_Airport"},{"link_name":"A14-bis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autostrada_A14_(Italy)"},{"link_name":"EU routes E45","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_route_E45"},{"link_name":"E55","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_route_E55"}],"text":"Ravenna has an important commercial and tourist port.Ravenna railway station has direct Trenitalia service to Bologna, Ferrara, Lecce, Milan, Parma, Rimini, and Verona.Ravenna Airport is located in Ravenna. The nearest commercial airports are those of Forlì, Rimini and Bologna.Freeways crossing Ravenna include: A14-bis from the hub of Bologna; on the north–south axis of EU routes E45 (from Rome) and E55 (SS-309 \"Romea\" from Venice); and on the regional Ferrara-Rimini axis of SS-16 (partially called \"Adriatica\").","title":"Transport"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mirabilandia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirabilandia_(Italy)"},{"link_name":"Safari Ravenna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safari_Ravenna"}],"text":"Mirabilandia\nSafari Ravenna","title":"Amusement parks"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of twin towns and sister cities in Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_twin_towns_and_sister_cities_in_Italy"},{"link_name":"twinned","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sister_city"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Chichester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chichester"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"Speyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speyer"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"},{"link_name":"Chartres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chartres"}],"text":"See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in ItalyRavenna is twinned with:[28]Chichester, United Kingdom, since 1996\n Speyer, Germany, since 1989\n Chartres, France, since 1957","title":"Twin towns – sister cities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"football","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Football_in_Italy"},{"link_name":"Ravenna F.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ravenna_F.C."},{"link_name":"Serie D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serie_D"},{"link_name":"A.P.D. Ribelle 1927","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A.P.D._Ribelle_1927"},{"link_name":"2011 FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_FIFA_Beach_Soccer_World_Cup"}],"text":"The traditional football club of the city is Ravenna F.C. Currently it plays in the fourth tier of Italian football, Serie D.A.P.D. Ribelle 1927 is the football club of Castiglione di Ravenna, a town to the south of Ravenna.The beaches of Ravenna hosted the 2011 FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup, in September 2011.","title":"Sports"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Valentinian III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valentinian_III"},{"link_name":"Matteo Plazzi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matteo_Plazzi"},{"link_name":"Giacomo Anziani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Anziani"},{"link_name":"Laura Pausini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laura_Pausini"},{"link_name":"Raul Gardini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raul_Gardini"},{"link_name":"Franco Manzecchi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franco_Manzecchi"},{"link_name":"Andrea Montanari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrea_Montanari"},{"link_name":"Arcangelo Corelli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcangelo_Corelli"},{"link_name":"Luigi Legnani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luigi_Legnani"},{"link_name":"Tullio Bassi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tullio_Bassi"},{"link_name":"Peter Damian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Damian"},{"link_name":"Francesco Ingoli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Ingoli"},{"link_name":"Francesca da Rimini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesca_da_Rimini"},{"link_name":"Guido I da Polenta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guido_I_da_Polenta"},{"link_name":"Francesco Baracca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Baracca"},{"link_name":"Federico Caricasulo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federico_Caricasulo"},{"link_name":"Marco Melandri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marco_Melandri"},{"link_name":"Davide Tardozzi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Davide_Tardozzi"},{"link_name":"Ivano Marescotti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivano_Marescotti"},{"link_name":"Amadeus (presenter)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amadeus_(presenter)"},{"link_name":"Romolo Gessi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romolo_Gessi"},{"link_name":"Romuald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romuald"},{"link_name":"Camaldolese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camaldolese"},{"link_name":"Marco Dente","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marco_Dente"},{"link_name":"Paolo Roversi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paolo_Roversi"},{"link_name":"Angelo Mariani (conductor)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angelo_Mariani_(conductor)"},{"link_name":"Giuseppe Vitali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giuseppe_Vitali"},{"link_name":"Evangelista Torricelli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelista_Torricelli"},{"link_name":"Federico Marchetti (businessman)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federico_Marchetti_(businessman)"},{"link_name":"Gianluca Costantini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gianluca_Costantini"},{"link_name":"Luigi Legnani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luigi_Legnani"},{"link_name":"Luigi Rossini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luigi_Rossini"},{"link_name":"Alex Majoli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex_Majoli"},{"link_name":"Gianluca de Lorenzi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gianluca_de_Lorenzi"},{"link_name":"Fabio Fabiani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabio_Fabiani"},{"link_name":"Eugenio Pisani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugenio_Pisani"}],"text":"Valentinian III (419–455), Roman Emperor\nMatteo Plazzi, Italian sailor\nGiacomo Anziani (1681–1723), Italian architect, painter, and engraver\nLaura Pausini (born 1974), Italian pop singer-songwriter, record producer and television personality\nRaul Gardini (1933–1993), Italian businessman\nFranco Manzecchi (1931–1979), Jazz drummer\nAndrea Montanari (born 1965), Italian sprinter\nArcangelo Corelli (1653–1713), Baroque violinist and composer\nLuigi Legnani (1790–1877), guitarist and luthier\nTullio Bassi (born 1937), Italian violin maker\nPeter Damian (c. 988 – 1072 or 1073), Catholic Saint and Cardinal\nFrancesco Ingoli (1578–1649), Theatine scientist, lawyer, and disputer of Galileo\nFrancesca da Rimini (1255 – c. 1285), historical person\nGuido I da Polenta (died 1310), lord of Ravenna\nFrancesco Baracca (1888–1918), Italy's top fighter ace of World War I\nFederico Caricasulo (born 1996), motorcycle road racer\nMarco Melandri (born 1982), motorcycle road racer\nDavide Tardozzi (born 1959), Superbike racer and team manager\nIvano Marescotti (1946–2023), actor\nAmadeus (presenter) (born 1962), presenter\nRomolo Gessi (1831–1881), explorer\nRomuald (c. 951 – c. 1025/27), abbot, founder of the Camaldolese order\nMarco Dente (1493–1527), engraver\nPaolo Roversi (born 1947), fashion photographer\nAngelo Mariani (conductor) (1821–1873), conductor\nGiuseppe Vitali (1875–1932), mathematician\nEvangelista Torricelli (1606–1647), physicist and mathematician\nFederico Marchetti (businessman) (born 1969), founder of YOOX\nGianluca Costantini (born 1971), artist\nLuigi Legnani (1790–1877), musician and composer\nLuigi Rossini (1790–1857), artist\nAlex Majoli (born 1971), photographer\nGianluca de Lorenzi (born 1972), racing driver and team owner\nFabio Fabiani (born 1974), racing driver\nEugenio Pisani (born 1991), racing driver","title":"People"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bibliography of the history of Ravenna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Ravenna#Bibliography"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-909646-14-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-909646-14-8"}],"text":"See also: Bibliography of the history of RavennaCameron, Averil. \"Ravenna: Capital of Empire, Crucible of Europe\". History Today (September 2020) pp 94–97.\nJanet Nelson, Judith Herrin, Ravenna: its role in earlier medieval change and exchange, London, Institute of Historical Research, 2016, ISBN 978-1-909646-14-8","title":"Sources"}]
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[{"image_text":"The city of Ravenna in the 4th century as shown on the Peutinger Map","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Ravenna%28Peutinger_Map%29.png/220px-Ravenna%28Peutinger_Map%29.png"},{"image_text":"The Mausoleum of Theodoric","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Mausoleum_of_Theoderic.JPG/220px-Mausoleum_of_Theoderic.JPG"},{"image_text":"Transfiguration of Jesus. Allegorical image with Crux gemmata and lambs represent apostles, 533–549, apse of Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Ravenna_SantApollinare_Classe3.jpg/220px-Ravenna_SantApollinare_Classe3.jpg"},{"image_text":"An 18th-century quattrino from Ravenna depicting Saint Apollinaris","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Ravenna_quattrino.jpg/220px-Ravenna_quattrino.jpg"},{"image_text":"Triumphal arch mosaics of the Basilica of San Vitale","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Basilica_of_San_Vitale_-_triumphal_arch_mosaics.jpg/220px-Basilica_of_San_Vitale_-_triumphal_arch_mosaics.jpg"},{"image_text":"Garden of Eden mosaic in mausoleum of Galla Placidia (5th century CE)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Mausoleum_of_Galla_Placidia_ceiling_mosaics.jpg/220px-Mausoleum_of_Galla_Placidia_ceiling_mosaics.jpg"},{"image_text":"Arian Baptistry ceiling mosaic","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Arian_Baptistry_ceiling_mosaic_-_Ravenna.jpg/220px-Arian_Baptistry_ceiling_mosaic_-_Ravenna.jpg"},{"image_text":"6th-century mosaic in Sant'Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna, portrays Jesus long-haired and bearded, dressed in Byzantine style.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Christus_Ravenna_Mosaic.jpg/220px-Christus_Ravenna_Mosaic.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Arian Baptistery","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Baptistery.Arians02.jpg/220px-Baptistery.Arians02.jpg"},{"image_text":"The so-called \"Mausoleum of Galla Placidia\" in Ravenna","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Mausoleum_of_Galla_Placidia_in_Ravenna.JPG/220px-Mausoleum_of_Galla_Placidia_in_Ravenna.JPG"},{"image_text":"Mosaic of the Palace of Theodoric in Sant'Apollinare Nuovo","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Theodoric%27s_Palace_-_Sant%27Apollinare_Nuovo_-_Ravenna_2016_%28crop%29.jpg/220px-Theodoric%27s_Palace_-_Sant%27Apollinare_Nuovo_-_Ravenna_2016_%28crop%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Dante Alighieri presenting Giotto to Guido da Polenta, painting by Giovanni Mochi (19th century), Galleria d'Arte Moderna, Florence","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Giovanni_Mochi_-_Dante_Alighieri_in_atto_di_presentare_Giotto_a_Guido_da_Polenta.jpg/220px-Giovanni_Mochi_-_Dante_Alighieri_in_atto_di_presentare_Giotto_a_Guido_da_Polenta.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Italy portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Italy"},{"title":"European Union portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:European_Union"},{"title":"Cities portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Cities"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Superficie di Comuni Province e Regioni italiane al 9 ottobre 2011\". Italian National Institute of Statistics. Retrieved 16 March 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.istat.it/it/archivio/156224","url_text":"\"Superficie di Comuni Province e Regioni italiane al 9 ottobre 2011\""}]},{"reference":"\"Storia dell'Esarcato d'Italia\". www.homolaicus.com. Retrieved 2024-01-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.homolaicus.com/storia/medioevo/esarcato.htm","url_text":"\"Storia dell'Esarcato d'Italia\""}]},{"reference":"\"Ravenna - Treccani\". Treccani (in Italian). Retrieved 2024-01-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/ravenna_(Dizionario-di-Storia)/,%20https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/ravenna_(Dizionario-di-Storia)/","url_text":"\"Ravenna - Treccani\""}]},{"reference":"\"Early Christian Monuments of Ravenna\".","urls":[{"url":"https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/788","url_text":"\"Early Christian Monuments of Ravenna\""}]},{"reference":"\"Day Trip to Ravenna: What to See in Italy's Mosaic Capital\". ITALY Magazine. Retrieved 2023-05-18.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.italymagazine.com/featured-story/day-trip-ravenna-what-see-italys-mosaic-capital","url_text":"\"Day Trip to Ravenna: What to See in Italy's Mosaic Capital\""}]},{"reference":"Franceschini |, Giulia (2023-04-24). \"Ravenna, the capital of Italian mosaic\". L'Italo-Americano – Italian American bilingual news source. Retrieved 2023-05-18.","urls":[{"url":"https://italoamericano.org/ravenna-mosaic/","url_text":"\"Ravenna, the capital of Italian mosaic\""}]},{"reference":"Fiorentino, Sara; Chinni, Tania; Vandini, Mariangela (2020-11-01). \"Ravenna, its mosaics and the contribution of archaeometry. A systematic reassessment on literature data related to glass tesserae and new considerations\". Journal of Cultural Heritage. 46: 335–349. doi:10.1016/j.culher.2020.06.003. hdl:11585/764608. ISSN 1296-2074. S2CID 225764842.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1296207420303915","url_text":"\"Ravenna, its mosaics and the contribution of archaeometry. A systematic reassessment on literature data related to glass tesserae and new considerations\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.culher.2020.06.003","url_text":"10.1016/j.culher.2020.06.003"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)","url_text":"hdl"},{"url":"https://hdl.handle.net/11585%2F764608","url_text":"11585/764608"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1296-2074","url_text":"1296-2074"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:225764842","url_text":"225764842"}]},{"reference":"Names, All Things Baby (2019-05-31). \"Ravenna Name Meaning, Origin, Popularity, and More\". All Things Baby Names. Retrieved 2023-01-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.allthingsbabynames.com/ravenna-name-meaning/","url_text":"\"Ravenna Name Meaning, Origin, Popularity, and More\""}]},{"reference":"Mascanzoni, Leardo (1990). Ravenna: Una storia millenaria (in Italian). Giunti Barbera Editore. pp. 3–50.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Fischer, Svante; Victor, Helena. \"The Fall and Decline of the Roman Urban Mind\". Academia.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.academia.edu/1166147","url_text":"\"The Fall and Decline of the Roman Urban Mind\""}]},{"reference":"\"Storia di Ravenna. Dalla preistoria all'anno Duemila\". ilpontevecchio (in Italian). Retrieved 2024-01-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ilpontevecchio.com/vicus/89-storia-di-ravenna-dalla-preistoria-all-anno-duemila-9788865415955.html","url_text":"\"Storia di Ravenna. Dalla preistoria all'anno Duemila\""}]},{"reference":"Noble, Thomas F. X. (1984). The Republic of St. Peter: The Birth of the Papal State, 680–825. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-1239-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/republicofstpete0000nobl","url_text":"The Republic of St. Peter: The Birth of the Papal State, 680–825"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8122-1239-8","url_text":"0-8122-1239-8"}]},{"reference":"\"The riches of Ravenna\". 10 December 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://the-past.com/feature/the-riches-of-ravenna/","url_text":"\"The riches of Ravenna\""}]},{"reference":"\"Canada - Italy 1943-1945 - the Second World War - History - Remembrance - Veterans Affairs Canada\". 23 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/remembrance/history/second-world-war/canada-Italy-1943-to-1945","url_text":"\"Canada - Italy 1943-1945 - the Second World War - History - Remembrance - Veterans Affairs Canada\""}]},{"reference":"\"La storia del capanno Garibaldi, in vetrina al Private Banking foto d'epoca e dipinti\" [The history of the Garibaldi hut on display at Private Banking: Vintage photos and paintings]. Il Resto del Carlino (in Italian). 21 May 2022. Retrieved 4 April 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ilrestodelcarlino.it/ravenna/cronaca/la-storia-del-capanno-garibaldi-in-vetrina-al-private-banking-foto-depoca-e-dipinti-5951ef7a","url_text":"\"La storia del capanno Garibaldi, in vetrina al Private Banking foto d'epoca e dipinti\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Il_Resto_del_Carlino","url_text":"Il Resto del Carlino"}]},{"reference":"\"Al \"Private Banking\" de La Cassa di Ravenna una nuova mostra dedicata al Capanno Garibaldi\" [At the “Private Banking” of La Cassa di Ravenna, a new exhibition dedicated to the Capanno Garibaldi]. ravennanotizie.it (in Italian). 20 May 2022. Retrieved 4 April 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ravennanotizie.it/cultura-spettacolo/2022/05/20/al-private-banking-de-la-cassa-di-ravenna-una-nuova-mostra-dedicata-a-il-capanno-garibaldi/","url_text":"\"Al \"Private Banking\" de La Cassa di Ravenna una nuova mostra dedicata al Capanno Garibaldi\""}]},{"reference":"Jones, Tom (2012). Nostradamus. Pittsburgh, PA: Dorrance Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4349-1823-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=2NxuxGqHyJ0C","url_text":"Nostradamus"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4349-1823-9","url_text":"978-1-4349-1823-9"}]},{"reference":"Reading, Mario (2009). The Complete Prophesies of Nostradamus. London: Watkins Publishing. ISBN 978-1-906787-39-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=GzvcTC3ck8YC","url_text":"The Complete Prophesies of Nostradamus"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-906787-39-4","url_text":"978-1-906787-39-4"}]},{"reference":"\"Sito Ufficiale – Ufficio Turismo del Comune di Ravenna – I grandi scrittori\". Turismo.ra.it. Retrieved 2009-05-06.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.turismo.ra.it/contenuti/index.php?t=scrittori&id=21&cat=3","url_text":"\"Sito Ufficiale – Ufficio Turismo del Comune di Ravenna – I grandi scrittori\""}]},{"reference":"\"Tolkien's annotated map of Middle-earth discovered inside copy of Lord of the Rings\". TheGuardian.com. 23 October 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/books/2015/oct/23/jrr-tolkien-middle-earth-annotated-map-blackwells-lord-of-the-rings?CMP=fb_gu","url_text":"\"Tolkien's annotated map of Middle-earth discovered inside copy of Lord of the Rings\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TheGuardian.com","url_text":"TheGuardian.com"}]},{"reference":"\"Città gemellate\". comune.ra.it (in Italian). Ravenna. Retrieved 2021-03-28.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.comune.ra.it/La-Citta/Rapporti-internazionali/Citta-gemellate","url_text":"\"Città gemellate\""}]}]
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Dalla preistoria all'anno Duemila\""},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/republicofstpete0000nobl","external_links_name":"The Republic of St. Peter: The Birth of the Papal State, 680–825"},{"Link":"https://the-past.com/feature/the-riches-of-ravenna/","external_links_name":"\"The riches of Ravenna\""},{"Link":"https://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/remembrance/history/second-world-war/canada-Italy-1943-to-1945","external_links_name":"\"Canada - Italy 1943-1945 - the Second World War - History - Remembrance - Veterans Affairs Canada\""},{"Link":"https://www.ilrestodelcarlino.it/ravenna/cronaca/la-storia-del-capanno-garibaldi-in-vetrina-al-private-banking-foto-depoca-e-dipinti-5951ef7a","external_links_name":"\"La storia del capanno Garibaldi, in vetrina al Private Banking foto d'epoca e dipinti\""},{"Link":"https://www.ravennanotizie.it/cultura-spettacolo/2022/05/20/al-private-banking-de-la-cassa-di-ravenna-una-nuova-mostra-dedicata-a-il-capanno-garibaldi/","external_links_name":"\"Al \"Private Banking\" de La Cassa di Ravenna una nuova mostra dedicata al Capanno Garibaldi\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=2NxuxGqHyJ0C","external_links_name":"Nostradamus"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=GzvcTC3ck8YC","external_links_name":"The Complete Prophesies of Nostradamus"},{"Link":"http://www.turismo.ra.it/contenuti/index.php?t=scrittori&id=21&cat=3","external_links_name":"\"Sito Ufficiale – Ufficio Turismo del Comune di Ravenna – I grandi scrittori\""},{"Link":"http://www.infomotions.com/etexts/literature/english/1800-1899/wilde-ravenna-609.htm","external_links_name":"Ravenna"},{"Link":"https://www.theguardian.com/books/2015/oct/23/jrr-tolkien-middle-earth-annotated-map-blackwells-lord-of-the-rings?CMP=fb_gu","external_links_name":"\"Tolkien's annotated map of Middle-earth discovered inside copy of Lord of the Rings\""},{"Link":"http://www.comune.ra.it/La-Citta/Rapporti-internazionali/Citta-gemellate","external_links_name":"\"Città gemellate\""},{"Link":"http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12662b.htm","external_links_name":"Ravenna - Catholic encyclopedia"},{"Link":"https://www.turismo.ra.it/","external_links_name":"Tourism and culture"},{"Link":"http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/12542","external_links_name":"Ravenna, A Study"},{"Link":"http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12662b.htm","external_links_name":"Ravenna's early history and its monuments - Catholic Encyclopedia"},{"Link":"http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1204953/","external_links_name":"FAST"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/279348621","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX453920","external_links_name":"Spain"},{"Link":"https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11865405z","external_links_name":"France"},{"Link":"https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11865405z","external_links_name":"BnF data"},{"Link":"https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981060883447606706","external_links_name":"Catalonia"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/4048629-1","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007559655605171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n79042080","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://libris.kb.se/53hkjjzp16l1vxn","external_links_name":"Sweden"},{"Link":"https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ge130629&CON_LNG=ENG","external_links_name":"Czech Republic"},{"Link":"https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35960176","external_links_name":"Australia"},{"Link":"https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810637532405606","external_links_name":"Poland"},{"Link":"https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=497/13698","external_links_name":"Vatican"},{"Link":"https://musicbrainz.org/area/e79585b7-ead2-4f1e-9f77-67ff659617c7","external_links_name":"MusicBrainz area"},{"Link":"https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/393480","external_links_name":"Pleiades"},{"Link":"https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA08600089?l=en","external_links_name":"CiNii"},{"Link":"https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10044765","external_links_name":"NARA"},{"Link":"https://www.idref.fr/135913276","external_links_name":"IdRef"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nike_Missile
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MIM-3 Nike Ajax
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["1 History","1.1 Background","1.2 Project Nike","1.3 Building the team","1.4 Testing","1.5 Accelerating development","1.6 Production","1.7 Deployment","1.8 After Ajax","1.9 Nike boosters","2 Description","3 Accidental launches","4 Survivors","4.1 Bases","5 See also","6 Explanatory notes","7 References","7.1 Citations","7.2 General bibliography","8 Further reading","9 External links"]
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First operational guided surface-to-air missile
Nike Ajax A Nike Ajax in firing position.TypeSurface-to-air missilePlace of originUnited StatesService historyIn service1954–1970Used byUnited States Army and alliesProduction historyManufacturerBell LabsDouglas Aircraft CompanyUnit costUS$19,300 (equivalent to $203,819 in 2023) (flyaway, 1958)US$61,000 (equivalent to $644,194 in 2023) totalProduced1952SpecificationsMass2,460 lb (1.12 t) total1,000 lb (0.454 t) sustainer1,460 lb (0.7 t) boosterLength32 ft 8 in (9.96 m) overall20 ft 11 in (6.38 m) sustainer13 ft 2 in (4.01 m) boosterDiameter14.6 in (0.37 m) sustainer16.2 in (0.41 m) boosterWingspan50 in (1.3 m) sustainer76 in (1.9 m) boosterWarhead3 warheads using Comp BDetonationmechanismradio commandEngineSolid rocket boosterliquid fuel sustainer55,000 lbf (240 kN) booster2,600 lbf (12 kN) sustainerPropellantJP-4/UDMH and RFNA (sustainer)Operationalrange30 mi (48 km)Flight ceiling70,000 ft (21,000 m)Maximum speed Mach 2.25 (2,760 km/h; 1,710 mph) (@ 50,000 ft (15,000 m))Guidancesystemcommand guidanceLaunchplatformfixed erector/launchers
The Nike Ajax was an American guided surface-to-air missile (SAM) developed by Bell Labs for the United States Army. The world's first operational guided surface-to-air missile, the Nike Ajax was designed to attack conventional bomber aircraft flying at high subsonic speeds and altitudes above 50,000 feet (15 km). Nike entered service in 1954 and was initially deployed within the United States to defend against potential Soviet bomber attacks, though it was later deployed overseas to protect US military bases, and was also sold to various allied militaries. Some examples remained in use until the 1970s.
Originally known simply as "Nike", it gained the "Ajax" as part of a 1956 renaming effort that resulted from the introduction of the similarly-named Nike Hercules. It was initially given the identifier SAM-A-7 (Surface-to-air, Army, design 7) as part of an early tri-service identification system, but later changed to MIM-3 in 1962.
Technological development during the 1950s quickly rendered the MIM-3 obsolete. It was unable to defend against more capable bombers or multiple targets in formation, and had relatively short range. Even while Nike was being deployed, these concerns led to the contracts for the greatly improved MIM-14 Nike Hercules, which began deployment in 1959. As Hercules developed, the threat moved from bombers to ICBMs, and the LIM-49 Nike Zeus anti-ballistic missile project started to address these. All of the Nike projects were led by Bell Labs, due to their early work in radar guidance systems during World War II.
Part of the Nike Ajax development program designed a new solid fuel rocket motor used for the missile's booster. This had originally been designed for the United States Navy's missiles, and was enlarged for the Nike efforts. The rocket was so useful that it found numerous applications outside the military world as the Ajax missiles were decommissioned in the 1960s. Many sounding rockets used the booster as their first or second stage, and many of those used "Nike" in their name.
History
Background
The inherent inaccuracy of anti-aircraft artillery means that when shells reach their targets they are effectively randomly distributed in the target area. This distribution is much larger than the lethal radius of any given shell, so the chance that any one shell will successfully damage or destroy its target is very small. Successful anti-aircraft gunnery therefore requires as many rounds to be fired as possible, increasing the chances that one of the rounds will damage or destroy its target. During the Blitz, British anti-aircraft gunners fired 49,044 shells in January 1941 for 12 kills, almost 4,100 shells per success. German gunners against daylight raids did slightly better, estimating that an average of 2,800 shells was required to down a single Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress.
Flying faster means that the aircraft passes through the range of a gun more rapidly, reducing the number of rounds a particular gun can fire at that aircraft. Flying at higher altitudes often has a similar effect, as it requires larger shells to reach those altitudes, and this typically results in slower firing rates for a variety of practical reasons. Aircraft using jet engines roughly double the speed and altitude over piston-powered designs, limiting the number of shells so greatly that the chance of hitting the bomber dropped almost to zero. As early as 1942, German flak commanders were keenly aware of the problem, and expecting to face jet bombers, they began a missile development program to supplant their guns.
The western allies maintained air superiority for much of the war and their anti-aircraft systems did not see as much pressure to improve. Nevertheless, by the mid-war period, the US Army had reached the same conclusion as their German counterparts; artillery-based anti-aircraft weapons were simply no longer useful. Accordingly, in February 1944 the Army Ground Forces sent the Army Service Forces (ASF) a request for information on the possibility of building a "major caliber anti-aircraft rocket torpedo". The ASF concluded that it was simply too early to tell if this was possible, and suggested concentrating on a program of general rocket development instead.
The introduction of German jet-powered bombers late in 1944 led to a re-evaluation of this policy, and on 26 January 1945 the Army Chief of Ordnance issued a requirement for a new guided missile weapon system. The request was passed to Bell Labs, then a world leader in radar, radio control and automated aiming systems (see Hendrik Wade Bode).
Project Nike
Main article: Project Nike
MIM-3 Nike on a launcher
Bell accepted the challenge, and Project Nike was officially formed on 8 February 1945. The Bell team was given the task of attacking bombers flying at 500 mph (800 km/h) or more, at altitudes between 20,000 and 60,000 feet (6,100 and 18,300 m), and performing a 3 g turn at 40,000 feet (12,000 m). Bell reported back on 14 May 1945 (and a formal report the next day) that such a development was indeed possible. They concluded that:
A supersonic rocket missile should be vertically launched under the thrust of a solid-fuel booster which was then to be dropped; thence, self-propelled by a liquid-fuel motor, the missile should be guided to a predicted intercept point in space and detonated by remote control commands; these commands should be transmitted by radio signals determined by a ground-based computer associated with radar which would track both the target and the missile in flight.
This was not the only Army missile project at the time; the US Army Air Force was involved in studies of the Ground-to-Air Pilotless Aircraft (GAPA), a slightly longer-range system based on what was essentially a drone aircraft. Bell had been invited to take part in GAPA as well, but declined as they wanted to concentrate on Nike. GAPA was opened to tender, and was picked up by other companies, notably Boeing. This led to a semi-formalized agreement that the Army Air Force and the Ordnance Corps would split development based on whether or not the design "depend for sustenance primarily on the lift of aerodynamic forces" like GAPA, or "primary on the momentum of the missile" like Nike.
As part of the Key West Agreement, GAPA was handed to the newly formed US Air Force in 1948, when that force evolved out of the Army Air Force.
Building the team
Nike Ajax test firing against a B-17 Flying Fortress.
At the ranges and speeds being considered, even a supersonic rocket will take enough time to reach the target that the missile needs to lead the bomber in order to properly intercept it. Bell proposed a system using two radars, one tracking the target, and another tracking the missile. An analog computer would calculate the impact point and send guidance signals to the missile encoded in the second radar's signals, and detonate the warhead on command (as opposed to a proximity fuse).
The Ballistics Research Laboratory was asked to calculate the proper warhead shaping to maximize the chance of a hit. Once determined, Picatinny Arsenal would produce the warhead, and Frankford Arsenal would provide a fuse. Douglas Aircraft would provide the missile airframe and carry out aerodynamic studies, while Aerojet would supply a solid fuel rocket booster for initial launch, and Bell Aircraft would provide a liquid fuel rocket for the upper stage sustainer.
The initial design used a thin upper stage with eight JATO-derived boosters that were wrapped around its tail. The resulting cluster looked quite boxy at launch time. It was expected that the 93,000 lbf (410 kN) of booster power would accelerate the missile to supersonic speeds of 1,750 feet per second (1,190 mph; 530 m/s) at the end of a booster phase of 1.8 seconds, increasing almost continually to about 2,500 feet per second (1,700 mph; 760 m/s) at the end of the liquid engine's firing, then decreasing to 1,150 feet per second (780 mph; 350 m/s) during the zooming period.
Early in the program, it was realized that existing radar systems based on the conical scanning method did not supply the performance needed for a high-speed missile. In particular, conical scanning radars required some time to settle on an accurate track. The decision was made to use a monopulse radar system for Nike. Two systems were considered, one using phased signals, and another using signal timing known as the "amplitude null system", with the latter being selected. This study resulted in the development of tunable magnetrons for the 250 kilowatt X-band radars for tracking, and 1000 kilowatt S-band radar for target detection. Experiments demonstrated that the radar return from the missile at high altitudes was limited, and when calls for an extended altitude of 150,000 feet (46,000 m) were added to the requirements, a transponder was added to the missile to boost the return.
These changes, and many more, were summarized in a 28 January 1946 report. The project called for four rounds of test launches starting in 1946, with the aim of having a production design by 1949.
Testing
The early model Nike had eight JATO bottles in a cluster, demanding large fins for stability.
The first test firing of a static round was carried out at the White Sands Proving Ground on 17 September 1946 and then returned to Douglas in California for study. The next week an unguided example was launched, and similar tests followed until 28 January 1947, ending the first test series. During one test a missile reached an altitude of 140,000 feet. A second test series followed in September and October 1947, including several improvements in the design in order to address problems with the booster. A further series in 1948, originally planned for 1946, continued to demonstrate problems.
Eventually, the team was forced to give up on the clustered booster concept. Invariably small differences in thrust between the different JATO bottles would lead to significant thrust asymmetries, ones that overwhelmed the stabilizing effect of the fins in spite of them being very large. Instead, the project selected a larger booster being developed by the US Navy's Operation Bumblebee, creating a new version known as the Allegheny JATO T39 2.6DS-51,000. The Navy's similar booster can be seen on the RIM-2 Terrier.
A new series of test firings started in September 1948 but were stopped until May 1949 after a number of modifications were carried out. Funding problems then delayed the program until January 1950. From late January through April another 16 missiles were fired, with much better results.
Accelerating development
Test launch of the production model Nike Ajax missile with the new booster.
Through early development, the Nike project had not been considered very important. A series of events in the late 1940s led to a re-appraisal of the situation, including the Soviet atomic test in 1949, the communist victory in China, and the Berlin Blockade. The June 1950 opening of the Korea War brought all of this to a head and new urgency was given to US defense. In October 1950, US Secretary of Defense Charles E. Wilson appointed Kaufman Keller to the newly created position of Director of Guided Weapons to speed their development.
Keller examined the various ongoing projects and decided that Nike was the best developed. He recommended that development of Nike be accelerated and that an initial production run of 60 launch stations and 1,000 missiles should be completed by 31 December 1952, with continued production of 1,000 a month after that date. In January 1951, Wilson approved the plan, in spite of additional testing being required. A new test series of the proposed production model was carried out starting in October, and on 27 November 1951, Nike successfully intercepted a QB-17 target drone. Twenty-two further tests followed that year. In the new year a new test series started, including a live-fire attack on a QB-17 in April 1952 that was viewed by visiting brass.
Production
The Nike Ajax assembly line.
Production was launched in August 1952. By the end of the year, three complete ground systems and 1,000 missiles had been delivered to White Sands. The complete system was set up by January 1953, and an underground launch site first fired on 5 June 1953. Crew training was carried out at Fort Bliss with the missiles fired toward White Sands. Service deliveries began that year, and eventually, a total of 350 launch systems and 13,714 missiles were produced over the production run. In 1957, the National Guard started taking over the anti-aircraft role, replacing regular army units at Bliss.
Deployment
Further information: List of Nike missile sites
Deployment of the Nike I was under the direction of the Army Anti-Aircraft Command (ARAACOM). ARAACOM initially proposed a series of widespread bases surrounding cities and major military sites. However, while planning the deployment around Chicago, it became clear that Lake Michigan would force sites protecting approach from the east to be located in the city itself. Moreover, various scenarios demonstrated that having a staggered two-layer layout of the sites would offer much greater protection, which argued for some bases to be located closer to the urban centers.
For range safety reasons, launch sites had to have considerable empty land around them in the event of an accidental warhead or fuel explosion. Originally this would require about 119 acres (48 ha) of land per site. This presented a serious problem for the planners, and especially the Corps of Engineers Real Estate Offices. As early as 1952 they had asked for a solution, which led to design architect Leon Chatelain, Jr. developing an underground configuration.
As the missile batteries were now protected and accidental explosions would be contained, the safe area was dramatically reduced, and that cut the land requirement down to 40 acres (16 ha). This was the system tested at White Sands in 1953 and with its success, on 28 October 1953 ARAACOM directed that most deployments would use this option. The system used a basic building block with four above-ground launching stations over an underground battery with additional missiles. Missiles were raised to the surface on an elevator and then pushed, by hand, along rails to their launchers. Stations normally consisted of four to six of these basic building blocks.
The first site to build their Nike I system was Fort Meade, who started receiving their missiles in December 1953, replacing their 120 mm M1 guns. This site reached initial operational status in March 1954, and went on full round-the-clock combat status on 30 May. The Army considers 30 May to be the "birth date" of the Nike system. On 15 November 1956 the missile was officially renamed as the Nike Ajax, as part of DA Circular 700-22.
Over the next four years, 265 batteries were constructed around the majority of major northern and coastal cities. They replaced 896 radar-guided anti-aircraft guns, leaving only a handful of 75 mm Skysweeper emplacements as the only anti-aircraft artillery remaining in use by the US. All of the Skysweepers were removed from service by 1960.
Several Nike Ajax missiles exploded accidentally at a battery in Leonardo, New Jersey on 22 May 1958, killing 6 soldiers and 4 civilians. A memorial can be found at Fort Hancock in the Sandy Hook Unit of the Gateway National Recreation Area.
This Nike Ajax site is on full alert, with missiles ready for launch on all sixteen launch sites. This image appears to be taken from the control area (IFC) which was separated from the launch area to allow its radars to see the missiles as they launched.
Nike bases were arranged around major cities and military sites.
After Ajax
See also: Nike Hercules
The Nike missile family, with the Zeus B in front of the Hercules and Ajax.
As early as April 1952, planners expressed concerns over the Ajax's ability to pick out targets in a packed formation. The Nike radar would see several nearby targets as a single larger one, unable to resolve the individual aircraft. The warhead's lethal range was smaller than the resolution, so it might not approach any one of the aircraft close enough to damage it. This led to suggestions about equipping the Nike with a nuclear warhead, which would be able to attack the entire formation with a single round. Bell was asked to study this in May, and they considered two options; one using the WX-9 warhead on the existing missile, which they called "Nike Ajax", while a slightly enlarged missile with the XW-7 warhead was known as "Nike Hercules". The Army selected the Hercules option, ordering it into development in December 1952. At the time, the missiles were officially known as Nike I and Nike B. As part of DA Circular 700-22, Nike I officially became Nike Ajax and Nike B became Nike Hercules.
Nike site D-57/58 was used for both Ajax and Hercules until 1974, and is now in an advanced state of decay.
The nuclear-armed Nike B was originally going to be a slightly larger Nike I, just wide enough to carry the new warhead. But during early development, the decision was made to move to a solid fuel upper stage. This required a larger fuselage and was heavier as well. In order to get the new missile into the air, the booster engine was replaced with a new design using four of the original boosters strapped together. The new missile offered interception altitudes well above 100,000 feet (30 km) and ranges on the order of 75 miles (121 km). A new long-range search radar was introduced, the HIPAR, but the original AQU radar was retained as well, now known as LOPAR. The tracking radars were also upgraded to higher power. But with those exceptions, Hercules was operationally similar to Ajax, and designed to operate at existing Ajax sites, using their launchers and underground facilities.
Conversion from Ajax to Hercules began in June 1958. Initially, the Hercules was deployed at new bases, providing coverage over existing Ajax areas. But plans had been made to convert existing Ajax sites to Hercules where possible, or close the Ajax base where it was not. As the Hercules had over double the range of the Ajax, fewer sites were needed to provide the same coverage. A total of 134 Hercules bases were commissioned, down from Ajax's 240. The last US Ajax site, outside Norfolk, Virginia, closed in November 1963. Ajax remained in active service in overseas locations for some time. The Japan Self-Defense Forces operated theirs until they were replaced by the Hercules-based Nike J in the 1970s.
As the original Bell Nike team worked on Hercules, the nature of the strategic threat was changing. By the late 1950s the concern was the ICBM and little interest in the threat of bombers remained. Even before Hercules deployed, Bell was once again asked to consider the new threat. They concluded that the Nike B (Hercules) could be adapted into an anti-ballistic missile with relatively few changes to the missile. The role would require considerably greater upgrades to the radars and computers instead. These efforts gave rise to the Nike II project in 1958, soon known as LIM-49 Nike Zeus.
Unlike the earlier Nike efforts, the Zeus would never reach operational status. Like the Ajax and Hercules, Zeus could only attack a single target at a time, although by deploying multiple radars it was expected that up to six missiles could be guided at once. This was fine when the threat was a few dozen enemy ICBMs, but as it became clear that the Soviets were placing almost all of their effort into ICBMs, Zeus looked increasingly unable to deal with the hundreds of targets that would result. Serious technical problems also arose, including electromagnetic pulse and similar effects that blocked radar, questions about the missile's ability to damage enemy warheads, and above all, rapidly rising costs. Development was canceled in January 1963.
Nike boosters
A Nike Ajax missile at the Belgian Royal Museum of the Armed Forces and Military History in Brussels.
As Ajax missiles were removed from service, thousands of unused booster rockets were left over from the program, and more when the Hercules was removed from service years later. These proved perfect for all sorts of roles, notably as the boosters for various sounding rockets. These designs often, but not always, included "Nike" in their name. Examples include the Nike-Cajun, Nike-Apache, Nike-Smoke and many others.
Description
A complete Nike Ajax system consisted of several radars, computers, missiles, and their launchers. Sites were generally arranged in three major sections, the administration area, area A, the magazine and launcher area with the missiles, L, and the Integrated Fire Control area with the radar and operations center, or IFC. Most sites placed the A and IFC on one parcel of land with the L on another, but some sites used three entirely separate areas. The IFC was located between 1,000 yards and a mile from the launchers, but had to be within the line-of-sight so the radars could see the missiles as they launched.
The launch area normally consisted of two or three underground facilities and their aboveground launchers. Sites with four to six launchers were not unknown. A single launcher site normally held twelve missiles, eight in the service area and four in the underground ready area or on their launchers. When an alert was received, the missiles were transferred to the surface one at a time using an elevator, then pushed along rails on the surface leading to the launchers. The launchers bisected the rails, so the missiles were simply pushed over the launchers, connected to the electrical hookups, and then raised to about 85 degrees by the launchers. The missile launch area also contained a separate fueling area surrounded by a large berm, a required safety precaution given the hypergolic fuels, and a variety of service areas.
Long distance surveillance was handled by the ACQ or LOPAR radar, short for "Low-Power Acquisition Radar." LOPAR included an IFF system and a system for handing off targets to the tracking radars. Two monopulse tracking radars were used, the Target Tracking Radar (TTR) to track the target handed off by the LOPAR, and the Missile Tracking Radar (MTR) to track the missile as it flew toward the target.
Launch of the missile was accomplished by lighting the solid fuel booster, which provided 59,000 lbf (260 kN) of thrust for three seconds. The booster pushed the missile through the sound barrier, and it remained supersonic for the rest of its flight. The MTR picked up the missile as the booster fell away, and then tracked it continually after that point. Data from the TTR and MTR were sent to the analog tracking computer, which continually calculated the impact point and sent radio commands to the missile to guide it. In order to maximize range, the missile was normally flown almost vertically to a higher altitude than the target, where the thinner air lowered drag and allowed the missile to descend on its target. At the correct time, the missile's three warheads were triggered by a signal from the computer. The warheads were surrounded by metal cubes providing a blast-fragmentation effect.
The Nike Ajax system could attack only one target at a time, a problem it shared with its descendants. As the various Ajax missile sites were overlapped, this led to the possibility that two sites might attack one target while another flew past both. ARADCOM initially set up a coordination system not unlike the Royal Air Force's plotting room from the Battle of Britain, with commands from a central manual plotting room being sent to batteries over telephone lines. This was clearly inadequate, and in the late 1950s the Interim Battery Data Link was introduced to share data between batteries. This allowed command to be devolved to the battery commanders, who could see which targets other batteries were attacking. This system was further improved with the introduction of the Missile Master system, which replaced manual plotting with a computer-run system, and then the simpler and smaller Missile Mentor and BIRDIE systems.
The Nike batteries were organized in Defense Areas and placed around population centers and strategic locations such as long-range bomber and important military/naval bases, nuclear production facilities and (later) ICBM sites. The Nike sites in a Defense Area formed a circle around these cities and bases. There was no fixed number of Nike batteries in a Defense Area and the actual number of batteries varied from a low of 2 in the Barksdale AFB Defense Area to a high of 22 in the Chicago Defense Area. In the US the sites were numbered from 01 to 99 starting at the north and increasing clockwise. The numbers had no relation to actual compass headings, but generally Nike sites numbered 01 to 25 were to the northeast and east, those numbered 26 to 50 were to the southeast and south, those numbered 51 to 75 were to the southwest and west, and those numbered 76 to 99 were to the northwest and north. The Defense Areas were identified by a one- or two-letter code which were related to the city name. Thus those Nike sites starting with C were in the Chicago Defense Area, those starting with HM were in the Homestead AFB/Miami Defense Area, those starting with NY were in the New York Defense Area, and so forth. As an example Nike Site SF-88L refers to the launcher area (L) of the battery located in the northwestern part (88) of the San Francisco Defense Area (SF).
Studies throughout the Nike project considered mobile launchers, but none were developed for the Ajax system. Missile sites were "relocatable" or "transportable", and all of the support equipment was built into trailers or otherwise provided road wheels.
The TTR and MTR radars used a Fresnel lens made of thin metal plates arranged in a frame. The feed horn is at the bottom of the A-shaped supports.
The ACQ radar was the primary search radar for the Ajax, and was also used for short-range duties with the Hercules as LOPAR.
This Nike Ajax site has only two launch areas, the oval-shaped areas in the middle of the image. The rectangular openings are elevators that raise the missiles from their underground storage areas, and the four launchers are the small squares on either side. To the left of the launchers is the refueling area, surrounded by a high berm in case one of the missiles exploded.
Accidental launches
An accidental launch of a Nike-Ajax missile occurred on April 14, 1955, at the W-25 site at Fort George G. Meade which contains the National Security Agency headquarters.
Survivors
Nike site SF-88L missile status board.
Bases
The best preserved Nike installation is site SF88L located in the Golden Gate National Recreation Area in the Marin Headlands just west of the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco, California. The site is a museum and contains the missile bunkers, and control area, as well as period uniforms and vehicles that would have operated at the site. The site has been preserved in the condition it was in at the time it was decommissioned in 1974. The site began as a Nike Ajax base and was later converted to Nike Hercules.
The second best preserved Nike installation is site NY-56 at Fort Hancock in Sandy Hook, New Jersey. The site has been restored and contains the original missile bunkers, as well as three Nike Ajax and a Nike Hercules on display. The site is on the National Register of Historic Places.
Nike-Ajax Missile Site N-75 in Carrollton, Virginia. The former Nike-Ajax missile base is now home to the Isle of Wight County Parks and Recreation Department. Many buildings still stand including the barracks, mess hall, administration and recreation building and officer/non-commissioned officer family housing. Visitors can also see the fueling area and concrete slabs that mark the location of the underground missile bunkers. The park, over 100 acres (40 hectares) in size, offers different recreational activities and features softball and soccer fields, basketball, volleyball, and tennis courts, picnic areas, nature and mountain bike trails, skate park, playgrounds, senior center and a recreation hall. In addition, there are fishing opportunities in Jones Creek.
See also
MIM-14 Nike Hercules and LIM-49 Nike Zeus, Ajax's successors.
English Electric Thunderbird and Bristol Bloodhound, UK counterparts
S-25 Berkut and S-75 Dvina, Soviet counterparts to the Ajax
List of Nike missile sites
Explanatory notes
^ Nike was initially designated SAM-G-7, and later changed to SAM-A-7. Originally the Air Force used A while the Army used G, but the Air Force abandoned the 1947 tri-service designation system in 1951 and the Army took over the A designation.
^ Cagle says 600 mph (970 km/h), but many other sources put it at 500 or more.
^ Although none of the references state the reason for keeping the AQU radar, it appears this was in order to avoid having to upgrade certain displays in the control centers.
References
Citations
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o FAS 1999.
^ Pease, Harry S. (26 September 1960). "Nike Ajax has altered war's character vastly". Milwaukee Journal. p. 10, part 1.
^ a b Cagle 1959, VI.
^ "Western Electric MIM-3 Nike Ajax". www.designation-systems.net.
^ Ian White, "The History of Air Intercept Radar & the British Nightfighter", Pen & Sword, 2007, p. 75.
^ Westerman 2001, p. 197.
^ Westerman 2001, p. 11.
^ a b c d e Cagle 1959, I.
^ Leonard 2011, p. 104.
^ Walker, Bernstein & Lang 2003, p. 39.
^ "GAPA (Ground-to-Air Pilotless Aircraft)", Boeing
^ a b c d Cagle 1959, III.
^ a b c Lonnquest & Winkler 1996, p. 56.
^ a b Cagle 1959, VII.
^ a b c Morgan & Berhow 2002, p. 9.
^ Merle, Cole. "Nike Missiles: Army Air Defense Installations In Anne Arundel County: 1950–1973". Fort George G. Meade Museum. Archived from the original on 22 February 2013.
^ a b Lonnquest & Winkler 1996, pp. 570–572.
^ Stephen Moeller, "Vigilant and Invincible", ADA Magazine, May/June 1995, Chapter 3, Modernization
^ ""Nike Battery NY-53 Middletown, NJ"". Archived from the original on 13 October 2015. Retrieved 23 May 2013.
^ "Nike Ajax Explosion - Sandy Hook, NJ". www.waymarking.com.
^ Lonnquest & Winkler 1996, p. 57.
^ Leonard 2011, p. 180.
^ Donald Baucom, "The Origins of SDI, 1944–1983", University Press of Kansas, 1992, page 19.
^ Mustafa, Tariq (30 March 2012). "SUPARCO – The formative years (1961–1967)". The Friday Times. Archived from the original on 9 November 2013. Retrieved 30 March 2017.
^ a b Morgan & Berhow 2002, p. 10.
^ Morgan & Berhow 2002, p. 17.
^ Morgan & Berhow 2002, p. 15.
^ Considerable detail on the battlefield control systems are available in "Air Defense Artillery Control Systems", US Army Air Defense Digest, 1966, pages 34–41.
^ Ed Thelen, "Nike was 'mobile'?", Ed Thelen's Nike Missile Web Site.
^ Ed Thelen, "Nike History, The One That Got Away". Retrieved 28 March 2022., Ed Thelen's Nike Missile Web Site
^ "Nike Missile Site - Golden Gate National Recreation Area (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov.
^ Site NY-56 Sandy Hook, New Jersey, Nike Historical Society
^ "Nike Ajax Missile Site N-75 | Smithfield & Isle of Wight Convention and Visitor Bureau". Archived from the original on 25 March 2015. Retrieved 7 January 2015.
General bibliography
Cagle, Mary (30 June 1959). Nike Ajax Historical Monograph. U.S. Army Ordnance Missile Command.
Federation of American Scientists (20 June 1999). "Nike Ajax (SAM-A-7) (MIM-3, 3A)".
Leonard, Barry (2011). History of Strategic and Ballistic Missile Defense: Volume II: 1956–1972. DIANE Publishing.
Lonnquest, John; Winkler, David (November 1996). To Defend and Deter: The Legacy of the United States Cold War Missile Program (PDF). Archived from the original on 3 October 2012. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
Morgan, Mark; Berhow, Mark (1 June 2002). Rings of Supersonic Steel: Air Defenses of the United States Army 1950–1979. Hole In The Head Press. ISBN 9780615120126.
Westerman, Edward (2001). Flak: German Anti-Aircraft Defenses, 1914–1945 (PDF). University Press of Kansas. ISBN 0700614206.
Walker, James; Bernstein, Lewis; Lang, Sharon (2010). Seize the High Ground: The U. S. Army in Space and Missile Defense (PDF). Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History. ISBN 9780813128092. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 February 2013. Retrieved 13 May 2013.
Further reading
"Nike: the U.S. Army's Guided Missile System", Western Electric
The Continental Air Defense Collection Archived 9 June 2019 at the Wayback Machine at the United States Army Center of Military History
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to MIM-3 Nike-Ajax.
Nike missiles at Curlie
Nike Historical Society
Western Electric MIM-3 Nike Ajax
Nike Hercules in Alaska
Nike Ajax Explosion Marker: Gateway National Recreation Area
The short film Big Picture: Pictorial Report Number 20 is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive.
Nike Ajax the first surface-to-air missile
Nike Hercules at the Encyclopedia Astronautica
The last operational North American unit
Ed Thelen's Nike Missile Web Site
Nike at TheMilitaryStandard
vteUnited States Army missile and rocket designations 1948–19631948–1951 missile system
RTV-G-1
RTV-G-2
RTV-G-3
RTV-G-4
CTV-G-5
RTV-G-6
SAM-G-7
SSM-G-8
SSM-G-9
RTV-G-10
G-112
SSM-G-12
SSM-G-13
SSM-G-14
SSM-G-15
SSM-G-16
SSM-G-17
1951–1955 missile system
RV-A-1
RV-A-2
RV-A-3
RV-A-4
RV-A-5
RV-A-6
SAM-A-7
RV-A-8
SSM-A-9
RV-A-10
G-112
SSM-A-12
SSM-A-13
SSM-A-14
SSM-A-15
SSM-A-16
SSM-A-17
SAM-A-18
SAM-A-19
A-202
A-212
RV-A-22
SSM-A-23
A-242
SAM-A-25
A-262
SSM-A-27
1955–1963 missile system
M1
M2
M3
M4
M51
M6
M71
M8
M9
M101
M111
M121
M13
M14
M15
M16
M171
M18
M19
Unguided rockets, 1940–1963
M2
M6
M7
M8
M9
M10
M12
M16
M17
M20
M21
M25
M26
M27
M28
M29
M30
M31
M47
M50
M51
M55
M60
M61
M72
M73
M74
Undesignated types
Dervish
Lobber
Ping-Pong
1 Not assigned
2 Designation uncertain
vte1963 United States Tri-Service missile designations, 1963–present1–50
MGM-1
RIM-2
MIM-3
AIM-4
MGM-5
RGM-6
AIM-7
RIM-7
RIM-8
AIM-9
CIM-10
PGM-11
AGM-12
CGM-13/MGM-13
MIM-14
RGM-15
CGM-16
PGM-17
MGM-18
PGM-19
ADM-20
MGM-21
AGM-22
MIM-23
RIM-24
HGM-25A
LGM-25C
AIM-26
UGM-27
AGM-28
MGM-29
LGM-30
MGM-31A/B (MGM-31C)
MGM-32
MQM-33
AQM-34
AQM-35 (I)
LGM-35 (II)
MQM-36
AQM-37
AQM-38
MQM-39
MQM-40
AQM-41
MQM-42
FIM-43
UUM-44
AGM-45
MIM-46
AIM-47
AGM-48
XLIM-49
LIM-49
RIM-50
51–100
MGM-51
MGM-52
AGM-53
AIM-54
RIM-55
PQM-56
MQM-57
MQM-58
RGM-59
AQM-60
MQM-61
AGM-62
AGM-63
AGM-64
AGM-65
RIM-66
RIM-67
AIM-68
AGM-69
LEM-70
BGM-71
MIM-72
UGM-73
BQM-74
BGM-75
AGM-76
FGM-77
AGM-78
AGM-79
AGM-80
AQM-81
AIM-82
AGM-83
AGM-84/RGM-84/UGM-84
AGM-84E
AGM-84H/K
RIM-85
AGM-86
AGM-87
AGM-88
UGM-89
BQM-90
AQM-91
FIM-92
"AIM-92"
XQM-93
YQM-94
AIM-95
UGM-96
AIM-97
YQM-98
LIM-99
LIM-100
101–150
RIM-101
PQM-102
AQM-103
MIM-104
MQM-105
BQM-106
MQM-107
BQM-108
BGM-109/AGM-109/RGM-109/UGM-109
BGM-109G
BGM-110
BQM-111
AGM-112
RIM-113
AGM-114
MIM-115
RIM-116
FQM-117
LGM-118
AGM-119
AIM-120
CQM-121/CGM-121
AGM-122
AGM-123
AGM-124
RUM-125/UUM-125
BQM-126
AQM-127
AQM-128
AGM-129
AGM-130
AGM-131
AIM-132
UGM-133
MGM-134
ASM-135
AGM-136
AGM-137
CEM-138
RUM-139
MGM-140
ADM-141
AGM-142
MQM-143
ADM-144
BQM-145
MIM-146
BQM-147
FGM-148
PQM-149
PQM-150
151–200
FQM-151
AIM-152
AGM-153
AGM-154
BQM-155
RIM-156
MGM-157
AGM-158A/B
AGM-158C
AGM-159
ADM-160
RIM-161
RIM-162
GQM-163
MGM-164
RGM-165
MGM-166
BQM-167
MGM-168
AGM-169
MQM-170
MQM-171
FGM-172
GQM-173
RIM-174
MQM-175
AGM-176
BQM-177
MQM-178
AGM-179
AGM-180
AGM-181
LGM-182
AGM-183
RGM-184
MQM-185
MQM-186
AGM-187
201–
AIM-260
MIM-401
Undesignated
Aequare
ASALM
Brazo
Common Missile
GBI
HALO
HACM
Have Dash
JSM
KEI
LREW
LRHW
MA-31
MSDM
NCADE
NLOS
OpFires
PrSM
Senior Prom
Sprint
Wagtail
M30 GMLRS/M31 GMLRS-U
GLSDB
See also:
United States tri-service rocket designations post-1963
Drones designated in UAV sequence
vteThe Nike family of rocketsProject Nike
Nike Ajax
Nike Hercules
Nike J
Nike Zeus
Nike-X
Spartan
Sounding rockets
Nike-Apache
Nike-Asp
Nike-Black Brant
Nike-Cajun
Nike-Deacon
Nike-Hawk
Nike-Hydac
Nike-Iroquois
Nike-Javelin
Nike-Malemute
Nike-Nike
Nike-Orion
Nike-Recruit
Nike Smoke
Nike T40 T55
Nike-Tomahawk
Nike-Viper
Nike-Yardbird
Taurus Nike Tomahawk
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"surface-to-air missile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface-to-air_missile"},{"link_name":"Bell Labs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Labs"},{"link_name":"United States Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFAS1999-1"},{"link_name":"bomber aircraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bomber_aircraft"},{"link_name":"subsonic speeds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subsonic_speed"},{"link_name":"Soviet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mjsxte-2"},{"link_name":"Nike","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nike_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Ajax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajax_the_Great"},{"link_name":"Nike Hercules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nike_Hercules"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECagle1959VI-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[N 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"MIM-14 Nike Hercules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIM-14_Nike_Hercules"},{"link_name":"ICBMs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICBM"},{"link_name":"LIM-49 Nike Zeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LIM-49_Nike_Zeus"},{"link_name":"anti-ballistic missile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-ballistic_missile"},{"link_name":"radar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"solid fuel rocket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid_fuel_rocket"},{"link_name":"United States Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Navy"},{"link_name":"sounding rockets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sounding_rocket"}],"text":"The Nike Ajax was an American guided surface-to-air missile (SAM) developed by Bell Labs for the United States Army. The world's first operational guided surface-to-air missile,[1] the Nike Ajax was designed to attack conventional bomber aircraft flying at high subsonic speeds and altitudes above 50,000 feet (15 km). Nike entered service in 1954 and was initially deployed within the United States to defend against potential Soviet bomber attacks,[2] though it was later deployed overseas to protect US military bases, and was also sold to various allied militaries. Some examples remained in use until the 1970s.Originally known simply as \"Nike\", it gained the \"Ajax\" as part of a 1956 renaming effort that resulted from the introduction of the similarly-named Nike Hercules. It was initially given the identifier SAM-A-7 (Surface-to-air, Army, design 7) as part of an early tri-service identification system,[3] but later changed to MIM-3 in 1962.[4][N 1]Technological development during the 1950s quickly rendered the MIM-3 obsolete. It was unable to defend against more capable bombers or multiple targets in formation, and had relatively short range. Even while Nike was being deployed, these concerns led to the contracts for the greatly improved MIM-14 Nike Hercules, which began deployment in 1959. As Hercules developed, the threat moved from bombers to ICBMs, and the LIM-49 Nike Zeus anti-ballistic missile project started to address these. All of the Nike projects were led by Bell Labs, due to their early work in radar guidance systems during World War II.Part of the Nike Ajax development program designed a new solid fuel rocket motor used for the missile's booster. This had originally been designed for the United States Navy's missiles, and was enlarged for the Nike efforts. The rocket was so useful that it found numerous applications outside the military world as the Ajax missiles were decommissioned in the 1960s. Many sounding rockets used the booster as their first or second stage, and many of those used \"Nike\" in their name.","title":"MIM-3 Nike Ajax"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"anti-aircraft artillery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-aircraft_artillery"},{"link_name":"the Blitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Blitz"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_B-17_Flying_Fortress"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWesterman2001197-7"},{"link_name":"jet engines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_engine"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWesterman200111-8"},{"link_name":"air superiority","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_superiority"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECagle1959I-9"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECagle1959I-9"},{"link_name":"Bell Labs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Labs"},{"link_name":"Hendrik Wade Bode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hendrik_Wade_Bode"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFAS1999-1"}],"sub_title":"Background","text":"The inherent inaccuracy of anti-aircraft artillery means that when shells reach their targets they are effectively randomly distributed in the target area. This distribution is much larger than the lethal radius of any given shell, so the chance that any one shell will successfully damage or destroy its target is very small. Successful anti-aircraft gunnery therefore requires as many rounds to be fired as possible, increasing the chances that one of the rounds will damage or destroy its target. During the Blitz, British anti-aircraft gunners fired 49,044 shells in January 1941 for 12 kills, almost 4,100 shells per success.[5] German gunners against daylight raids did slightly better, estimating that an average of 2,800 shells was required to down a single Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress.[6]Flying faster means that the aircraft passes through the range of a gun more rapidly, reducing the number of rounds a particular gun can fire at that aircraft. Flying at higher altitudes often has a similar effect, as it requires larger shells to reach those altitudes, and this typically results in slower firing rates for a variety of practical reasons. Aircraft using jet engines roughly double the speed and altitude over piston-powered designs, limiting the number of shells so greatly that the chance of hitting the bomber dropped almost to zero. As early as 1942, German flak commanders were keenly aware of the problem, and expecting to face jet bombers, they began a missile development program to supplant their guns.[7]The western allies maintained air superiority for much of the war and their anti-aircraft systems did not see as much pressure to improve. Nevertheless, by the mid-war period, the US Army had reached the same conclusion as their German counterparts; artillery-based anti-aircraft weapons were simply no longer useful.[8] Accordingly, in February 1944 the Army Ground Forces sent the Army Service Forces (ASF) a request for information on the possibility of building a \"major caliber anti-aircraft rocket torpedo\". The ASF concluded that it was simply too early to tell if this was possible, and suggested concentrating on a program of general rocket development instead.[8]The introduction of German jet-powered bombers late in 1944 led to a re-evaluation of this policy, and on 26 January 1945 the Army Chief of Ordnance issued a requirement for a new guided missile weapon system. The request was passed to Bell Labs, then a world leader in radar, radio control and automated aiming systems (see Hendrik Wade Bode).[1]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nike_family_04.jpg"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECagle1959I-9"},{"link_name":"[N 2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"g","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G-force"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFAS1999-1"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECagle1959I-9"},{"link_name":"US Army Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Army_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"Ground-to-Air Pilotless Aircraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_Ground-to-Air_Pilotless_Aircraft"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECagle1959I-9"},{"link_name":"Boeing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeonard2011104-11"},{"link_name":"Ordnance Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army_Ordnance_Corps"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalkerBernsteinLang200339-12"},{"link_name":"Key West Agreement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Key_West_Agreement"},{"link_name":"US Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"sub_title":"Project Nike","text":"MIM-3 Nike on a launcherBell accepted the challenge, and Project Nike was officially formed on 8 February 1945.[8] The Bell team was given the task of attacking bombers flying at 500 mph (800 km/h) or more,[N 2] at altitudes between 20,000 and 60,000 feet (6,100 and 18,300 m), and performing a 3 g turn at 40,000 feet (12,000 m). Bell reported back on 14 May 1945 (and a formal report the next day) that such a development was indeed possible.[1] They concluded that:A supersonic rocket missile should be vertically launched under the thrust of a solid-fuel booster which was then to be dropped; thence, self-propelled by a liquid-fuel motor, the missile should be guided to a predicted intercept point in space and detonated by remote control commands; these commands should be transmitted by radio signals determined by a ground-based computer associated with radar which would track both the target and the missile in flight.[8]This was not the only Army missile project at the time; the US Army Air Force was involved in studies of the Ground-to-Air Pilotless Aircraft (GAPA), a slightly longer-range system based on what was essentially a drone aircraft. Bell had been invited to take part in GAPA as well, but declined as they wanted to concentrate on Nike.[8] GAPA was opened to tender, and was picked up by other companies, notably Boeing.[9] This led to a semi-formalized agreement that the Army Air Force and the Ordnance Corps would split development based on whether or not the design \"depend[ed] for sustenance primarily on the lift of aerodynamic forces\" like GAPA, or \"primary on the momentum of the missile\" like Nike.[10]As part of the Key West Agreement, GAPA was handed to the newly formed US Air Force in 1948, when that force evolved out of the Army Air Force.[11]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"supersonic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersonic"},{"link_name":"lead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deflection_(ballistics)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFAS1999-1"},{"link_name":"proximity fuse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proximity_fuse"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECagle1959III-14"},{"link_name":"Ballistics Research Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballistics_Research_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"Picatinny Arsenal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picatinny_Arsenal"},{"link_name":"Frankford Arsenal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankford_Arsenal"},{"link_name":"Douglas Aircraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Aircraft"},{"link_name":"Aerojet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerojet"},{"link_name":"solid fuel rocket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid_fuel_rocket"},{"link_name":"Bell Aircraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Aircraft"},{"link_name":"liquid fuel rocket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_fuel_rocket"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFAS1999-1"},{"link_name":"JATO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JATO"},{"link_name":"lbf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pound_(force)"},{"link_name":"kN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton_(unit)"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECagle1959III-14"},{"link_name":"conical scanning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conical_scanning"},{"link_name":"monopulse radar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monopulse_radar"},{"link_name":"transponder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transponder"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECagle1959III-14"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFAS1999-1"}],"sub_title":"Building the team","text":"Nike Ajax test firing against a B-17 Flying Fortress.At the ranges and speeds being considered, even a supersonic rocket will take enough time to reach the target that the missile needs to lead the bomber in order to properly intercept it. Bell proposed a system using two radars, one tracking the target, and another tracking the missile. An analog computer would calculate the impact point and send guidance signals to the missile encoded in the second radar's signals,[1] and detonate the warhead on command (as opposed to a proximity fuse).[12]The Ballistics Research Laboratory was asked to calculate the proper warhead shaping to maximize the chance of a hit. Once determined, Picatinny Arsenal would produce the warhead, and Frankford Arsenal would provide a fuse. Douglas Aircraft would provide the missile airframe and carry out aerodynamic studies, while Aerojet would supply a solid fuel rocket booster for initial launch, and Bell Aircraft would provide a liquid fuel rocket for the upper stage sustainer.[1]The initial design used a thin upper stage with eight JATO-derived boosters that were wrapped around its tail. The resulting cluster looked quite boxy at launch time. It was expected that the 93,000 lbf (410 kN) of booster power would accelerate the missile to supersonic speeds of 1,750 feet per second (1,190 mph; 530 m/s) at the end of a booster phase of 1.8 seconds, increasing almost continually to about 2,500 feet per second (1,700 mph; 760 m/s) at the end of the liquid engine's firing, then decreasing to 1,150 feet per second (780 mph; 350 m/s) during the zooming period.[12]Early in the program, it was realized that existing radar systems based on the conical scanning method did not supply the performance needed for a high-speed missile. In particular, conical scanning radars required some time to settle on an accurate track. The decision was made to use a monopulse radar system for Nike. Two systems were considered, one using phased signals, and another using signal timing known as the \"amplitude null system\", with the latter being selected. This study resulted in the development of tunable magnetrons for the 250 kilowatt X-band radars for tracking, and 1000 kilowatt S-band radar for target detection. Experiments demonstrated that the radar return from the missile at high altitudes was limited, and when calls for an extended altitude of 150,000 feet (46,000 m) were added to the requirements, a transponder was added to the missile to boost the return.[12]These changes, and many more, were summarized in a 28 January 1946 report. The project called for four rounds of test launches starting in 1946, with the aim of having a production design by 1949.[1]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nike_Ajax_test_launch.jpg"},{"link_name":"White Sands Proving Ground","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Sands_Missile_Range"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFAS1999-1"},{"link_name":"US Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Navy"},{"link_name":"Operation Bumblebee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Bumblebee"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECagle1959III-14"},{"link_name":"RIM-2 Terrier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RIM-2_Terrier"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFAS1999-1"}],"sub_title":"Testing","text":"The early model Nike had eight JATO bottles in a cluster, demanding large fins for stability.The first test firing of a static round was carried out at the White Sands Proving Ground on 17 September 1946 and then returned to Douglas in California for study. The next week an unguided example was launched, and similar tests followed until 28 January 1947, ending the first test series. During one test a missile reached an altitude of 140,000 feet. A second test series followed in September and October 1947, including several improvements in the design in order to address problems with the booster. A further series in 1948, originally planned for 1946, continued to demonstrate problems.[1]Eventually, the team was forced to give up on the clustered booster concept. Invariably small differences in thrust between the different JATO bottles would lead to significant thrust asymmetries, ones that overwhelmed the stabilizing effect of the fins in spite of them being very large. Instead, the project selected a larger booster being developed by the US Navy's Operation Bumblebee, creating a new version known as the Allegheny JATO T39 2.6DS-51,000.[12] The Navy's similar booster can be seen on the RIM-2 Terrier.A new series of test firings started in September 1948 but were stopped until May 1949 after a number of modifications were carried out. Funding problems then delayed the program until January 1950. From late January through April another 16 missiles were fired, with much better results.[1]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nike_Ajax_production_model_test_launch.jpg"},{"link_name":"Berlin Blockade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin_Blockade"},{"link_name":"Korea War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korea_War"},{"link_name":"US Secretary of Defense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Secretary_of_Defense"},{"link_name":"Charles E. Wilson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Erwin_Wilson"},{"link_name":"Kaufman Keller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaufman_Keller"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELonnquestWinkler199656-15"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELonnquestWinkler199656-15"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELonnquestWinkler199656-15"}],"sub_title":"Accelerating development","text":"Test launch of the production model Nike Ajax missile with the new booster.Through early development, the Nike project had not been considered very important. A series of events in the late 1940s led to a re-appraisal of the situation, including the Soviet atomic test in 1949, the communist victory in China, and the Berlin Blockade. The June 1950 opening of the Korea War brought all of this to a head and new urgency was given to US defense. In October 1950, US Secretary of Defense Charles E. Wilson appointed Kaufman Keller to the newly created position of Director of Guided Weapons to speed their development.[13]Keller examined the various ongoing projects and decided that Nike was the best developed. He recommended that development of Nike be accelerated and that an initial production run of 60 launch stations and 1,000 missiles should be completed by 31 December 1952, with continued production of 1,000 a month after that date. In January 1951, Wilson approved the plan, in spite of additional testing being required.[13] A new test series of the proposed production model was carried out starting in October, and on 27 November 1951, Nike successfully intercepted a QB-17 target drone. Twenty-two further tests followed that year. In the new year a new test series started, including a live-fire attack on a QB-17 in April 1952 that was viewed by visiting brass.[13]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nike_Ajax_assembly_line.jpg"},{"link_name":"Fort Bliss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Bliss"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFAS1999-1"},{"link_name":"National Guard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Guard_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFAS1999-1"}],"sub_title":"Production","text":"The Nike Ajax assembly line.Production was launched in August 1952. By the end of the year, three complete ground systems and 1,000 missiles had been delivered to White Sands. The complete system was set up by January 1953, and an underground launch site first fired on 5 June 1953. Crew training was carried out at Fort Bliss with the missiles fired toward White Sands. Service deliveries began that year, and eventually, a total of 350 launch systems and 13,714 missiles were produced over the production run.[1] In 1957, the National Guard started taking over the anti-aircraft role, replacing regular army units at Bliss.[1]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of Nike missile sites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Nike_missile_sites"},{"link_name":"Army Anti-Aircraft Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_Anti-Aircraft_Command"},{"link_name":"Chicago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFAS1999-1"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECagle1959VII-16"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECagle1959VII-16"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorganBerhow20029-17"},{"link_name":"Fort Meade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Meade"},{"link_name":"120 mm M1 guns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/120_mm_M1_gun"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFAS1999-1"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELonnquestWinkler1996570%E2%80%93572-19"},{"link_name":"Skysweeper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skysweeper"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Fort Hancock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Hancock,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"Gateway National Recreation Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gateway_National_Recreation_Area"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nike_Ajax_base_on_alert.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Deployment_of_Nike_Missiles_Within_Contiguous_United_States.png"}],"sub_title":"Deployment","text":"Further information: List of Nike missile sitesDeployment of the Nike I was under the direction of the Army Anti-Aircraft Command (ARAACOM). ARAACOM initially proposed a series of widespread bases surrounding cities and major military sites. However, while planning the deployment around Chicago, it became clear that Lake Michigan would force sites protecting approach from the east to be located in the city itself. Moreover, various scenarios demonstrated that having a staggered two-layer layout of the sites would offer much greater protection, which argued for some bases to be located closer to the urban centers.[1]For range safety reasons, launch sites had to have considerable empty land around them in the event of an accidental warhead or fuel explosion. Originally this would require about 119 acres (48 ha) of land per site. This presented a serious problem for the planners, and especially the Corps of Engineers Real Estate Offices. As early as 1952 they had asked for a solution, which led to design architect Leon Chatelain, Jr. developing an underground configuration.[14]As the missile batteries were now protected and accidental explosions would be contained, the safe area was dramatically reduced, and that cut the land requirement down to 40 acres (16 ha).[14] This was the system tested at White Sands in 1953 and with its success, on 28 October 1953 ARAACOM directed that most deployments would use this option. The system used a basic building block with four above-ground launching stations over an underground battery with additional missiles. Missiles were raised to the surface on an elevator and then pushed, by hand, along rails to their launchers.[15] Stations normally consisted of four to six of these basic building blocks.The first site to build their Nike I system was Fort Meade, who started receiving their missiles in December 1953, replacing their 120 mm M1 guns.[16] This site reached initial operational status in March 1954, and went on full round-the-clock combat status on 30 May. The Army considers 30 May to be the \"birth date\" of the Nike system. On 15 November 1956 the missile was officially renamed as the Nike Ajax, as part of DA Circular 700-22.[1]Over the next four years, 265 batteries were constructed around the majority of major northern and coastal cities.[17] They replaced 896 radar-guided anti-aircraft guns, leaving only a handful of 75 mm Skysweeper emplacements as the only anti-aircraft artillery remaining in use by the US. All of the Skysweepers were removed from service by 1960.[18]Several Nike Ajax missiles exploded accidentally at a battery in Leonardo, New Jersey on 22 May 1958, killing 6 soldiers and 4 civilians. A memorial can be found at Fort Hancock in the Sandy Hook Unit of the Gateway National Recreation Area.[19][20]This Nike Ajax site is on full alert, with missiles ready for launch on all sixteen launch sites. This image appears to be taken from the control area (IFC) which was separated from the launch area to allow its radars to see the missiles as they launched.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tNike bases were arranged around major cities and military sites.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Nike Hercules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nike_Hercules"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nike_family_01.jpg"},{"link_name":"WX-9 warhead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W9_(nuclear_warhead)"},{"link_name":"XW-7 warhead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_7_nuclear_bomb"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELonnquestWinkler199657-23"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECagle1959VI-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nike_missile_former_site_Michigan.jpg"},{"link_name":"[N 3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFAS1999-1"},{"link_name":"Norfolk, Virginia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norfolk,_Virginia"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFAS1999-1"},{"link_name":"Japan Self-Defense Forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan_Self-Defense_Forces"},{"link_name":"Nike J","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nike_J"},{"link_name":"ICBM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICBM"},{"link_name":"anti-ballistic missile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-ballistic_missile"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeonard2011180-25"},{"link_name":"LIM-49 Nike Zeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LIM-49_Nike_Zeus"},{"link_name":"electromagnetic pulse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_pulse"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"sub_title":"After Ajax","text":"See also: Nike HerculesThe Nike missile family, with the Zeus B in front of the Hercules and Ajax.As early as April 1952, planners expressed concerns over the Ajax's ability to pick out targets in a packed formation. The Nike radar would see several nearby targets as a single larger one, unable to resolve the individual aircraft. The warhead's lethal range was smaller than the resolution, so it might not approach any one of the aircraft close enough to damage it. This led to suggestions about equipping the Nike with a nuclear warhead, which would be able to attack the entire formation with a single round. Bell was asked to study this in May, and they considered two options; one using the WX-9 warhead on the existing missile, which they called \"Nike Ajax\", while a slightly enlarged missile with the XW-7 warhead was known as \"Nike Hercules\". The Army selected the Hercules option, ordering it into development in December 1952.[21] At the time, the missiles were officially known as Nike I and Nike B.[3] As part of DA Circular 700-22, Nike I officially became Nike Ajax and Nike B became Nike Hercules.Nike site D-57/58 was used for both Ajax and Hercules until 1974, and is now in an advanced state of decay.The nuclear-armed Nike B was originally going to be a slightly larger Nike I, just wide enough to carry the new warhead. But during early development, the decision was made to move to a solid fuel upper stage. This required a larger fuselage and was heavier as well. In order to get the new missile into the air, the booster engine was replaced with a new design using four of the original boosters strapped together. The new missile offered interception altitudes well above 100,000 feet (30 km) and ranges on the order of 75 miles (121 km). A new long-range search radar was introduced, the HIPAR, but the original AQU radar was retained as well, now known as LOPAR.[N 3] The tracking radars were also upgraded to higher power. But with those exceptions, Hercules was operationally similar to Ajax, and designed to operate at existing Ajax sites, using their launchers and underground facilities.[1]Conversion from Ajax to Hercules began in June 1958. Initially, the Hercules was deployed at new bases, providing coverage over existing Ajax areas. But plans had been made to convert existing Ajax sites to Hercules where possible, or close the Ajax base where it was not. As the Hercules had over double the range of the Ajax, fewer sites were needed to provide the same coverage. A total of 134 Hercules bases were commissioned, down from Ajax's 240. The last US Ajax site, outside Norfolk, Virginia, closed in November 1963.[1] Ajax remained in active service in overseas locations for some time. The Japan Self-Defense Forces operated theirs until they were replaced by the Hercules-based Nike J in the 1970s.As the original Bell Nike team worked on Hercules, the nature of the strategic threat was changing. By the late 1950s the concern was the ICBM and little interest in the threat of bombers remained. Even before Hercules deployed, Bell was once again asked to consider the new threat. They concluded that the Nike B (Hercules) could be adapted into an anti-ballistic missile with relatively few changes to the missile. The role would require considerably greater upgrades to the radars and computers instead. These efforts gave rise to the Nike II project in 1958,[22] soon known as LIM-49 Nike Zeus.Unlike the earlier Nike efforts, the Zeus would never reach operational status. Like the Ajax and Hercules, Zeus could only attack a single target at a time, although by deploying multiple radars it was expected that up to six missiles could be guided at once. This was fine when the threat was a few dozen enemy ICBMs, but as it became clear that the Soviets were placing almost all of their effort into ICBMs, Zeus looked increasingly unable to deal with the hundreds of targets that would result. Serious technical problems also arose, including electromagnetic pulse and similar effects that blocked radar, questions about the missile's ability to damage enemy warheads, and above all, rapidly rising costs. Development was canceled in January 1963.[23]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nike_Ajax_missile.jpg"},{"link_name":"Royal Museum of the Armed Forces and Military History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Museum_of_the_Armed_Forces_and_Military_History"},{"link_name":"sounding rockets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sounding_rocket"},{"link_name":"Nike-Cajun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nike-Cajun"},{"link_name":"Nike-Apache","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nike-Apache"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TFT-27"}],"sub_title":"Nike boosters","text":"A Nike Ajax missile at the Belgian Royal Museum of the Armed Forces and Military History in Brussels.As Ajax missiles were removed from service, thousands of unused booster rockets were left over from the program, and more when the Hercules was removed from service years later. These proved perfect for all sorts of roles, notably as the boosters for various sounding rockets. These designs often, but not always, included \"Nike\" in their name. Examples include the Nike-Cajun, Nike-Apache, Nike-Smoke and many others.[24]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorganBerhow20029-17"},{"link_name":"hypergolic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypergolic"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorganBerhow20029-17"},{"link_name":"IFF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identification_friend_or_foe"},{"link_name":"monopulse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monopulse_radar"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorganBerhow200210-28"},{"link_name":"lbf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pound_(force)"},{"link_name":"kN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton_(unit)"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorganBerhow200210-28"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorganBerhow200217-29"},{"link_name":"Royal Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"Battle of Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Britain"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFAS1999-1"},{"link_name":"Missile Master","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missile_Master"},{"link_name":"Missile Mentor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hughes_AN/TSQ-51_Air_Defense_Command_and_Coordination_System"},{"link_name":"BIRDIE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_AN/GSG-5_Battery_Integration_and_Radar_Display_Equipment"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorganBerhow200215-30"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELonnquestWinkler1996570%E2%80%93572-19"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NIKE_AJAX_Anti-Aircraft_Missile_Radar3.jpg"},{"link_name":"Fresnel lens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fresnel_lens"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nike_Ajax_acquisiton_radar.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nike_Ajax_base_aerial_view.jpg"}],"text":"A complete Nike Ajax system consisted of several radars, computers, missiles, and their launchers. Sites were generally arranged in three major sections, the administration area, area A, the magazine and launcher area with the missiles, L, and the Integrated Fire Control area with the radar and operations center, or IFC. Most sites placed the A and IFC on one parcel of land with the L on another, but some sites used three entirely separate areas. The IFC was located between 1,000 yards and a mile from the launchers, but had to be within the line-of-sight so the radars could see the missiles as they launched.[15]The launch area normally consisted of two or three underground facilities and their aboveground launchers. Sites with four to six launchers were not unknown. A single launcher site normally held twelve missiles, eight in the service area and four in the underground ready area or on their launchers. When an alert was received, the missiles were transferred to the surface one at a time using an elevator, then pushed along rails on the surface leading to the launchers. The launchers bisected the rails, so the missiles were simply pushed over the launchers, connected to the electrical hookups, and then raised to about 85 degrees by the launchers. The missile launch area also contained a separate fueling area surrounded by a large berm, a required safety precaution given the hypergolic fuels, and a variety of service areas.[15]Long distance surveillance was handled by the ACQ or LOPAR radar, short for \"Low-Power Acquisition Radar.\" LOPAR included an IFF system and a system for handing off targets to the tracking radars. Two monopulse tracking radars were used, the Target Tracking Radar (TTR) to track the target handed off by the LOPAR, and the Missile Tracking Radar (MTR) to track the missile as it flew toward the target.[25]Launch of the missile was accomplished by lighting the solid fuel booster, which provided 59,000 lbf (260 kN) of thrust for three seconds. The booster pushed the missile through the sound barrier, and it remained supersonic for the rest of its flight. The MTR picked up the missile as the booster fell away, and then tracked it continually after that point. Data from the TTR and MTR were sent to the analog tracking computer, which continually calculated the impact point and sent radio commands to the missile to guide it. In order to maximize range, the missile was normally flown almost vertically to a higher altitude than the target, where the thinner air lowered drag and allowed the missile to descend on its target. At the correct time, the missile's three warheads were triggered by a signal from the computer.[25] The warheads were surrounded by metal cubes providing a blast-fragmentation effect.The Nike Ajax system could attack only one target at a time,[26] a problem it shared with its descendants. As the various Ajax missile sites were overlapped, this led to the possibility that two sites might attack one target while another flew past both. ARADCOM initially set up a coordination system not unlike the Royal Air Force's plotting room from the Battle of Britain, with commands from a central manual plotting room being sent to batteries over telephone lines. This was clearly inadequate, and in the late 1950s the Interim Battery Data Link was introduced to share data between batteries. This allowed command to be devolved to the battery commanders, who could see which targets other batteries were attacking.[1] This system was further improved with the introduction of the Missile Master system, which replaced manual plotting with a computer-run system, and then the simpler and smaller Missile Mentor and BIRDIE systems.[27][28]The Nike batteries were organized in Defense Areas and placed around population centers and strategic locations such as long-range bomber and important military/naval bases, nuclear production facilities and (later) ICBM sites. The Nike sites in a Defense Area formed a circle around these cities and bases. There was no fixed number of Nike batteries in a Defense Area and the actual number of batteries varied from a low of 2 in the Barksdale AFB Defense Area to a high of 22 in the Chicago Defense Area. In the US the sites were numbered from 01 to 99 starting at the north and increasing clockwise. The numbers had no relation to actual compass headings, but generally Nike sites numbered 01 to 25 were to the northeast and east, those numbered 26 to 50 were to the southeast and south, those numbered 51 to 75 were to the southwest and west, and those numbered 76 to 99 were to the northwest and north. The Defense Areas were identified by a one- or two-letter code which were related to the city name. Thus those Nike sites starting with C were in the Chicago Defense Area, those starting with HM were in the Homestead AFB/Miami Defense Area, those starting with NY were in the New York Defense Area, and so forth. As an example Nike Site SF-88L refers to the launcher area (L) of the battery located in the northwestern part (88) of the San Francisco Defense Area (SF).[17]Studies throughout the Nike project considered mobile launchers, but none were developed for the Ajax system. Missile sites were \"relocatable\" or \"transportable\", and all of the support equipment was built into trailers or otherwise provided road wheels.[29]The TTR and MTR radars used a Fresnel lens made of thin metal plates arranged in a frame. The feed horn is at the bottom of the A-shaped supports.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe ACQ radar was the primary search radar for the Ajax, and was also used for short-range duties with the Hercules as LOPAR.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThis Nike Ajax site has only two launch areas, the oval-shaped areas in the middle of the image. The rectangular openings are elevators that raise the missiles from their underground storage areas, and the four launchers are the small squares on either side. To the left of the launchers is the refueling area, surrounded by a high berm in case one of the missiles exploded.","title":"Description"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fort George G. Meade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_George_G._Meade"},{"link_name":"National Security Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Security_Agency"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"}],"text":"An accidental launch of a Nike-Ajax missile occurred on April 14, 1955, at the W-25 site at Fort George G. Meade which contains the National Security Agency headquarters. [30]","title":"Accidental launches"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nike_Site_SF-88L_Missile_Control.jpg"}],"text":"Nike site SF-88L missile status board.","title":"Survivors"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SF88L","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SF-88"},{"link_name":"Golden Gate National Recreation Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Gate_National_Recreation_Area"},{"link_name":"Golden Gate Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Gate_Bridge"},{"link_name":"San Francisco, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco,_California"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Fort Hancock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Hancock,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"Sandy Hook, New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandy_Hook,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"National Register of Historic Places","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Carrollton, Virginia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrollton,_Virginia"},{"link_name":"Isle of Wight County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Wight_County,_Virginia"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"}],"sub_title":"Bases","text":"The best preserved Nike installation is site SF88L located in the Golden Gate National Recreation Area in the Marin Headlands just west of the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco, California. The site is a museum and contains the missile bunkers, and control area, as well as period uniforms and vehicles that would have operated at the site. The site has been preserved in the condition it was in at the time it was decommissioned in 1974. The site began as a Nike Ajax base and was later converted to Nike Hercules.[31]\nThe second best preserved Nike installation is site NY-56 at Fort Hancock in Sandy Hook, New Jersey. The site has been restored and contains the original missile bunkers, as well as three Nike Ajax and a Nike Hercules on display. The site is on the National Register of Historic Places.[32]\nNike-Ajax Missile Site N-75 in Carrollton, Virginia. The former Nike-Ajax missile base is now home to the Isle of Wight County Parks and Recreation Department. Many buildings still stand including the barracks, mess hall, administration and recreation building and officer/non-commissioned officer family housing. Visitors can also see the fueling area and concrete slabs that mark the location of the underground missile bunkers. The park, over 100 acres (40 hectares) in size, offers different recreational activities and features softball and soccer fields, basketball, volleyball, and tennis courts, picnic areas, nature and mountain bike trails, skate park, playgrounds, senior center and a recreation hall. In addition, there are fishing opportunities in Jones Creek.[33]","title":"Survivors"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-24"}],"text":"^ Nike was initially designated SAM-G-7, and later changed to SAM-A-7. Originally the Air Force used A while the Army used G, but the Air Force abandoned the 1947 tri-service designation system in 1951 and the Army took over the A designation.\n\n^ Cagle says 600 mph (970 km/h), but many other sources put it at 500 or more.\n\n^ Although none of the references state the reason for keeping the AQU radar, it appears this was in order to avoid having to upgrade certain displays in the control centers.","title":"Explanatory notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"Nike: the U.S. Army's Guided Missile System\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//nikemissile.org/AJAX/PDFAJAX.pdf"},{"link_name":"The Continental Air Defense Collection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.history.army.mil/reference/Finding%20Aids/contair.htm"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20190609181601/https://history.army.mil/reference/Finding%20Aids/contair.htm"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"United States Army Center of Military History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army_Center_of_Military_History"}],"text":"\"Nike: the U.S. Army's Guided Missile System\", Western Electric\nThe Continental Air Defense Collection Archived 9 June 2019 at the Wayback Machine at the United States Army Center of Military History","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"MIM-3 Nike on a launcher","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Nike_family_04.jpg/220px-Nike_family_04.jpg"},{"image_text":"Nike Ajax test firing against a B-17 Flying Fortress."},{"image_text":"The early model Nike had eight JATO bottles in a cluster, demanding large fins for stability.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Nike_Ajax_test_launch.jpg/220px-Nike_Ajax_test_launch.jpg"},{"image_text":"Test launch of the production model Nike Ajax missile with the new booster.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Nike_Ajax_production_model_test_launch.jpg/220px-Nike_Ajax_production_model_test_launch.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Nike Ajax assembly line.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Nike_Ajax_assembly_line.jpg/220px-Nike_Ajax_assembly_line.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Nike missile family, with the Zeus B in front of the Hercules and Ajax.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Nike_family_01.jpg/220px-Nike_family_01.jpg"},{"image_text":"Nike site D-57/58 was used for both Ajax and Hercules until 1974, and is now in an advanced state of decay.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Nike_missile_former_site_Michigan.jpg/220px-Nike_missile_former_site_Michigan.jpg"},{"image_text":"A Nike Ajax missile at the Belgian Royal Museum of the Armed Forces and Military History in Brussels.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fe/Nike_Ajax_missile.jpg/120px-Nike_Ajax_missile.jpg"},{"image_text":"Nike site SF-88L missile status board.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Nike_Site_SF-88L_Missile_Control.jpg/220px-Nike_Site_SF-88L_Missile_Control.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"MIM-14 Nike Hercules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIM-14_Nike_Hercules"},{"title":"LIM-49 Nike Zeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LIM-49_Nike_Zeus"},{"title":"English Electric Thunderbird","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Electric_Thunderbird"},{"title":"Bristol Bloodhound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol_Bloodhound"},{"title":"S-25 Berkut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-25_Berkut"},{"title":"S-75 Dvina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-75_Dvina"},{"title":"List of Nike missile sites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Nike_missile_sites"}]
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Retrieved 23 May 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151013092708/http://alpha.fdu.edu/~bender/NY53.html","url_text":"\"\"Nike Battery NY-53 Middletown, NJ\"\""},{"url":"http://alpha.fdu.edu/~bender/NY53.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Nike Ajax Explosion - Sandy Hook, NJ\". www.waymarking.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.waymarking.com/waymarks/WMB1F2_Nike_Ajax_Explosion__Sandy_Hook_NJ","url_text":"\"Nike Ajax Explosion - Sandy Hook, NJ\""}]},{"reference":"Mustafa, Tariq (30 March 2012). \"SUPARCO – The formative years (1961–1967)\". The Friday Times. Archived from the original on 9 November 2013. Retrieved 30 March 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131109021617/http://www.thefridaytimes.com/beta2/tft/article.php?issue=20120330&page=22","url_text":"\"SUPARCO – The formative years (1961–1967)\""},{"url":"http://www.thefridaytimes.com/beta2/tft/article.php?issue=20120330&page=22","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Nike History, The One That Got Away\". Retrieved 28 March 2022.","urls":[{"url":"http://ed-thelen.org/W-25MerleColeTheOneThatGotAway.html","url_text":"\"Nike History, The One That Got Away\""}]},{"reference":"\"Nike Missile Site - Golden Gate National Recreation Area (U.S. National Park Service)\". www.nps.gov.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nps.gov/goga/nike-missile-site.htm","url_text":"\"Nike Missile Site - Golden Gate National Recreation Area (U.S. National Park Service)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Nike Ajax Missile Site N-75 | Smithfield & Isle of Wight Convention and Visitor Bureau\". Archived from the original on 25 March 2015. Retrieved 7 January 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150325185544/http://www.visitsmithfieldisleofwight.com/NikeSite.php","url_text":"\"Nike Ajax Missile Site N-75 | Smithfield & Isle of Wight Convention and Visitor Bureau\""},{"url":"http://www.visitsmithfieldisleofwight.com/NikeSite.php","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Cagle, Mary (30 June 1959). Nike Ajax Historical Monograph. U.S. Army Ordnance Missile Command.","urls":[{"url":"http://ed-thelen.org/mono-1-2.html#table","url_text":"Nike Ajax Historical Monograph"}]},{"reference":"Federation of American Scientists (20 June 1999). \"Nike Ajax (SAM-A-7) (MIM-3, 3A)\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/airdef/nike-ajax.htm","url_text":"\"Nike Ajax (SAM-A-7) (MIM-3, 3A)\""}]},{"reference":"Leonard, Barry (2011). History of Strategic and Ballistic Missile Defense: Volume II: 1956–1972. DIANE Publishing.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Lonnquest, John; Winkler, David (November 1996). To Defend and Deter: The Legacy of the United States Cold War Missile Program (PDF). Archived from the original on 3 October 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121003030816/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA337549&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf","url_text":"To Defend and Deter: The Legacy of the United States Cold War Missile Program"},{"url":"http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&AD=ADA337549","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Morgan, Mark; Berhow, Mark (1 June 2002). Rings of Supersonic Steel: Air Defenses of the United States Army 1950–1979. Hole In The Head Press. ISBN 9780615120126.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=vagljMKPYrkC","url_text":"Rings of Supersonic Steel: Air Defenses of the United States Army 1950–1979"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780615120126","url_text":"9780615120126"}]},{"reference":"Westerman, Edward (2001). Flak: German Anti-Aircraft Defenses, 1914–1945 (PDF). University Press of Kansas. ISBN 0700614206.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nazi.org.uk/military%20pdfs5/Flak%20German%20AntiAircraft%20Defenses%20-%201914-1945%20.pdf","url_text":"Flak: German Anti-Aircraft Defenses, 1914–1945"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0700614206","url_text":"0700614206"}]},{"reference":"Walker, James; Bernstein, Lewis; Lang, Sharon (2010). Seize the High Ground: The U. S. Army in Space and Missile Defense (PDF). 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Iliad
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Iliad
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["1 Synopsis","1.1 Exposition (Books 1–4)","1.2 Duels of Greek and Trojan Heroes (Books 5–7)","1.3 The Rout of the Greeks (Books 8–15)","1.4 The Death of Patroclus (Books 16–18)","1.5 The Rage of Achilles (Books 19–24)","2 Greek gods and the Iliad","2.1 The gods of Greek religion","2.2 Within the Iliad","2.3 Divine intervention","3 Themes","3.1 Fate","3.2 Kleos","3.3 Nostos","3.4 Pride","3.5 Heroism","3.6 Timē","3.7 Hybris (hubris)","3.8 Mēnis","3.9 Glorification of War","4 Date and textual history","4.1 As oral tradition","5 Depiction of warfare","5.1 Depiction of infantry combat","5.2 Modern reconstructions of armor, weapons and styles","5.3 Influence on classical Greek warfare","6 Influence on arts and culture","6.1 20th-century arts","6.2 Contemporary popular culture","6.3 Sciences","7 English translations","8 Manuscripts","9 See also","10 References","10.1 Notes","10.2 Citations","10.3 Sources","11 Further reading","12 External links"]
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Epic poem attributed to Homer
For other uses, see Iliad (disambiguation).
Iliadby HomerInscription of lines 468–473, Book I. 400–500 AD, from Egypt. On display at the British MuseumOriginal titleἸλιάςTranslatorGeorge Chapman and others; see English translations of HomerWrittenc. 8th century BCCountryAncient GreeceLanguageHomeric GreekGenre(s)Epic poetryPublication date1488Published in English1598; 426 years ago (1598)Lines15,693Followed byThe OdysseyMetreDactylic hexameterFull text Iliad at WikisourceIliad at Greek Wikisource
Trojan WarAchilles tending the wounded Patroclus(Attic red-figure kylix, c. 500 BC)
Literary sources
Iliad
Epic Cycle
Aeneid, Book 2
Iphigenia in Aulis
Philoctetes
Ajax
The Trojan Women
Posthomerica
See also: Trojan War in literature and the arts
Episodes
Judgement of Paris
Seduction of Helen
Trojan Horse
Sack of Troy
The Returns
Wanderings of Odysseus
Aeneas and the Founding of Rome
Greeks and allies
Agamemnon
Achilles
Helen
Menelaus
Nestor
Odysseus
Ajax
Diomedes
Patroclus
Thersites
Achaeans
Myrmidons
See also: Achaean Leaders, Catalogue of Ships
Trojans and allies
Priam
Hecuba
Hector
Paris
Cassandra
Andromache
Aeneas
Memnon
Troilus
Penthesilea and the Amazons
Sarpedon
See also: Trojan Battle Order, Trojan Leaders
Participant godsCaused the war:
Eris
On the Greek side:
Athena
Hephaestus
Hera
Hermes
Thetis
Poseidon
On the Trojan side:
Aphrodite
Apollo
Ares
Artemis
Leto
Scamander
Zeus
Historicity
Ahhiyawa
Alaksandu
Archaeology of Troy
Attarsiya
Hisarlık
Homeric Question
Late Bronze Age Troy
Manapa-Tarhunta letter
Milawata letter
Tawagalawa letter
Trojan language
Wilusa
See also: Historicity of the Iliad
Related topics
Bronze Age Collapse
Euhemerism
Homeric Question
Mycenae
Mycenaean warfare
vte
The Iliad (/ˈɪliəd/; Ancient Greek: Ἰλιάς, romanized: Iliás, Attic Greek: ; " about Ilion (Troy)") is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is one of the oldest extant works of literature still widely read by modern audiences. As with the Odyssey, the poem is divided into 24 books and was written in dactylic hexameter. It contains 15,693 lines in its most widely accepted version. Set towards the end of the Trojan War, a ten-year siege of the city of Troy by a coalition of Mycenaean Greek states, the poem depicts significant events in the siege's final weeks. In particular, it depicts a fierce quarrel between King Agamemnon and a celebrated warrior, Achilles. It is a central part of the Epic Cycle. The Iliad is often regarded as the first substantial piece of European literature.
The Iliad and the Odyssey were likely written down in Homeric Greek, a literary mixture of Ionic Greek and other dialects, probably around the late 8th or early 7th century BC. Homer's authorship was infrequently questioned in antiquity, but contemporary scholarship predominantly assumes that the Iliad and the Odyssey were composed independently and that the stories formed as part of a long oral tradition. The poem was performed by professional reciters of Homer known as rhapsodes.
Critical themes in the poem include kleos (glory), pride, fate and wrath. Despite being predominantly known for its tragic and serious themes, the poem also contains instances of comedy and laughter. The poem is frequently described as a masculine or heroic epic, especially compared with the Odyssey. It contains detailed descriptions of ancient war instruments and battle tactics, and fewer female characters. The Olympian gods also play a major role in the poem, aiding their favoured warriors on the battlefield and intervening in personal disputes. Their characterisation in the poem humanised them for Ancient Greek audiences, giving a concrete sense of their cultural and religious tradition. In terms of formal style, the poem's repetitions and use of similes and epithets are often explored by scholars.
Synopsis
The first verses of the Iliad
Exposition (Books 1–4)
(1) The story begins with an invocation to the Muse. The events begin in medias res towards the end of the Trojan War, fought between the Trojans and the besieging Achaeans. The Achaean forces consist of armies from many different Greek kingdoms, led by their respective kings or princes. Agamemnon, king of Mycenae, acts as commander for these united armies.
Chryses, a priest of Apollo, offers the Achaeans wealth for the return of his daughter Chryseis, held captive by Agamemnon. Although most of the Achaean kings are in favor of the offer, Agamemnon refuses. Chryses prays for Apollo's help, and Apollo sends a plague to afflict the Achaean army. After nine days of plague, Achilles, the leader of the Myrmidon forces and aristos achaion ("best of the Greeks"), calls an assembly to deal with the problem. Under pressure, Agamemnon agrees to return Chryseis to her father, but decides to take Achilles' slave, Briseis, as compensation. Because war prizes were correlated with honor, Agamemnon's decision dishonors Achilles in front of the assembled Achaean forces. Achilles furiously declares that he and his men will no longer fight for Agamemnon. Odysseus returns Chryseis to her father, causing Apollo to end the plague.
In the meantime, Agamemnon's messengers take Briseis away. Achilles becomes very upset and prays to his mother, Thetis, a minor goddess and sea nymph. Achilles asks his mother to ask Zeus to allow the Achaeans to be beaten back by the Trojans, until their ships are at risk of burning. Only then will Agamemnon realize how much the Achaeans need Achilles, and restore his honor. Thetis does so, and Zeus agrees. (2) Zeus then sends a dream to Agamemnon, urging him to attack Troy. Agamemnon heeds the dream, but first decides to test the Achaean army's morale by telling them to go home. But nine years into the war, the soldiers' morale has worn thin. The plan backfires, and only the intervention of Odysseus, inspired by Athena, stops a rout. Odysseus confronts and beats Thersites, a common soldier who voices discontent about fighting Agamemnon's war.
The Achaeans deploy in companies upon the Trojan plain. When news of the Achaean deployment reaches King Priam, the Trojans respond in a sortie upon the plain. (3) The armies approach each other, but before they meet, Paris offers to end the war by fighting a duel with Menelaus, urged by Hector, his brother and hero of Troy. Here, the initial cause of the entire war is explained: Helen, wife of Menelaus, and the most beautiful woman in the world, is either through seduction or by force, taken by Paris from Menelaus' home in Sparta. Menelaus and Paris agree to duel; Helen will marry the victor. However, when Paris is beaten, Aphrodite rescues him and leads him to bed with Helen before Menelaus can kill him.
(4) The gods deliberate over whether the war should end here, but Hera convinces Zeus to wait for the utter destruction of Troy. Athena prompts the Trojan archer Pandarus to shoot Menelaus. Menelaus is wounded, and the truce is broken. Fighting breaks out, and many minor Trojans are killed.
Duels of Greek and Trojan Heroes (Books 5–7)
(5) In the fighting, Diomedes kills many Trojans, including Pandarus, and defeats Aeneas. Aphrodite rescues him before he can be killed, but Diomedes attacks her and wounds the goddess' wrist. Apollo faces Diomedes and warns him against warring with gods, which Diomedes ignores. Apollo sends Ares to defeat Diomedes. Many heroes and commanders join in, including Hector, and the gods supporting each side try to influence the battle. Emboldened by Athena, Diomedes wounds Ares and puts him out of action.
(6) Hector rallies the Trojans and prevents a rout. Diomedes and the Trojan Glaucus find common ground after a duel and exchange unequal gifts, while Glaucus tells Diomedes the story of Bellerophon. Hector enters the city, urges prayers and sacrifices, incites Paris to battle, and bids his wife Andromache and son Astyanax farewell on the city walls. He then rejoins the battle. (7) Hector duels with Ajax, but nightfall interrupts the fight, and both sides retire. The Trojans quarrel about returning Helen. Paris offers to return the treasure he took and give further wealth as compensation, but not Helen, and the offer is refused. Both sides agree to a day's truce to burn the dead. The Achaeans also build a wall and trench to protect their camp and ships.
The Rout of the Greeks (Books 8–15)
(8) The next morning, Zeus prohibits the gods from interfering, and fighting begins anew. The Trojans prevail and force the Achaeans back to their wall. Hera and Athena are forbidden to help. Night falls before the Trojans can assail the Achaean wall. They camp in the field to attack at first light, and their watchfires light the plain like stars.
Iliad, Book VIII, lines 245–253, Greek manuscript, late 5th, early 6th centuries AD
(9) Meanwhile, the Achaeans are desperate. Agamemnon admits his error, and sends an embassy composed of Odysseus, Ajax, Phoenix, and two heralds to offer Briseis and extensive gifts to Achilles, if only he will return to the fighting. Achilles and his companion Patroclus receive the embassy well. However, considering the slight to his honor too great, Achilles angrily refuses Agamemnon's offer and declares that he will only return to battle if the Trojans reach his ships and threaten them with fire. The embassy returns empty-handed.
(10) Later that night, Odysseus and Diomedes venture out to the Trojan lines, kill the Trojan Dolon, and wreak havoc in the camps of some Thracian allies of Troy. (11) In the morning, the fighting is fierce, and Agamemnon, Diomedes, and Odysseus are all wounded. Achilles sends Patroclus from his camp to inquire about the Achaean casualties, and while there, Patroclus is moved to pity by a speech by Nestor. Nestor asks Patroclus to beg Achilles to rejoin the fighting, or if he will not, to lead the army wearing Achilles' armor.
(12) The Trojans attack the Achaean wall on foot. Hector leads the terrible fighting, despite an omen that their charge will fail. The Achaeans are overwhelmed and routed, the wall's gate is broken, and Hector charges in. The Achaeans fall back to their ships.
(13) Poseidon pities the Achaeans, and decides to disobey Zeus and help them. He rallies the Achaeans' spirits, and they begin to push the Trojans back. Poseidon's nephew Amphimachus is killed in the battle; Poseidon imbues Idomeneus with godly power. Many fall on both sides. The Trojan seer Polydamas urges Hector to fall back because of a bad omen, but is ignored.
(14) Hera seduces Zeus and lulls him to sleep, allowing Poseidon to help the Greeks. The Trojans are driven back onto the plain. Ajax wounds Hector, who is then carried back to Troy. (15) Zeus awakes and is enraged by Poseidon's intervention. However, he reassures Hera that Troy is still fated to fall once Hector kills Patroclus. Poseidon is recalled from the battlefield, and Zeus sends Apollo to aid the Trojans. The Trojans once again breach the wall, and the battle reaches the ships.
The Death of Patroclus (Books 16–18)
(16) Patroclus cannot stand to watch any longer, and goes to Achilles, weeping. He briefly admonishes him for his stubbornness, then asks Achilles to allow him to fight in his place, wearing his armor so that he will be mistaken for Achilles. Achilles relents and lends Patroclus his armor, but sends him off with a stern admonition to come back to him, and not to pursue the Trojans. Achilles says that after all has been made right, he and Patroclus will take Troy together.
Patroclus leads the Myrmidons into battle and arrives as the Trojans set fire to the first ships. The Trojans are routed by the sudden onslaught, and Patroclus begins his assault by killing Zeus's son Sarpedon, a leading ally of the Trojans. Patroclus, ignoring Achilles' command, pursues and reaches the gates of Troy, where Apollo himself stops him. Patroclus kills Hector's brother Cebriones, is set upon by Apollo and Euphorbos, and is finally killed by Hector.
(17) Hector takes Achilles' armor from the fallen Patroclus. The Achaeans fight to retrieve Patroclus' body from the Trojans, who attempt to carry it back to Troy at Hector's command. Antilochus is sent to tell Achilles the news, and asks him to help retrieve the body.
Thetis at Hephaestus' forge waiting to receive Achilles' new weapons. Fresco from Pompeii, 1st century
(18) When Achilles hears of Patroclus' death, he screams so loudly in his grief that his mother, Thetis, hears him from the bottom of the ocean. Thetis grieves, too, knowing that Achilles is fated to die young if he kills Hector. Though he knows it will seal his own fate, Achilles vows to kill Hector in order to avenge Patroclus.
Achilles is urged to help retrieve Patroclus' body, but has no armor to wear. Bathed in a brilliant radiance by Athena, Achilles stands next to the Achaean wall and roars in rage. The Trojans are terrified by his appearance, and the Achaeans manage to bear Patroclus' body away. Polydamas urges Hector again to withdraw into the city; again Hector refuses, and the Trojans camp on the plain at nightfall.
Achilles mourns Patroclus, brokenhearted. Meanwhile, at Thetis' request, Hephaestus fashions a new set of armor for Achilles, including a magnificently wrought shield.
The Rage of Achilles (Books 19–24)
(19) In the morning, Thetis brings Achilles his new set of armor, only to find him weeping over Patroclus' body. Achilles arms for battle and rallies the Achaean warriors. Agamemnon gives Achilles all the promised gifts, including Briseis, but Achilles is indifferent to them. The Achaeans take their meal; Achilles refuses to eat. His horse, Xanthos, prophesies Achilles' death; Achilles is indifferent. Achilles goes into battle, Automedon drives his chariot.
(20) Zeus lifts the ban on the gods' interference, and the gods freely help both sides. Achilles, burning with rage and grief, slays many. (21) Achilles cuts off half the Trojans' number in the river and slaughters them, clogging the river with bodies. The river god, Scamander, confronts Achilles and commands him to stop killing Trojans, but Achilles refuses. They fight, until Scamander is beaten back by Hephaestus' firestorm. The gods fight amongst themselves. The great gates of the city are opened to receive the fleeing Trojans, and Apollo leads Achilles away from the city by pretending to be a Trojan. (22) When Apollo reveals himself to Achilles, the Trojans have retreated into the city, all except for Hector.
Despite the counsel of Polydamas and the pleas of his parents, Priam and Hecuba, Hector resolves to face Achilles. When Achilles approaches, however, Hector's will fails him. He flees, and is chased by Achilles around the city. Finally, Athena tricks him into stopping, and he turns to face his opponent. After a brief duel, Achilles stabs Hector through the neck. Before dying, Hector reminds Achilles that he, too, is fated to die. Achilles strips Hector of his own armor, gloating over his death. Achilles then dishonors Hector's body by lashing it to the back of his chariot and dragging it around the city. The Trojans grieve.
A detail of fresco from the François Tomb at Vulci, showing the sacrifice of Trojan slaves. From left to right: Agamemnon, ghost of Patroclus, Vanth, Achilles beheading a slave, Charun, Ajax the Great, a slave, Ajax the Lesser. 350-330 BC
(23) The ghost of Patroclus comes to Achilles in a dream, urging him to carry out the burial rites so that Patroclus' spirit can move on to the underworld. Patroclus asks Achilles to arrange for their bones to be entombed together in a single urn; Achilles agrees. Patroclus' body is burned. The Achaeans hold a day of funeral games, and Achilles gives out the prizes.
(24) Achilles is lost in his grief, and spends his days mourning Patroclus and dragging Hector's body behind his chariot. Dismayed by Achilles' continued abuse of Hector's body, Zeus decides that it must be returned to Priam. Led by Hermes, Priam takes a wagon filled with gifts out of Troy, across the plains, and into the Achaean camp unnoticed. He clasps Achilles by the knees and begs for his son's body. Achilles is moved to tears, and finally relents in his anger. The two lament their losses in the war. Achilles agrees to give Hector's body back, and to give the Trojans twelve days to properly mourn and bury Hector. Achilles apologizes to Patroclus, fearing he has dishonored him by returning Hector's body. After a meal, Priam carries Hector's body back into Troy. Hector is buried, and the city mourns.
Greek gods and the Iliad
Hypnos and Thanatos carrying the body of Sarpedon from the battlefield of Troy; detail from an Attic white-ground lekythos, c. 440 BC
The gods of Greek religion
Ancient Greek religion had no founder, and was not the creation of an inspired teacher. Rather, the religion arose out of the diverse beliefs of the Greek people. These beliefs coincide to the thoughts about the gods in polytheistic Greek religion. Adkins and Pollard (2020/1998) agree with this by saying, "the early Greeks personalized every aspect of their world, natural and cultural, and their experiences in it. The earth, the sea, the mountains, the rivers, custom-law (themis), and one's share in society and its goods were all seen in personal as well as naturalistic terms."
As a result of this thinking, each god or goddess in polytheistic Greek religion is attributed to an aspect of the human world. For example, Poseidon is the god of the sea, Aphrodite is the goddess of beauty, Ares is the god of war, and so on and so forth for many other gods. This is how Greek culture was defined as many Athenians felt the presence of their gods through divine intervention in significant events in their lives. Oftentimes they found these events to be mysterious and inexplicable.
Within the Iliad
In the literary Trojan War of the Iliad, the Olympian gods, goddesses, and minor deities fight among themselves and participate in human warfare, often by interfering with humans to counter other gods. Unlike their portrayals in Greek religion, Homer's portrayal of gods suited his narrative purpose. The gods in traditional thought of 4th-century Athenians were not spoken of in terms familiar to the works of Homer. The Classical-era historian Herodotus says that Homer and Hesiod, his contemporary, were the first writers to name and describe the gods' appearance and character.
Mary Lefkowitz (2003) discusses the relevance of divine action in the Iliad, attempting to answer the question of whether or not divine intervention is a discrete occurrence (for its own sake), or if such godly behaviors are mere human character metaphors. The intellectual interest of Classic-era authors, such as Thucydides and Plato, was limited to their utility as "a way of talking about human life rather than a description or a truth", because, if the gods remain religious figures, rather than human metaphors, their "existence"—without the foundation of either dogma or a bible of faiths—then allowed Greek culture the intellectual breadth and freedom to conjure gods fitting any religious function they required as a people.
Psychologist Julian Jaynes (1976) uses the Iliad as a major piece of evidence for his theory of the Bicameral Mind, which posits that until about the time described in the Iliad, humans had a far different mentality from present-day humans. He says that humans during that time were lacking what is today called consciousness. He suggests that humans heard and obeyed commands from what they identified as gods, until the change in human mentality that incorporated the motivating force into the conscious self. He points out that almost every action in the Iliad is directed, caused, or influenced by a god, and that earlier translations show an astonishing lack of words suggesting thought, planning, or introspection. Those that do appear, he argues, are misinterpretations made by translators imposing a modern mentality on the characters.
Divine intervention
See also: Deception of Zeus
Some scholars believe that the gods may have intervened in the mortal world because of quarrels they may have had among each other. Homer interprets the world at this time by using the passion and emotion of the gods to be determining factors of what happens on the human level. An example of one of these relationships in the Iliad occurs between Athena, Hera, and Aphrodite. In the final book of the poem Homer writes, "He offended Athena and Hera—both goddesses." Athena and Hera are envious of Aphrodite because of a beauty pageant on Mount Olympus in which Paris chose Aphrodite to be the most beautiful goddess over both Hera and Athena. Wolfgang Kullmann further goes on to say, "Hera's and Athena's disappointment over the victory of Aphrodite in the Judgement of Paris determines the whole conduct of both goddesses in The Iliad and is the cause of their hatred for Paris, the Judge, and his town Troy."
Hera and Athena then continue to support the Achaean forces throughout the poem because Paris is part of the Trojans, while Aphrodite aids Paris and the Trojans. The emotions between the goddesses often translate to actions they take in the mortal world. For example, in Book 3 of the Iliad, Paris challenges any of the Achaeans to a single combat and Menelaus steps forward. Menelaus was dominating the battle and was on the verge of killing Paris. "Now he'd have hauled him off and won undying glory but Aphrodite, Zeus's daughter, was quick to the mark, snapped the rawhide strap." Aphrodite intervened out of her own self-interest to save Paris from the wrath of Menelaus because Paris had helped her to win the beauty pageant. The partisanship of Aphrodite towards Paris induces constant intervention by all of the gods, especially to give motivational speeches to their respective protégés, while often appearing in the shape of a human being they are familiar with. This connection of emotions to actions is just one example out of many that occur throughout the poem.
Themes
Fate
Fate (κήρ, kēr, 'fated death') propels most of the events of the Iliad. Once set, gods and men abide it, neither truly able nor willing to contest it. How fate is set is unknown, but it is told by the Fates and by Zeus through sending omens to seers such as Calchas. Men and their gods continually speak of heroic acceptance and cowardly avoidance of one's slated fate. Fate does not determine every action, incident, and occurrence, but it does determine the outcome of life—before killing him, Hector calls Patroclus a fool for cowardly avoidance of his fate, by attempting his defeat; Patroclus retorts:
No, deadly destiny, with the son of Leto, has killed me,
and of men it was Euphorbos; you are only my third slayer.
And put away in your heart this other thing that I tell you.
You yourself are not one who shall live long, but now already
death and powerful destiny are standing beside you,
to go down under the hands of Aiakos' great son, Achilleus.
— Homer, Iliad 16.849–854 (Lattimore 1951).
Here, Patroclus alludes to fated death by Hector's hand, and Hector's fated death by Achilles's hand. Each accepts the outcome of his life, yet, no one knows if the gods can alter fate. The first instance of this doubt occurs in Book XVI. Seeing Patroclus about to kill Sarpedon, his mortal son, Zeus says:
Ah me, that it is destined that the dearest of men, Sarpedon,
must go down under the hands of Menoitios' son Patroclus.
— Homer. The Iliad. 16.433–434 (Lattimore 1951).
About his dilemma, Hera asks Zeus:
Majesty, son of Kronos, what sort of thing have you spoken?
Do you wish to bring back a man who is mortal, one long since
doomed by his destiny, from ill-sounding death and release him?
Do it, then; but not all the rest of us gods shall approve you.
— Homer. The Iliad 16.440–43 (Lattimore 1951).
In deciding between losing a son or abiding fate, Zeus, King of the Gods, allows it. This motif recurs when he considers sparing Hector, whom he loves and respects. This time, it is Athena who challenges him:
Father of the shining bolt, dark misted, what is this you said?
Do you wish to bring back a man who is mortal, one long since
doomed by his destiny, from ill-sounding death and release him?
Do it, then; but not all the rest of us gods shall approve you.
— Homer. The Iliad 22.178–81 (Lattimore 1951).
Again, Zeus appears capable of altering fate, but does not, deciding instead to abide set outcomes; similarly, fate spares Aeneas, after Apollo convinces the over-matched Trojan to fight Achilles. Poseidon cautiously speaks:
But come, let us ourselves get him away from death, for fear
the son of Kronos may be angered if now Achilleus
kills this man. It is destined that he shall be the survivor,
that the generation of Dardanos shall not die…
— Homer. The Iliad 20.300–04 (Lattimore 1951).
Divinely aided, Aeneas escapes the wrath of Achilles and survives the Trojan War. Whether or not the gods can alter fate, they do abide it, despite its countering their human allegiances; thus, the mysterious origin of fate is a power beyond the gods. Fate implies the primeval, tripartite division of the world that Zeus, Poseidon, and Hades effected in deposing their father, Cronus, for its dominion. Zeus took the Air and the Sky, Poseidon the Waters, and Hades the Underworld, the land of the dead—yet they share dominion of the Earth. Despite the earthly powers of the Olympic gods, only the Three Fates set the destiny of Man.
Kleos
Kleos (κλέος, "glory, fame") is the concept of glory earned in heroic battle. Yet, Achilles must choose only one of the two rewards, either nostos or kleos. In Book IX (IX.410–16), he poignantly tells Agamemnon's envoys—Odysseus, Phoenix, Ajax—begging his reinstatement to battle about having to choose between two fates (διχθαδίας κήρας, 9.411).
The passage reads:
μήτηρ γάρ τέ μέ φησι θεὰ Θέτις ἀργυρόπεζα (410)
διχθαδίας κῆρας φερέμεν θανάτοιο τέλος δέ.
εἰ μέν κ' αὖθι μένων Τρώων πόλιν ἀμφιμάχωμαι,
ὤλετο μέν μοι νόστος, ἀτὰρ κλέος ἄφθιτον ἔσται
εἰ δέ κεν οἴκαδ' ἵκωμι φίλην ἐς πατρίδα γαῖαν,
ὤλετό μοι κλέος ἐσθλόν, ἐπὶ δηρὸν δέ μοι αἰὼν (415)
ἔσσεται, οὐδέ κέ μ' ὦκα τέλος θανάτοιο κιχείη.
For my mother Thetis the goddess of silver feet tells me
I carry two sorts of destiny toward the day of my death. Either,
if I stay here and fight beside the city of the Trojans,
my return home is gone, but my glory shall be everlasting;
but if I return home to the beloved land of my fathers,
the excellence of my glory is gone, but there will be a long life
left for me, and my end in death will not come to me quickly.
—Translated by Richmond Lattimore
In forgoing his nostos, he will earn the greater reward of kleos aphthiton (κλέος ἄφθιτον, "fame imperishable"). In the poem, aphthiton (ἄφθιτον, "imperishable") occurs five other times, each occurrence denotes an object: Agamemnon's sceptre, the wheel of Hebe's chariot, the house of Poseidon, the throne of Zeus, the house of Hephaestus. Translator Lattimore renders kleos aphthiton as 'forever immortal' and as 'forever imperishable'—connoting Achilles's mortality by underscoring his greater reward in returning to battle Troy.
Kleos is often given visible representation by the prizes won in battle. When Agamemnon takes Briseis from Achilles, he takes away a portion of the kleos he had earned.
Achilles' shield, crafted by Hephaestus and given to him by his mother Thetis, bears an image of stars in the centre. The stars conjure profound images of the place of a single man, no matter how heroic, in the perspective of the entire cosmos.
Nostos
Nostos (νόστος, "homecoming") occurs seven times in the poem, making it a minor theme in the Iliad itself. Yet the concept of homecoming is much explored in other Ancient Greek literature, especially in the post-war homeward fortunes experienced by the Atreidae (Agamemnon and Menelaus), and Odysseus (see the Odyssey).
Pride
Pride drives the plot of the Iliad. The Achaeans gather on the plain of Troy to wrest Helen from the Trojans. Though the majority of the Trojans would gladly return Helen to the Achaeans, they defer to the pride of their prince, Alexandros, also known as Paris. Within this frame, Homer's work begins. At the start of the Iliad, Agamemnon's pride sets forth a chain of events that leads him to take from Achilles, Briseis, the girl that he had originally given Achilles in return for his martial prowess. Due to this slight, Achilles refuses to fight and asks his mother, Thetis, to make sure that Zeus causes the Achaeans to suffer on the battlefield until Agamemnon comes to realize the harm he has done to Achilles.
Achilles' pride allows him to beg Thetis for the deaths of his Achaean friends. When in Book 9 his friends urge him to return, offering him loot and his girl, Briseis, he refuses, stuck in his vengeful pride. Achilles remains stuck until the very end, when his anger at himself for Patroclus' death overcomes his pride at Agamemnon's slight and he returns to kill Hector. He overcomes his pride again when he keeps his anger in check and returns Hector to Priam at epic's close. From epic start to epic finish, pride drives the plot.
Heroism
The Iliad portrays the theme of heroism in a variety of different ways through different characters, mainly Achilles, Hector, Patroclus, etc. Though the traditional concept of heroism is often tied directly to the protagonist, who is meant to be written in a heroic light, the Iliad plays with this idea of heroism and does not make it explicitly clear who the true hero of the story is. The story of the Iliad follows the great Greek warrior Achilles, as well as his rage and the destruction it causes. Parallel to this, the story also follows the Trojan warrior Hector and his efforts to fight to protect his family and his people. It is generally assumed that, because he is the protagonist, Achilles is the hero of this story. Examining his actions throughout the Iliad and comparing them to those of other characters, however, some may come to the conclusion that Achilles is not really the hero, and perhaps even an antihero. It can also be argued that Hector is the true hero of the Iliad due to his inherently heroic qualities, such as a loyalty to his family as well as his strength and determination to defend his people, as well as the focus at the end of the story on burying Hector with honor. The true hero of the Iliad is never shown explicitly and is purposefully left up to interpretation by the author Homer, who aimed to show the complexity and flaws of both characters, regardless of who is considered the "true" hero.
Timē
Akin to kleos is timē (τιμή, "respect, honor"), the concept denoting the respectability an honorable man accrues with accomplishment (cultural, political, martial), per his station in life. In Book I, the Achaean troubles begin with King Agamemnon's dishonorable, unkingly behavior—first, by threatening the priest Chryses (1.11), then, by aggravating them in disrespecting Achilles, by confiscating Briseis from him (1.171). The warrior's consequent rancor against the dishonorable king ruins the Achaean military cause.
Hybris (hubris)
Hybris (Ὕβρις) plays a part similar to timē. The epic takes as its thesis the anger of Achilles and the destruction it brings. Anger disturbs the distance between human beings and the gods. Uncontrolled anger destroys orderly social relationships and upsets the balance of correct actions necessary to keep the gods away from human beings. Despite the epic's focus on Achilles' rage, hybris also plays a prominent role, serving as both kindling and fuel for many destructive events.
Agamemnon refuses to ransom Chriseis up out of hybris and harms Achilles' pride when he demands Briseis. Hubris forces Paris to fight against Menelaus. Agamemnon spurs the Achaean to fight, by calling into question Odysseus, Diomedes, and Nestor's pride, asking why they were cowering and waiting for help when they should be the ones leading the charge. While the events of the Iliad focus on the Achilles' rage and the destruction it brings on, hybris fuels and stokes them both.
Mēnis
The Wrath of Achilles (1819), by Michel Martin Drolling
The poem's initial word, μῆνιν (mēnin; acc. μῆνις, mēnis, "wrath," "rage," "fury"), establishes the Iliad's principal theme: the "Wrath of Achilles". His personal rage and wounded soldier's pride propel the story: the Achaeans' faltering in battle, the slayings of Patroclus and Hector, and the fall of Troy. In Book I, the Wrath of Achilles first emerges in the Achilles-convoked meeting, between the Greek kings and the seer Calchas. King Agamemnon dishonours Chryses, the Trojan priest of Apollo, by refusing with a threat the restitution of his daughter, Chryseis—despite the proffered ransom of "gifts beyond count." The insulted priest prays to Apollo for help, and a nine-day rain of divine plague arrows falls upon the Achaeans. Moreover, in that meeting, Achilles accuses Agamemnon of being "greediest for gain of all men." To that, Agamemnon replies:
But here is my threat to you.
Even as Phoibos Apollo is taking away my Chryseis.
I shall convey her back in my own ship, with my own
followers; but I shall take the fair-cheeked Briseis,
your prize, I myself going to your shelter, that you may learn well
how much greater I am than you, and another man may shrink back
from likening himself to me and contending against me.
— Homer, Iliad 1.181–187 (Lattimore 1951).
After that, only Athena stays Achilles's wrath. He vows to never again obey orders from Agamemnon. Furious, Achilles cries to his mother, Thetis, who persuades Zeus's divine intervention—favouring the Trojans—until Achilles's rights are restored. Meanwhile, Hector leads the Trojans to almost pushing the Achaeans back to the sea (Book XII). Later, Agamemnon contemplates defeat and retreat to Greece (Book XIV). Again, the Wrath of Achilles turns the war's tide in seeking vengeance when Hector kills Patroclus. Aggrieved, Achilles tears his hair and dirties his face. Thetis comforts her mourning son, who tells her:
So it was here that the lord of men Agamemnon angered me.
Still, we will let all this be a thing of the past, and for all our
sorrow beat down by force the anger deeply within us.
Now I shall go, to overtake that killer of a dear life,
Hektor; then I will accept my own death, at whatever
time Zeus wishes to bring it about, and the other immortals.
— Homer, Iliad 18.111–116 (Lattimore 1951).
Accepting the prospect of death as fair price for avenging Patroclus, he returns to battle, dooming Hector and Troy, thrice chasing him around the Trojan walls, before slaying him, then dragging the corpse behind his chariot, back to camp.
Achilles Slays Hector, by Peter Paul Rubens (1630–35)
Glorification of War
Much of The Iliad focuses on death dealing. To gain status, heroes must be good at killing. Though not as prevalent, there are instances where the author showcases the peaceful aspects of war. The first instance of this is in book 3 when Menelaus and Paris agree to fight one on one to end the war. This conversation between Menelaus and Paris highlights the overwhelming desire for peace on both sides. Again, in book 3, we see peace when the elders talk to Priam saying that though Helen is a beautiful woman, war is still too high a price to pay for one person. These events display the humanity of the war. In book 6, when Hector goes back into the city to visit his family, this event is another powerful show of peace because we get to see that Hector is more than a great warrior. He is a loving father and devoted husband. The love that is shared between him and his family contrasts with the gory battle scenes, noting the importance of peace. The final moments of peace are in books 23 and 24. The first of these is the funeral games that are held for Patroclus. The games show the happiness, grief, and joy that can happen during the war. In book 24, peace is highlighted again when Akhilleus and Priam share food and grief for their recent losses. In this encounter, the two empathize with one another and agree to a truce of twelve days for the burial of Hector.
Date and textual history
Further information: Homeric Question and Historicity of the Iliad
The poem dates to the archaic period of Classical antiquity. Scholarly consensus mostly places it in the late 8th century BC, although some favour a 7th-century date. In any case, the terminus ante quem for the dating of the Iliad is 630 BC, as evidenced by reflection in art and literature.
Herodotus, having consulted the Oracle at Dodona, placed Homer and Hesiod at approximately 400 years before his own time, which would place them at c. 850 BC.
The historical backdrop of the poem is the time of the Late Bronze Age collapse, in the early 12th century BC. Homer is thus separated from his subject matter by about 400 years, the period known as the Greek Dark Ages. Intense scholarly debate has surrounded the question of which portions of the poem preserve genuine traditions from the Mycenaean period. The Catalogue of Ships in particular has the striking feature that its geography does not portray Greece in the Iron Age, the time of Homer, but as it was before the Dorian invasion.
The title Ἰλιάς (Ilias; gen. Ἰλιάδος) is an ellipsis of ἡ ποίησις Ἰλιάς, meaning "the Trojan poem". Ἰλιάς is the specifically feminine adjective form from Ἴλιον. The masculine adjective form would be Ἰλιακός or Ἴλιος. It is used by Herodotus.
Venetus A, copied in the 10th century AD, is the oldest fully extant manuscript of the Iliad.
The first edition of the Iliad, editio princeps, was edited by Demetrius Chalcondyles and published by Bernardus Nerlius and Demetrius Damilas in Florence in 1489.
As oral tradition
In antiquity, the Greeks applied the Iliad and the Odyssey as the bases of pedagogy. Literature was central to the educational-cultural function of the itinerant rhapsode, who composed consistent epic poems from memory and improvisation, and disseminated them, via song and chant, in his travels and at the Panathenaic Festival of athletics, music, poetics, and sacrifice, celebrating Athena's birthday.
Originally, Classical scholars treated the Iliad and the Odyssey as written poetry, and Homer as a writer. Yet, by the 1920s, Milman Parry (1902–1935) had launched a movement claiming otherwise. His investigation of the oral Homeric style—"stock epithets" and "reiteration" (words, phrases, stanzas)—established that these formulae were artifacts of oral tradition easily applied to a hexametric line. A two-word stock epithet (e.g. "resourceful Odysseus") reiteration may complement a character name by filling a half-line, thus, freeing the poet to compose a half-line of "original" formulaic text to complete his meaning. In Yugoslavia, Parry and his assistant, Albert Lord (1912–1991), studied the oral-formulaic composition of Serbian oral poetry, yielding the Parry/Lord thesis that established oral tradition studies, later developed by Eric Havelock, Marshall McLuhan, Walter Ong, and Gregory Nagy.
In The Singer of Tales (1960), Lord presents likenesses between the tragedies of the Achaean Patroclus, in the Iliad, and of the Sumerian Enkidu, in the Epic of Gilgamesh, and claims to refute, with "careful analysis of the repetition of thematic patterns", that the Patroclus storyline upsets Homer's established compositional formulae of "wrath, bride-stealing, and rescue"; thus, stock-phrase reiteration does not restrict his originality in fitting story to rhyme. Likewise, James Armstrong (1958) reports that the poem's formulae yield richer meaning because the "arming motif" diction—describing Achilles, Agamemnon, Paris, and Patroclus—serves to "heighten the importance of…an impressive moment," thus, " creates an atmosphere of smoothness," wherein, Homer distinguishes Patroclus from Achilles, and foreshadows the former's death with positive and negative turns of phrase.
In the Iliad, occasional syntactic inconsistency may be an oral tradition effect—for example, Aphrodite is "laughter-loving", despite being painfully wounded by Diomedes (Book V, 375); and the divine representations may mix Mycenaean and Greek Dark Age (c. 1150–800 BC) mythologies, parallelling the hereditary basileis nobles (lower social rank rulers) with minor deities, such as Scamander, et al.
Depiction of warfare
See also: Trojan Battle Order
Depiction of infantry combat
Despite Mycenae and Troy being maritime powers, the Iliad features no sea battles. The Trojan shipwright (of the ship that transported Helen to Troy), Phereclus, instead fights afoot, as an infantryman. The battle dress and armour of hero and soldier are well-described. They enter battle in chariots, launching javelins into the enemy formations, then dismount—for hand-to-hand combat with yet more javelin throwing, rock throwing, and if necessary hand to hand sword and shoulder-borne aspis (shield) fighting. Ajax the Greater, son of Telamon, sports a large, rectangular shield (σάκος) with which he protects himself and Teucer, his brother:
Ninth came Teucer, stretching his curved bow.
He stood beneath the shield of Ajax, son of Telamon.
As Ajax cautiously pulled his shield aside,
Teucer would peer out quickly, shoot off an arrow,
hit someone in the crowd, dropping that soldier
right where he stood, ending his life—then he'd duck back,
crouching down by Ajax, like a child beside its mother.
Ajax would then conceal him with his shining shield.
— Homer, Iliad 8.267–272, translated by Ian Johnston.
Ajax's cumbersome shield is more suitable for defence than for offence, while his cousin Achilles sports a large, rounded, octagonal shield that he successfully deploys along with his spear against the Trojans:
Just as a man constructs a wall for some high house,
using well-fitted stones to keep out forceful winds,
that's how close their helmets and bossed shields lined up,
shield pressing against shield, helmet against helmet
man against man. On the bright ridges of the helmets,
horsehair plumes touched when warriors moved their heads.
That's how close they were to one another.
— Homer, Iliad 16.213–217 (translated by Ian Johnston).
In describing infantry combat, Homer names the phalanx formation, but most scholars do not believe the historical Trojan War was so fought. In the Bronze Age, the chariot was the main battle transport-weapon (e.g. the Battle of Kadesh). The available evidence, from the Dendra armour and the Pylos Palace paintings, indicate the Mycenaeans used two-man chariots, with a long-spear-armed principal rider, unlike the three-man Hittite chariots with short-spear-armed riders, and unlike the arrow-armed Egyptian and Assyrian two-man chariots. Nestor spearheads his troops with chariots; he advises them:
In your eagerness to engage the Trojans,
don't any of you charge ahead of others,
trusting in your strength and horsemanship.
And don't lag behind. That will hurt our charge.
Any man whose chariot confronts an enemy's
should thrust with his spear at him from there.
That's the most effective tactic, the way
men wiped out city strongholds long ago —
their chests full of that style and spirit.
— Homer, Iliad 4.301–309 (translated by Ian Johnston).
Although Homer's depictions are graphic, it can be seen in the very end that victory in war is a far more somber occasion, where all that is lost becomes apparent. On the other hand, the funeral games are lively, for the dead man's life is celebrated. This overall depiction of war runs contrary to many other ancient Greek depictions, where war is an aspiration for greater glory.
Modern reconstructions of armor, weapons and styles
Few modern (archeologically, historically and Homerically accurate) reconstructions of arms, armor and motifs as described by Homer exist. Some historical reconstructions have been done by Salimbeti et al.
Influence on classical Greek warfare
While the Homeric poems (particularly, the Iliad) were not necessarily revered scripture of the ancient Greeks, they were most certainly seen as guides that were important to the intellectual understanding of any educated Greek citizen. This is evidenced by the fact that in the late 5th century BC, "it was the sign of a man of standing to be able to recite the Iliad and Odyssey by heart.": 36 Moreover, it can be argued that the warfare shown in the Iliad, and the way in which it was depicted, had a profound and very traceable effect on Greek warfare in general. In particular, the effect of epic literature can be broken down into three categories: tactics, ideology, and the mindset of commanders. In order to discern these effects, it is necessary to take a look at a few examples from each of these categories.
Much of the detailed fighting in the Iliad is done by the heroes in an orderly, one-on-one fashion. Much like the Odyssey, there is even a set ritual which must be observed in each of these conflicts. For example, a major hero may encounter a lesser hero from the opposing side, in which case the minor hero is introduced, threats may be exchanged, and then the minor hero is slain. The victor often strips the body of its armor and military accoutrements.: 22–23 Here is an example of this ritual and this type of one-on-one combat in the Iliad:
There Telamonian Ajax struck down the son of Anthemion,
Simoeisios in his stripling's beauty, whom once his mother
descending from Ida bore beside the banks of Simoeis
when she had followed her father and mother to tend the
sheepflocks.
Therefore they called him Simoeisios; but he could not
render again the care of his dear parents; he was short-lived,
beaten down beneath the spear of high-hearted Ajax,
who struck him as he first came forward beside the nipple
of the right breast, and the bronze spearhead drove clean
through the shoulder.
— Homer, Iliad 4.473–483 (Lattimore 1951).
The most important question in reconciling the connection between the epic fighting of the Iliad and later Greek warfare concerns the phalanx, or hoplite, warfare seen in Greek history well after Homer's Iliad. While there are discussions of soldiers arrayed in semblances of the phalanx throughout the Iliad, the focus of the poem on the heroic fighting, as mentioned above, would seem to contradict the tactics of the phalanx. However, the phalanx did have its heroic aspects. The masculine one-on-one fighting of epic is manifested in phalanx fighting on the emphasis of holding one's position in formation. This replaces the singular heroic competition found in the Iliad.: 51
One example of this is the Spartan tale of 300 picked men fighting against 300 picked Argives. In this battle of champions, only two men are left standing for the Argives and one for the Spartans. Othryades, the remaining Spartan, goes back to stand in his formation with mortal wounds while the remaining two Argives go back to Argos to report their victory. Thus, the Spartans claimed this as a victory, as their last man displayed the ultimate feat of bravery by maintaining his position in the phalanx.
In terms of the ideology of commanders in later Greek history, the Iliad has an interesting effect. The Iliad expresses a definite disdain for tactical trickery, when Hector says, before he challenges the great Ajax:
I know how to storm my way into the struggle of flying horses; I know how to tread the measures on the grim floor of the war god. Yet great as you are I would not strike you by stealth, watching for my chance, but openly, so, if perhaps I might hit you.
— Homer, Iliad 7.237–243 (Lattimore 1951).
However, despite examples of disdain for this tactical trickery, there is reason to believe that the Iliad, as well as later Greek warfare, endorsed tactical genius on the part of their commanders. For example, there are multiple passages in the Iliad with commanders such as Agamemnon or Nestor discussing the arraying of troops so as to gain an advantage. Indeed, the Trojan War is won by a notorious example of Achaean guile in the Trojan Horse. This is even later referred to by Homer in the Odyssey. The connection, in this case, between guileful tactics of the Achaeans and the Trojans in the Iliad and those of the later Greeks is not a difficult one to find. Spartan commanders, often seen as the pinnacle of Greek military prowess, were known for their tactical trickery, and, for them, this was a feat to be desired in a commander. Indeed, this type of leadership was the standard advice of Greek tactical writers.: 240
Ultimately, while Homeric (or epic) fighting is certainly not completely replicated in later Greek warfare, many of its ideals, tactics, and instruction are.
Hans van Wees argues that the period that the descriptions of warfare related in the epic can be pinned down fairly specifically—to the first half of the 7th century BC.
Influence on arts and culture
Main article: Trojan War in literature and the arts
The Iliad was a standard work of great importance already in Classical Greece and remained so throughout the Hellenistic and Byzantine periods. Subjects from the Trojan War were a favourite among ancient Greek dramatists. Aeschylus' trilogy, the Oresteia, comprising Agamemnon, The Libation Bearers, and The Eumenides, follows the story of Agamemnon after his return from the war. Homer also came to be of great influence in European culture with the resurgence of interest in Greek antiquity during the Renaissance, and it remains the first and most influential work of the Western canon. In its full form the text made its return to Italy and Western Europe beginning in the 15th century, primarily through translations into Latin and the vernacular languages.
Prior to this reintroduction, however, a shortened Latin version of the poem, known as the Ilias Latina, was very widely studied and read as a basic school text. The West tended to view Homer as unreliable as they believed they possessed much more down to earth and realistic eyewitness accounts of the Trojan War written by Dares and Dictys Cretensis, who were supposedly present at the events. These late antique forged accounts formed the basis of several eminently popular medieval chivalric romances, most notably those of Benoît de Sainte-Maure and Guido delle Colonne.
These in turn spawned many others in various European languages, such as the first printed English book, the 1473 Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye. Other accounts read in the Middle Ages were antique Latin retellings such as the Excidium Troiae and works in the vernaculars such as the Icelandic Troy Saga. Even without Homer, the Trojan War story had remained central to Western European medieval literary culture and its sense of identity. Most nations and several royal houses traced their origins to heroes at the Trojan War; Britain was supposedly settled by the Trojan Brutus, for instance.
William Shakespeare used the plot of the Iliad as source material for his play Troilus and Cressida, but focused on a medieval legend, the love story of Troilus, son of King Priam of Troy, and Cressida, daughter of the Trojan soothsayer Calchas. The play, often considered to be a comedy, reverses traditional views on events of the Trojan War and depicts Achilles as a coward, Ajax as a dull, unthinking mercenary, etc.
William Theed the elder made a bronze statue of Thetis as she brought Achilles his new armor forged by Hephaesthus. It has been on display in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City since 2013.
Robert Browning's poem Development discusses his childhood introduction to the matter of the Iliad and his delight in the epic, as well as contemporary debates about its authorship.
According to Suleyman al-Boustani, a 19th-century poet who made the first Arabic translation of the Iliad to Arabic, the epic may have been widely circulated in Syriac and Pahlavi translations during the early Middle Ages. Al-Boustani credits Theophilus of Edessa with the Syriac translation, which was supposedly (along with the Greek original) widely read or heard by the scholars of Baghdad in the prime of the Abbasid Caliphate, although those scholars never took the effort to translate it to the official language of the empire; Arabic. The Iliad was also the first full epic poem to be translated to Arabic from a foreign language, upon the publication of Al-Boustani's complete work in 1904.
20th-century arts
"The fall of Troy" (1911), an Italian silent film by Giovanni Pastrone, the first known movie adaptation of Homer's epic poem.
"Achilles in the Trench" is one of the best-known of the war poems of the First World War and was written by Patrick Shaw-Stewart while waiting to be sent to fight at Gallipoli.
Simone Weil wrote the essay "The Iliad or the Poem of Force" in 1939, shortly after the commencement of World War II. The essay describes how the Iliad demonstrates the way force, exercised to the extreme in war, reduces both victim and aggressor to the level of the slave and the unthinking automaton.
Lesya Ukrainka wrote a dramatic poem "Cassandra" in 1901–1907 based on the Iliad. It describes the story of Kassandra, a prophetess.
The 1954 Broadway musical The Golden Apple, by librettist John Treville Latouche and composer Jerome Moross, was freely adapted from the Iliad and the Odyssey, re-setting the action to America's Washington state in the years after the Spanish–American War, with events inspired by the Iliad in Act One and events inspired by the Odyssey in Act Two.
The opera King Priam by Sir Michael Tippett (which received its premiere in 1962) is based loosely on the Iliad.
Christopher Logue's poem War Music, an "account", not a translation, of the Iliad, was begun in 1959 as a commission for radio. He continued working on it until his death in 2011. Described by Tom Holland as "one of the most remarkable works of post-war literature", it has been an influence on Kae Tempest and Alice Oswald, who says that it "unleashes a forgotten kind of theatrical energy into the world."
Christa Wolf's novel Cassandra (1983) is a critical engagement with the Iliad. Wolf's narrator is Cassandra, whose thoughts are heard at the moment just before her murder by Clytemnestra in Sparta. Wolf's narrator presents a feminist's view of the war, and of war in general. Cassandra's story is accompanied by four essays which Wolf delivered as the Frankfurter Poetik-Vorlesungen. The essays present Wolf's concerns as a writer and rewriter of this canonical story and show the genesis of the novel through Wolf's own readings and in a trip she took to Greece.
David Melnick's Men in Aida (cf. μῆνιν ἄειδε) (1983) is a postmodern homophonic translation of Book One into a farcical bathhouse scenario, preserving the sounds but not the meaning of the original.
Marion Zimmer Bradley's 1987 novel The Firebrand retells the story from the point of view of Kassandra, a princess of Troy and a prophetess who is cursed by Apollo.
Contemporary popular culture
Eric Shanower's Image Comics series Age of Bronze, which began in 1998, retells the legend of the Trojan War.
Dan Simmons' epic science fiction adaptation/tribute Ilium was released in 2003, receiving a Locus Award for best science fiction novel of 2003.
Troy (2004), a loose film adaptation of the Iliad, received mixed reviews but was a commercial success, particularly in international sales. It grossed $133 million in the United States and $497 million worldwide, making it the 188th top-grossing movie of all time.
Madeline Miller's 2011 debut novel The Song of Achilles tells the story of Achilles' and Patroclus' life together as children, lovers, and soldiers. The novel, which won the 2012 Women's Prize for Fiction, draws on the Iliad as well as the works of other classical authors such as Statius, Ovid, and Virgil.
Alice Oswald's sixth collection, Memorial (2011), is based on but departs from the narrative form of the Iliad to focus on, and so commemorate, the individually-named characters whose deaths are mentioned in that poem. Later in October 2011, Memorial was shortlisted for the T. S. Eliot Prize, but in December 2011, Oswald withdrew the book from the shortlist, citing concerns about the ethics of the prize's sponsors.
The Rage of Achilles, by American author and Yale Writers' Conference founder Terence Hawkins, recounts the Iliad as a novel in modern, sometimes graphic language. Informed by Julian Jaynes' theory of the bicameral mind and the historicity of the Trojan War, it depicts its characters as real men to whom the gods appear only as hallucinations or command voices during the sudden and painful transition to truly modern consciousness.
Sciences
Psychiatrist Jonathan Shay wrote two books, Achilles in Vietnam: Combat Trauma and the Undoing of Character (1994) and Odysseus in America: Combat Trauma and the Trials of Homecoming (2002), which relate the Iliad and the Odyssey to posttraumatic stress disorder and moral injury as seen in the rehabilitation histories of combat veteran patients.
English translations
Wenceslas Hollar's engraved title page of a 1660 edition of the Iliad, translated by John Ogilby
Further information: English translations of Homer
Sampling of translations and editions of Iliad in English
George Chapman published his translation of the Iliad, in installments, beginning in 1598, published in "fourteeners", a long-line ballad metre that "has room for all of Homer's figures of speech and plenty of new ones, as well as explanations in parentheses. At its best, as in Achilles' rejection of the embassy in Iliad Nine; it has great rhetorical power.": 351 It quickly established itself as a classic in English poetry. In the preface to his own translation, Pope praises "the daring fiery spirit" of Chapman's rendering, which is "something like what one might imagine Homer, himself, would have writ before he arrived at years of discretion."
John Keats praised Chapman in the sonnet On First Looking into Chapman's Homer (1816). John Ogilby's mid-17th-century translation is among the early annotated editions; Alexander Pope's 1715 translation, in heroic couplet, is "The classic translation that was built on all the preceding versions,": 352 and, like Chapman's, it is a major poetic work in its own right. William Cowper's Miltonic, blank verse 1791 edition is highly regarded for its greater fidelity to the Greek than either the Chapman or the Pope versions: "I have omitted nothing; I have invented nothing," Cowper says in prefacing his translation.
In the lectures On Translating Homer (1861), Matthew Arnold addresses the matters of translation and interpretation in rendering the Iliad to English; commenting upon the versions contemporarily available in 1861, he identifies the four essential poetic qualities of Homer to which the translator must do justice:
that he is eminently rapid; that he is eminently plain and direct, both in the evolution of his thought and in the expression of it, that is, both in his syntax and in his words; that he is eminently plain and direct in the substance of his thought, that is, in his matter and ideas; and, finally, that he is eminently noble.
After a discussion of the metres employed by previous translators, Arnold argues for a poetical dialect hexameter translation of the Iliad, like the original. "Laborious as this meter was, there were at least half a dozen attempts to translate the entire Iliad or Odyssey in hexameters; the last in 1945. Perhaps the most fluent of them was by J. Henry Dart in response to Arnold.": 354 In 1870, the American poet William Cullen Bryant published a blank verse version, that Van Wyck Brooks describes as "simple, faithful."
An 1898 translation by Samuel Butler was published by Longmans. Butler had read Classics at Cambridge University, graduating in 1859.
Since 1950, there have been several English translations: Richmond Lattimore's version (1951) is "a free six-beat" line-for-line rendering in often unidiomatic, often archaic English. Robert Fitzgerald's version (Oxford World's Classics, 1974) uses shorter, mostly iambic lines and numerous allusions to earlier English poetry.
Robert Fagles (Penguin Classics, 1990) and Stanley Lombardo (1997) are bolder than Lattimore in adding more contemporary American-English idioms to convey Homer's conventional and formulaic language. Rodney Merrill's translation (University of Michigan Press, 2007) renders the work in English verse like the dactylic hexameter of the original.
Peter Green translated the Iliad in 2015, a version published by the University of California Press.
Caroline Alexander published the first full-length English translation by a woman in 2015.
Emily Wilson's 2023 translation uses unrhymed iambic pentameters.
Manuscripts
There are more than 2000 manuscripts of Homer. Some of the most notable manuscripts include:
Rom. Bibl. Nat. gr. 6 + Matriti. Bibl. Nat. 4626 from 870–890
Venetus A = Venetus Marc. 822 from the 10th century
Venetus B = Venetus Marc. 821 from the 11th century
Ambrosian Iliad
Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 20
Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 21
Codex Nitriensis (palimpsest)
See also
Ancient Greece portal
Mask of Agamemnon
Parallels between Virgil's Aeneid and Homer's Iliad and Odyssey
Heinrich Schliemann
English translations of Homer
References
Notes
^ Frobish (2003, p. 24) writes that the war "starts with his pride and immaturity, yet is finished with his skill and bravery on the battlefield."
Citations
^ "Iliad". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
^ Bell, Robert H. "Homer's humor: laughter in the Iliad." hand 1 (2007): 596.
^ Homer. The Iliad. New York: Norton Books. p. 115.
^ Lawson, John Cuthbert (1910). Modern Greek folklore and ancient Greek religion: a study in survivals. Cambridge University Press. pp. 2–3.
^ Adkins, A. W. H.; Pollard, John Richard Thornhill (March 2, 2020) . "Greek religion". Encyclopædia Britannica.
^ a b Mikalson, Jon (1991). Honor Thy Gods: Popular Religion in Greek Tragedy. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
^ Homer's Iliad, Classical Technology Center.
^ a b Lefkowitz, Mary (2003). Greek Gods, Human Lives: What We Can Learn From Myths. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press.
^ Taplin, Oliver (2003). "Bring Back the Gods". The New York Times (14 December).
^ a b Jaynes, Julian. (1976) The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind. p. 221
^ a b c Kullmann, Wolfgang (1985). "Gods and Men in the Iliad and the Odyssey". Harvard Studies in Classical Philology. 89: 1–23. doi:10.2307/311265. JSTOR 311265.
^ a b Homer (1998). The Iliad. Translated by Fagles, Robert; Knox, Bernard. New York: Penguin Books. p. 589.
^ Fate as presented in Homer's "The Iliad", Everything2
^ Dunkle, Roger (1986). "ILIAD", in The Classical Origins of Western Culture, The Core Studies 1 Study Guide. Brooklyn College. Archived from the original December 5, 2007.
^ "The Concept of the Hero in Greek Civilization". Athome.harvard.edu. Archived from the original on 2010-04-21. Retrieved 2010-04-18.
^ "Heroes and the Homeric Iliad". Uh.edu. Retrieved 2010-04-18.
^ a b Volk, Katharina. "ΚΛΕΟΣ ΑΦΘΙΤΟΝ Revisited". Classical Philology, Vol. 97, No. 1 (Jan., 2002), pp. 61–68.
^ 9.410-416
^ Homer. The Iliad (Lattimore 1951).
^ II.46, V.724, XIII.22, XIV.238, XVIII.370
^ 2.155, 2.251, 9.413, 9.434, 9.622, 10.509, 16.82
^ a b Frobish, T. S. (2003). "An Origin of a Theory: A Comparison of Ethos in the Homeric Iliad with That Found in Aristotle's Rhetoric". Rhetoric. 22 (1): 16–30. doi:10.1207/S15327981RR2201_2. S2CID 44483572.
^ a b Thompson, Diane P. "Achilles' Wrath and the Plan of Zeus."
^ The Iliad. Translated by Rouse, W. H. D. London: T. Nelsons & Sons. 1938. p. 11.
^ Homer, Iliad 1.13 (Lattimore 1951).
^ Homer, Iliad 1.122 (Lattimore 1951).
^ Moore, C. H. (1921). "Prophecy in the Ancient Epic". Harvard Studies in Classical Philology. 32: 99–175. doi:10.2307/310716. JSTOR 310716.
^ West, M. L. (1999). "The Invention of Homer". The Classical Quarterly. 49 (2): 364–382. doi:10.1093/cq/49.2.364. ISSN 0009-8388. JSTOR 639863.
^ Herodotus (de Sélincourt) 1975, p. 41.
^ Ἰλιάς, Ἰλιακός, Ἴλιος. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project
^ Hist. 2.116
^ Blackwell, Amy Hackney (2007). "Robot Scans Ancient Manuscript in 3-D." Wired.
^ "Homerus, ". Onassis Library. Retrieved 2017-09-03.
^ The Columbia Encyclopedia (5 ed.) (1994). p. 173.
^ Porter, John. The Iliad as Oral Formulaic Poetry (8 May 2006) University of Saskatchewan. Retrieved 26 November 2007.
^ Lord, Albert (1960). The Singer of Tales. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. p. 190, 195.
^ a b Armstrong, James I. (1958). "The Arming Motif in the Iliad." American Journal of Philology 79(4):337–354.
^ Iliad, Book XVI, 130–54
^ Toohey, Peter (1992). Reading Epic: An Introduction to the Ancient Narrative. New Fetter Lane, London: Routledge.
^ Iliad 3.45–50
^ Iliad 59–65
^ Keegan, John (1993). A History of Warfare. p. 248.
^ Iliad 6.6
^ Cahill, Tomas (2003). Sailing the Wine Dark Sea: Why the Greeks Matter.
^ "The Greek Age of Bronze – Armour".
^ a b c d e Lendon, J.E. (2005). Soldiers and Ghosts: A History of Battle in Classical Antiquity. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
^ Herodotus, Histories 1.82
^ Van Wees, Hans. Greek Warfare: Myth and Realities. p. 249.
^ Nennius. "Historia Brittonum". Fordham University. Paul Halsall. Retrieved 4 July 2022.
^ "Thetis Transporting Arms for Achilles". Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 4 July 2022.
^ Al-Boustani, Suleyman (2012). الإلياذة (Iliad). Cairo, Egypt: Hindawi. pp. 26–27. ISBN 978-977-719-184-5.
^ Bruce B. Lawrence and Aisha Karim (2008). On Violence: A Reader. Duke University Press. p. 377. ISBN 978-0-8223-3769-0.
^ Logue, Christopher (2015). "Introduction by Christopher Reid". War Music, an account of Homer's Iliad. Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-31449-2.
^ Eric Shanower. A Thousand Ships (2001, ISBN 1-58240-200-0); —. Sacrifice (2004, ISBN 1-58240-360-0); —. Betrayal, Part One (2008, ISBN 978-1-58240-845-3)
^ "All Time Worldwide Box Office Grosses". Box Office Mojo.
^ Miller, Madeline (2011). The Song of Achilles. London: Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-1-4088-1603-5. OCLC 740635377.
^ Ciabattari, Jane (March 21, 2012). "Madeline Miller Discusses The Song of Achilles". The Daily Beast. Retrieved June 1, 2012.
^ Oswald, Alice (2011). Memorial: An Excavation of the Iliad. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-27416-1. Archived from the original on 2012-06-06.
^ Holland, Tom (17 October 2011). "The Song of Achilles by Madeline Miller / Memorial by Alice Oswald. Surfing the rip tide of all things Homeric". New Statesman. London. Archived from the original on 23 May 2021. Retrieved 1 June 2012.
^ Kellaway, Kate (2 October 2011). "Memorial by Alice Oswald – review". The Observer. London. Retrieved 1 June 2012.
^ Higgins, Charlotte (28 October 2011). "The Song of Achilles by Madeline Miller, and more – review". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 1 June 2012.
^ Flood, Alison (20 October 2011). "TS Eliot prize 2011 shortlist revealed". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 1 June 2012.
^ Waters, Florence (6 December 2011). "Poet withdraws from TS Eliot prize over sponsorship". The Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 2022-01-10. Retrieved 2012-02-13.
^ Flood, Alison (6 December 2011). "Alice Oswald withdraws from TS Eliot prize in protest at sponsor Aurum". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 2012-02-13.
^ Oswald, Alice (12 December 2011). "Why I pulled out of the TS Eliot poetry prize". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 2012-02-13.
^ Shay, Jonathan. Achilles in Vietnam: Combat trauma and the undoing of character. Scribner, 1994. ISBN 978-0-684-81321-9
^ Shay, Jonathan. Odysseus in America: Combat Trauma and the Trials of Homecoming. New York: Scribner, 2002. ISBN 978-0-7432-1157-4
^ a b c The Oxford Guide to English Literature in Translation.
^ St John's College – The Iliad (1898) Cambridge University
^
Wolff, Karl. "The Iliad: A New Translation by Caroline Alexander." New York Journal of Books.
^ Rowan Williams (6 September 2023). "Homer's history of violence". New Statesman.
^ Homer (2023). The Iliad. Translated by Emily Wilson. New York, London: W. W. Norton. ISBN 9781324001805.
^ OCLC 722287142
^ Bird, Graeme D. (2010). Multitextuality in the Homeric Iliad: The Witness of the Ptolemaic Papyr. Washington, D.C.: Center for Hellenic Studies. ISBN 978-0-674-05323-6.
Sources
Herodotus (1975) . Burn, A. R.; de Sélincourt, Aubrey (eds.). The Histories. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-051260-8.
The Iliad by Homer, translated by Lattimore, Richmond, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951
Further reading
Budimir, Milan (1940). On the Iliad and Its Poet.
De Jong, Irene (2012). Iliad. Book XXII, Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521709774
Edwards, Mark W.; Kirk, G. S., The Iliad: A Commentary: Volume V, Books 17–20, Cambridge University Press, 1991. ISBN 0-521-30959-X
Edwards, Mark W.; Janko, Richard; Kirk, G. S., The Iliad: A Commentary: Volume IV, Books 13–16, Cambridge University Press, 1992. ISBN 0-521-28171-7
Fox, Robin Lane (2008). Travelling Heroes: Greeks and their myths in the epic age of Homer. Allen Lane. ISBN 978-0-7139-9980-8.
Graziosi, Barbara; Haubold, Johannes, Iliad: Book VI, Cambridge University Press, 2010. ISBN 9780521878845
Kouroupis, Georgios; Tsiplakos, Ioannis (2022). The Iliad: honour and glory in Wilios. Athens: Akritas. ISBN 9786188420298.
Kirk, G. S., The Iliad: A Commentary: Volume I, Books 1–4, Cambridge University Press, 1985. ISBN 0-521-23709-2
Kirk, G. S., The Iliad: A Commentary: Volume II, Books 5–8, Cambridge University Press, 1990. ISBN 0-521-23710-6
Hainsworth, Bryan; Kirk, G.S., The Iliad: A Commentary: Volume III, Books 9–12, Cambridge University Press, 1993. ISBN 0-521-23711-4]
Murray, A. T.; Wyatt, William F., Homer: The Iliad, Books I–XII, Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, 1999, ISBN 978-0-674-99579-6
Mueller, Martin (1984). The Iliad. London: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 0-04-800027-2.
Nagy, Gregory (1979). The Best of the Achaeans. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-2388-9. Archived from the original on 2015-02-17. Retrieved 2006-07-20.
Page, Denys Lionel (1959). History and the Homeric Iliad. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-00983-7.
Powell, Barry B. (2004). Homer. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-5325-6.
Richardson, Nicholas; Kirk, G. S., The Iliad: A Commentary: Volume VI, Books 21–24, Cambridge University Press, 1993. ISBN 0-521-30960-3
Seaford, Richard (1994). Reciprocity and Ritual. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-815036-9.
Thurman, Judith, "Mother Tongue: How Emily Wilson makes Homer modern", The New Yorker, 18 September 2023, pp. 46–53. Long-form article on Emily Wilson's Homer translations.
West, Martin (1997). The East Face of Helicon. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-815221-3.
West, Martin L., Studies in the text and transmission of the Iliad, Munich : K. G. Saur, 2001. ISBN 3-598-73005-5
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Iliad.
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
The Iliad
Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Ἰλιάς
Library resources about Iliad
Online books
Resources in your library
Resources in other libraries
The Iliad, translated by William Cullen Bryant at Standard Ebooks
The Iliad public domain audiobook at LibriVox
Multiple translations of the Iliad at Project Gutenberg:
The Iliad of Homer, by George Chapman, at Project Gutenberg
The Iliad of Homer, by Alexander Pope, at Project Gutenberg
The Iliad of Homer, by William Cowper, at Project Gutenberg
The Iliad of Homer, by Theodore Alois Buckley, at Project Gutenberg
The Iliad of Homer, by Edward, Earl of Derby, at Project Gutenberg
The Iliad of Homer, by Andrew Lang, Walter Leaf and Ernest Meyers, at Project Gutenberg
The Iliad of Homer, by Samuel Butler, at Project Gutenberg
Iliad : from the Perseus Project (PP), with the Murray and Butler translations and hyperlinks to mythological and grammatical commentary
Iliad: the Greek text presented with the translation by Buckley and vocabulary, notes, and analysis of difficult grammatical forms
Gods, Achaeans and Troyans. An interactive visualization of The Iliad's characters flow and relations.
The Iliad: A Study Guide
Comments on background, plot, themes, authorship, and translation issues by 2008 translator Herbert Jordan.
Flaxman illustrations of the Iliad
The Iliad study guide, themes, quotes, teacher resources
Digital facsimile of the first printed publication (editio princeps) of the Iliad in Homeric Greek by Demetrios Chalkokondyles, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek
vteEpic Cycle
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Category:Theban kings
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LiteratureVerse
Aeneid (19 BCE)
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|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Iliad (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iliad_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"/ˈɪliəd/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Ancient Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language"},{"link_name":"romanized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Ancient_Greek"},{"link_name":"Attic Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attic_Greek_language"},{"link_name":"[iː.li.ás]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek"},{"link_name":"Ilion (Troy)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troy"},{"link_name":"ancient Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek"},{"link_name":"epic poems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_poem"},{"link_name":"Homer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homer"},{"link_name":"Odyssey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odyssey"},{"link_name":"books","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chapter_(books)#Book-like"},{"link_name":"dactylic hexameter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dactylic_hexameter"},{"link_name":"Trojan War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan_War"},{"link_name":"siege","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege"},{"link_name":"Troy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troy"},{"link_name":"Mycenaean Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece"},{"link_name":"Agamemnon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agamemnon"},{"link_name":"Achilles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achilles"},{"link_name":"Epic Cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_Cycle"},{"link_name":"European literature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_literature"},{"link_name":"Homeric Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeric_Greek"},{"link_name":"Ionic Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionic_Greek"},{"link_name":"antiquity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_antiquity"},{"link_name":"predominantly assumes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeric_Question"},{"link_name":"oral tradition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_tradition"},{"link_name":"rhapsodes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhapsode"},{"link_name":"kleos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kleos"},{"link_name":"instances of comedy and laughter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Homeric_laughter"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bell-2"},{"link_name":"Olympian gods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelve_Olympians"}],"text":"For other uses, see Iliad (disambiguation).The Iliad (/ˈɪliəd/;[1] Ancient Greek: Ἰλιάς, romanized: Iliás, Attic Greek: [iː.li.ás]; \"[a poem] about Ilion (Troy)\") is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is one of the oldest extant works of literature still widely read by modern audiences. As with the Odyssey, the poem is divided into 24 books and was written in dactylic hexameter. It contains 15,693 lines in its most widely accepted version. Set towards the end of the Trojan War, a ten-year siege of the city of Troy by a coalition of Mycenaean Greek states, the poem depicts significant events in the siege's final weeks. In particular, it depicts a fierce quarrel between King Agamemnon and a celebrated warrior, Achilles. It is a central part of the Epic Cycle. The Iliad is often regarded as the first substantial piece of European literature.The Iliad and the Odyssey were likely written down in Homeric Greek, a literary mixture of Ionic Greek and other dialects, probably around the late 8th or early 7th century BC. Homer's authorship was infrequently questioned in antiquity, but contemporary scholarship predominantly assumes that the Iliad and the Odyssey were composed independently and that the stories formed as part of a long oral tradition. The poem was performed by professional reciters of Homer known as rhapsodes.Critical themes in the poem include kleos (glory), pride, fate and wrath. Despite being predominantly known for its tragic and serious themes, the poem also contains instances of comedy and laughter.[2] The poem is frequently described as a masculine or heroic epic, especially compared with the Odyssey. It contains detailed descriptions of ancient war instruments and battle tactics, and fewer female characters. The Olympian gods also play a major role in the poem, aiding their favoured warriors on the battlefield and intervening in personal disputes. Their characterisation in the poem humanised them for Ancient Greek audiences, giving a concrete sense of their cultural and religious tradition. In terms of formal style, the poem's repetitions and use of similes and epithets are often explored by scholars.","title":"Iliad"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Beginning_Iliad.svg"}],"text":"The first verses of the Iliad","title":"Synopsis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0217:book=1"},{"link_name":"invocation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invocation"},{"link_name":"Muse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muse"},{"link_name":"in medias res","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_medias_res"},{"link_name":"Achaeans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaeans_(Homer)"},{"link_name":"Agamemnon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agamemnon"},{"link_name":"Mycenae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycenae"},{"link_name":"Chryses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chryses"},{"link_name":"Apollo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo"},{"link_name":"Chryseis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chryseis"},{"link_name":"Agamemnon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agamemnon"},{"link_name":"prays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeric_prayer"},{"link_name":"Achilles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achilles"},{"link_name":"Myrmidon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myrmidons"},{"link_name":"Briseis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Briseis"},{"link_name":"Odysseus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odysseus"},{"link_name":"Thetis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thetis"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Zeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeus"},{"link_name":"2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0217:book=2"},{"link_name":"Athena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athena"},{"link_name":"rout","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rout"},{"link_name":"Thersites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thersites"},{"link_name":"Priam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priam"},{"link_name":"sortie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sortie"},{"link_name":"3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0217:book=3"},{"link_name":"Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Menelaus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menelaus"},{"link_name":"Hector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hector"},{"link_name":"Troy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troy"},{"link_name":"Helen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helen_of_Troy"},{"link_name":"Sparta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta"},{"link_name":"Aphrodite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphrodite"},{"link_name":"4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0217:book=4"},{"link_name":"Hera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hera"},{"link_name":"Pandarus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandarus"}],"sub_title":"Exposition (Books 1–4)","text":"(1) The story begins with an invocation to the Muse. The events begin in medias res towards the end of the Trojan War, fought between the Trojans and the besieging Achaeans. The Achaean forces consist of armies from many different Greek kingdoms, led by their respective kings or princes. Agamemnon, king of Mycenae, acts as commander for these united armies.Chryses, a priest of Apollo, offers the Achaeans wealth for the return of his daughter Chryseis, held captive by Agamemnon. Although most of the Achaean kings are in favor of the offer, Agamemnon refuses. Chryses prays for Apollo's help, and Apollo sends a plague to afflict the Achaean army. After nine days of plague, Achilles, the leader of the Myrmidon forces and aristos achaion (\"best of the Greeks\"), calls an assembly to deal with the problem. Under pressure, Agamemnon agrees to return Chryseis to her father, but decides to take Achilles' slave, Briseis, as compensation. Because war prizes were correlated with honor, Agamemnon's decision dishonors Achilles in front of the assembled Achaean forces. Achilles furiously declares that he and his men will no longer fight for Agamemnon. Odysseus returns Chryseis to her father, causing Apollo to end the plague.In the meantime, Agamemnon's messengers take Briseis away. Achilles becomes very upset and prays to his mother, Thetis, a minor goddess and sea nymph.[3] Achilles asks his mother to ask Zeus to allow the Achaeans to be beaten back by the Trojans, until their ships are at risk of burning. Only then will Agamemnon realize how much the Achaeans need Achilles, and restore his honor. Thetis does so, and Zeus agrees. (2) Zeus then sends a dream to Agamemnon, urging him to attack Troy. Agamemnon heeds the dream, but first decides to test the Achaean army's morale by telling them to go home. But nine years into the war, the soldiers' morale has worn thin. The plan backfires, and only the intervention of Odysseus, inspired by Athena, stops a rout. Odysseus confronts and beats Thersites, a common soldier who voices discontent about fighting Agamemnon's war.The Achaeans deploy in companies upon the Trojan plain. When news of the Achaean deployment reaches King Priam, the Trojans respond in a sortie upon the plain. (3) The armies approach each other, but before they meet, Paris offers to end the war by fighting a duel with Menelaus, urged by Hector, his brother and hero of Troy. Here, the initial cause of the entire war is explained: Helen, wife of Menelaus, and the most beautiful woman in the world, is either through seduction or by force, taken by Paris from Menelaus' home in Sparta. Menelaus and Paris agree to duel; Helen will marry the victor. However, when Paris is beaten, Aphrodite rescues him and leads him to bed with Helen before Menelaus can kill him.(4) The gods deliberate over whether the war should end here, but Hera convinces Zeus to wait for the utter destruction of Troy. Athena prompts the Trojan archer Pandarus to shoot Menelaus. Menelaus is wounded, and the truce is broken. Fighting breaks out, and many minor Trojans are killed.","title":"Synopsis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0217:book=5"},{"link_name":"Diomedes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diomedes"},{"link_name":"Aeneas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeneas"},{"link_name":"Ares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ares"},{"link_name":"Hector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hector"},{"link_name":"6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0217:book=6"},{"link_name":"Glaucus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaucus_(soldier)"},{"link_name":"Bellerophon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bellerophon"},{"link_name":"Andromache","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andromache"},{"link_name":"Astyanax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astyanax"},{"link_name":"7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0217:book=7"},{"link_name":"Ajax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajax_the_Great"}],"sub_title":"Duels of Greek and Trojan Heroes (Books 5–7)","text":"(5) In the fighting, Diomedes kills many Trojans, including Pandarus, and defeats Aeneas. Aphrodite rescues him before he can be killed, but Diomedes attacks her and wounds the goddess' wrist. Apollo faces Diomedes and warns him against warring with gods, which Diomedes ignores. Apollo sends Ares to defeat Diomedes. Many heroes and commanders join in, including Hector, and the gods supporting each side try to influence the battle. Emboldened by Athena, Diomedes wounds Ares and puts him out of action.(6) Hector rallies the Trojans and prevents a rout. Diomedes and the Trojan Glaucus find common ground after a duel and exchange unequal gifts, while Glaucus tells Diomedes the story of Bellerophon. Hector enters the city, urges prayers and sacrifices, incites Paris to battle, and bids his wife Andromache and son Astyanax farewell on the city walls. He then rejoins the battle. (7) Hector duels with Ajax, but nightfall interrupts the fight, and both sides retire. The Trojans quarrel about returning Helen. Paris offers to return the treasure he took and give further wealth as compensation, but not Helen, and the offer is refused. Both sides agree to a day's truce to burn the dead. The Achaeans also build a wall and trench to protect their camp and ships.","title":"Synopsis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0217:book=8"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Iliad_VIII_245-253_in_cod_F205,_Milan,_Biblioteca_Ambrosiana,_late_5c_or_early_6c.jpg"},{"link_name":"Greek manuscript","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambrosian_Iliad"},{"link_name":"9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0217:book=9"},{"link_name":"Odysseus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odysseus"},{"link_name":"Phoenix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenix_(son_of_Amyntor)"},{"link_name":"Patroclus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patroclus"},{"link_name":"10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0217:book=10"},{"link_name":"Dolon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolon_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Thracian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thracian"},{"link_name":"11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0217:book=11"},{"link_name":"Nestor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nestor_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"12","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0217:book=12"},{"link_name":"13","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0217:book=13"},{"link_name":"Idomeneus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idomeneus_of_Crete"},{"link_name":"Polydamas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polydamas_(Iliad)"},{"link_name":"14","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0217:book=14"},{"link_name":"Poseidon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poseidon"},{"link_name":"15","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0217:book=15"}],"sub_title":"The Rout of the Greeks (Books 8–15)","text":"(8) The next morning, Zeus prohibits the gods from interfering, and fighting begins anew. The Trojans prevail and force the Achaeans back to their wall. Hera and Athena are forbidden to help. Night falls before the Trojans can assail the Achaean wall. They camp in the field to attack at first light, and their watchfires light the plain like stars.Iliad, Book VIII, lines 245–253, Greek manuscript, late 5th, early 6th centuries AD(9) Meanwhile, the Achaeans are desperate. Agamemnon admits his error, and sends an embassy composed of Odysseus, Ajax, Phoenix, and two heralds to offer Briseis and extensive gifts to Achilles, if only he will return to the fighting. Achilles and his companion Patroclus receive the embassy well. However, considering the slight to his honor too great, Achilles angrily refuses Agamemnon's offer and declares that he will only return to battle if the Trojans reach his ships and threaten them with fire. The embassy returns empty-handed.(10) Later that night, Odysseus and Diomedes venture out to the Trojan lines, kill the Trojan Dolon, and wreak havoc in the camps of some Thracian allies of Troy. (11) In the morning, the fighting is fierce, and Agamemnon, Diomedes, and Odysseus are all wounded. Achilles sends Patroclus from his camp to inquire about the Achaean casualties, and while there, Patroclus is moved to pity by a speech by Nestor. Nestor asks Patroclus to beg Achilles to rejoin the fighting, or if he will not, to lead the army wearing Achilles' armor.(12) The Trojans attack the Achaean wall on foot. Hector leads the terrible fighting, despite an omen that their charge will fail. The Achaeans are overwhelmed and routed, the wall's gate is broken, and Hector charges in. The Achaeans fall back to their ships.(13) Poseidon pities the Achaeans, and decides to disobey Zeus and help them. He rallies the Achaeans' spirits, and they begin to push the Trojans back. Poseidon's nephew Amphimachus is killed in the battle; Poseidon imbues Idomeneus with godly power. Many fall on both sides. The Trojan seer Polydamas urges Hector to fall back because of a bad omen, but is ignored.(14) Hera seduces Zeus and lulls him to sleep, allowing Poseidon to help the Greeks. The Trojans are driven back onto the plain. Ajax wounds Hector, who is then carried back to Troy. (15) Zeus awakes and is enraged by Poseidon's intervention. However, he reassures Hera that Troy is still fated to fall once Hector kills Patroclus. Poseidon is recalled from the battlefield, and Zeus sends Apollo to aid the Trojans. The Trojans once again breach the wall, and the battle reaches the ships.","title":"Synopsis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"16","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0217:book=16"},{"link_name":"Myrmidons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myrmidons"},{"link_name":"Sarpedon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarpedon_(Trojan_War_hero)"},{"link_name":"Cebriones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cebriones"},{"link_name":"Euphorbos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphorbos"},{"link_name":"17","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0217:book=17"},{"link_name":"Antilochus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antilochus_of_Pylos"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Achilles_weapons_MNA_Naples.jpg"},{"link_name":"Thetis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thetis"},{"link_name":"Hephaestus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hephaestus"},{"link_name":"Pompeii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeii"},{"link_name":"18","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0217:book=18"},{"link_name":"Hephaestus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hephaestus"},{"link_name":"magnificently wrought shield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shield_of_Achilles"}],"sub_title":"The Death of Patroclus (Books 16–18)","text":"(16) Patroclus cannot stand to watch any longer, and goes to Achilles, weeping. He briefly admonishes him for his stubbornness, then asks Achilles to allow him to fight in his place, wearing his armor so that he will be mistaken for Achilles. Achilles relents and lends Patroclus his armor, but sends him off with a stern admonition to come back to him, and not to pursue the Trojans. Achilles says that after all has been made right, he and Patroclus will take Troy together.Patroclus leads the Myrmidons into battle and arrives as the Trojans set fire to the first ships. The Trojans are routed by the sudden onslaught, and Patroclus begins his assault by killing Zeus's son Sarpedon, a leading ally of the Trojans. Patroclus, ignoring Achilles' command, pursues and reaches the gates of Troy, where Apollo himself stops him. Patroclus kills Hector's brother Cebriones, is set upon by Apollo and Euphorbos, and is finally killed by Hector.(17) Hector takes Achilles' armor from the fallen Patroclus. The Achaeans fight to retrieve Patroclus' body from the Trojans, who attempt to carry it back to Troy at Hector's command. Antilochus is sent to tell Achilles the news, and asks him to help retrieve the body.Thetis at Hephaestus' forge waiting to receive Achilles' new weapons. Fresco from Pompeii, 1st century(18) When Achilles hears of Patroclus' death, he screams so loudly in his grief that his mother, Thetis, hears him from the bottom of the ocean. Thetis grieves, too, knowing that Achilles is fated to die young if he kills Hector. Though he knows it will seal his own fate, Achilles vows to kill Hector in order to avenge Patroclus.Achilles is urged to help retrieve Patroclus' body, but has no armor to wear. Bathed in a brilliant radiance by Athena, Achilles stands next to the Achaean wall and roars in rage. The Trojans are terrified by his appearance, and the Achaeans manage to bear Patroclus' body away. Polydamas urges Hector again to withdraw into the city; again Hector refuses, and the Trojans camp on the plain at nightfall.Achilles mourns Patroclus, brokenhearted. Meanwhile, at Thetis' request, Hephaestus fashions a new set of armor for Achilles, including a magnificently wrought shield.","title":"Synopsis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"19","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0217:book=19"},{"link_name":"Briseis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Briseis"},{"link_name":"Xanthos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balius_and_Xanthus"},{"link_name":"Automedon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automedon"},{"link_name":"20","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0217:book=20"},{"link_name":"Zeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeus"},{"link_name":"21","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0217:book=21"},{"link_name":"Scamander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scamander"},{"link_name":"22","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0217:book=22"},{"link_name":"Hecuba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hecuba"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Achilles%27_Sacrifice_of_Trojan_Prisoners.jpg"},{"link_name":"François Tomb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Tomb"},{"link_name":"Vulci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulci"},{"link_name":"Agamemnon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agamemnon"},{"link_name":"Patroclus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patroclus"},{"link_name":"Vanth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanth"},{"link_name":"Achilles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achilles"},{"link_name":"Charun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charun"},{"link_name":"Ajax the Great","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajax_the_Great"},{"link_name":"Ajax the Lesser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajax_the_Lesser"},{"link_name":"23","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0217:book=23"},{"link_name":"24","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0217:book=24"},{"link_name":"Hermes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermes"}],"sub_title":"The Rage of Achilles (Books 19–24)","text":"(19) In the morning, Thetis brings Achilles his new set of armor, only to find him weeping over Patroclus' body. Achilles arms for battle and rallies the Achaean warriors. Agamemnon gives Achilles all the promised gifts, including Briseis, but Achilles is indifferent to them. The Achaeans take their meal; Achilles refuses to eat. His horse, Xanthos, prophesies Achilles' death; Achilles is indifferent. Achilles goes into battle, Automedon drives his chariot.(20) Zeus lifts the ban on the gods' interference, and the gods freely help both sides. Achilles, burning with rage and grief, slays many. (21) Achilles cuts off half the Trojans' number in the river and slaughters them, clogging the river with bodies. The river god, Scamander, confronts Achilles and commands him to stop killing Trojans, but Achilles refuses. They fight, until Scamander is beaten back by Hephaestus' firestorm. The gods fight amongst themselves. The great gates of the city are opened to receive the fleeing Trojans, and Apollo leads Achilles away from the city by pretending to be a Trojan. (22) When Apollo reveals himself to Achilles, the Trojans have retreated into the city, all except for Hector.Despite the counsel of Polydamas and the pleas of his parents, Priam and Hecuba, Hector resolves to face Achilles. When Achilles approaches, however, Hector's will fails him. He flees, and is chased by Achilles around the city. Finally, Athena tricks him into stopping, and he turns to face his opponent. After a brief duel, Achilles stabs Hector through the neck. Before dying, Hector reminds Achilles that he, too, is fated to die. Achilles strips Hector of his own armor, gloating over his death. Achilles then dishonors Hector's body by lashing it to the back of his chariot and dragging it around the city. The Trojans grieve.A detail of fresco from the François Tomb at Vulci, showing the sacrifice of Trojan slaves. From left to right: Agamemnon, ghost of Patroclus, Vanth, Achilles beheading a slave, Charun, Ajax the Great, a slave, Ajax the Lesser. 350-330 BC(23) The ghost of Patroclus comes to Achilles in a dream, urging him to carry out the burial rites so that Patroclus' spirit can move on to the underworld. Patroclus asks Achilles to arrange for their bones to be entombed together in a single urn; Achilles agrees. Patroclus' body is burned. The Achaeans hold a day of funeral games, and Achilles gives out the prizes.(24) Achilles is lost in his grief, and spends his days mourning Patroclus and dragging Hector's body behind his chariot. Dismayed by Achilles' continued abuse of Hector's body, Zeus decides that it must be returned to Priam. Led by Hermes, Priam takes a wagon filled with gifts out of Troy, across the plains, and into the Achaean camp unnoticed. He clasps Achilles by the knees and begs for his son's body. Achilles is moved to tears, and finally relents in his anger. The two lament their losses in the war. Achilles agrees to give Hector's body back, and to give the Trojans twelve days to properly mourn and bury Hector. Achilles apologizes to Patroclus, fearing he has dishonored him by returning Hector's body. After a meal, Priam carries Hector's body back into Troy. Hector is buried, and the city mourns.","title":"Synopsis"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hypnos_Thanatos_BM_Vase_D56_full.jpg"},{"link_name":"Hypnos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypnos"},{"link_name":"Thanatos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thanatos"},{"link_name":"Sarpedon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarpedon"},{"link_name":"Troy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troy"},{"link_name":"white-ground","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White-ground"},{"link_name":"lekythos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lekythos"}],"text":"Hypnos and Thanatos carrying the body of Sarpedon from the battlefield of Troy; detail from an Attic white-ground lekythos, c. 440 BC","title":"Greek gods and the Iliad"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ancient Greek religion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Poseidon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poseidon"},{"link_name":"Aphrodite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphrodite"},{"link_name":"Ares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ares"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-6"}],"sub_title":"The gods of Greek religion","text":"Ancient Greek religion had no founder, and was not the creation of an inspired teacher. Rather, the religion arose out of the diverse beliefs of the Greek people.[4] These beliefs coincide to the thoughts about the gods in polytheistic Greek religion. Adkins and Pollard (2020/1998) agree with this by saying, \"the early Greeks personalized every aspect of their world, natural and cultural, and their experiences in it. The earth, the sea, the mountains, the rivers, custom-law (themis), and one's share in society and its goods were all seen in personal as well as naturalistic terms.\"[5]As a result of this thinking, each god or goddess in polytheistic Greek religion is attributed to an aspect of the human world. For example, Poseidon is the god of the sea, Aphrodite is the goddess of beauty, Ares is the god of war, and so on and so forth for many other gods. This is how Greek culture was defined as many Athenians felt the presence of their gods through divine intervention in significant events in their lives. Oftentimes they found these events to be mysterious and inexplicable.[6]","title":"Greek gods and the Iliad"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Trojan War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan_War"},{"link_name":"Olympian gods, goddesses, and minor deities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelve_Olympians"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-6"},{"link_name":"Herodotus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodotus"},{"link_name":"Hesiod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hesiod"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Mary Lefkowitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Lefkowitz"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-8"},{"link_name":"Thucydides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thucydides"},{"link_name":"Plato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Julian Jaynes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_Jaynes"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-10"},{"link_name":"Bicameral Mind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicameral_mentality"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-10"}],"sub_title":"Within the Iliad","text":"In the literary Trojan War of the Iliad, the Olympian gods, goddesses, and minor deities fight among themselves and participate in human warfare, often by interfering with humans to counter other gods. Unlike their portrayals in Greek religion, Homer's portrayal of gods suited his narrative purpose. The gods in traditional thought of 4th-century Athenians were not spoken of in terms familiar to the works of Homer.[6] The Classical-era historian Herodotus says that Homer and Hesiod, his contemporary, were the first writers to name and describe the gods' appearance and character.[7]Mary Lefkowitz (2003)[8] discusses the relevance of divine action in the Iliad, attempting to answer the question of whether or not divine intervention is a discrete occurrence (for its own sake), or if such godly behaviors are mere human character metaphors. The intellectual interest of Classic-era authors, such as Thucydides and Plato, was limited to their utility as \"a way of talking about human life rather than a description or a truth\", because, if the gods remain religious figures, rather than human metaphors, their \"existence\"—without the foundation of either dogma or a bible of faiths—then allowed Greek culture the intellectual breadth and freedom to conjure gods fitting any religious function they required as a people.[8][9]Psychologist Julian Jaynes (1976)[10] uses the Iliad as a major piece of evidence for his theory of the Bicameral Mind, which posits that until about the time described in the Iliad, humans had a far different mentality from present-day humans. He says that humans during that time were lacking what is today called consciousness. He suggests that humans heard and obeyed commands from what they identified as gods, until the change in human mentality that incorporated the motivating force into the conscious self. He points out that almost every action in the Iliad is directed, caused, or influenced by a god, and that earlier translations show an astonishing lack of words suggesting thought, planning, or introspection. Those that do appear, he argues, are misinterpretations made by translators imposing a modern mentality on the characters.[10]","title":"Greek gods and the Iliad"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Deception of Zeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deception_of_Zeus"},{"link_name":"Homer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homer"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-11"},{"link_name":"Athena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athena"},{"link_name":"Hera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hera"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-12"},{"link_name":"Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Judgement of Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judgement_of_Paris"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-11"},{"link_name":"Menelaus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menelaus"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-12"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-11"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Divine intervention","text":"See also: Deception of ZeusSome scholars believe that the gods may have intervened in the mortal world because of quarrels they may have had among each other. Homer interprets the world at this time by using the passion and emotion of the gods to be determining factors of what happens on the human level.[11] An example of one of these relationships in the Iliad occurs between Athena, Hera, and Aphrodite. In the final book of the poem Homer writes, \"He offended Athena and Hera—both goddesses.\"[12] Athena and Hera are envious of Aphrodite because of a beauty pageant on Mount Olympus in which Paris chose Aphrodite to be the most beautiful goddess over both Hera and Athena. Wolfgang Kullmann further goes on to say, \"Hera's and Athena's disappointment over the victory of Aphrodite in the Judgement of Paris determines the whole conduct of both goddesses in The Iliad and is the cause of their hatred for Paris, the Judge, and his town Troy.\"[11]Hera and Athena then continue to support the Achaean forces throughout the poem because Paris is part of the Trojans, while Aphrodite aids Paris and the Trojans. The emotions between the goddesses often translate to actions they take in the mortal world. For example, in Book 3 of the Iliad, Paris challenges any of the Achaeans to a single combat and Menelaus steps forward. Menelaus was dominating the battle and was on the verge of killing Paris. \"Now he'd have hauled him off and won undying glory but Aphrodite, Zeus's daughter, was quick to the mark, snapped the rawhide strap.\"[12] Aphrodite intervened out of her own self-interest to save Paris from the wrath of Menelaus because Paris had helped her to win the beauty pageant. The partisanship of Aphrodite towards Paris induces constant intervention by all of the gods, especially to give motivational speeches to their respective protégés, while often appearing in the shape of a human being they are familiar with.[11] This connection of emotions to actions is just one example out of many that occur throughout the poem.[citation needed]","title":"Greek gods and the Iliad"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Themes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destiny"},{"link_name":"Fates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moerae"},{"link_name":"Zeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeus"},{"link_name":"Calchas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calchas"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Lattimore 1951","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFLattimore1951"},{"link_name":"Sarpedon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarpedon"},{"link_name":"Lattimore 1951","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFLattimore1951"},{"link_name":"Lattimore 1951","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFLattimore1951"},{"link_name":"Lattimore 1951","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFLattimore1951"},{"link_name":"Lattimore 1951","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFLattimore1951"},{"link_name":"Cronus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cronus"},{"link_name":"Underworld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_underworld"}],"sub_title":"Fate","text":"Fate (κήρ, kēr, 'fated death') propels most of the events of the Iliad. Once set, gods and men abide it, neither truly able nor willing to contest it. How fate is set is unknown, but it is told by the Fates and by Zeus through sending omens to seers such as Calchas. Men and their gods continually speak of heroic acceptance and cowardly avoidance of one's slated fate.[13] Fate does not determine every action, incident, and occurrence, but it does determine the outcome of life—before killing him, Hector calls Patroclus a fool for cowardly avoidance of his fate, by attempting his defeat;[citation needed] Patroclus retorts:[14]No, deadly destiny, with the son of Leto, has killed me,\nand of men it was Euphorbos; you are only my third slayer.\nAnd put away in your heart this other thing that I tell you.\nYou yourself are not one who shall live long, but now already\ndeath and powerful destiny are standing beside you,\nto go down under the hands of Aiakos' great son, Achilleus.\n\n— Homer, Iliad 16.849–854 (Lattimore 1951).Here, Patroclus alludes to fated death by Hector's hand, and Hector's fated death by Achilles's hand. Each accepts the outcome of his life, yet, no one knows if the gods can alter fate. The first instance of this doubt occurs in Book XVI. Seeing Patroclus about to kill Sarpedon, his mortal son, Zeus says:Ah me, that it is destined that the dearest of men, Sarpedon,\nmust go down under the hands of Menoitios' son Patroclus.\n\n— Homer. The Iliad. 16.433–434 (Lattimore 1951).About his dilemma, Hera asks Zeus:Majesty, son of Kronos, what sort of thing have you spoken?\nDo you wish to bring back a man who is mortal, one long since\ndoomed by his destiny, from ill-sounding death and release him?\nDo it, then; but not all the rest of us gods shall approve you.\n\n— Homer. The Iliad 16.440–43 (Lattimore 1951).In deciding between losing a son or abiding fate, Zeus, King of the Gods, allows it. This motif recurs when he considers sparing Hector, whom he loves and respects. This time, it is Athena who challenges him:Father of the shining bolt, dark misted, what is this you said?\nDo you wish to bring back a man who is mortal, one long since\ndoomed by his destiny, from ill-sounding death and release him?\nDo it, then; but not all the rest of us gods shall approve you.\n\n— Homer. The Iliad 22.178–81 (Lattimore 1951).Again, Zeus appears capable of altering fate, but does not, deciding instead to abide set outcomes; similarly, fate spares Aeneas, after Apollo convinces the over-matched Trojan to fight Achilles. Poseidon cautiously speaks:But come, let us ourselves get him away from death, for fear\nthe son of Kronos may be angered if now Achilleus\nkills this man. It is destined that he shall be the survivor,\nthat the generation of Dardanos shall not die…\n\n— Homer. The Iliad 20.300–04 (Lattimore 1951).Divinely aided, Aeneas escapes the wrath of Achilles and survives the Trojan War. Whether or not the gods can alter fate, they do abide it, despite its countering their human allegiances; thus, the mysterious origin of fate is a power beyond the gods. Fate implies the primeval, tripartite division of the world that Zeus, Poseidon, and Hades effected in deposing their father, Cronus, for its dominion. Zeus took the Air and the Sky, Poseidon the Waters, and Hades the Underworld, the land of the dead—yet they share dominion of the Earth. Despite the earthly powers of the Olympic gods, only the Three Fates set the destiny of Man.","title":"Themes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kleos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kleos"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated1-17"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated1-17"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Hebe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebe_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Hephaestus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hephaestus"},{"link_name":"Lattimore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richmond_Lattimore"}],"sub_title":"Kleos","text":"Kleos (κλέος, \"glory, fame\") is the concept of glory earned in heroic battle.[15] Yet, Achilles must choose only one of the two rewards, either nostos or kleos.[16] In Book IX (IX.410–16), he poignantly tells Agamemnon's envoys—Odysseus, Phoenix, Ajax—begging his reinstatement to battle about having to choose between two fates (διχθαδίας κήρας, 9.411).[17]The passage reads:In forgoing his nostos, he will earn the greater reward of kleos aphthiton (κλέος ἄφθιτον, \"fame imperishable\").[17] In the poem, aphthiton (ἄφθιτον, \"imperishable\") occurs five other times,[20] each occurrence denotes an object: Agamemnon's sceptre, the wheel of Hebe's chariot, the house of Poseidon, the throne of Zeus, the house of Hephaestus. Translator Lattimore renders kleos aphthiton as 'forever immortal' and as 'forever imperishable'—connoting Achilles's mortality by underscoring his greater reward in returning to battle Troy.Kleos is often given visible representation by the prizes won in battle. When Agamemnon takes Briseis from Achilles, he takes away a portion of the kleos he had earned.Achilles' shield, crafted by Hephaestus and given to him by his mother Thetis, bears an image of stars in the centre. The stars conjure profound images of the place of a single man, no matter how heroic, in the perspective of the entire cosmos.","title":"Themes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Nostos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nostos"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Odyssey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odyssey"}],"sub_title":"Nostos","text":"Nostos (νόστος, \"homecoming\") occurs seven times in the poem,[21] making it a minor theme in the Iliad itself. Yet the concept of homecoming is much explored in other Ancient Greek literature, especially in the post-war homeward fortunes experienced by the Atreidae (Agamemnon and Menelaus), and Odysseus (see the Odyssey).","title":"Themes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pride"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Frobish-22"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"sub_title":"Pride","text":"Pride drives the plot of the Iliad. The Achaeans gather on the plain of Troy to wrest Helen from the Trojans. Though the majority of the Trojans would gladly return Helen to the Achaeans, they defer to the pride of their prince, Alexandros, also known as Paris. Within this frame, Homer's work begins. At the start of the Iliad, Agamemnon's pride sets forth a chain of events that leads him to take from Achilles, Briseis, the girl that he had originally given Achilles in return for his martial prowess. Due to this slight, Achilles refuses to fight and asks his mother, Thetis, to make sure that Zeus causes the Achaeans to suffer on the battlefield until Agamemnon comes to realize the harm he has done to Achilles.[22]Achilles' pride allows him to beg Thetis for the deaths of his Achaean friends. When in Book 9 his friends urge him to return, offering him loot and his girl, Briseis, he refuses, stuck in his vengeful pride. Achilles remains stuck until the very end, when his anger at himself for Patroclus' death overcomes his pride at Agamemnon's slight and he returns to kill Hector. He overcomes his pride again when he keeps his anger in check and returns Hector to Priam at epic's close. From epic start to epic finish, pride drives the plot.[a]","title":"Themes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"heroism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero"}],"sub_title":"Heroism","text":"The Iliad portrays the theme of heroism in a variety of different ways through different characters, mainly Achilles, Hector, Patroclus, etc. Though the traditional concept of heroism is often tied directly to the protagonist, who is meant to be written in a heroic light, the Iliad plays with this idea of heroism and does not make it explicitly clear who the true hero of the story is. The story of the Iliad follows the great Greek warrior Achilles, as well as his rage and the destruction it causes. Parallel to this, the story also follows the Trojan warrior Hector and his efforts to fight to protect his family and his people. It is generally assumed that, because he is the protagonist, Achilles is the hero of this story. Examining his actions throughout the Iliad and comparing them to those of other characters, however, some may come to the conclusion that Achilles is not really the hero, and perhaps even an antihero. It can also be argued that Hector is the true hero of the Iliad due to his inherently heroic qualities, such as a loyalty to his family as well as his strength and determination to defend his people, as well as the focus at the end of the story on burying Hector with honor. The true hero of the Iliad is never shown explicitly and is purposefully left up to interpretation by the author Homer, who aimed to show the complexity and flaws of both characters, regardless of who is considered the \"true\" hero.","title":"Themes"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Timē","text":"Akin to kleos is timē (τιμή, \"respect, honor\"), the concept denoting the respectability an honorable man accrues with accomplishment (cultural, political, martial), per his station in life. In Book I, the Achaean troubles begin with King Agamemnon's dishonorable, unkingly behavior—first, by threatening the priest Chryses (1.11), then, by aggravating them in disrespecting Achilles, by confiscating Briseis from him (1.171). The warrior's consequent rancor against the dishonorable king ruins the Achaean military cause.","title":"Themes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thompson-24"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thompson-24"}],"sub_title":"Hybris (hubris)","text":"Hybris (Ὕβρις) plays a part similar to timē. The epic takes as its thesis the anger of Achilles and the destruction it brings. Anger disturbs the distance between human beings and the gods. Uncontrolled anger destroys orderly social relationships and upsets the balance of correct actions necessary to keep the gods away from human beings. Despite the epic's focus on Achilles' rage, hybris also plays a prominent role, serving as both kindling and fuel for many destructive events.[23]Agamemnon refuses to ransom Chriseis up out of hybris and harms Achilles' pride when he demands Briseis. Hubris forces Paris to fight against Menelaus. Agamemnon spurs the Achaean to fight, by calling into question Odysseus, Diomedes, and Nestor's pride, asking why they were cowering and waiting for help when they should be the ones leading the charge. While the events of the Iliad focus on the Achilles' rage and the destruction it brings on, hybris fuels and stokes them both.[23]","title":"Themes"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wrath_of_Achilles2.jpg"},{"link_name":"Michel Martin Drolling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Martin_Drolling"},{"link_name":"acc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accusative"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Calchas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calchas"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Lattimore 1951","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFLattimore1951"},{"link_name":"Lattimore 1951","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFLattimore1951"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Peter_Paul_Rubens_-_Achilles_slays_Hector.jpg"},{"link_name":"Peter Paul Rubens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Paul_Rubens"}],"sub_title":"Mēnis","text":"The Wrath of Achilles (1819), by Michel Martin DrollingThe poem's initial word, μῆνιν (mēnin; acc. μῆνις, mēnis, \"wrath,\" \"rage,\" \"fury\"), establishes the Iliad's principal theme: the \"Wrath of Achilles\".[24] His personal rage and wounded soldier's pride propel the story: the Achaeans' faltering in battle, the slayings of Patroclus and Hector, and the fall of Troy. In Book I, the Wrath of Achilles first emerges in the Achilles-convoked meeting, between the Greek kings and the seer Calchas. King Agamemnon dishonours Chryses, the Trojan priest of Apollo, by refusing with a threat the restitution of his daughter, Chryseis—despite the proffered ransom of \"gifts beyond count.\"[25] The insulted priest prays to Apollo for help, and a nine-day rain of divine plague arrows falls upon the Achaeans. Moreover, in that meeting, Achilles accuses Agamemnon of being \"greediest for gain of all men.\"[26] To that, Agamemnon replies:But here is my threat to you.\nEven as Phoibos Apollo is taking away my Chryseis.\nI shall convey her back in my own ship, with my own\nfollowers; but I shall take the fair-cheeked Briseis,\nyour prize, I myself going to your shelter, that you may learn well\nhow much greater I am than you, and another man may shrink back\nfrom likening himself to me and contending against me.\n\n— Homer, Iliad 1.181–187 (Lattimore 1951).After that, only Athena stays Achilles's wrath. He vows to never again obey orders from Agamemnon. Furious, Achilles cries to his mother, Thetis, who persuades Zeus's divine intervention—favouring the Trojans—until Achilles's rights are restored. Meanwhile, Hector leads the Trojans to almost pushing the Achaeans back to the sea (Book XII). Later, Agamemnon contemplates defeat and retreat to Greece (Book XIV). Again, the Wrath of Achilles turns the war's tide in seeking vengeance when Hector kills Patroclus. Aggrieved, Achilles tears his hair and dirties his face. Thetis comforts her mourning son, who tells her:So it was here that the lord of men Agamemnon angered me.\nStill, we will let all this be a thing of the past, and for all our\nsorrow beat down by force the anger deeply within us.\nNow I shall go, to overtake that killer of a dear life,\nHektor; then I will accept my own death, at whatever\ntime Zeus wishes to bring it about, and the other immortals.\n\n— Homer, Iliad 18.111–116 (Lattimore 1951).Accepting the prospect of death as fair price for avenging Patroclus, he returns to battle, dooming Hector and Troy, thrice chasing him around the Trojan walls, before slaying him, then dragging the corpse behind his chariot, back to camp.Achilles Slays Hector, by Peter Paul Rubens (1630–35)","title":"Themes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"sub_title":"Glorification of War","text":"Much of The Iliad focuses on death dealing. To gain status, heroes must be good at killing. Though not as prevalent, there are instances where the author showcases the peaceful aspects of war. The first instance of this is in book 3 when Menelaus and Paris agree to fight one on one to end the war. This conversation between Menelaus and Paris highlights the overwhelming desire for peace on both sides. Again, in book 3, we see peace when the elders talk to Priam saying that though Helen is a beautiful woman, war is still too high a price to pay for one person. These events display the humanity of the war. In book 6, when Hector goes back into the city to visit his family, this event is another powerful show of peace because we get to see that Hector is more than a great warrior. He is a loving father and devoted husband. The love that is shared between him and his family contrasts with the gory battle scenes, noting the importance of peace. The final moments of peace are in books 23 and 24. The first of these is the funeral games that are held for Patroclus. The games show the happiness, grief, and joy that can happen during the war. In book 24, peace is highlighted again when Akhilleus and Priam share food and grief for their recent losses. In this encounter, the two empathize with one another and agree to a truce of twelve days for the burial of Hector.[27]","title":"Themes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Homeric Question","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeric_Question"},{"link_name":"Historicity of the Iliad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historicity_of_the_Iliad"},{"link_name":"archaic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaic_Greece"},{"link_name":"Classical antiquity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_antiquity"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"terminus ante quem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminus_post_quem"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Herodotus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodotus"},{"link_name":"Oracle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle"},{"link_name":"Dodona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dodona"},{"link_name":"Hesiod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hesiod"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerodotus_(de_S%C3%A9lincourt)197541-30"},{"link_name":"Late Bronze Age collapse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Bronze_Age_collapse"},{"link_name":"Greek Dark Ages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Dark_Ages"},{"link_name":"Mycenaean period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycenaean_period"},{"link_name":"Catalogue of Ships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalogue_of_Ships"},{"link_name":"Iron Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Age"},{"link_name":"Dorian invasion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorian_invasion"},{"link_name":"gen.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genitive_case"},{"link_name":"ellipsis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellipsis_(linguistics)"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Herodotus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodotus"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Venetus A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venetus_A"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"unreliable source?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources"},{"link_name":"first edition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_editiones_principes_in_Greek"},{"link_name":"editio princeps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Editio_princeps"},{"link_name":"Demetrius Chalcondyles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demetrius_Chalcondyles"},{"link_name":"Florence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florence"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"}],"text":"Further information: Homeric Question and Historicity of the IliadThe poem dates to the archaic period of Classical antiquity. Scholarly consensus mostly places it in the late 8th century BC, although some favour a 7th-century date.[citation needed] In any case, the terminus ante quem for the dating of the Iliad is 630 BC, as evidenced by reflection in art and literature.[28]Herodotus, having consulted the Oracle at Dodona, placed Homer and Hesiod at approximately 400 years before his own time, which would place them at c. 850 BC.[29]The historical backdrop of the poem is the time of the Late Bronze Age collapse, in the early 12th century BC. Homer is thus separated from his subject matter by about 400 years, the period known as the Greek Dark Ages. Intense scholarly debate has surrounded the question of which portions of the poem preserve genuine traditions from the Mycenaean period. The Catalogue of Ships in particular has the striking feature that its geography does not portray Greece in the Iron Age, the time of Homer, but as it was before the Dorian invasion.The title Ἰλιάς (Ilias; gen. Ἰλιάδος) is an ellipsis of ἡ ποίησις Ἰλιάς, meaning \"the Trojan poem\". Ἰλιάς is the specifically feminine adjective form from Ἴλιον. The masculine adjective form would be Ἰλιακός or Ἴλιος.[30] It is used by Herodotus.[31]Venetus A, copied in the 10th century AD, is the oldest fully extant manuscript of the Iliad.[32][unreliable source?]The first edition of the Iliad, editio princeps, was edited by Demetrius Chalcondyles and published by Bernardus Nerlius and Demetrius Damilas in Florence in 1489.[33]","title":"Date and textual history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Greeks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks"},{"link_name":"pedagogy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogy"},{"link_name":"rhapsode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhapsode"},{"link_name":"Panathenaic Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panathenaic_Festival"},{"link_name":"Athena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athena"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Milman Parry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milman_Parry"},{"link_name":"oral tradition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_tradition"},{"link_name":"hexametric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexameter"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"Yugoslavia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yugoslavia"},{"link_name":"Albert Lord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Lord"},{"link_name":"Serbian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbian_language"},{"link_name":"Parry/Lord thesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parry/Lord_thesis"},{"link_name":"oral tradition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_tradition"},{"link_name":"Eric Havelock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Havelock"},{"link_name":"Marshall McLuhan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_McLuhan"},{"link_name":"Walter Ong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Ong"},{"link_name":"Gregory Nagy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_Nagy"},{"link_name":"The Singer of Tales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Singer_of_Tales"},{"link_name":"Patroclus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patroclus"},{"link_name":"Sumerian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer"},{"link_name":"Enkidu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enkidu"},{"link_name":"Epic of Gilgamesh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_of_Gilgamesh"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-38"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-38"},{"link_name":"Mycenaean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece"},{"link_name":"Greek Dark Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Dark_Age"},{"link_name":"Scamander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scamander"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"}],"sub_title":"As oral tradition","text":"In antiquity, the Greeks applied the Iliad and the Odyssey as the bases of pedagogy. Literature was central to the educational-cultural function of the itinerant rhapsode, who composed consistent epic poems from memory and improvisation, and disseminated them, via song and chant, in his travels and at the Panathenaic Festival of athletics, music, poetics, and sacrifice, celebrating Athena's birthday.[34]Originally, Classical scholars treated the Iliad and the Odyssey as written poetry, and Homer as a writer. Yet, by the 1920s, Milman Parry (1902–1935) had launched a movement claiming otherwise. His investigation of the oral Homeric style—\"stock epithets\" and \"reiteration\" (words, phrases, stanzas)—established that these formulae were artifacts of oral tradition easily applied to a hexametric line. A two-word stock epithet (e.g. \"resourceful Odysseus\") reiteration may complement a character name by filling a half-line, thus, freeing the poet to compose a half-line of \"original\" formulaic text to complete his meaning.[35] In Yugoslavia, Parry and his assistant, Albert Lord (1912–1991), studied the oral-formulaic composition of Serbian oral poetry, yielding the Parry/Lord thesis that established oral tradition studies, later developed by Eric Havelock, Marshall McLuhan, Walter Ong, and Gregory Nagy.In The Singer of Tales (1960), Lord presents likenesses between the tragedies of the Achaean Patroclus, in the Iliad, and of the Sumerian Enkidu, in the Epic of Gilgamesh, and claims to refute, with \"careful analysis of the repetition of thematic patterns\", that the Patroclus storyline upsets Homer's established compositional formulae of \"wrath, bride-stealing, and rescue\"; thus, stock-phrase reiteration does not restrict his originality in fitting story to rhyme.[36] Likewise, James Armstrong (1958)[37] reports that the poem's formulae yield richer meaning because the \"arming motif\" diction—describing Achilles, Agamemnon, Paris, and Patroclus—serves to \"heighten the importance of…an impressive moment,\" thus, \"[reiteration] creates an atmosphere of smoothness,\" wherein, Homer distinguishes Patroclus from Achilles, and foreshadows the former's death with positive and negative turns of phrase.[38][37]In the Iliad, occasional syntactic inconsistency may be an oral tradition effect—for example, Aphrodite is \"laughter-loving\", despite being painfully wounded by Diomedes (Book V, 375); and the divine representations may mix Mycenaean and Greek Dark Age (c. 1150–800 BC) mythologies, parallelling the hereditary basileis nobles (lower social rank rulers) with minor deities, such as Scamander, et al.[39]","title":"Date and textual history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Trojan Battle Order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan_Battle_Order"}],"text":"See also: Trojan Battle Order","title":"Depiction of warfare"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Phereclus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phereclus"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"chariots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chariot"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"Ajax the Greater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajax_the_Great"},{"link_name":"phalanx","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phalanx"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"Bronze Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Age"},{"link_name":"Battle of Kadesh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Kadesh"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Depiction of infantry combat","text":"Despite Mycenae and Troy being maritime powers, the Iliad features no sea battles.[40] The Trojan shipwright (of the ship that transported Helen to Troy), Phereclus, instead fights afoot, as an infantryman.[41] The battle dress and armour of hero and soldier are well-described. They enter battle in chariots, launching javelins into the enemy formations, then dismount—for hand-to-hand combat with yet more javelin throwing, rock throwing, and if necessary hand to hand sword and shoulder-borne aspis (shield) fighting.[42] Ajax the Greater, son of Telamon, sports a large, rectangular shield (σάκος) with which he protects himself and Teucer, his brother:Ninth came Teucer, stretching his curved bow.\nHe stood beneath the shield of Ajax, son of Telamon.\nAs Ajax cautiously pulled his shield aside,\nTeucer would peer out quickly, shoot off an arrow,\nhit someone in the crowd, dropping that soldier\nright where he stood, ending his life—then he'd duck back,\ncrouching down by Ajax, like a child beside its mother.\nAjax would then conceal him with his shining shield.\n\n— Homer, Iliad 8.267–272, translated by Ian Johnston.Ajax's cumbersome shield is more suitable for defence than for offence, while his cousin Achilles sports a large, rounded, octagonal shield that he successfully deploys along with his spear against the Trojans:Just as a man constructs a wall for some high house,\nusing well-fitted stones to keep out forceful winds,\nthat's how close their helmets and bossed shields lined up,\nshield pressing against shield, helmet against helmet\nman against man. On the bright ridges of the helmets,\nhorsehair plumes touched when warriors moved their heads.\nThat's how close they were to one another.\n\n— Homer, Iliad 16.213–217 (translated by Ian Johnston).In describing infantry combat, Homer names the phalanx formation,[43] but most scholars do not believe the historical Trojan War was so fought.[44] In the Bronze Age, the chariot was the main battle transport-weapon (e.g. the Battle of Kadesh). The available evidence, from the Dendra armour and the Pylos Palace paintings, indicate the Mycenaeans used two-man chariots, with a long-spear-armed principal rider, unlike the three-man Hittite chariots with short-spear-armed riders, and unlike the arrow-armed Egyptian and Assyrian two-man chariots. Nestor spearheads his troops with chariots; he advises them:In your eagerness to engage the Trojans,\ndon't any of you charge ahead of others,\ntrusting in your strength and horsemanship.\nAnd don't lag behind. That will hurt our charge.\nAny man whose chariot confronts an enemy's\nshould thrust with his spear at him from there.\nThat's the most effective tactic, the way\nmen wiped out city strongholds long ago —\ntheir chests full of that style and spirit.\n\n— Homer, Iliad 4.301–309 (translated by Ian Johnston).Although Homer's depictions are graphic, it can be seen in the very end that victory in war is a far more somber occasion, where all that is lost becomes apparent. On the other hand, the funeral games are lively, for the dead man's life is celebrated. This overall depiction of war runs contrary to many other[citation needed] ancient Greek depictions, where war is an aspiration for greater glory.","title":"Depiction of warfare"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"}],"sub_title":"Modern reconstructions of armor, weapons and styles","text":"Few modern (archeologically, historically and Homerically accurate) reconstructions of arms, armor and motifs as described by Homer exist. Some historical reconstructions have been done by Salimbeti et al.[45]","title":"Depiction of warfare"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-47"},{"link_name":"tactics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_tactics"},{"link_name":"mindset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mindset"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-47"},{"link_name":"Lattimore 1951","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFLattimore1951"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-47"},{"link_name":"Spartan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta"},{"link_name":"Argives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argives"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"Lattimore 1951","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFLattimore1951"},{"link_name":"Trojan Horse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan_Horse"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-47"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-47"},{"link_name":"Hans van Wees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hans_van_Wees&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"}],"sub_title":"Influence on classical Greek warfare","text":"While the Homeric poems (particularly, the Iliad) were not necessarily revered scripture of the ancient Greeks, they were most certainly seen as guides that were important to the intellectual understanding of any educated Greek citizen. This is evidenced by the fact that in the late 5th century BC, \"it was the sign of a man of standing to be able to recite the Iliad and Odyssey by heart.\"[46]: 36 Moreover, it can be argued that the warfare shown in the Iliad, and the way in which it was depicted, had a profound and very traceable effect on Greek warfare in general. In particular, the effect of epic literature can be broken down into three categories: tactics, ideology, and the mindset of commanders. In order to discern these effects, it is necessary to take a look at a few examples from each of these categories.Much of the detailed fighting in the Iliad is done by the heroes in an orderly, one-on-one fashion. Much like the Odyssey, there is even a set ritual which must be observed in each of these conflicts. For example, a major hero may encounter a lesser hero from the opposing side, in which case the minor hero is introduced, threats may be exchanged, and then the minor hero is slain. The victor often strips the body of its armor and military accoutrements.[46]: 22–23 Here is an example of this ritual and this type of one-on-one combat in the Iliad:There Telamonian Ajax struck down the son of Anthemion,\nSimoeisios in his stripling's beauty, whom once his mother\ndescending from Ida bore beside the banks of Simoeis\nwhen she had followed her father and mother to tend the\nsheepflocks.\nTherefore they called him Simoeisios; but he could not\nrender again the care of his dear parents; he was short-lived,\nbeaten down beneath the spear of high-hearted Ajax,\nwho struck him as he first came forward beside the nipple\nof the right breast, and the bronze spearhead drove clean\nthrough the shoulder.\n\n— Homer, Iliad 4.473–483 (Lattimore 1951).The most important question in reconciling the connection between the epic fighting of the Iliad and later Greek warfare concerns the phalanx, or hoplite, warfare seen in Greek history well after Homer's Iliad. While there are discussions of soldiers arrayed in semblances of the phalanx throughout the Iliad, the focus of the poem on the heroic fighting, as mentioned above, would seem to contradict the tactics of the phalanx. However, the phalanx did have its heroic aspects. The masculine one-on-one fighting of epic is manifested in phalanx fighting on the emphasis of holding one's position in formation. This replaces the singular heroic competition found in the Iliad.[46]: 51One example of this is the Spartan tale of 300 picked men fighting against 300 picked Argives. In this battle of champions, only two men are left standing for the Argives and one for the Spartans. Othryades, the remaining Spartan, goes back to stand in his formation with mortal wounds while the remaining two Argives go back to Argos to report their victory. Thus, the Spartans claimed this as a victory, as their last man displayed the ultimate feat of bravery by maintaining his position in the phalanx.[47]In terms of the ideology of commanders in later Greek history, the Iliad has an interesting effect. The Iliad expresses a definite disdain for tactical trickery, when Hector says, before he challenges the great Ajax:I know how to storm my way into the struggle of flying horses; I know how to tread the measures on the grim floor of the war god. Yet great as you are I would not strike you by stealth, watching for my chance, but openly, so, if perhaps I might hit you.\n\n— Homer, Iliad 7.237–243 (Lattimore 1951).However, despite examples of disdain for this tactical trickery, there is reason to believe that the Iliad, as well as later Greek warfare, endorsed tactical genius on the part of their commanders. For example, there are multiple passages in the Iliad with commanders such as Agamemnon or Nestor discussing the arraying of troops so as to gain an advantage. Indeed, the Trojan War is won by a notorious example of Achaean guile in the Trojan Horse. This is even later referred to by Homer in the Odyssey. The connection, in this case, between guileful tactics of the Achaeans and the Trojans in the Iliad and those of the later Greeks is not a difficult one to find. Spartan commanders, often seen as the pinnacle of Greek military prowess, were known for their tactical trickery, and, for them, this was a feat to be desired in a commander. Indeed, this type of leadership was the standard advice of Greek tactical writers.[46]: 240Ultimately, while Homeric (or epic) fighting is certainly not completely replicated in later Greek warfare, many of its ideals, tactics, and instruction are.[46]Hans van Wees argues that the period that the descriptions of warfare related in the epic can be pinned down fairly specifically—to the first half of the 7th century BC.[48]","title":"Depiction of warfare"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Classical Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Greece"},{"link_name":"Hellenistic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_period"},{"link_name":"Byzantine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire"},{"link_name":"Aeschylus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeschylus"},{"link_name":"Oresteia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oresteia"},{"link_name":"Renaissance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance"},{"link_name":"Western canon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_canon"},{"link_name":"Ilias Latina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilias_Latina"},{"link_name":"Dares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dares"},{"link_name":"Dictys Cretensis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictys_Cretensis"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"late antique","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_antique"},{"link_name":"medieval","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages"},{"link_name":"chivalric romances","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chivalric_romance"},{"link_name":"Benoît de Sainte-Maure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beno%C3%AEt_de_Sainte-Maure"},{"link_name":"Guido delle Colonne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guido_delle_Colonne"},{"link_name":"Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recuyell_of_the_Historyes_of_Troye"},{"link_name":"Excidium Troiae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Excidium_Troiae&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Icelandic Troy Saga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tr%C3%B3jumanna_saga"},{"link_name":"medieval literary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_literature"},{"link_name":"Trojan War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan_War"},{"link_name":"Brutus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brutus_of_Troy"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"William Shakespeare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespeare"},{"link_name":"Troilus and Cressida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troilus_and_Cressida"},{"link_name":"Troilus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troilus"},{"link_name":"Cressida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cressida"},{"link_name":"William Theed the elder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Theed_the_elder"},{"link_name":"Metropolitan Museum of Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"Robert Browning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Browning"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Suleyman al-Boustani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suleyman_al-Boustani"},{"link_name":"Syriac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syriac_language"},{"link_name":"Pahlavi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Persian"},{"link_name":"Theophilus of Edessa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophilus_of_Edessa"},{"link_name":"Baghdad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baghdad"},{"link_name":"Abbasid Caliphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"}],"text":"The Iliad was a standard work of great importance already in Classical Greece and remained so throughout the Hellenistic and Byzantine periods. Subjects from the Trojan War were a favourite among ancient Greek dramatists. Aeschylus' trilogy, the Oresteia, comprising Agamemnon, The Libation Bearers, and The Eumenides, follows the story of Agamemnon after his return from the war. Homer also came to be of great influence in European culture with the resurgence of interest in Greek antiquity during the Renaissance, and it remains the first and most influential work of the Western canon. In its full form the text made its return to Italy and Western Europe beginning in the 15th century, primarily through translations into Latin and the vernacular languages.Prior to this reintroduction, however, a shortened Latin version of the poem, known as the Ilias Latina, was very widely studied and read as a basic school text. The West tended to view Homer as unreliable as they believed they possessed much more down to earth and realistic eyewitness accounts of the Trojan War written by Dares and Dictys Cretensis, who were supposedly present at the events.[citation needed] These late antique forged accounts formed the basis of several eminently popular medieval chivalric romances, most notably those of Benoît de Sainte-Maure and Guido delle Colonne.These in turn spawned many others in various European languages, such as the first printed English book, the 1473 Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye. Other accounts read in the Middle Ages were antique Latin retellings such as the Excidium Troiae and works in the vernaculars such as the Icelandic Troy Saga. Even without Homer, the Trojan War story had remained central to Western European medieval literary culture and its sense of identity. Most nations and several royal houses traced their origins to heroes at the Trojan War; Britain was supposedly settled by the Trojan Brutus, for instance.[49]William Shakespeare used the plot of the Iliad as source material for his play Troilus and Cressida, but focused on a medieval legend, the love story of Troilus, son of King Priam of Troy, and Cressida, daughter of the Trojan soothsayer Calchas. The play, often considered to be a comedy, reverses traditional views on events of the Trojan War and depicts Achilles as a coward, Ajax as a dull, unthinking mercenary, etc.William Theed the elder made a bronze statue of Thetis as she brought Achilles his new armor forged by Hephaesthus. It has been on display in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City since 2013.[50]Robert Browning's poem Development discusses his childhood introduction to the matter of the Iliad and his delight in the epic, as well as contemporary debates about its authorship.[citation needed]According to Suleyman al-Boustani, a 19th-century poet who made the first Arabic translation of the Iliad to Arabic, the epic may have been widely circulated in Syriac and Pahlavi translations during the early Middle Ages. Al-Boustani credits Theophilus of Edessa with the Syriac translation, which was supposedly (along with the Greek original) widely read or heard by the scholars of Baghdad in the prime of the Abbasid Caliphate, although those scholars never took the effort to translate it to the official language of the empire; Arabic. The Iliad was also the first full epic poem to be translated to Arabic from a foreign language, upon the publication of Al-Boustani's complete work in 1904.[51]","title":"Influence on arts and culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The fall of Troy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Fall_of_Troy_(film)"},{"link_name":"Giovanni Pastrone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Pastrone"},{"link_name":"war poems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_poem"},{"link_name":"First World War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_World_War"},{"link_name":"Patrick Shaw-Stewart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Shaw-Stewart"},{"link_name":"Gallipoli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallipoli_campaign"},{"link_name":"Simone Weil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simone_Weil"},{"link_name":"The Iliad or the Poem of Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Iliad_or_the_Poem_of_Force"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"Lesya Ukrainka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesya_Ukrainka"},{"link_name":"Kassandra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassandra"},{"link_name":"Broadway musical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadway_musical"},{"link_name":"The Golden Apple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Golden_Apple_(musical)"},{"link_name":"John Treville Latouche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Treville_Latouche"},{"link_name":"Jerome Moross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerome_Moross"},{"link_name":"America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_(U.S._state)"},{"link_name":"Spanish–American War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War"},{"link_name":"King Priam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Priam"},{"link_name":"Michael Tippett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Tippett"},{"link_name":"Christopher Logue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Logue"},{"link_name":"War Music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_Music_(poem)"},{"link_name":"Tom Holland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Holland_(author)"},{"link_name":"Kae Tempest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kae_Tempest"},{"link_name":"Alice Oswald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice_Oswald"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"Christa Wolf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christa_Wolf"},{"link_name":"Cassandra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassandra_(novel)"},{"link_name":"David Melnick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Melnick"},{"link_name":"Men in Aida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Men_in_Aida"},{"link_name":"postmodern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodern_literature"},{"link_name":"homophonic translation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophonic_translation"},{"link_name":"Marion Zimmer Bradley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marion_Zimmer_Bradley"},{"link_name":"The Firebrand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Firebrand_(Bradley_novel)"},{"link_name":"Kassandra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassandra"},{"link_name":"Apollo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo"}],"sub_title":"20th-century arts","text":"\"The fall of Troy\" (1911), an Italian silent film by Giovanni Pastrone, the first known movie adaptation of Homer's epic poem.\n\"Achilles in the Trench\" is one of the best-known of the war poems of the First World War and was written by Patrick Shaw-Stewart while waiting to be sent to fight at Gallipoli.\nSimone Weil wrote the essay \"The Iliad or the Poem of Force\" in 1939, shortly after the commencement of World War II. The essay describes how the Iliad demonstrates the way force, exercised to the extreme in war, reduces both victim and aggressor to the level of the slave and the unthinking automaton.[52]\nLesya Ukrainka wrote a dramatic poem \"Cassandra\" in 1901–1907 based on the Iliad. It describes the story of Kassandra, a prophetess.\nThe 1954 Broadway musical The Golden Apple, by librettist John Treville Latouche and composer Jerome Moross, was freely adapted from the Iliad and the Odyssey, re-setting the action to America's Washington state in the years after the Spanish–American War, with events inspired by the Iliad in Act One and events inspired by the Odyssey in Act Two.\nThe opera King Priam by Sir Michael Tippett (which received its premiere in 1962) is based loosely on the Iliad.\nChristopher Logue's poem War Music, an \"account\", not a translation, of the Iliad, was begun in 1959 as a commission for radio. He continued working on it until his death in 2011. Described by Tom Holland as \"one of the most remarkable works of post-war literature\", it has been an influence on Kae Tempest and Alice Oswald, who says that it \"unleashes a forgotten kind of theatrical energy into the world.\"[53]\nChrista Wolf's novel Cassandra (1983) is a critical engagement with the Iliad. Wolf's narrator is Cassandra, whose thoughts are heard at the moment just before her murder by Clytemnestra in Sparta. Wolf's narrator presents a feminist's view of the war, and of war in general. Cassandra's story is accompanied by four essays which Wolf delivered as the Frankfurter Poetik-Vorlesungen. The essays present Wolf's concerns as a writer and rewriter of this canonical story and show the genesis of the novel through Wolf's own readings and in a trip she took to Greece.\nDavid Melnick's Men in Aida (cf. μῆνιν ἄειδε) (1983) is a postmodern homophonic translation of Book One into a farcical bathhouse scenario, preserving the sounds but not the meaning of the original.\nMarion Zimmer Bradley's 1987 novel The Firebrand retells the story from the point of view of Kassandra, a princess of Troy and a prophetess who is cursed by Apollo.","title":"Influence on arts and culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Eric Shanower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Shanower"},{"link_name":"Image Comics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_Comics"},{"link_name":"Age of Bronze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Bronze_(comics)"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"Dan Simmons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dan_Simmons"},{"link_name":"Ilium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilium_(novel)"},{"link_name":"Locus Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locus_Award"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Troy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troy_(movie)"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"Madeline Miller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madeline_Miller"},{"link_name":"The Song of Achilles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Song_of_Achilles"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"Women's Prize for Fiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%27s_Prize_for_Fiction"},{"link_name":"Statius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statius"},{"link_name":"Ovid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovid"},{"link_name":"Virgil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgil"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"Alice Oswald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice_Oswald"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"narrative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrative_poetry"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kellaway20111002-61"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"T. S. Eliot Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T._S._Eliot_Prize"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"Terence Hawkins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terence_Hawkins"},{"link_name":"Julian Jaynes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_Jaynes"},{"link_name":"bicameral mind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicameral_mind"},{"link_name":"Trojan War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan_War"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Contemporary popular culture","text":"Eric Shanower's Image Comics series Age of Bronze, which began in 1998, retells the legend of the Trojan War.[54]\nDan Simmons' epic science fiction adaptation/tribute Ilium was released in 2003, receiving a Locus Award for best science fiction novel of 2003.[citation needed]\nTroy (2004), a loose film adaptation of the Iliad, received mixed reviews but was a commercial success, particularly in international sales. It grossed $133 million in the United States and $497 million worldwide, making it the 188th top-grossing movie of all time.[55]\nMadeline Miller's 2011 debut novel The Song of Achilles[56] tells the story of Achilles' and Patroclus' life together as children, lovers, and soldiers. The novel, which won the 2012 Women's Prize for Fiction, draws on the Iliad as well as the works of other classical authors such as Statius, Ovid, and Virgil.[57]\nAlice Oswald's sixth collection, Memorial (2011),[58] is based on but departs from the narrative form of the Iliad to focus on, and so commemorate, the individually-named characters whose deaths are mentioned in that poem.[59][60][61] Later in October 2011, Memorial was shortlisted for the T. S. Eliot Prize,[62] but in December 2011, Oswald withdrew the book from the shortlist,[63][64] citing concerns about the ethics of the prize's sponsors.[65]\nThe Rage of Achilles, by American author and Yale Writers' Conference founder Terence Hawkins, recounts the Iliad as a novel in modern, sometimes graphic language. Informed by Julian Jaynes' theory of the bicameral mind and the historicity of the Trojan War, it depicts its characters as real men to whom the gods appear only as hallucinations or command voices during the sudden and painful transition to truly modern consciousness.[citation needed]","title":"Influence on arts and culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jonathan Shay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Shay"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"posttraumatic stress disorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posttraumatic_stress_disorder"},{"link_name":"moral injury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_injury"}],"sub_title":"Sciences","text":"Psychiatrist Jonathan Shay wrote two books, Achilles in Vietnam: Combat Trauma and the Undoing of Character (1994)[66] and Odysseus in America: Combat Trauma and the Trials of Homecoming (2002),[67] which relate the Iliad and the Odyssey to posttraumatic stress disorder and moral injury as seen in the rehabilitation histories of combat veteran patients.","title":"Influence on arts and culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Iliad1660Frontis.jpg"},{"link_name":"Wenceslas Hollar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wenceslas_Hollar"},{"link_name":"John Ogilby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ogilby"},{"link_name":"English translations of Homer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_translations_of_Homer"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Iliad_editions.jpg"},{"link_name":"George Chapman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Chapman"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:7-69"},{"link_name":"John Keats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Keats"},{"link_name":"On First Looking into Chapman's Homer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_First_Looking_into_Chapman%27s_Homer"},{"link_name":"John Ogilby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ogilby"},{"link_name":"annotated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annotated"},{"link_name":"Alexander Pope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Pope"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:7-69"},{"link_name":"William Cowper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Cowper"},{"link_name":"Miltonic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miltonic"},{"link_name":"On Translating Homer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_Translating_Homer"},{"link_name":"Matthew Arnold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Arnold"},{"link_name":"J. Henry Dart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=J._Henry_Dart&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:7-69"},{"link_name":"William Cullen Bryant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Cullen_Bryant"},{"link_name":"Van Wyck Brooks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Wyck_Brooks"},{"link_name":"Samuel Butler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Butler_(novelist)"},{"link_name":"Classics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classics"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"Richmond Lattimore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richmond_Lattimore"},{"link_name":"Robert Fitzgerald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Fitzgerald"},{"link_name":"Oxford World's Classics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_World%27s_Classics"},{"link_name":"iambic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iamb_(poetry)"},{"link_name":"Robert Fagles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Fagles"},{"link_name":"Penguin Classics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penguin_Classics"},{"link_name":"Stanley Lombardo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Lombardo"},{"link_name":"Rodney Merrill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rodney_Merrill&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"University of Michigan Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Press"},{"link_name":"dactylic hexameter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dactylic_hexameter"},{"link_name":"Peter Green","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Green_(historian)"},{"link_name":"University of California Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California_Press"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Caroline Alexander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caroline_Alexander_(author)"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"Emily Wilson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emily_Wilson_(classicist)"},{"link_name":"iambic pentameters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iambic_pentameter"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"}],"text":"Wenceslas Hollar's engraved title page of a 1660 edition of the Iliad, translated by John OgilbyFurther information: English translations of HomerSampling of translations and editions of Iliad in EnglishGeorge Chapman published his translation of the Iliad, in installments, beginning in 1598, published in \"fourteeners\", a long-line ballad metre that \"has room for all of Homer's figures of speech and plenty of new ones, as well as explanations in parentheses. At its best, as in Achilles' rejection of the embassy in Iliad Nine; it has great rhetorical power.\"[68]: 351 It quickly established itself as a classic in English poetry. In the preface to his own translation, Pope praises \"the daring fiery spirit\" of Chapman's rendering, which is \"something like what one might imagine Homer, himself, would have writ before he arrived at years of discretion.\"John Keats praised Chapman in the sonnet On First Looking into Chapman's Homer (1816). John Ogilby's mid-17th-century translation is among the early annotated editions; Alexander Pope's 1715 translation, in heroic couplet, is \"The classic translation that was built on all the preceding versions,\"[68]: 352 and, like Chapman's, it is a major poetic work in its own right. William Cowper's Miltonic, blank verse 1791 edition is highly regarded for its greater fidelity to the Greek than either the Chapman or the Pope versions: \"I have omitted nothing; I have invented nothing,\" Cowper says in prefacing his translation.In the lectures On Translating Homer (1861), Matthew Arnold addresses the matters of translation and interpretation in rendering the Iliad to English; commenting upon the versions contemporarily available in 1861, he identifies the four essential poetic qualities of Homer to which the translator must do justice:[i] that he is eminently rapid; [ii] that he is eminently plain and direct, both in the evolution of his thought and in the expression of it, that is, both in his syntax and in his words; [iii] that he is eminently plain and direct in the substance of his thought, that is, in his matter and ideas; and, finally, [iv] that he is eminently noble.After a discussion of the metres employed by previous translators, Arnold argues for a poetical dialect hexameter translation of the Iliad, like the original. \"Laborious as this meter was, there were at least half a dozen attempts to translate the entire Iliad or Odyssey in hexameters; the last in 1945. Perhaps the most fluent of them was by J. Henry Dart [1862] in response to Arnold.\"[68]: 354 In 1870, the American poet William Cullen Bryant published a blank verse version, that Van Wyck Brooks describes as \"simple, faithful.\"An 1898 translation by Samuel Butler was published by Longmans. Butler had read Classics at Cambridge University, graduating in 1859.[69]Since 1950, there have been several English translations: Richmond Lattimore's version (1951) is \"a free six-beat\" line-for-line rendering in often unidiomatic, often archaic English. Robert Fitzgerald's version (Oxford World's Classics, 1974) uses shorter, mostly iambic lines and numerous allusions to earlier English poetry.Robert Fagles (Penguin Classics, 1990) and Stanley Lombardo (1997) are bolder than Lattimore in adding more contemporary American-English idioms to convey Homer's conventional and formulaic language. Rodney Merrill's translation (University of Michigan Press, 2007) renders the work in English verse like the dactylic hexameter of the original.Peter Green translated the Iliad in 2015, a version published by the University of California Press.[citation needed]Caroline Alexander published the first full-length English translation by a woman in 2015.[70]Emily Wilson's 2023 translation uses unrhymed iambic pentameters.[71][72]","title":"English translations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"according to whom?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions"},{"link_name":"Venetus A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venetus_A"},{"link_name":"Ambrosian Iliad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambrosian_Iliad"},{"link_name":"Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 20","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papyrus_Oxyrhynchus_20"},{"link_name":"Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 21","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papyrus_Oxyrhynchus_21"},{"link_name":"Codex Nitriensis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codex_Nitriensis"}],"text":"There are more than 2000 manuscripts of Homer.[73][74] Some of the most notable manuscripts[according to whom?] include:Rom. Bibl. Nat. gr. 6 + Matriti. Bibl. Nat. 4626 from 870–890\nVenetus A = Venetus Marc. 822 from the 10th century\nVenetus B = Venetus Marc. 821 from the 11th century\nAmbrosian Iliad\nPapyrus Oxyrhynchus 20\nPapyrus Oxyrhynchus 21\nCodex Nitriensis (palimpsest)","title":"Manuscripts"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Budimir, Milan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milan_Budimir"},{"link_name":"full citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780521709774","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521709774"},{"link_name":"Kirk, G. S.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey_Kirk"},{"link_name":"The Iliad: A Commentary: Volume V, Books 17–20","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=-sKGGd1JuqoC"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-521-30959-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-30959-X"},{"link_name":"Janko, Richard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Janko"},{"link_name":"The Iliad: A Commentary: Volume IV, Books 13–16","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=JojMmQEACAAJ"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-521-28171-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-28171-7"},{"link_name":"Fox, Robin Lane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robin_Lane_Fox"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-7139-9980-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7139-9980-8"},{"link_name":"Graziosi, Barbara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbara_Graziosi"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780521878845","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521878845"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9786188420298","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9786188420298"},{"link_name":"Kirk, G. S.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey_Kirk"},{"link_name":"The Iliad: A Commentary: Volume I, Books 1–4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=TguHR9k8DQ8C"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-521-23709-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-23709-2"},{"link_name":"The Iliad: A Commentary: Volume II, Books 5–8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=4ZdxbCe84z0C"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-521-23710-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-23710-6"},{"link_name":"Kirk, G.S.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey_Kirk"},{"link_name":"The Iliad: A Commentary: Volume III, Books 9–12","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=URaInQEACAAJ"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-521-23711-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-23711-4"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-674-99579-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-99579-6"},{"link_name":"The Iliad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/iliad0000muel"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-04-800027-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-04-800027-2"},{"link_name":"Nagy, Gregory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_Nagy"},{"link_name":"The Best of the Achaeans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20150217125451/http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/nagy/BofATL/toc.html"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-8018-2388-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8018-2388-9"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.press.jhu.edu/books/nagy/BofATL/toc.html"},{"link_name":"Page, Denys Lionel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denys_Page"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-520-00983-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-00983-7"},{"link_name":"Powell, Barry B.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barry_B._Powell"},{"link_name":"Homer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/homer00powe"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-4051-5325-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-5325-6"},{"link_name":"Richardson, Nicholas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_Richardson"},{"link_name":"Kirk, G. S.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey_Kirk"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-521-30960-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-30960-3"},{"link_name":"Seaford, Richard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Seaford"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-19-815036-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-815036-9"},{"link_name":"Thurman, Judith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judith_Thurman"},{"link_name":"\"Mother Tongue: How Emily Wilson makes Homer modern\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.newyorker.com/magazine/2023/09/18/emily-wilson-profile"},{"link_name":"The New Yorker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_Yorker"},{"link_name":"Emily Wilson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emily_Wilson_(classicist)"},{"link_name":"West, Martin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Litchfield_West"},{"link_name":"The East Face of Helicon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=fIp0RYIjazQC"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-19-815221-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-815221-3"},{"link_name":"West, Martin L.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Litchfield_West"},{"link_name":"Studies in the text and transmission of the Iliad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=ABWYSMNWjlIC"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"3-598-73005-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-598-73005-5"}],"text":"Budimir, Milan (1940). On the Iliad and Its Poet.[full citation needed]\nDe Jong, Irene (2012). Iliad. Book XXII, Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521709774\nEdwards, Mark W.; Kirk, G. S., The Iliad: A Commentary: Volume V, Books 17–20, Cambridge University Press, 1991. ISBN 0-521-30959-X\nEdwards, Mark W.; Janko, Richard; Kirk, G. S., The Iliad: A Commentary: Volume IV, Books 13–16, Cambridge University Press, 1992. ISBN 0-521-28171-7\nFox, Robin Lane (2008). Travelling Heroes: Greeks and their myths in the epic age of Homer. Allen Lane. ISBN 978-0-7139-9980-8.\nGraziosi, Barbara; Haubold, Johannes, Iliad: Book VI, Cambridge University Press, 2010. ISBN 9780521878845\nKouroupis, Georgios; Tsiplakos, Ioannis (2022). The Iliad: honour and glory in Wilios. Athens: Akritas. ISBN 9786188420298.\nKirk, G. S., The Iliad: A Commentary: Volume I, Books 1–4, Cambridge University Press, 1985. ISBN 0-521-23709-2\nKirk, G. S., The Iliad: A Commentary: Volume II, Books 5–8, Cambridge University Press, 1990. ISBN 0-521-23710-6\nHainsworth, Bryan; Kirk, G.S., The Iliad: A Commentary: Volume III, Books 9–12, Cambridge University Press, 1993. ISBN 0-521-23711-4]\nMurray, A. T.; Wyatt, William F., Homer: The Iliad, Books I–XII, Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, 1999, ISBN 978-0-674-99579-6\nMueller, Martin (1984). The Iliad. London: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 0-04-800027-2.\nNagy, Gregory (1979). The Best of the Achaeans. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-2388-9. Archived from the original on 2015-02-17. Retrieved 2006-07-20.\nPage, Denys Lionel (1959). History and the Homeric Iliad. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-00983-7.\nPowell, Barry B. (2004). Homer. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-5325-6.\nRichardson, Nicholas; Kirk, G. S., The Iliad: A Commentary: Volume VI, Books 21–24, Cambridge University Press, 1993. ISBN 0-521-30960-3\nSeaford, Richard (1994). Reciprocity and Ritual. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-815036-9.\nThurman, Judith, \"Mother Tongue: How Emily Wilson makes Homer modern\", The New Yorker, 18 September 2023, pp. 46–53. Long-form article on Emily Wilson's Homer translations.\nWest, Martin (1997). The East Face of Helicon. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-815221-3.\nWest, Martin L., Studies in the text and transmission of the Iliad, Munich : K. G. Saur, 2001. ISBN 3-598-73005-5","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"The first verses of the Iliad","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Beginning_Iliad.svg/300px-Beginning_Iliad.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Iliad, Book VIII, lines 245–253, Greek manuscript, late 5th, early 6th centuries AD","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Iliad_VIII_245-253_in_cod_F205%2C_Milan%2C_Biblioteca_Ambrosiana%2C_late_5c_or_early_6c.jpg/300px-Iliad_VIII_245-253_in_cod_F205%2C_Milan%2C_Biblioteca_Ambrosiana%2C_late_5c_or_early_6c.jpg"},{"image_text":"Thetis at Hephaestus' forge waiting to receive Achilles' new weapons. Fresco from Pompeii, 1st century","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Achilles_weapons_MNA_Naples.jpg/240px-Achilles_weapons_MNA_Naples.jpg"},{"image_text":"A detail of fresco from the François Tomb at Vulci, showing the sacrifice of Trojan slaves. From left to right: Agamemnon, ghost of Patroclus, Vanth, Achilles beheading a slave, Charun, Ajax the Great, a slave, Ajax the Lesser. 350-330 BC","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Achilles%27_Sacrifice_of_Trojan_Prisoners.jpg/300px-Achilles%27_Sacrifice_of_Trojan_Prisoners.jpg"},{"image_text":"Hypnos and Thanatos carrying the body of Sarpedon from the battlefield of Troy; detail from an Attic white-ground lekythos, c. 440 BC","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Hypnos_Thanatos_BM_Vase_D56_full.jpg/220px-Hypnos_Thanatos_BM_Vase_D56_full.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Wrath of Achilles (1819), by Michel Martin Drolling","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Wrath_of_Achilles2.jpg/250px-Wrath_of_Achilles2.jpg"},{"image_text":"Achilles Slays Hector, by Peter Paul Rubens (1630–35)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Peter_Paul_Rubens_-_Achilles_slays_Hector.jpg/250px-Peter_Paul_Rubens_-_Achilles_slays_Hector.jpg"},{"image_text":"Wenceslas Hollar's engraved title page of a 1660 edition of the Iliad, translated by John Ogilby","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Iliad1660Frontis.jpg/250px-Iliad1660Frontis.jpg"},{"image_text":"Sampling of translations and editions of Iliad in English","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Iliad_editions.jpg/220px-Iliad_editions.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Ancient Greece portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Greece"},{"title":"Mask of Agamemnon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mask_of_Agamemnon"},{"title":"Parallels between Virgil's Aeneid and Homer's Iliad and Odyssey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallels_between_Virgil%27s_Aeneid_and_Homer%27s_Iliad_and_Odyssey"},{"title":"Heinrich Schliemann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Schliemann"},{"title":"English translations of Homer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_translations_of_Homer"}]
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[{"reference":"Homer. The Iliad. New York: Norton Books. p. 115.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Lawson, John Cuthbert (1910). Modern Greek folklore and ancient Greek religion: a study in survivals. Cambridge University Press. pp. 2–3.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/moderngreekfolkl00laws/page/2/mode/2up","url_text":"Modern Greek folklore and ancient Greek religion: a study in survivals"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press","url_text":"Cambridge University Press"}]},{"reference":"Adkins, A. W. H.; Pollard, John Richard Thornhill (March 2, 2020) [1998]. \"Greek religion\". Encyclopædia Britannica.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britannica.com/topic/Greek-religion","url_text":"\"Greek religion\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica","url_text":"Encyclopædia Britannica"}]},{"reference":"Mikalson, Jon (1991). Honor Thy Gods: Popular Religion in Greek Tragedy. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Kullmann, Wolfgang (1985). \"Gods and Men in the Iliad and the Odyssey\". Harvard Studies in Classical Philology. 89: 1–23. doi:10.2307/311265. JSTOR 311265.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F311265","url_text":"10.2307/311265"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/311265","url_text":"311265"}]},{"reference":"Homer (1998). The Iliad. Translated by Fagles, Robert; Knox, Bernard. New York: Penguin Books. p. 589.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"The Concept of the Hero in Greek Civilization\". Athome.harvard.edu. Archived from the original on 2010-04-21. Retrieved 2010-04-18.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100421140227/http://athome.harvard.edu/programs/nagy/threads/concept_of_hero.html","url_text":"\"The Concept of the Hero in Greek Civilization\""},{"url":"http://athome.harvard.edu/programs/nagy/threads/concept_of_hero.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Heroes and the Homeric Iliad\". Uh.edu. Retrieved 2010-04-18.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.uh.edu/~cldue/texts/introductiontohomer.html","url_text":"\"Heroes and the Homeric Iliad\""}]},{"reference":"Frobish, T. S. (2003). \"An Origin of a Theory: A Comparison of Ethos in the Homeric Iliad with That Found in Aristotle's Rhetoric\". Rhetoric. 22 (1): 16–30. doi:10.1207/S15327981RR2201_2. 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Paul Halsall. Retrieved 4 July 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/basis/nennius-full.asp","url_text":"\"Historia Brittonum\""}]},{"reference":"\"Thetis Transporting Arms for Achilles\". Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 4 July 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/239234","url_text":"\"Thetis Transporting Arms for Achilles\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art","url_text":"Metropolitan Museum of Art"}]},{"reference":"Al-Boustani, Suleyman (2012). الإلياذة (Iliad). Cairo, Egypt: Hindawi. pp. 26–27. ISBN 978-977-719-184-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-977-719-184-5","url_text":"978-977-719-184-5"}]},{"reference":"Bruce B. Lawrence and Aisha Karim (2008). On Violence: A Reader. Duke University Press. p. 377. 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Memorial: An Excavation of the Iliad. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-27416-1. Archived from the original on 2012-06-06.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120606191424/http://faber.co.uk/work/memorial/9780571274161/","url_text":"Memorial: An Excavation of the Iliad"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-571-27416-1","url_text":"978-0-571-27416-1"},{"url":"http://www.faber.co.uk/work/memorial/9780571274161/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Holland, Tom (17 October 2011). \"The Song of Achilles by Madeline Miller / Memorial by Alice Oswald. Surfing the rip tide of all things Homeric\". New Statesman. London. Archived from the original on 23 May 2021. 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Retrieved 1 June 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte_Higgins","url_text":"Higgins, Charlotte"},{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/oct/28/song-achilles-madeline-miller-iliad","url_text":"\"The Song of Achilles by Madeline Miller, and more – review\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian","url_text":"The Guardian"}]},{"reference":"Flood, Alison (20 October 2011). \"TS Eliot prize 2011 shortlist revealed\". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 1 June 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/oct/20/ts-eliot-prize-2011-shortlist","url_text":"\"TS Eliot prize 2011 shortlist revealed\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian","url_text":"The Guardian"}]},{"reference":"Waters, Florence (6 December 2011). \"Poet withdraws from TS Eliot prize over sponsorship\". The Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 2022-01-10. Retrieved 2012-02-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/booknews/8938343/Poet-withdraws-from-TS-Eliot-prize-over-sponsorship.html","url_text":"\"Poet withdraws from TS Eliot prize over sponsorship\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph","url_text":"The Telegraph"},{"url":"https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/booknews/8938343/Poet-withdraws-from-TS-Eliot-prize-over-sponsorship.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Flood, Alison (6 December 2011). \"Alice Oswald withdraws from TS Eliot prize in protest at sponsor Aurum\". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 2012-02-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/dec/06/alice-oswald-withdraws-ts-eliot-prize","url_text":"\"Alice Oswald withdraws from TS Eliot prize in protest at sponsor Aurum\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian","url_text":"The Guardian"}]},{"reference":"Oswald, Alice (12 December 2011). \"Why I pulled out of the TS Eliot poetry prize\". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 2012-02-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice_Oswald","url_text":"Oswald, Alice"},{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2011/dec/12/ts-eliot-poetry-prize-pulled-out","url_text":"\"Why I pulled out of the TS Eliot poetry prize\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian","url_text":"The Guardian"}]},{"reference":"Rowan Williams (6 September 2023). \"Homer's history of violence\". New Statesman.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rowan_Williams","url_text":"Rowan Williams"},{"url":"https://www.newstatesman.com/culture/books/2023/09/homers-history-violence-the-iliad","url_text":"\"Homer's history of violence\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Statesman","url_text":"New Statesman"}]},{"reference":"Homer (2023). The Iliad. Translated by Emily Wilson. New York, London: W. W. Norton. ISBN 9781324001805.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emily_Wilson_(classicist)","url_text":"Emily Wilson"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781324001805","url_text":"9781324001805"}]},{"reference":"Bird, Graeme D. (2010). Multitextuality in the Homeric Iliad: The Witness of the Ptolemaic Papyr. Washington, D.C.: Center for Hellenic Studies. 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On the Iliad and Its Poet.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milan_Budimir","url_text":"Budimir, Milan"}]},{"reference":"Fox, Robin Lane (2008). Travelling Heroes: Greeks and their myths in the epic age of Homer. Allen Lane. ISBN 978-0-7139-9980-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robin_Lane_Fox","url_text":"Fox, Robin Lane"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7139-9980-8","url_text":"978-0-7139-9980-8"}]},{"reference":"Kouroupis, Georgios; Tsiplakos, Ioannis (2022). The Iliad: honour and glory in Wilios. Athens: Akritas. ISBN 9786188420298.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9786188420298","url_text":"9786188420298"}]},{"reference":"Mueller, Martin (1984). The Iliad. London: Allen & Unwin. 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Retrieved 2006-07-20.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_Nagy","url_text":"Nagy, Gregory"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150217125451/http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/nagy/BofATL/toc.html","url_text":"The Best of the Achaeans"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8018-2388-9","url_text":"0-8018-2388-9"},{"url":"http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/nagy/BofATL/toc.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Page, Denys Lionel (1959). History and the Homeric Iliad. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-00983-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denys_Page","url_text":"Page, Denys Lionel"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-00983-7","url_text":"978-0-520-00983-7"}]},{"reference":"Powell, Barry B. (2004). Homer. 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ISBN 0-19-815221-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Litchfield_West","url_text":"West, Martin"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=fIp0RYIjazQC","url_text":"The East Face of Helicon"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-815221-3","url_text":"0-19-815221-3"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divico
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Divico
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["1 See also","2 Notes"]
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Leader of Helvetii tribeDie Helvetier zwingen die Römer unter dem Joch hindurch (The Helvetians force the Romans to pass under the yoke). Romantic painting by Charles Gleyre (19th century) celebrating the Tigurini victory over the Romans at Agen (107 BC) under Divico's command.
Julius Caesar and Divico parley after the battle at the Saône. Historic painting of the 19th century by Karl Jauslin.
Divico was a Celtic king and the leader of the Helvetian tribe of the Tigurini. During the Cimbrian War, in which the Cimbri and Teutons invaded the Roman Republic, he led the Tigurini across the Rhine to invade Gaul in 109 BC. He defeated a Roman army near present-day Agen on the Garonne river at the Battle of Burdigala in 107 BC, killing its leaders Lucius Cassius Longinus, the Roman consul, and Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus. Eventually he led his people back to the tribes of the Helvetii, near present-day Switzerland where they settled in the Jura Mountains near Lac Leman. 49 years later, before the Battle of Bibracte, he led a delegation back to Gaul to negotiate for a safe passage for his tribe through the Roman region of Provence. The request was denied by Caesar who wanted revenge for a relative who had been killed in the battle near Agen in 107 BC.
He is not to be confused with the military and religious leader of another gaulish tribe, Diviciacus of the Aedui.
See also
Campaign history of the Roman military
Helvetii
Notes
^ a b c Mountain, Harry (1998). The Celtic Encyclopedia. Universal-Publishers. p. 553. ISBN 978-1-58112-892-5.
vteGaulsHistory
Battle of the Allia (ca. 387 BC)
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Authority control databases
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Romantic painting by Charles Gleyre (19th century) celebrating the Tigurini victory over the Romans at Agen (107 BC) under Divico's command.Julius Caesar and Divico parley after the battle at the Saône. Historic painting of the 19th century by Karl Jauslin.Divico was a Celtic king and the leader of the Helvetian tribe of the Tigurini.[1] During the Cimbrian War, in which the Cimbri and Teutons invaded the Roman Republic, he led the Tigurini across the Rhine to invade Gaul in 109 BC. He defeated a Roman army near present-day Agen on the Garonne river at the Battle of Burdigala in 107 BC, killing its leaders Lucius Cassius Longinus, the Roman consul, and Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus.[1] Eventually he led his people back to the tribes of the Helvetii, near present-day Switzerland where they settled in the Jura Mountains near Lac Leman. 49 years later, before the Battle of Bibracte, he led a delegation back to Gaul to negotiate for a safe passage for his tribe through the Roman region of Provence. The request was denied by Caesar who wanted revenge for a relative who had been killed in the battle near Agen in 107 BC.[1]He is not to be confused with the military and religious leader of another gaulish tribe, Diviciacus of the Aedui.","title":"Divico"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-google553_1-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-google553_1-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-google553_1-2"},{"link_name":"The Celtic 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ones"},{"link_name":"Veragri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veragri"},{"link_name":"Vergunni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vergunni"},{"link_name":"Vesubiani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesubiani"},{"link_name":"Vindelici","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vindelici"},{"link_name":"Cisalpina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallia_Cisalpina"},{"link_name":"Anamares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anamares&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Anauni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anauni&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Anesiates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anesiates&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Arusnates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arusnates"},{"link_name":"Bagienni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bagienni"},{"link_name":"Boii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Boii_(Cisalpine_Gaul)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Bromanenses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bromanenses&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Cenomani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cenomani_(Cisalpine_Gaul)"},{"link_name":"Gallianates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gallianates&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Gennanates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gennanates&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Insubres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insubres"},{"link_name":"Libicii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Libicii_(Cisalpine_Gaul)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Marici","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marici_(tribe)"},{"link_name":"Montunates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Montunates&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Orobii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orobii"},{"link_name":"Subinates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Subinates&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Taurini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurini"},{"link_name":"Vertamocorii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertamocorii"},{"link_name":"Votodrones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Votodrones&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Aquitania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallia_Aquitania"},{"link_name":"Boii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Boii_(Aquitania)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Cocosates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocosates"},{"link_name":"Lactorates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lactorates&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Sotiates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sotiates"},{"link_name":"Tarusates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tarusates&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Vasates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vasates_(tribe)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Eastern 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[{"image_text":"Die Helvetier zwingen die Römer unter dem Joch hindurch (The Helvetians force the Romans to pass under the yoke). Romantic painting by Charles Gleyre (19th century) celebrating the Tigurini victory over the Romans at Agen (107 BC) under Divico's command.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Charles_Gleyre_Les_Romans_p.jpg/220px-Charles_Gleyre_Les_Romans_p.jpg"},{"image_text":"Julius Caesar and Divico parley after the battle at the Saône. Historic painting of the 19th century by Karl Jauslin.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Divico_und_Caesar.jpg/220px-Divico_und_Caesar.jpg"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Khartoum
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Siege of Khartoum
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["1 Background","1.1 Strategic situation","1.2 Appointment of Gordon","1.3 Gordon's preparations","2 Battle","2.1 Siege begins","2.2 Relief expedition","2.3 Fall of Khartoum","3 Aftermath","4 Cultural depictions","5 References","6 Further reading"]
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Coordinates: 15°37′N 32°32′E / 15.61°N 32.53°E / 15.61; 32.531884–85 Mahdist siege in Sudan
For the 2023 battle, see Battle of Khartoum (2023).
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Siege of KhartoumPart of the Mahdist WarPortrayal of Gordon's death by George W. JoyDate13 March 1884 – 26 January 1885LocationKhartoum, Sudan15°37′N 32°32′E / 15.61°N 32.53°E / 15.61; 32.53Result
Mahdist victoryBelligerents
Khedivate of Egypt • Turco-Egyptian Sudan British Empire
Mahdist StateCommanders and leaders
Charles George Gordon †
Muhammad AhmadStrength
7,000 troops9 gunboats
30,000 to 50,000 troopsCasualties and losses
Entire force destroyed
Unknown, but reportedly heavy
~4,000 civilians dead, many others enslaved
vteMahdist WarMahdist uprising (1881–1885)
Aba
Shaykan
El Teb
Tamai
Khartoum
Abu Klea
Abu Kru
Kirbekan
Tofrek
Ginnis
British-Egyptian expeditions (1885–1889)
Emin Pasha Expedition
Dufile
Suakin
Toski
Ethiopian campaigns (1885–1889)
Kufit
Guté Dili
Gallabat
Italian campaigns (1890–1894)
1st Agordat
Serobeti
2nd Agordat
Kassala
British-Egyptian reconquest (1896–1899)
Ferkeh
Rejaf
Abu Hamed
Atbara
Omdurman
Umm Diwaykarat
The siege of Khartoum (also known as the battle of Khartoum or fall of Khartoum) took place from 13 March 1884 to 26 January 1885. Sudanese Mahdist forces captured the city of Khartoum from its Egyptian garrison, thereby gaining control over the whole of Sudan.
Egypt had conquered Sudan in 1820, but had itself come under British domination in 1882. In 1881, the Mahdist War began in Sudan, led by Muhammad Ahmad who claimed to be the Mahdi. The Egyptian Army was unable to suppress the revolt, being defeated in several battles and retreating to their garrisons. The British refused to send a military force to the area, instead appointing Charles George Gordon as Governor-General of Sudan, with orders to evacuate Khartoum and the other garrisons. Gordon arrived in Khartoum in February 1884, where he found it impossible to reach the other garrisons which were already besieged. Rather than evacuating immediately, Gordon began to fortify the city, which was cut off when the local tribes switched their support to the Mahdi. Approximately 7,000 Egyptian troops and 27,000 (mostly Sudanese) civilians were besieged in Khartoum by 30,000 Mahdist warriors, rising to 50,000 by the end of the siege.
Attempts by the defenders to break out of the city failed. Food supplies began to run out; they had been expected to last six months, but the siege went on for ten, so the garrison and civilian population began to starve. After months of public pressure, the British government reluctantly agreed to send troops to relieve the siege. With the relief column approaching, the Mahdists launched a night assault on Khartoum. They broke through the defences and killed the entire garrison, including Gordon. A further 4,000 male civilians were killed, while many women and children were enslaved. The relief expedition arrived two days later; realising they were too late, they withdrew from Sudan. The Mahdi then founded a religious state in Sudan, the Mahdiyah, which would last for fourteen years.
Background
Strategic situation
The Khedivate of Egypt was nominally a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire, but came under British military occupation during the 1882 Anglo-Egyptian War, making it a de facto British protectorate. Egypt was mostly left to govern itself under the Khedive, though its finances remained under a system of dual control that had begun in the 1870s. The British regarded Egypt's possession of Sudan as a domestic matter.
Muhammad Ahmad, the self-proclaimed Mahdi
A revolt had begun in Sudan in 1881, when Muhammad Ahmad claimed to be the mahdi – the redeemer of Islam prophesied in the hadith scriptures. This Mahdist revolt was supported by many in Sudan, both for religious reasons and due to a desire for independence from Egypt.
The Egyptian Army attempted to suppress the revolt, but were defeated by the Mahdists in November 1883 at the Battle of El Obeid. The Mahdi's forces captured the Egyptians' equipment and overran large parts of Sudan, including Darfur and Kordofan. However Egypt still maintained several strong garrisons in Sudan, including at Khartoum.
Appointment of Gordon
Charles Gordon in Egyptian military uniform
The Egyptian defeat at El Obeid brought the Mahdi Revolt to the attention of the British government and public. The British Prime Minister, William Gladstone, and his War Secretary, Lord Hartington, did not want British troops to become involved in Sudan. If Egypt fought the war itself, they were concerned that the expense would prevent Egypt from paying the interest on its extensive debts to Britain (and France). The British put pressure on the Egyptian government to evacuate all their garrisons in Sudan, abandoning it to the Mahdists. The British soldier Major-General Charles George Gordon, a former Governor-General of Sudan (1876–1879), was re-appointed to that post, with orders to conduct the evacuation.
Gordon's views on Sudan were radically different from Gladstone's: Gordon felt that the Mahdi's rebellion had to be defeated before it gained control of the whole of Sudan. The Mahdi claimed dominion over the entire Islamic world, which led Gordon to believe that the revolt would not end with control of Sudan, but would attempt to conquer Egypt and perhaps the wider region. Gordon was also concerned by the fragility of the Egyptian army, which had suffered several defeats by the Sudanese. Gordon favoured a more aggressive policy in Sudan, as did the imperialist author Sir Samuel Baker and Sir Garnet Wolseley, who had commanded British forces in the 1882 war. Gordon published his views on Sudan in The Times in January 1884.
Despite this, Gordon was commanded to evacuate Sudan, which he agreed to do. He was given funds of £100,000 in credit and was promised "all support and cooperation in their power" by the British and Egyptian authorities. On his way to Khartoum with his assistant, Colonel John Stewart, Gordon stopped in the town of Berber, Sudan to address an assembly of tribal chiefs. There he made a major mistake, by revealing that the Egyptian government planned to withdraw their troops from Sudan. The tribesmen became worried by this news, which caused their loyalty to waver.
Gordon's preparations
Gordon arrived at Khartoum on 18 February 1884, finding it was safely occupied by a garrison of 7,000 Egyptian troops and 27,000 civilians. However three smaller garrisons, at Sennar, Tokar and Sinkat, were under siege by the Mahdists. Rather than evacuating Khartoum immediately, Gordon declared his intention to extricate the other garrisons, and set about administering Sudan. His first actions were to reverse several policies introduced by the Egyptians since he had last been Governor-General five years earlier: arbitrary imprisonments were cancelled, torture was halted and its instruments were destroyed, and taxes were remitted. To enlist the support of the population, Gordon re-legalised slavery in Sudan, despite having (unsuccessfully) attempted to abolish it in his previous term. This decision was popular in Khartoum, but caused controversy in Britain.
Seeking to bolster Khartoum's defences, Gordon then attempted to secure reinforcements. He requested a regiment of Turkish soldiers from the Ottomans, who were still the nominal overlords, which was rebuffed. He then asked the British for a unit of Muslim Indian troops, and later for 200 native British soldiers. These were also refused by the Gladstone cabinet, which was still intent upon evacuation and adamant they would make no military intervention in Sudan.
Gordon began to resent the government's policy, and his telegrams to the British office in Cairo became more bitter. He declared himself honour-bound to rescue the garrisons and defend the Sudanese in Khartoum; it is unclear whether this was a deliberate attempt to delay the evacuation (or avoid it entirely). On 8 April he wrote: "I leave you with the indelible disgrace of abandoning the garrisons" and added that such a course would be "the climax of meanness".
Battle
Siege begins
Map of Khartoum during the siege
Knowing that the Mahdists were closing in, Gordon ordered the strengthening of the fortifications around Khartoum. The city was protected to the north by the Blue Nile and to the west by the White Nile. To defend the river banks, he formed a flotilla of gunboats from nine small paddle-wheel steamers, which had been used for communication along the river, by fitting them with guns and metal plates for armour. In the southern part of the town, which faced the open desert, he prepared an elaborate system of trenches, makeshift Fougasse-type land mines, and wire entanglements. The surrounding country was controlled by the Shagia tribe, which were thought to be hostile to the Mahdi.
On 16 March Gordon launched an unsuccessful sortie from Khartoum, with 200 Egyptian troops dying in the fighting. By early April 1884, the tribes north of Khartoum had risen in support of the Mahdi, including those Gordon had met at Berber. The tribesmen intercepted river traffic on the Nile and cut the telegraph cables to Cairo. Communications were not entirely halted, as individual messengers could still get through, but this effectively began the siege of Khartoum. The city could rely only on its own food stores, which were expected to last five or six months. By this time, the combined forces besieging Khartoum and the other garrisons were over 30,000 men.
From April onwards, Khartoum was cut off. With no supply of money to pay the troops or facilitate trade of food, Gordon used his credit to issue a series of promissory notes, a form of siege money. Communication with Cairo was maintained through couriers, who took several days to make the trip. Gordon also contacted the Mahdi, who rejected his attempts to negotiate a peaceful evacuation. As the siege dragged on, food stores dwindled and starvation began to set in, for both the garrison and the civilian population.
In September, the besieged forces in Khartoum made an attempt to reach the garrison at Sennar; the expedition made it out of the siege lines but was defeated by the Mahdists at Al Aylafuh, with the loss of 800 garrison troops. A separate attempt to send a steamboat along the Nile to Cairo also failed; all the passengers were killed, including Colonel Stewart. Stewart had been carrying letters from Gordon, which were captured and revealed the worsening situation inside Khartoum. By the end of the month, the Mahdi moved most of his army to Khartoum, away from the outlying garrisons, more than doubling the number around the city. On 10 September 1884, the civilian population inside Khartoum was about 34,000.
Relief expedition
The Nile Expedition for the relief of Gordon
Gordon's plight excited great concern in the British press, and even Queen Victoria intervened on his behalf. The government ordered Gordon to return to Cairo, alone if necessary, but he refused, saying he would not abandon the city. In July 1884, Gladstone reluctantly agreed to send an expedition to relieve Khartoum. The relief force, 8,000 British troops led by Sir Garnet Wolseley, took several months to organise. The troops had to be carried on boats up the Nile to reach Khartoum. Navigators from Canada, mainly French-Canadian and Indigenous woodworkers, were brought in to operate the boats. They did not enter Sudan until January 1885.
By then the situation in Khartoum had become desperate. Food supplies had been expected to last six months, but the siege had gone on for ten months. With supplies running low, many inhabitants died of hunger, and the defenders' morale plummeted.
Informed of the dire situation in Khartoum, Wolseley was forced to divide his forces. While the main body would continue to advance by river to Abu Hamed, the Desert Column would strike from Korti, across the Bayuda Desert to Mettema where they would link with Gordon's steamboats awaiting them.
As they advanced toward Mettema, the Desert Column was attacked at the Battle of Abu Klea on 17 January. Although the Mahdists managed to break their infantry square, the British troops recovered and repelled the attack. Two days later, the relief force was attacked again at the Battle of Abu Kru but were able to drive off the Mahdists. The Mahdi, aware of the British advance, decided to assault Khartoum before they could arrive.
Fall of Khartoum
On the night of 25–26 January an estimated 50,000 Mahdists attacked the city wall just before midnight. The Mahdists took advantage of the seasonally low level of the Nile, which allowed them to ford the river on foot. The details of the final assault are unclear, but hearsay accounts were that by 3:30 am, the Mahdists had outflanked the city wall where it met the Nile. Meanwhile, another force, led by Al Nujumi, broke down the Massalamieh Gate, despite taking casualties from the land mines and barbed wire obstacles laid out by Gordon's men. The defending garrison, weakened by starvation and low morale, offered only patchy resistance. Within a few hours, the entire garrison was killed, as were 4,000 of the town's male inhabitants. Many women and children were enslaved by the victorious Mahdists.
Death of General Gordon at Khartoum
Accounts differ as to how Gordon was killed. According to one version, when Mahdist warriors broke into the governor's palace, Gordon came outside in full uniform and disdained to fight; he was then killed with a spear, despite orders from the Mahdi to capture Gordon alive. In another version, Gordon was recognised by Mahdists while attempting to reach the neutral Austrian consulate in the city, who shot him dead in the street.
The most detailed account of his death was given by his servant Khaleel Aga Orphali, when debriefed by the British in 1898 (13 years later). According to Orphali, Gordon died fighting on the stairs leading from the first to the ground floor of the west wing of the palace. Gordon was seriously wounded by a spear that hit him in the left shoulder, but continued fighting with Orphali beside him. Orphali stated that:"With his life's blood pouring from his breast he fought his way step by step, kicking from his path the wounded and dead dervishes and as he was passing through the doorway leading into the courtyard, another concealed dervish almost severed his right leg with a single blow. Orphali claimed he was then knocked unconscious, waking unharmed several hours later to find Gordon's decapitated body near to him.
However he died, Gordon's head was taken to the Mahdi's headquarters at Omdurman (opposite Khartoum on the other side of the White Nile). There it was shown to Rudolf Carl von Slatin, a prisoner of the Mahdi who had worked for Gordon during his first term in Sudan, who verified it was Gordon's. The head was then brought to the Mahdi. According to some sources, the rest of Gordon's body was dumped in the Nile.
Aftermath
20 piastre promissory note issued and hand-signed by Gen. Gordon during the Siege of Khartoum (26 April 1884)
A small part of the relief expedition (28 men led by colonel Charles Wilson, embarked on two of Gordon's steamboats) arrived within sight of Khartoum two days after it fell. After discovering that they were too late, the surviving British and Egyptian troops withdrew. The Mahdi was left in control of the entire country, with the exceptions of the city of Suakin on the Red Sea coast and the Nile town of Wadi Halfa on the Sudan-Egypt border, which were garrisoned by the Anglo-Egyptian force.
After his victory, Muhammad Ahmad became the ruler of most parts of what is now Sudan and South Sudan. He established a religious state, the Mahdiyah, but died shortly afterwards in June 1885, possibly from typhoid. The state he founded passed to Abdallahi ibn Muhammad, his chosen successor.
In the immediate aftermath of the Mahdist victory, the British press blamed Gordon's death on Gladstone, who was accused of being excessively slow to send relief to Khartoum. Gladstone had never wanted to get involved in Sudan and felt some sympathy for those Sudanese who sought to end Egyptian colonial rule. He declared in the House of Commons: "Yes, those people are struggling to be free, and they are rightly struggling to be free". Gordon's failure to conduct an immediate evacuation had not endeared him to Gladstone's government. However among the British public, Gordon was seen as a martyr and a hero. Gladstone was rebuked by Queen Victoria in a telegram, which was leaked to the public. The public outcry over Sudan soon weakened, firstly when press sensationalism of the events began to diminish, and secondly when the government announced that the war in Sudan had cost Britain £11.5 million from its military budget. Gladstone's government fell in June 1885; he regained power in December following the 1885 UK election, but lost it again in another election in 1886.
Fighting continued between Egypt and the Mahdists over the following years. Complex international events led to further European expansion into Africa, compelling the British to take a more active role in the conflict. The Anglo-Egyptian forces steadily regained their control over Sudan. In 1896, an expedition led by Herbert Kitchener (who had sworn to avenge Gordon) was sent to reconquer the whole country. On 2 September 1898, Kitchener's troops defeated the largest Mahdist army at the Battle of Omdurman. Two days later, a memorial service for Gordon was held in front of the ruins of the palace where he had died. Fourteen years after the Mahdist capture of Khartoum, the Mahdist Revolt was finally extinguished at the Battle of Umm Diwaykarat in November 1899.
Cultural depictions
These events are depicted in the 1966 film Khartoum, with Charlton Heston as General Gordon and Laurence Olivier as Muhammad Ahmad.
The siege of Khartoum is the setting for Wilbur Smith's novel The Triumph of the Sun (2005) and David Gibbins' Pharaoh (2013).
G. A. Henty wrote a young adults' novel about the siege called The Dash for Khartoum (1892). It has been reissued and is also available to read free online at Project Gutenberg.
Henryk Sienkiewicz, Polish writer and Nobel Prize winner, set his novel In Desert and Wilderness (1923) in Sudan during Mahdi's rebellion, which is integral to the plot.
Gillian Slovo based her novel An Honourable Man (2012) on the established narrative of General Gordon's last days in Khartoum.
References
^ Strachey, Lytton (1918), Eminent Victorians Archived 2017-12-16 at the Wayback Machine p. 38.
^ Asher, Michael (2005). Khartoum: The Ultimate Imperial Adventure. Viking. ISBN 978-0-67087-030-1
^ Waller, John H. (1988). Gordon of Khartoum: the saga of a Victorian Hero. Atheneum Books.
^ a b Monick, S. "The Political Martyr: General Gordon and the Fall of Kartum". Military History Journal, Vol 6 No 6 Archived 2020-07-23 at the Wayback Machine
^ Churchill, Winston S. (1952); The River War – an Account of the Reconquest of the Sudan; Eyre and Spottiswoode, p. 40.
^ Strachey, p. 57.
^ Churchill, p. 29.
^ Churchill, p37
^ Strachey, p. 58.
^ a b Churchill, p. 46.
^ Churchill, p. 50.
^ Journals at Khartoum, p. 8.
^ Snook, Mike (2013). Beyond the Reach of Empire: Wolseley's Failed Campaign to save Gordon and Khartoum. Frontline Books.
^ Strachey, p. 84.
^ Alfred Egmont Hake in The World's Story: A History of the World in Story, Song and Art, Eva March Tappan (ed.), (Boston, 1914), vol. III, p. 249.
^ a b A Prisoner of the Khaleefa - Ten Years Captivity at Omdurman (Chapman and Hall, 1899), Chapter XXV – How Gordon Died, pp. 300–324, and Appendix 2, pp. 334–337
^ Rudolph von Slatin, Fire and Sword in the Soudan (Edward Arnold 1896) p. 340
^ Cuhaj, George S., ed. (2009). Standard Catalog of World Paper Money Specialized Issues (11 ed.). Krause. pp. 1069–1070. ISBN 978-1-4402-0450-0.
^ Snook, Mike (2013). Beyond the Reach of Empire: Wolseley's Failed Campaign to save Gordon and Khartoum.
^ Strachey, p. 65.
^ Miller, Brook (2005). "Our Abdiel: The British Press and the Lionization of 'Chinese' Gordon." Nineteenth-Century Prose 32.2: 127+.
^ Isba, Anne (2006). Gladstone and Women. p. 193. ISBN 9781852854713.
^ Johnson, Douglas H. (1982). "The death of Gordon: a Victorian myth." Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 10.3: 285–310.
^ Herman, Gerald. "For God and Country: Khartoum (1966) as History and as 'Object Lesson' for Global Policemen." Film & History: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Film and Television Studies 9.1 (1979): 1–15.
^ Henryk Sienkiewicz, In Desert and Wilderness (1923) online.
^ Helen Davies, "Saving General Gordon: Review of Gillian Slovo’s An Honourable Man." Neo-Victorian Studies 5:2 (2012) pp. 228–237 online Archived 2018-04-21 at the Wayback Machine
Further reading
Asher, Michael (2006). Khartoum: The Ultimate Imperial Adventure. London: Penguin. ISBN 0-14-025855-8.
Bass, Jeff D. "Of madness and empire: The rhetor as 'fool' in the Khartoum siege journals of Charles Gordon, 1884." Quarterly Journal of Speech 93.4 (2007): 449–469.
Blunt, Wilfrid Scawen. Gordon at Khartoum: Being a Personal Narrative of Events (1923) online.
Buchan, John. Gordon at Khartoum (1934). online, Internet Archive
Chenevix Trench, Charles. The Road to Khartoum: a life of General Charles Gordon (1979) online free to borrow
Elton, Godfrey Elton, Baron. Gordon of Khartoum: The Life of General Charles Gordon (Knopf, 1954).
Nicoll, Fergus. The Sword of the Prophet: the Mahdi of Sudan and the Death of General Gordon (Sutton Publishing, 2004).
Miller, Brook. "Our Abdiel: The British Press and the Lionization of 'Chinese' Gordon." Nineteenth-Century Prose 32.2 (2005): 127+ online
Snook, Mike. Beyond the Reach of Empire: Wolseley's Failed Campaign to save Gordon and Khartoum (Frontline Books, 2013).
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Battle of Khartoum (2023)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Khartoum_(2023)"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Sudanese_Mahdist_Revolt"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Sudanese_Mahdist_Revolt"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Sudanese_Mahdist_Revolt"},{"link_name":"Mahdist War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahdist_War"},{"link_name":"Aba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Aba"},{"link_name":"Shaykan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Shaykan"},{"link_name":"El Teb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_and_Second_Battles_of_El_Teb"},{"link_name":"Tamai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tamai"},{"link_name":"Khartoum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Abu Klea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Abu_Klea"},{"link_name":"Abu Kru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Abu_Kru"},{"link_name":"Kirbekan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Kirbekan"},{"link_name":"Tofrek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tofrek"},{"link_name":"Ginnis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ginnis"},{"link_name":"Emin Pasha Expedition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emin_Pasha_Relief_Expedition"},{"link_name":"Dufile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Dufile"},{"link_name":"Suakin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Suakin"},{"link_name":"Toski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Toski"},{"link_name":"Kufit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Kufit"},{"link_name":"Guté Dili","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Gut%C3%A9_Dili"},{"link_name":"Gallabat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Gallabat"},{"link_name":"1st Agordat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Battle_of_Agordat"},{"link_name":"Serobeti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Serobeti"},{"link_name":"2nd Agordat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Agordat"},{"link_name":"Kassala","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Kassala"},{"link_name":"British-Egyptian reconquest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_conquest_of_Sudan"},{"link_name":"Ferkeh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ferkeh"},{"link_name":"Rejaf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Rejaf"},{"link_name":"Abu Hamed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Abu_Hamed"},{"link_name":"Atbara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Atbara"},{"link_name":"Omdurman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Omdurman"},{"link_name":"Umm Diwaykarat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Umm_Diwaykarat"},{"link_name":"Sudanese Mahdist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahdist_State"},{"link_name":"Khartoum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khartoum"},{"link_name":"Egyptian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khedivate_of_Egypt"},{"link_name":"Sudan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turco-Egyptian_Sudan"},{"link_name":"conquered Sudan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turco-Egyptian_conquest_of_Sudan_(1820%E2%80%931824)"},{"link_name":"British domination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Egypt_under_the_British"},{"link_name":"Mahdist War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahdist_War"},{"link_name":"Muhammad Ahmad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_Ahmad"},{"link_name":"Mahdi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahdi"},{"link_name":"Egyptian Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_Army"},{"link_name":"Charles George Gordon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_George_Gordon"},{"link_name":"Governor-General of Sudan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor-General_of_Sudan"},{"link_name":"the Mahdiyah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahdist_State"}],"text":"1884–85 Mahdist siege in SudanFor the 2023 battle, see Battle of Khartoum (2023).vteMahdist WarMahdist uprising (1881–1885)\nAba\nShaykan\nEl Teb\nTamai\nKhartoum\nAbu Klea\nAbu Kru\nKirbekan\nTofrek\nGinnis\nBritish-Egyptian expeditions (1885–1889)\n\nEmin Pasha Expedition\nDufile\nSuakin\nToski\nEthiopian campaigns (1885–1889)\n\nKufit\nGuté Dili\nGallabat\nItalian campaigns (1890–1894)\n\n1st Agordat\nSerobeti\n2nd Agordat\nKassala\nBritish-Egyptian reconquest (1896–1899)\n\nFerkeh\nRejaf\nAbu Hamed\nAtbara\nOmdurman\nUmm DiwaykaratThe siege of Khartoum (also known as the battle of Khartoum or fall of Khartoum) took place from 13 March 1884 to 26 January 1885. Sudanese Mahdist forces captured the city of Khartoum from its Egyptian garrison, thereby gaining control over the whole of Sudan.Egypt had conquered Sudan in 1820, but had itself come under British domination in 1882. In 1881, the Mahdist War began in Sudan, led by Muhammad Ahmad who claimed to be the Mahdi. The Egyptian Army was unable to suppress the revolt, being defeated in several battles and retreating to their garrisons. The British refused to send a military force to the area, instead appointing Charles George Gordon as Governor-General of Sudan, with orders to evacuate Khartoum and the other garrisons. Gordon arrived in Khartoum in February 1884, where he found it impossible to reach the other garrisons which were already besieged. Rather than evacuating immediately, Gordon began to fortify the city, which was cut off when the local tribes switched their support to the Mahdi. Approximately 7,000 Egyptian troops and 27,000 (mostly Sudanese) civilians were besieged in Khartoum by 30,000 Mahdist warriors, rising to 50,000 by the end of the siege.Attempts by the defenders to break out of the city failed. Food supplies began to run out; they had been expected to last six months, but the siege went on for ten, so the garrison and civilian population began to starve. After months of public pressure, the British government reluctantly agreed to send troops to relieve the siege. With the relief column approaching, the Mahdists launched a night assault on Khartoum. They broke through the defences and killed the entire garrison, including Gordon. A further 4,000 male civilians were killed, while many women and children were enslaved. The relief expedition arrived two days later; realising they were too late, they withdrew from Sudan. The Mahdi then founded a religious state in Sudan, the Mahdiyah, which would last for fourteen years.","title":"Siege of Khartoum"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Khedivate of Egypt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khedivate_of_Egypt"},{"link_name":"vassal state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vassal_state"},{"link_name":"Ottoman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire"},{"link_name":"came under British military occupation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Egypt_under_the_British#Veiled_protectorate_(1882%E2%80%931913)"},{"link_name":"1882 Anglo-Egyptian War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1882_Anglo-Egyptian_War"},{"link_name":"de facto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_facto"},{"link_name":"protectorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protectorate"},{"link_name":"Khedive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khedive"},{"link_name":"dual control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_control_(politics)"},{"link_name":"Egypt's possession of Sudan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_Sudan#Egyptian_rule"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Muhammad_Ahmad_al-Mahdi.jpg"},{"link_name":"Muhammad Ahmad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_Ahmad"},{"link_name":"Mahdi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahdi"},{"link_name":"Muhammad Ahmad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_Ahmad"},{"link_name":"mahdi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahdi"},{"link_name":"Islam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam"},{"link_name":"hadith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadith"},{"link_name":"Mahdist revolt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahdist_revolt"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Battle of El Obeid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_El_Obeid"},{"link_name":"Darfur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darfur"},{"link_name":"Kordofan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kordofan"},{"link_name":"Khartoum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khartoum"}],"sub_title":"Strategic situation","text":"The Khedivate of Egypt was nominally a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire, but came under British military occupation during the 1882 Anglo-Egyptian War, making it a de facto British protectorate. Egypt was mostly left to govern itself under the Khedive, though its finances remained under a system of dual control that had begun in the 1870s. The British regarded Egypt's possession of Sudan as a domestic matter.[1]Muhammad Ahmad, the self-proclaimed MahdiA revolt had begun in Sudan in 1881, when Muhammad Ahmad claimed to be the mahdi – the redeemer of Islam prophesied in the hadith scriptures. This Mahdist revolt was supported by many in Sudan, both for religious reasons and due to a desire for independence from Egypt.[2]The Egyptian Army attempted to suppress the revolt, but were defeated by the Mahdists in November 1883 at the Battle of El Obeid. The Mahdi's forces captured the Egyptians' equipment and overran large parts of Sudan, including Darfur and Kordofan. However Egypt still maintained several strong garrisons in Sudan, including at Khartoum.","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Charles_Gordon_Pasha.jpg"},{"link_name":"Prime Minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"William Gladstone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Ewart_Gladstone"},{"link_name":"War Secretary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_War"},{"link_name":"Lord Hartington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spencer_Cavendish,_8th_Duke_of_Devonshire"},{"link_name":"Charles George Gordon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_George_Gordon"},{"link_name":"Governor-General of Sudan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor-General_of_Sudan"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Islamic world","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_world"},{"link_name":"Egyptian army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_Army"},{"link_name":"imperialist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperialist"},{"link_name":"Samuel Baker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Baker"},{"link_name":"Garnet Wolseley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garnet_Wolseley,_1st_Viscount_Wolseley"},{"link_name":"The Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Times"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Monick-4"},{"link_name":"£","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pound_sterling"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"John Stewart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Donald_Hamill_Stewart"},{"link_name":"Berber, Sudan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berber,_Sudan"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"sub_title":"Appointment of Gordon","text":"Charles Gordon in Egyptian military uniformThe Egyptian defeat at El Obeid brought the Mahdi Revolt to the attention of the British government and public. The British Prime Minister, William Gladstone, and his War Secretary, Lord Hartington, did not want British troops to become involved in Sudan. If Egypt fought the war itself, they were concerned that the expense would prevent Egypt from paying the interest on its extensive debts to Britain (and France). The British put pressure on the Egyptian government to evacuate all their garrisons in Sudan, abandoning it to the Mahdists. The British soldier Major-General Charles George Gordon, a former Governor-General of Sudan (1876–1879), was re-appointed to that post, with orders to conduct the evacuation.[3]Gordon's views on Sudan were radically different from Gladstone's: Gordon felt that the Mahdi's rebellion had to be defeated before it gained control of the whole of Sudan. The Mahdi claimed dominion over the entire Islamic world, which led Gordon to believe that the revolt would not end with control of Sudan, but would attempt to conquer Egypt and perhaps the wider region. Gordon was also concerned by the fragility of the Egyptian army, which had suffered several defeats by the Sudanese. Gordon favoured a more aggressive policy in Sudan, as did the imperialist author Sir Samuel Baker and Sir Garnet Wolseley, who had commanded British forces in the 1882 war. Gordon published his views on Sudan in The Times in January 1884.[4]Despite this, Gordon was commanded to evacuate Sudan, which he agreed to do. He was given funds of £100,000 in credit and was promised \"all support and cooperation in their power\" by the British and Egyptian authorities.[5] On his way to Khartoum with his assistant, Colonel John Stewart, Gordon stopped in the town of Berber, Sudan to address an assembly of tribal chiefs. There he made a major mistake, by revealing that the Egyptian government planned to withdraw their troops from Sudan. The tribesmen became worried by this news, which caused their loyalty to waver.[6]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Sennar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sennar"},{"link_name":"Tokar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokar,_Sudan"},{"link_name":"Sinkat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinkat"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"torture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torture"},{"link_name":"slavery in Sudan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery_in_Sudan"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Indian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_India"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Churchill,_p._46-10"},{"link_name":"cabinet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Cairo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cairo"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Churchill,_p._46-10"}],"sub_title":"Gordon's preparations","text":"Gordon arrived at Khartoum on 18 February 1884, finding it was safely occupied by a garrison of 7,000 Egyptian troops and 27,000 civilians.[7] However three smaller garrisons, at Sennar, Tokar and Sinkat, were under siege by the Mahdists.[8] Rather than evacuating Khartoum immediately, Gordon declared his intention to extricate the other garrisons, and set about administering Sudan. His first actions were to reverse several policies introduced by the Egyptians since he had last been Governor-General five years earlier: arbitrary imprisonments were cancelled, torture was halted and its instruments were destroyed, and taxes were remitted. To enlist the support of the population, Gordon re-legalised slavery in Sudan, despite having (unsuccessfully) attempted to abolish it in his previous term. This decision was popular in Khartoum, but caused controversy in Britain.[9]Seeking to bolster Khartoum's defences, Gordon then attempted to secure reinforcements. He requested a regiment of Turkish soldiers from the Ottomans, who were still the nominal overlords, which was rebuffed. He then asked the British for a unit of Muslim Indian troops, and later for 200 native British soldiers.[10] These were also refused by the Gladstone cabinet, which was still intent upon evacuation and adamant they would make no military intervention in Sudan.Gordon began to resent the government's policy, and his telegrams to the British office in Cairo became more bitter. He declared himself honour-bound to rescue the garrisons and defend the Sudanese in Khartoum; it is unclear whether this was a deliberate attempt to delay the evacuation (or avoid it entirely). On 8 April he wrote: \"I leave you with the indelible disgrace of abandoning the garrisons\" and added that such a course would be \"the climax of meanness\".[10]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Battle"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SiegeKhartoum02.JPG"},{"link_name":"Blue Nile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Nile"},{"link_name":"White Nile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Nile"},{"link_name":"gunboats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunboat"},{"link_name":"trenches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trench"},{"link_name":"Fougasse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fougasse_(weapon)"},{"link_name":"land mines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_mine"},{"link_name":"Shagia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaigiya_tribe"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Monick-4"},{"link_name":"sortie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sortie"},{"link_name":"Nile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nile"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"a series of promissory notes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Khartoum_currency"},{"link_name":"siege money","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_money"},{"link_name":"Al Aylafuh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Al_Aylafuh&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"steamboat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steamboat"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"sub_title":"Siege begins","text":"Map of Khartoum during the siegeKnowing that the Mahdists were closing in, Gordon ordered the strengthening of the fortifications around Khartoum. The city was protected to the north by the Blue Nile and to the west by the White Nile. To defend the river banks, he formed a flotilla of gunboats from nine small paddle-wheel steamers, which had been used for communication along the river, by fitting them with guns and metal plates for armour. In the southern part of the town, which faced the open desert, he prepared an elaborate system of trenches, makeshift Fougasse-type land mines, and wire entanglements. The surrounding country was controlled by the Shagia tribe, which were thought to be hostile to the Mahdi.[4]On 16 March Gordon launched an unsuccessful sortie from Khartoum, with 200 Egyptian troops dying in the fighting. By early April 1884, the tribes north of Khartoum had risen in support of the Mahdi, including those Gordon had met at Berber. The tribesmen intercepted river traffic on the Nile and cut the telegraph cables to Cairo.[11] Communications were not entirely halted, as individual messengers could still get through, but this effectively began the siege of Khartoum. The city could rely only on its own food stores, which were expected to last five or six months. By this time, the combined forces besieging Khartoum and the other garrisons were over 30,000 men.From April onwards, Khartoum was cut off. With no supply of money to pay the troops or facilitate trade of food, Gordon used his credit to issue a series of promissory notes, a form of siege money. Communication with Cairo was maintained through couriers, who took several days to make the trip. Gordon also contacted the Mahdi, who rejected his attempts to negotiate a peaceful evacuation. As the siege dragged on, food stores dwindled and starvation began to set in, for both the garrison and the civilian population.In September, the besieged forces in Khartoum made an attempt to reach the garrison at Sennar; the expedition made it out of the siege lines but was defeated by the Mahdists at Al Aylafuh, with the loss of 800 garrison troops. A separate attempt to send a steamboat along the Nile to Cairo also failed; all the passengers were killed, including Colonel Stewart. Stewart had been carrying letters from Gordon, which were captured and revealed the worsening situation inside Khartoum. By the end of the month, the Mahdi moved most of his army to Khartoum, away from the outlying garrisons, more than doubling the number around the city. On 10 September 1884, the civilian population inside Khartoum was about 34,000.[12]","title":"Battle"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Nile_Expedition_for_the_Relief_of_General_Gordon,_from_The_Graphic,_29_November_1894.png"},{"link_name":"British press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_press"},{"link_name":"Queen Victoria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Victoria"},{"link_name":"Sir Garnet Wolseley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garnet_Wolseley,_1st_Viscount_Wolseley"},{"link_name":"French-Canadian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Canadians"},{"link_name":"Indigenous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada"},{"link_name":"Battle of Abu Klea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Abu_Klea"},{"link_name":"infantry square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infantry_square"},{"link_name":"Battle of Abu Kru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Abu_Kru"}],"sub_title":"Relief expedition","text":"The Nile Expedition for the relief of GordonGordon's plight excited great concern in the British press, and even Queen Victoria intervened on his behalf. The government ordered Gordon to return to Cairo, alone if necessary, but he refused, saying he would not abandon the city. In July 1884, Gladstone reluctantly agreed to send an expedition to relieve Khartoum. The relief force, 8,000 British troops led by Sir Garnet Wolseley, took several months to organise. The troops had to be carried on boats up the Nile to reach Khartoum. Navigators from Canada, mainly French-Canadian and Indigenous woodworkers, were brought in to operate the boats. They did not enter Sudan until January 1885.By then the situation in Khartoum had become desperate. Food supplies had been expected to last six months, but the siege had gone on for ten months. With supplies running low, many inhabitants died of hunger, and the defenders' morale plummeted.Informed of the dire situation in Khartoum, Wolseley was forced to divide his forces. While the main body would continue to advance by river to Abu Hamed, the Desert Column would strike from Korti, across the Bayuda Desert to Mettema where they would link with Gordon's steamboats awaiting them.As they advanced toward Mettema, the Desert Column was attacked at the Battle of Abu Klea on 17 January. Although the Mahdists managed to break their infantry square, the British troops recovered and repelled the attack. Two days later, the relief force was attacked again at the Battle of Abu Kru but were able to drive off the Mahdists. The Mahdi, aware of the British advance, decided to assault Khartoum before they could arrive.","title":"Battle"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Death_of_General_Gordon_at_Khartoum,_by_J.L.G._Ferris.jpg"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Austrian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria-Hungary"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-prisoner-16"},{"link_name":"dervishes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dervish"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-prisoner-16"},{"link_name":"Omdurman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omdurman"},{"link_name":"White Nile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Nile"},{"link_name":"Rudolf Carl von Slatin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Carl_von_Slatin"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Fall of Khartoum","text":"On the night of 25–26 January an estimated 50,000 Mahdists attacked the city wall just before midnight. The Mahdists took advantage of the seasonally low level of the Nile, which allowed them to ford the river on foot. The details of the final assault are unclear, but hearsay accounts[citation needed] were that by 3:30 am, the Mahdists had outflanked the city wall where it met the Nile. Meanwhile, another force, led by Al Nujumi, broke down the Massalamieh Gate, despite taking casualties from the land mines and barbed wire obstacles laid out by Gordon's men. The defending garrison, weakened by starvation and low morale, offered only patchy resistance. Within a few hours, the entire garrison was killed, as were 4,000 of the town's male inhabitants. Many women and children were enslaved by the victorious Mahdists.[13]Death of General Gordon at KhartoumAccounts differ as to how Gordon was killed. According to one version, when Mahdist warriors broke into the governor's palace, Gordon came outside in full uniform and disdained to fight; he was then killed with a spear, despite orders from the Mahdi to capture Gordon alive.[14] In another version, Gordon was recognised by Mahdists while attempting to reach the neutral Austrian consulate in the city, who shot him dead in the street.[15]The most detailed account of his death was given by his servant Khaleel Aga Orphali, when debriefed by the British in 1898 (13 years later). According to Orphali, Gordon died fighting on the stairs leading from the first to the ground floor of the west wing of the palace. Gordon was seriously wounded by a spear that hit him in the left shoulder, but continued fighting with Orphali beside him. Orphali stated that:[16]\"With his life's blood pouring from his breast [...] he fought his way step by step, kicking from his path the wounded and dead dervishes [...] and as he was passing through the doorway leading into the courtyard, another concealed dervish almost severed his right leg with a single blow.Orphali claimed he was then knocked unconscious, waking unharmed several hours later to find Gordon's decapitated body near to him.[16]However he died, Gordon's head was taken to the Mahdi's headquarters at Omdurman (opposite Khartoum on the other side of the White Nile). There it was shown to Rudolf Carl von Slatin, a prisoner of the Mahdi who had worked for Gordon during his first term in Sudan, who verified it was Gordon's.[17] The head was then brought to the Mahdi. According to some sources,[citation needed] the rest of Gordon's body was dumped in the Nile.","title":"Battle"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SUD-S104a-Siege_of_Khartoum-20_Piastres_(1884).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SUD-S104a-Siege_of_Khartoum-20_Piastres_(1884).jpg"},{"link_name":"piastre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piastre"},{"link_name":"promissory note","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Khartoum_currency"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Charles Wilson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_William_Wilson"},{"link_name":"Suakin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suakin"},{"link_name":"Red Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Sea"},{"link_name":"Wadi Halfa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wadi_Halfa"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Sudan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudan"},{"link_name":"South Sudan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Sudan"},{"link_name":"the Mahdiyah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahdist_State"},{"link_name":"typhoid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typhoid"},{"link_name":"Abdallahi ibn Muhammad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdallahi_ibn_Muhammad"},{"link_name":"House of Commons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"1885 UK election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1885_United_Kingdom_general_election"},{"link_name":"another election in 1886","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1886_United_Kingdom_general_election"},{"link_name":"European expansion into Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonisation_of_Africa"},{"link_name":"an expedition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_conquest_of_Sudan"},{"link_name":"Herbert Kitchener","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Kitchener,_1st_Earl_Kitchener"},{"link_name":"Battle of Omdurman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Omdurman"},{"link_name":"Battle of Umm Diwaykarat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Umm_Diwaykarat"}],"text":"20 piastre promissory note issued and hand-signed by Gen. Gordon during the Siege of Khartoum (26 April 1884)[18]A small part of the relief expedition (28 men led by colonel Charles Wilson, embarked on two of Gordon's steamboats) arrived within sight of Khartoum two days after it fell. After discovering that they were too late, the surviving British and Egyptian troops withdrew. The Mahdi was left in control of the entire country, with the exceptions of the city of Suakin on the Red Sea coast and the Nile town of Wadi Halfa on the Sudan-Egypt border, which were garrisoned by the Anglo-Egyptian force.[19]After his victory, Muhammad Ahmad became the ruler of most parts of what is now Sudan and South Sudan. He established a religious state, the Mahdiyah, but died shortly afterwards in June 1885, possibly from typhoid. The state he founded passed to Abdallahi ibn Muhammad, his chosen successor.In the immediate aftermath of the Mahdist victory, the British press blamed Gordon's death on Gladstone, who was accused of being excessively slow to send relief to Khartoum. Gladstone had never wanted to get involved in Sudan and felt some sympathy for those Sudanese who sought to end Egyptian colonial rule. He declared in the House of Commons: \"Yes, those people are struggling to be free, and they are rightly struggling to be free\".[20] Gordon's failure to conduct an immediate evacuation had not endeared him to Gladstone's government. However among the British public, Gordon was seen as a martyr and a hero.[21] Gladstone was rebuked by Queen Victoria in a telegram, which was leaked to the public.[22] The public outcry over Sudan soon weakened, firstly when press sensationalism of the events began to diminish, and secondly when the government announced that the war in Sudan had cost Britain £11.5 million from its military budget.[23] Gladstone's government fell in June 1885; he regained power in December following the 1885 UK election, but lost it again in another election in 1886.Fighting continued between Egypt and the Mahdists over the following years. Complex international events led to further European expansion into Africa, compelling the British to take a more active role in the conflict. The Anglo-Egyptian forces steadily regained their control over Sudan. In 1896, an expedition led by Herbert Kitchener (who had sworn to avenge Gordon) was sent to reconquer the whole country. On 2 September 1898, Kitchener's troops defeated the largest Mahdist army at the Battle of Omdurman. Two days later, a memorial service for Gordon was held in front of the ruins of the palace where he had died. Fourteen years after the Mahdist capture of Khartoum, the Mahdist Revolt was finally extinguished at the Battle of Umm Diwaykarat in November 1899.","title":"Aftermath"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Khartoum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khartoum_(film)"},{"link_name":"Charlton Heston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlton_Heston"},{"link_name":"Laurence Olivier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurence_Olivier"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Wilbur Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilbur_Smith"},{"link_name":"G. A. Henty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G._A._Henty"},{"link_name":"Project Gutenberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/21986"},{"link_name":"Henryk Sienkiewicz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henryk_Sienkiewicz"},{"link_name":"In Desert and Wilderness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_Desert_and_Wilderness"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Gillian Slovo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gillian_Slovo"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"text":"These events are depicted in the 1966 film Khartoum, with Charlton Heston as General Gordon and Laurence Olivier as Muhammad Ahmad.[24]\nThe siege of Khartoum is the setting for Wilbur Smith's novel The Triumph of the Sun (2005) and David Gibbins' Pharaoh (2013).\nG. A. Henty wrote a young adults' novel about the siege called The Dash for Khartoum (1892). It has been reissued and is also available to read free online at Project Gutenberg.\nHenryk Sienkiewicz, Polish writer and Nobel Prize winner, set his novel In Desert and Wilderness (1923) in Sudan during Mahdi's rebellion, which is integral to the plot.[25]\nGillian Slovo based her novel An Honourable Man (2012) on the established narrative of General Gordon's last days in Khartoum.[26]","title":"Cultural depictions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Asher, Michael","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Asher_(explorer)"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-14-025855-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-025855-8"},{"link_name":"Blunt, Wilfrid Scawen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilfrid_Scawen_Blunt"},{"link_name":"online","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.506202"},{"link_name":"Buchan, John","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Buchan"},{"link_name":"online","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.59053"},{"link_name":"Chenevix Trench, Charles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Chenevix_Trench"},{"link_name":"online free to borrow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/roadtokhartoum00chen"},{"link_name":"Elton, Godfrey Elton, Baron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godfrey_Elton,_1st_Baron_Elton"},{"link_name":"ISBN missing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"},{"link_name":"Nicoll, Fergus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fergus_Nicoll"},{"link_name":"ISBN missing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"},{"link_name":"online","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-208109718/our-abdiel-the-british-press-and-the-lionization"},{"link_name":"ISBN missing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"},{"link_name":"Authority control databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q815159#identifiers"},{"link_name":"Israel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007539530005171"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.loc.gov/authorities/sh95002126"}],"text":"Asher, Michael (2006). Khartoum: The Ultimate Imperial Adventure. London: Penguin. ISBN 0-14-025855-8.\nBass, Jeff D. \"Of madness and empire: The rhetor as 'fool' in the Khartoum siege journals of Charles Gordon, 1884.\" Quarterly Journal of Speech 93.4 (2007): 449–469.\nBlunt, Wilfrid Scawen. Gordon at Khartoum: Being a Personal Narrative of Events (1923) online.\nBuchan, John. Gordon at Khartoum (1934). online, Internet Archive\nChenevix Trench, Charles. The Road to Khartoum: a life of General Charles Gordon (1979) online free to borrow\nElton, Godfrey Elton, Baron. Gordon of Khartoum: The Life of General Charles Gordon (Knopf, 1954). [ISBN missing]\nNicoll, Fergus. The Sword of the Prophet: the Mahdi of Sudan and the Death of General Gordon (Sutton Publishing, 2004). [ISBN missing]\nMiller, Brook. \"Our Abdiel: The British Press and the Lionization of 'Chinese' Gordon.\" Nineteenth-Century Prose 32.2 (2005): 127+ online\nSnook, Mike. Beyond the Reach of Empire: Wolseley's Failed Campaign to save Gordon and Khartoum (Frontline Books, 2013). [ISBN missing]Authority control databases: National \nIsrael\nUnited States","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"Muhammad Ahmad, the self-proclaimed Mahdi","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Muhammad_Ahmad_al-Mahdi.jpg/220px-Muhammad_Ahmad_al-Mahdi.jpg"},{"image_text":"Charles Gordon in Egyptian military uniform","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Charles_Gordon_Pasha.jpg/220px-Charles_Gordon_Pasha.jpg"},{"image_text":"Map of Khartoum during the siege","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/2f/SiegeKhartoum02.JPG/220px-SiegeKhartoum02.JPG"},{"image_text":"The Nile Expedition for the relief of Gordon","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/The_Nile_Expedition_for_the_Relief_of_General_Gordon%2C_from_The_Graphic%2C_29_November_1894.png/250px-The_Nile_Expedition_for_the_Relief_of_General_Gordon%2C_from_The_Graphic%2C_29_November_1894.png"},{"image_text":"Death of General Gordon at Khartoum","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Death_of_General_Gordon_at_Khartoum%2C_by_J.L.G._Ferris.jpg/200px-Death_of_General_Gordon_at_Khartoum%2C_by_J.L.G._Ferris.jpg"}]
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[{"reference":"Cuhaj, George S., ed. (2009). Standard Catalog of World Paper Money Specialized Issues (11 ed.). Krause. pp. 1069–1070. ISBN 978-1-4402-0450-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=22dKPgAACAAJ&q=standard+catalog+of+specialized+issues","url_text":"Standard Catalog of World Paper Money Specialized Issues"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4402-0450-0","url_text":"978-1-4402-0450-0"}]},{"reference":"Isba, Anne (2006). Gladstone and Women. p. 193. ISBN 9781852854713.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=gaxDs8_oz_QC&pg=PA193","url_text":"Gladstone and Women"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781852854713","url_text":"9781852854713"}]},{"reference":"Asher, Michael (2006). Khartoum: The Ultimate Imperial Adventure. London: Penguin. ISBN 0-14-025855-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Asher_(explorer)","url_text":"Asher, Michael"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-025855-8","url_text":"0-14-025855-8"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eckernf%C3%B6rde
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Eckernförde
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["1 Name","2 History","3 Mayors","4 Economy","5 Education","6 Transport","7 Twin towns – sister cities","8 Notable people","9 References","10 External links"]
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Coordinates: 54°28′27″N 9°50′16″E / 54.47417°N 9.83778°E / 54.47417; 9.83778Town in Schleswig-Holstein, GermanyEckernförde
Eckernföör (Low German)Egernførde (Danish)TownPort of Eckernförde in mid-October 2005
Coat of armsLocation of Eckernförde within Rendsburg-Eckernförde district
Eckernförde Show map of GermanyEckernförde Show map of Schleswig-HolsteinCoordinates: 54°28′27″N 9°50′16″E / 54.47417°N 9.83778°E / 54.47417; 9.83778CountryGermanyStateSchleswig-HolsteinDistrictRendsburg-Eckernförde Government • MayorIris Ploog (SPD)Area • Total17.97 km2 (6.94 sq mi)Elevation21 m (69 ft)Population (2022-12-31) • Total21,507 • Density1,200/km2 (3,100/sq mi)Time zoneUTC+01:00 (CET) • Summer (DST)UTC+02:00 (CEST)Postal codes24340Dialling codes04351Vehicle registrationECKWebsitewww.eckernfoerde.de
View on Borby , the harbor and historical town centre
Eckernförde (German: ⓘ; Danish: Egernførde, sometimes also Egernfjord; Low German: Eckernför, sometimes also Eckernföör) is a city located in the Kreis of Rendsburg-Eckernförde, Schleswig-Holstein, northern Germany. Situated on the coast of the Baltic Sea, approximately 30 km north-west of Kiel, it has a population of about 23,000. Eckernförde is a popular tourist destination.
Name
The name of Eckernförde is of mixed origin, but derived from the name of a Danish castle formerly located near the current town, which is also reflected in the name of the town district of Borby. This fortification is listed in the 13th century Liber Census Daniæ as Ykærnæburgh. In 1441, the town used an official seal listing its name as Eherneborgh. The first syllable corresponds to the modern Danish word "egern" meaning squirrel while "-förde" is Low German meaning fjord. The -förde ending is documented in Latinized form on two official seals used by the town in 1602 and 1624. The etymology of the town's name is reflected in the presence of a squirrel in the town's coat of arms, a feature first documented by the 1441 seal.
History
Eckernförde Rathausmarkt (market place)
In 1197, Eckernförde was mentioned in a written manner for the first time.
Eckernförde was mentioned in the year 1302 for the first time explicitly as a city, but in 1288 the inhabitants were already called oppidani (city citizen).
In 1628, it was taken by Christian IV of Denmark from the troops of the Holy Roman Empire.
During the First War of Schleswig two Danish ships, the Christian VIII and the frigate Gefion tried to land in Eckernförde in April 1849. They were cannonaded from the shore. The Christian VIII exploded, while the Gefion surrendered and was captured. Theodor Preusser, the commander in chief of the southern troops, died while rescuing Danish troops from the Christian VIII.
On November 13, the 1872 Baltic Sea flood hit the coast of the Baltic Sea from Denmark to Pomerania. Of all the German coastal settlements, Eckernförde was most heavily damaged due to its location on Eckernförde Bay which is wide open to the north-east. The entire town was flooded, 78 houses were destroyed, 138 damaged and 112 families became homeless.
The Count Saint-Germain was buried in Eckernförde near St. Nicolai Church. His grave was destroyed by the 1872 storm surge.
In 1934, the seaside resort Borby was incorporated.
After the Second World War a United Nations displaced persons camp for Estonians was located near Eckernförde, where a section of the Hohenstein mansion was converted into a maternity ward.
Mayors
1906–1914: Karl Heldmann (1872-1914)
1920–1921: Willers Jessen (temporary)
1921–1926: Curt Pönitzsch
July–September 1926: Wilhelm Kuhr (temporary)
1926–1931: Walther Heinn (temporary)
1931–1933: Wilhelm Sievers, (1896-1966), NSDAP
1933–1938: Helmut Lemke, (1907-1990), NSDAP
1938–1943: Friedrich Böhm, NSDAP (time of office till 1945)
1943–1945: Heinz Loewer, NSDAP (temporary)
since June 1945: Hans Ohm (temporary)
since August 1945 Ewald Wendenburg (temporary)
since April 1946: Heinrich Schumacher KPD
since September 1946: Daniel Hinrichsen, CDU
April 1950–September 1952: Ewald Wendenburg, CDU
1952–1966 Werner Schmidt, (1911-1990), independent, then FDP
1966–1969: Hans Wiedemann, independent
1969–1987: Kurt Schulz, SPD
1987–1998: Klaus Buß, (born 1942), SPD
1998–1999: Ingrid Ehlers, SPD (temporary)
1999–2006: Susanne Jeske-Paasch, (born 1958), SPD
since 2007: Jörg Sibbel, (born 1965), independent, then CDU
Economy
In the early 20th century, Eckernförde was known for its harbour, fishing, trade in agricultural products, and manufacture of salt and iron goods.
All German Navy submarines form part of 1st Ubootgeschwader and are stationed in Eckernförde. It is the home of BEHN, an alcoholic beverage family company, founded in 1792. The headquarters of SIG Sauer are also located there.
Education
Schools in the city include the Richard-Vosgerau-Schule. The Richard Vosgerau School is a public elementary school in Eckernförde. The address is 26 Bergstraße, 24340 Eckernförde. The current head of the school is Mrs. Koepke. The school building consists of a white main house and a small outbuilding as well as a football field and a sports hall. In the schoolyard, the school children enjoy various activities, ranging from slides to climbing. Other schools in Eckernförde include:
Fritz-Reuter-Schule (primary and regional school)
Waldorf School
Gudewerdt Schule (primary and community school)
Pestalozzi Schule (special school)
Schule am Noor (special school)
Jungmannschule (high school)
Peter-Ustinov-Schule (community school)
Sprottenschule (primary school)
Transport
The Kiel–Flensburg railway runs through the town with trains stopping at Eckernförde station, situated to the west of the town centre. The town's main bus station, central omnibus station (German: ZOB), is directly connected to the train station.
The operating company of the railway network is Deutsche Bahn.
Eckernförde has 4 bus routes for urban connections operated by single-deck buses. Eckernförde has no trams or trolley-buses. For transportation, the statewide Schleswig-Holstein-fare applies.
A taxi stand is located at the bus station.
Eckernförde has two bike rental outlets, one is located near the beach and one is in the pedestrian area.
The nearest international Airport is Hamburg Airport.
Twin towns – sister cities
See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in Germany
Eckernförde is twinned with:
Bützow, Germany (1990)
Hässleholm, Sweden (1958)
Tanga, Tanzania (1963)
Notable people
Grietje Staffelt, 2006
Count of St. Germain, aristocrat and adventurer, died here in 1784
Georg Gerlach (1797–1865), a Danish officer.
Lorenz von Stein (1815–1890), economist, sociologist, and public administration scholar.
Karl Wilhelm Valentiner (1845–1931), astronomer
Frederick G. Clausen (1856–1940), German-American architect
Walter von Bülow-Bothkamp (1894–1918), fighter pilot in WWI, winner of Pour le Mérite
Ruth Halbsguth (1916–2003), swimmer, team silver medallist at the 1936 Summer Olympics
Inge Viett (born 1944), former member of the "Red Army Faction" (RAF)
Christoph, Prince of Schleswig-Holstein (born 1949), head of the House of Glücksburg since 1980
Horst-Dieter Kolletschke (born 1952), a retired rear admiral of the German Navy.
Grietje Staffelt (born 1975), politician (Alliance 90/The Greens), former Bundestag member
Ingmar Zahorsky (born 1983), photojournalist and media artist
Michael Schulte (born 1990), singer and songwriter
References
^ "Bevölkerung der Gemeinden in Schleswig-Holstein 4. Quartal 2022" (XLS) (in German). Statistisches Amt für Hamburg und Schleswig-Holstein.
^ "Tourist information and opening times - Eckernförder Bucht". www.ostseebad-eckernfoerde.de. Retrieved 2024-03-11.
^ a b Politikens Nudansk Ordbog, 1994 edition, entry "Eckernförde"
^ a b Poul Bredo Grandjean (1953), Slesvigske Købstæders og Herreders Segl indtil 1660, J.H. Schultz Forlag, p. 13-14.
^ a b c Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Eckernförde" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 8 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 886.
^ Elle Andra-Warner (nee Jürivee), Red Lake Immigration story (Accessed: 26 June 2013)
^ Andra-Warner, Elle But When Do You Know You Are Canadian? (Accessed: 26 June 2013)
^ Stefan Deiters, Turbulenzen im Rathaus in den Kieler Nachrichten, Ausgabe Eckernförder Nachrichten vom 20. September 2014
^ "Städtepartnerschaften Eckernfördes" (in German). Eckernförde. Retrieved 2021-12-09.
^ "Stein, Lorenz von" . New International Encyclopedia. Vol. XVII. 1905.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Eckernförde.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Eckernförde" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 08 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Official website (in German)
City map Archived 2014-10-06 at the Wayback Machine (in German)
vteTowns and municipalities in Rendsburg-Eckernförde
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Breiholz
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Brinjahe
Brodersby
Brügge
Büdelsdorf
Bünsdorf
Christiansholm
Damendorf
Damp
Dänischenhagen
Dätgen
Dörphof
Eckernförde
Ehndorf
Eisendorf
Ellerdorf
Elsdorf-Westermühlen
Embühren
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[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Blick_auf_Borby,_Hafen_und_Eckernfoerder_Altstadt_-_Juni_2004.jpg"},{"link_name":"Borby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Borby&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"de","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borby"},{"link_name":"[ɛkɐnˈføːɐ̯də]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b6/De-Eckernf%C3%B6rde.ogg/De-Eckernf%C3%B6rde.ogg.mp3"},{"link_name":"ⓘ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:De-Eckernf%C3%B6rde.ogg"},{"link_name":"Danish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_language"},{"link_name":"Low German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_German_language"},{"link_name":"Kreis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Districts_of_Germany"},{"link_name":"Rendsburg-Eckernförde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rendsburg-Eckernf%C3%B6rde"},{"link_name":"Schleswig-Holstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schleswig-Holstein"},{"link_name":"Baltic Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_Sea"},{"link_name":"Kiel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiel"},{"link_name":"tourist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tourism"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Town in Schleswig-Holstein, GermanyView on Borby [de], the harbor and historical town centreEckernförde (German: [ɛkɐnˈføːɐ̯də] ⓘ; Danish: Egernførde, sometimes also Egernfjord; Low German: Eckernför, sometimes also Eckernföör) is a city located in the Kreis of Rendsburg-Eckernförde, Schleswig-Holstein, northern Germany. Situated on the coast of the Baltic Sea, approximately 30 km north-west of Kiel, it has a population of about 23,000. Eckernförde is a popular tourist destination.[2]","title":"Eckernförde"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Liber Census Daniæ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liber_Census_Dani%C3%A6"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceA-3"},{"link_name":"seal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seal_(device)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Poul_Bredo_Grandjean_1953_p._13-14-4"},{"link_name":"Low German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_German"},{"link_name":"fjord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fjord"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceA-3"},{"link_name":"Latinized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Poul_Bredo_Grandjean_1953_p._13-14-4"}],"text":"The name of Eckernförde is of mixed origin, but derived from the name of a Danish castle formerly located near the current town, which is also reflected in the name of the town district of Borby. This fortification is listed in the 13th century Liber Census Daniæ as Ykærnæburgh.[3] In 1441, the town used an official seal listing its name as Eherneborgh.[4] The first syllable corresponds to the modern Danish word \"egern\" meaning squirrel while \"-förde\" is Low German meaning fjord.[3] The -förde ending is documented in Latinized form on two official seals used by the town in 1602 and 1624.[4] The etymology of the town's name is reflected in the presence of a squirrel in the town's coat of arms, a feature first documented by the 1441 seal.","title":"Name"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Eckernf%C3%B6rde.Rathausmarkt.463276505_b9a6ed4d5e_b.jpg"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-5"},{"link_name":"Christian IV of Denmark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_IV_of_Denmark"},{"link_name":"Holy Roman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-5"},{"link_name":"First War of Schleswig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_War_of_Schleswig"},{"link_name":"Gefion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SMS_Gefion_(1843)"},{"link_name":"1872 Baltic Sea flood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1872_Baltic_Sea_flood"},{"link_name":"Baltic Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_Sea"},{"link_name":"Denmark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark"},{"link_name":"Pomerania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomerania"},{"link_name":"Eckernförde Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eckernf%C3%B6rde_Bay"},{"link_name":"Count Saint-Germain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Count_Saint-Germain"},{"link_name":"storm surge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storm_surge"},{"link_name":"Second World War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_World_War"},{"link_name":"displaced persons camp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Displaced_persons_camp"},{"link_name":"Estonians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonia"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"Eckernförde Rathausmarkt (market place)In 1197, Eckernförde was mentioned in a written manner for the first time.[5]\nEckernförde was mentioned in the year 1302 for the first time explicitly as a city, but in 1288 the inhabitants were already called oppidani (city citizen).\nIn 1628, it was taken by Christian IV of Denmark from the troops of the Holy Roman Empire.[5]\nDuring the First War of Schleswig two Danish ships, the Christian VIII and the frigate Gefion tried to land in Eckernförde in April 1849. They were cannonaded from the shore. The Christian VIII exploded, while the Gefion surrendered and was captured. Theodor Preusser, the commander in chief of the southern troops, died while rescuing Danish troops from the Christian VIII.\nOn November 13, the 1872 Baltic Sea flood hit the coast of the Baltic Sea from Denmark to Pomerania. Of all the German coastal settlements, Eckernförde was most heavily damaged due to its location on Eckernförde Bay which is wide open to the north-east. The entire town was flooded, 78 houses were destroyed, 138 damaged and 112 families became homeless.\nThe Count Saint-Germain was buried in Eckernförde near St. Nicolai Church. His grave was destroyed by the 1872 storm surge.\nIn 1934, the seaside resort Borby was incorporated.\nAfter the Second World War a United Nations displaced persons camp for Estonians was located near Eckernförde,[6] where a section of the Hohenstein mansion was converted into a maternity ward.[7]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"1906–1914: Karl Heldmann (1872-1914)\n1920–1921: Willers Jessen (temporary)\n1921–1926: Curt Pönitzsch\nJuly–September 1926: Wilhelm Kuhr (temporary)[8]\n1926–1931: Walther Heinn (temporary)\n1931–1933: Wilhelm Sievers, (1896-1966), NSDAP\n1933–1938: Helmut Lemke, (1907-1990), NSDAP\n1938–1943: Friedrich Böhm, NSDAP (time of office till 1945)\n1943–1945: Heinz Loewer, NSDAP (temporary)\nsince June 1945: Hans Ohm (temporary)\nsince August 1945 Ewald Wendenburg (temporary)\nsince April 1946: Heinrich Schumacher KPD\nsince September 1946: Daniel Hinrichsen, CDU\nApril 1950–September 1952: Ewald Wendenburg, CDU\n1952–1966 Werner Schmidt, (1911-1990), independent, then FDP\n1966–1969: Hans Wiedemann, independent\n1969–1987: Kurt Schulz, SPD\n1987–1998: Klaus Buß, (born 1942), SPD\n1998–1999: Ingrid Ehlers, SPD (temporary)\n1999–2006: Susanne Jeske-Paasch, (born 1958), SPD\nsince 2007: Jörg Sibbel, (born 1965), independent, then CDU","title":"Mayors"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-5"},{"link_name":"German Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Navy"},{"link_name":"submarines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine"},{"link_name":"1st Ubootgeschwader","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st_Ubootgeschwader"},{"link_name":"BEHN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waldemar_Behn"},{"link_name":"SIG Sauer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIG_Sauer"}],"text":"In the early 20th century, Eckernförde was known for its harbour, fishing, trade in agricultural products, and manufacture of salt and iron goods.[5]All German Navy submarines form part of 1st Ubootgeschwader and are stationed in Eckernförde. It is the home of BEHN, an alcoholic beverage family company, founded in 1792. The headquarters of SIG Sauer are also located there.","title":"Economy"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Schools in the city include the Richard-Vosgerau-Schule. The Richard Vosgerau School is a public elementary school in Eckernförde. The address is 26 Bergstraße, 24340 Eckernförde. The current head of the school is Mrs. Koepke. The school building consists of a white main house and a small outbuilding as well as a football field and a sports hall. In the schoolyard, the school children enjoy various activities, ranging from slides to climbing. Other schools in Eckernförde include:Fritz-Reuter-Schule (primary and regional school)\nWaldorf School\nGudewerdt Schule (primary and community school)\nPestalozzi Schule (special school)\nSchule am Noor (special school)\nJungmannschule (high school)\nPeter-Ustinov-Schule (community school)\nSprottenschule (primary school)","title":"Education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kiel–Flensburg railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiel%E2%80%93Flensburg_railway"},{"link_name":"Eckernförde station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eckernf%C3%B6rde_station"},{"link_name":"Deutsche Bahn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Bahn"},{"link_name":"Hamburg Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamburg_Airport"}],"text":"The Kiel–Flensburg railway runs through the town with trains stopping at Eckernförde station, situated to the west of the town centre. The town's main bus station, central omnibus station (German: ZOB), is directly connected to the train station.\nThe operating company of the railway network is Deutsche Bahn.\nEckernförde has 4 bus routes for urban connections operated by single-deck buses. Eckernförde has no trams or trolley-buses. For transportation, the statewide Schleswig-Holstein-fare applies. \nA taxi stand is located at the bus station. \nEckernförde has two bike rental outlets, one is located near the beach and one is in the pedestrian area.The nearest international Airport is Hamburg Airport.","title":"Transport"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of twin towns and sister cities in Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_twin_towns_and_sister_cities_in_Germany"},{"link_name":"twinned","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sister_city"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"Bützow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%BCtzow"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden"},{"link_name":"Hässleholm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A4ssleholm_Municipality"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanzania"},{"link_name":"Tanga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanga,_Tanzania"}],"text":"See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in GermanyEckernförde is twinned with:[9]Bützow, Germany (1990)\n Hässleholm, Sweden (1958)\n Tanga, Tanzania (1963)","title":"Twin towns – sister cities"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Grietjebettinpressefoto.jpg"},{"link_name":"Count of St. Germain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Count_of_St._Germain"},{"link_name":"Georg Gerlach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Gerlach"},{"link_name":"Lorenz von Stein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorenz_von_Stein"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Karl Wilhelm Valentiner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Wilhelm_Valentiner"},{"link_name":"Frederick G. Clausen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_G._Clausen"},{"link_name":"Walter von Bülow-Bothkamp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_von_B%C3%BClow-Bothkamp"},{"link_name":"Ruth Halbsguth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruth_Halbsguth"},{"link_name":"1936 Summer Olympics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1936_Summer_Olympics"},{"link_name":"Inge Viett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inge_Viett"},{"link_name":"Red Army Faction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Army_Faction"},{"link_name":"Christoph, Prince of Schleswig-Holstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christoph,_Prince_of_Schleswig-Holstein"},{"link_name":"House of Glücksburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Gl%C3%BCcksburg"},{"link_name":"Horst-Dieter Kolletschke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horst-Dieter_Kolletschke"},{"link_name":"German Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Navy"},{"link_name":"Grietje Staffelt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grietje_Staffelt"},{"link_name":"Ingmar Zahorsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingmar_Zahorsky"},{"link_name":"Michael Schulte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Schulte_(singer)"}],"text":"Grietje Staffelt, 2006Count of St. Germain, aristocrat and adventurer, died here in 1784\nGeorg Gerlach (1797–1865), a Danish officer.\nLorenz von Stein (1815–1890), economist, sociologist, and public administration scholar.[10]\nKarl Wilhelm Valentiner (1845–1931), astronomer\nFrederick G. Clausen (1856–1940), German-American architect\nWalter von Bülow-Bothkamp (1894–1918), fighter pilot in WWI, winner of Pour le Mérite\nRuth Halbsguth (1916–2003), swimmer, team silver medallist at the 1936 Summer Olympics\nInge Viett (born 1944), former member of the \"Red Army Faction\" (RAF)\nChristoph, Prince of Schleswig-Holstein (born 1949), head of the House of Glücksburg since 1980\nHorst-Dieter Kolletschke (born 1952), a retired rear admiral of the German Navy.\nGrietje Staffelt (born 1975), politician (Alliance 90/The Greens), former Bundestag member\nIngmar Zahorsky (born 1983), photojournalist and media artist\nMichael Schulte (born 1990), singer and songwriter","title":"Notable people"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refining_(metallurgy)
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Refining (metallurgy)
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["1 Lead","1.1 Cupellation","1.2 Pattinson process","1.3 Parkes process","2 Copper","2.1 Fire refining","2.2 Electrolytic refining","3 Iron","3.1 Wrought iron","3.2 Refined iron","4 Precious metals","4.1 Process","5 See also","6 Bibliography","7 References"]
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Process of purifying metals
For other uses, see Refining.
This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (November 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
In metallurgy, refining consists of purifying an impure metal. It is to be distinguished from other processes such as smelting and calcining in that those two involve a chemical change to the raw material, whereas in refining, the final material is usually identical chemically to the original one, only it is purer. The processes used are of many types, including pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical techniques.
Lead
Cupellation
Main article: Cupellation
One ancient process for extracting the silver from lead was cupellation. Lead was melted in a bone ash 'test' or 'cupel' and air blown across the surface. This oxidised the lead to litharge, and also oxidised other base metals present, the silver (and gold if present) remaining unoxidised.
In the 18th century, the process was carried on using a kind of reverberatory furnace, but differing from the usual kind in that air was blown over the surface of the molten lead from bellows or (in the 19th century) blowing cylinders.
Pattinson process
Main article: Pattison's Process
The Pattinson process was patented by its inventor, Hugh Lee Pattinson, in 1833 who described it as "An improved method for separating silver from lead". It exploited the fact that in molten lead containing traces of silver the first metal to solidify out of the melt is lead, leaving the remaining liquid richer in silver. Pattinson's equipment consisted basically of nothing more complex than a row of up to 13 iron pots, which were heated from below. Some lead, naturally containing a small percentage of silver, was loaded into the central pot and melted. This was then allowed to cool. As the lead solidified it is removed using large perforated iron ladles and moved to the next pot in one direction, and the remaining metal which was now richer in silver was then transferred to the next pot in the opposite direction. The process was repeated from one pot to the next, the lead accumulating in the pot at one end and metal enriched in silver in the pot at the other. The level of enrichment possible is limited by the lead-silver eutectic and typically the process stopped around 600 to 700 ounces per ton (approx 2%), so further separation is carried out by cupellation.
The process was economic for lead containing at least 250 grams of silver per ton.
Parkes process
The Parkes process, patented in 1850 uses molten zinc. Zinc is not miscible with lead and when the two molten metals are mixed the zinc separates and floats to the top carrying only some 2% lead. However silver preferentially dissolves in zinc, so the zinc that floats to the top carries a significant proportion of the silver. The melt is then cooled until the zinc solidifies and the zinc crust is skimmed off. The silver is then recovered by volatalising the zinc. The Parkes process largely replaced the Pattinson process, except where the lead contained insufficient silver, in which case the Pattinson process provided a method to enrich it in silver to about 40 to 60 ounces per ton, at which concentration it could be treated using the Parkes' process.
Copper
Fire refining
The initial product of copper smelting was impure black copper, which was then repeatedly melted to purify it, alternately oxidizing and reducing it. In one of the melting stages, lead was added. Gold and silver preferentially dissolved in this, thus providing a means of recovering these precious metals. To produce purer copper suitable for making copper plates or hollow-ware, further melting processes were undertaken, using charcoal as fuel. The repeated application of such fire-refining processes was capable of producing copper that was 99.25% pure.
Electrolytic refining
The purest copper is obtained by an electrolytic process, undertaken using a slab of impure copper as the anode and a thin sheet of pure copper as the cathode. The electrolyte is an acidic solution of copper sulphate. By passing electricity through the cell, copper is dissolved from the anode and deposited on the cathode. However impurities either remain in solution or collect as an insoluble sludge. This process only became possible following the invention of the dynamo; it was first used in South Wales in 1869.
Iron
Wrought iron
Main article: Wrought iron
The product of the blast furnace is pig iron, which contains 4–5% carbon and usually some silicon. To produce a forgeable product a further process was needed, usually described as fining, rather than refining. From the 16th century, this was undertaken in a finery forge. At the end of the 18th century, this began to be replaced by puddling (in a puddling furnace), which was in turn gradually superseded by the production of mild steel by the Bessemer process.
Refined iron
Main article: Refined iron
The term refining is used in a narrower context. Henry Cort's original puddling process only worked where the raw material was white cast iron, rather than the grey pig iron that was the usual raw material for finery forges. To use grey pig iron, a preliminary refining process was necessary to remove silicon. The pig iron was melted in a running out furnace and then run out into a trough. This process oxidised the silicon to form a slag, which floated on the iron and was removed by lowering a dam at the end of the trough. The product of this process was a white metal, known as finers metal or refined iron.
Precious metals
Precious metal refining is the separation of precious metals from noble-metalliferous materials. Examples of these materials include used catalysts, electronic assemblies, ores or metal alloys.
Process
In order to isolate noble-metalliferous materials, pyrolysis and/or hydrolysis procedures are used. In pyrolysis, the noble-metalliferous products are released from the other materials by solidifying in a melt to become cinder and then poured off or oxidized. In hydrolysis, the noble-metalliferous products are dissolved either in aqua regia (consisting of hydrochloric acid and nitric acid) or in hydrochloric acid and chlorine gas in solution. Subsequently, certain metals can be precipitated or reduced directly with a salt, gas, organic, and/or nitro hydrate connection. Afterwards, they go through cleaning stages or are recrystallized. The precious metals are separated from the metal salt by calcination. The noble-metalliferous materials are hydrolyzed first and thermally prepared (pyrolysed) thereafter. The processes are better yielding when using catalysts that may sometimes contain precious metals themselves. When using catalysts, the recycling product is removed in each case and driven several times through the cycle.
See also
Beneficiation – Process of separating commercially valuable minerals from their oresPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Ore concentrate – Raw ore processed to concentrate the metal component
List of alumina refineries
Bibliography
J. Day and R. F. Tylecote, The Industrial Revolution in Metals (The Institute of Metals, London 1991).
Söderberg, A. 2011. Eyvind Skáldaspillir's silver - refining and standards in pre-monetary economies in the light of finds from Sigtuna and Gotland. Situne Dei 2011. Edberg, R. Wikström, A. (eds). Sigtuna.
R. F. Tylecote, A history of metallurgy (Institute of materials, London 1992).
Newcastle University: Hugh Lee Pattinson
References
^ Metallurgy - An Elementary Text Book, E.L. Rhead F.I.C F.C.S, Longmans, 1895, pp225-229
^ a b c Tylecote, 1992. pp 157-158.
^ Tylecote, R. F. (1992). A history of metallurgy. London: Institute of Materials. pp. 157–158.
^ Rowe, 1983. pp 189–190.
^ Metallurgy - An Elementary Text Book, E.L.Rhead F.I.C F.C.S, Longmans, 1895, pp193-195
^ Metallurgy - An elementary text-book, E.L. Rhead F.I.C. F.C.S., Longmans, 1895, p195
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It is to be distinguished from other processes such as smelting and calcining in that those two involve a chemical change to the raw material, whereas in refining, the final material is usually identical chemically to the original one, only it is purer.[clarification needed] The processes used are of many types, including pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical techniques.","title":"Refining (metallurgy)"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Lead"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"lead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead"},{"link_name":"cupellation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cupellation"},{"link_name":"oxidised","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidise"},{"link_name":"litharge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litharge"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"reverberatory furnace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverberatory_furnace"},{"link_name":"bellows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bellows"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tyle-2"}],"sub_title":"Cupellation","text":"One ancient process for extracting the silver from lead was cupellation. Lead was melted in a bone ash 'test' or 'cupel' and air blown across the surface. 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The process was repeated from one pot to the next, the lead accumulating in the pot at one end and metal enriched in silver in the pot at the other.[3][4] The level of enrichment possible is limited by the lead-silver eutectic and typically the process stopped around 600 to 700 ounces per ton (approx 2%), so further separation is carried out by cupellation.[5]The process was economic for lead containing at least 250 grams of silver per ton.[2]","title":"Lead"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Parkes process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkes_process"},{"link_name":"zinc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc"},{"link_name":"spelling?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tyle-2"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"sub_title":"Parkes process","text":"The Parkes process, patented in 1850 uses molten zinc. 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Examples of these materials include used catalysts, electronic assemblies, ores or metal alloys.","title":"Precious metals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"pyrolysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrolysis"},{"link_name":"hydrolysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrolysis"},{"link_name":"cinder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ember"},{"link_name":"oxidized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redox"},{"link_name":"aqua regia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqua_regia"},{"link_name":"hydrochloric acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid"},{"link_name":"nitric acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitric_acid"},{"link_name":"chlorine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorine"},{"link_name":"reduced","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduction_(chemistry)"},{"link_name":"nitro hydrate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nitro_hydrate&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"recrystallized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recrystallization_(metallurgy)"},{"link_name":"salt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_(chemistry)"},{"link_name":"calcination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcination"},{"link_name":"pyrolysed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrolysis"},{"link_name":"recycling product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Recycling_product&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Process","text":"In order to isolate noble-metalliferous materials, pyrolysis and/or hydrolysis procedures are used. In pyrolysis, the noble-metalliferous products are released from the other materials by solidifying in a melt to become cinder and then poured off or oxidized. In hydrolysis, the noble-metalliferous products are dissolved either in aqua regia (consisting of hydrochloric acid and nitric acid) or in hydrochloric acid and chlorine gas in solution. Subsequently, certain metals can be precipitated or reduced directly with a salt, gas, organic, and/or nitro hydrate connection. Afterwards, they go through cleaning stages or are recrystallized. The precious metals are separated from the metal salt by calcination. The noble-metalliferous materials are hydrolyzed first and thermally prepared (pyrolysed) thereafter. The processes are better yielding when using catalysts that may sometimes contain precious metals themselves. When using catalysts, the recycling product is removed in each case and driven several times through the cycle.[citation needed]","title":"Precious metals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Eyvind Skáldaspillir's silver - refining and standards in pre-monetary economies in the light of finds from Sigtuna and Gotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//web.comhem.se/vikingbronze/soderberg_situne_dei_2011.pdf"},{"link_name":"Newcastle University: Hugh Lee Pattinson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.ncl.ac.uk/library/specialcollections/collections/daguerreotypes/pattinson.php"}],"text":"J. Day and R. F. Tylecote, The Industrial Revolution in Metals (The Institute of Metals, London 1991).\nSöderberg, A. 2011. Eyvind Skáldaspillir's silver - refining and standards in pre-monetary economies in the light of finds from Sigtuna and Gotland. Situne Dei 2011. Edberg, R. Wikström, A. (eds). Sigtuna.\nR. F. Tylecote, A history of metallurgy (Institute of materials, London 1992).\nNewcastle University: Hugh Lee Pattinson","title":"Bibliography"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"Beneficiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beneficiation"},{"title":"Ore concentrate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ore_concentrate"},{"title":"List of alumina refineries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_alumina_refineries"}]
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[{"reference":"Tylecote, R. F. (1992). A history of metallurgy. London: Institute of Materials. pp. 157–158.","urls":[]}]
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[{"Link":"http://web.comhem.se/vikingbronze/soderberg_situne_dei_2011.pdf","external_links_name":"Eyvind Skáldaspillir's silver - refining and standards in pre-monetary economies in the light of finds from Sigtuna and Gotland"},{"Link":"http://www.ncl.ac.uk/library/specialcollections/collections/daguerreotypes/pattinson.php","external_links_name":"Newcastle University: Hugh Lee Pattinson"},{"Link":"https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph318937&CON_LNG=ENG","external_links_name":"Czech Republic"},{"Link":"https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10643181","external_links_name":"NARA"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amber_(color)
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Amber (color)
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["1 SAE/ECE amber","1.1 Formal definitions","2 Lighting","3 Cultural use","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]
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Color midway between yellow and orange
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Amber Color coordinatesHex triplet#FFC000sRGBB (r, g, b)(255, 192, 0)HSV (h, s, v)(45°, 100%, 100%)CIELChuv (L, C, h)(81, 99, 58°)SourceRGB and CMYK color systems.ISCC–NBS descriptorVivid yellowB: Normalized to (byte)H: Normalized to (hundred)
Amber as a tertiary color on the RYB color wheel, and quaternary color on the RGB and CMYK color wheel.
yellow
amber
orange
Ant preserved in amber
The color amber is a pure chroma color, located on the color wheel midway between the colors of yellow and orange. The color name is derived from the material also known as amber, which is commonly found in a range of yellow-orange-brown-red colors; likewise, as a color amber can refer to a range of yellow-orange colors. In English, the first recorded use of the term as a color name, rather than a reference to the specific substance, was in 1500.
SAE/ECE amber
SAE/ECE Amber Color coordinatesHex triplet#FF7E00sRGBB (r, g, b)(255, 126, 0)HSV (h, s, v)(30°, 100%, 100%)CIELChuv (L, C, h)(67, 124, 29°)SourceISCC–NBS descriptorVivid reddish orangeB: Normalized to (byte)
Amber is one of several technically defined colors used in automotive signal lamps. In North America, SAE standard J578 governs the colorimetry of vehicle lights, while outside North America the internationalized European ECE regulations hold force. Both standards designate a range of orange-yellow hues in the CIE color space as "amber".
An amber traffic light
In the past, the ECE amber definition was more restrictive than the SAE definition, but the current ECE definition is identical to the more permissive SAE standard. The SAE formally uses the term "yellow amber", though the color is most often referred to as "yellow". This is not the same as selective yellow, a color used in some fog lamps and headlamps.
Formal definitions
Previously, ECE amber was defined according to the 1968 Convention on Road Traffic, as follows:
Limit towards green
y
≤
0.429
{\displaystyle y\leq 0.429}
Limit towards red
y
≥
0.398
{\displaystyle y\geq 0.398}
Limit towards white
z
≤
0.007
{\displaystyle z\leq 0.007}
Recent revisions to the ECE regulations have aligned ECE Amber with SAE Yellow, defined as follows:
Limit towards green
y
≤
x
−
0.120
{\displaystyle y\leq x-0.120}
Limit towards red
y
≥
0.390
{\displaystyle y\geq 0.390}
Limit towards white
y
≥
0.790
−
0.670
x
{\displaystyle y\geq 0.790-0.670x}
The entirety of these definitions lie outside the gamut of the sRGB color space — such a pure color cannot be represented using RGB primaries. The color box shown above is a desaturated approximation, produced by taking the centroid of the standard definition and moving it towards the D65 white point, until it meets the sRGB gamut triangle.
Lighting
LEDs are called amber when their wavelength is approximately 590 nm.
Chronomatic low pressure sodium lamps are 580 to 590 nm.
Cultural use
These pendants made of amber are also amber-colored
Computers
The Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) VT220 computer terminals were available with amber phosphors in their CRTs.
Interior design
The original Amber Room in the Catherine Palace of Tsarskoye Selo near Saint Petersburg was a complete chamber decoration of amber panels backed with gold leaf and mirrors. Due to its singular beauty, it was sometimes dubbed the "Eighth Wonder of the World".
Sports
In Gaelic games, Armagh play in a darker amber color (the amber that is prevalent in the Irish flag), Offaly play in the original colors of the Irish flag (green, white and amber) and Kilkenny also play in black and amber, albeit a more yellow amber.
Amber is a color worn by English football clubs Hull City AFC, Bradford City AFC, Barnet FC, Shrewsbury Town FC (As part of stripes), Mansfield Town, Cambridge United FC and Sutton United. Everton has incorporated amber in away and thirds kits, and as an accent color, since at least 1967. The color is also worn by the Scottish football club Motherwell FC, as well as many other sports clubs around the world.
Traffic engineering
A turn signal emitting amber light
Amber is used in traffic lights and turn signals.
Theatre
Amber, sometimes named "Bastard Amber", along with 'Moonlight Blue', is one of the two most common colors used in stage lighting.
See also
List of colors
References
^ Maerz and Paul A Dictionary of Color New York:1930--McGraw Hill Page 189; Color Sample of Amber: Page 43 Plate 10 Color Sample J3
^ SAE J578: Color Specification
^ ECE R6
^ ECE Convention on Road Traffic, 1968, p. 63
^ "Answers to fans' questions on amber Everton shirts". Cheshire Live. Cheshire. 10 May 2011. Retrieved 4 June 2024.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Amber (color).
UNECE Regulation No. 6: Uniform Provisions Concerning the Approval of Direction Indicators for Motor Vehicles and their Trailers (E/ECE/324-E/ECE/TRANS/505/Rev.1/Add.5/Rev.4)
UNECE Regulation No. 48: Uniform Provisions Concerning the Approval of Vehicles with Regard to the Installation of Lighting and Light-Signalling Devices (E/ECE/324-E/ECE/TRANS/505/Rev.1/Add.47/Rev.3/Amend.2)
vteColor topicsColor scienceColor physics
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Index
vteShades of orange
Aerospace orangeAlloy orangeAmberApricotAtomic tangerineBrownBurnt orangeButterscotchCarrot orangeChampagne (color) Chrome OrangeCoralDark orange (web)Desert sand (color)Engineering orangeFlameGiants orangeGoldGolden Gate BridgeGoldenrod Hunyadi yellowLight orangeMahoganyMelonOrange (Crayola)Orange (Pantone)Orange peelOrange (web)Orange (wheel)Papaya whip PeachPersian orangePersimmonPortland orangePrinceton orangePumpkinRustSafety orangeSaffronSpanish orange TangeloTangerineTawnyTiger’s EyeTitian RedUT orangeXanthous
A typical sample is shown for each name; a range of color-variations is commonly associated with each color-name.
vteShades of yellow
AmberApricotArylide yellowAureolinBeigeBuffCanaryChampagneChartreuseChrome yellow CitronCitrineCosmic latteCreamDark goldenrodEcruFlaxGambogeGoldGold (metallic) GoldenrodHarvest goldIcterineIvoryJasmineJonquilKhakiLemon chiffonLemon-limeLight yellow LionMaizeMikado yellowMindaroMustardNaples yellowNavajo whiteOld goldPapaya whipPeach-yellow PearSaffronSchool bus yellowSelective yellowStil de grain yellowStrawSunglowSunsetVanillaWheat Yellow
A typical sample is shown for each name; a range of color-variations is commonly associated with each color-name.
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Amber2.jpg"},{"link_name":"Ant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ant"},{"link_name":"amber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amber"},{"link_name":"chroma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chroma_(color)"},{"link_name":"color wheel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_wheel"},{"link_name":"yellow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow"},{"link_name":"orange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orange_(colour)"},{"link_name":"amber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amber"},{"link_name":"English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"Ant preserved in amberThe color amber is a pure chroma color, located on the color wheel midway between the colors of yellow and orange. The color name is derived from the material also known as amber, which is commonly found in a range of yellow-orange-brown-red colors; likewise, as a color amber can refer to a range of yellow-orange colors. In English, the first recorded use of the term as a color name, rather than a reference to the specific substance, was in 1500.[1]","title":"Amber (color)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"automotive signal lamps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_light"},{"link_name":"SAE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAE_International"},{"link_name":"colorimetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorimetry"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"ECE regulations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ECE_regulations"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"CIE color space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIE_1931_color_space"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Amber_traffic_light.JPG"},{"link_name":"traffic light","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_light"},{"link_name":"selective yellow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_yellow"},{"link_name":"headlamps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Headlamp"}],"text":"Amber is one of several technically defined colors used in automotive signal lamps. In North America, SAE standard J578 governs the colorimetry of vehicle lights,[2] while outside North America the internationalized European ECE regulations hold force.[3] Both standards designate a range of orange-yellow hues in the CIE color space as \"amber\".An amber traffic lightIn the past, the ECE amber definition was more restrictive than the SAE definition, but the current ECE definition is identical to the more permissive SAE standard. The SAE formally uses the term \"yellow amber\", though the color is most often referred to as \"yellow\". This is not the same as selective yellow, a color used in some fog lamps and headlamps.","title":"SAE/ECE amber"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"gamut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamut"},{"link_name":"sRGB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SRGB"},{"link_name":"centroid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centroid"},{"link_name":"white point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_point"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Formal definitions","text":"Previously, ECE amber was defined according to the 1968 Convention on Road Traffic,[4] as follows:Recent revisions to the ECE regulations have aligned ECE Amber with SAE Yellow, defined as follows:The entirety[clarification needed] of these definitions lie outside the gamut of the sRGB color space — such a pure color cannot be represented using RGB primaries. The color box shown above is a desaturated approximation, produced by taking the centroid of the standard definition and moving it towards the D65 white point, until it meets the sRGB gamut triangle.[citation needed]","title":"SAE/ECE amber"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"LEDs are called amber when their wavelength is approximately 590 nm.\nChronomatic low pressure sodium lamps are 580 to 590 nm.","title":"Lighting"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Amber.pendants.800pix.050203.jpg"},{"link_name":"amber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amber"},{"link_name":"Computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer"},{"link_name":"Digital Equipment Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Equipment_Corporation"},{"link_name":"VT220","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VT220"},{"link_name":"CRTs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathode_ray_tube"},{"link_name":"Interior design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interior_design"},{"link_name":"Amber Room","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amber_Room"},{"link_name":"Catherine Palace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_Palace"},{"link_name":"Tsarskoye Selo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsarskoye_Selo"},{"link_name":"Saint Petersburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Petersburg"},{"link_name":"amber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amber"},{"link_name":"gold leaf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold_leaf"},{"link_name":"mirrors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirror"},{"link_name":"Eighth Wonder of the World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eighth_Wonder_of_the_World"},{"link_name":"Sports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports"},{"link_name":"Gaelic games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaelic_games"},{"link_name":"Armagh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armagh_GAA"},{"link_name":"Irish flag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_flag"},{"link_name":"Offaly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offaly_GAA"},{"link_name":"Kilkenny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilkenny_GAA"},{"link_name":"Hull City AFC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hull_City_A.F.C."},{"link_name":"Bradford City AFC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bradford_City_A.F.C."},{"link_name":"Barnet FC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barnet_F.C."},{"link_name":"Shrewsbury Town FC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shrewsbury_Town_F.C."},{"link_name":"Mansfield Town","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mansfield_Town_F.C."},{"link_name":"Cambridge United FC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_United_F.C."},{"link_name":"Sutton United","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutton_United_F.C."},{"link_name":"Everton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Everton_F.C."},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Motherwell FC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motherwell_F.C."},{"link_name":"Traffic engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road_traffic_engineering"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Turnsignals_On.jpg"},{"link_name":"traffic lights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_light"},{"link_name":"turn signals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automotive_lighting"},{"link_name":"Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre"},{"link_name":"Bastard Amber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bastard_color"},{"link_name":"stage lighting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stage_lighting"}],"text":"These pendants made of amber are also amber-coloredComputersThe Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) VT220 computer terminals were available with amber phosphors in their CRTs.Interior designThe original Amber Room in the Catherine Palace of Tsarskoye Selo near Saint Petersburg was a complete chamber decoration of amber panels backed with gold leaf and mirrors. Due to its singular beauty, it was sometimes dubbed the \"Eighth Wonder of the World\".SportsIn Gaelic games, Armagh play in a darker amber color (the amber that is prevalent in the Irish flag), Offaly play in the original colors of the Irish flag (green, white and amber) and Kilkenny also play in black and amber, albeit a more yellow amber.\nAmber is a color worn by English football clubs Hull City AFC, Bradford City AFC, Barnet FC, Shrewsbury Town FC (As part of stripes), Mansfield Town, Cambridge United FC and Sutton United. Everton has incorporated amber in away and thirds kits, and as an accent color, since at least 1967.[5] The color is also worn by the Scottish football club Motherwell FC, as well as many other sports clubs around the world.Traffic engineeringA turn signal emitting amber lightAmber is used in traffic lights and turn signals.TheatreAmber, sometimes named \"Bastard Amber\", along with 'Moonlight Blue', is one of the two most common colors used in stage lighting.","title":"Cultural use"}]
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[{"title":"List of colors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_colors"}]
|
[{"reference":"\"Answers to fans' questions on amber Everton shirts\". Cheshire Live. Cheshire. 10 May 2011. Retrieved 4 June 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cheshire-live.co.uk/sport/football/football-news/answers-fans-questions-amber-everton-5192974","url_text":"\"Answers to fans' questions on amber Everton shirts\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_Debris
|
Marine debris
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["1 Types","1.1 Persistent industrial marine debris","1.2 Ghost nets","1.3 Macroplastic","1.4 Microplastics","1.5 Deep-sea debris","1.6 Garbage patches (gyres)","2 Sources","3 Environmental impacts","3.1 Impacts from plastic pollution","3.2 COVID-19 pandemic impacts","4 Removal","4.1 Coastal and river clean ups","4.2 Mid-ocean clean ups","5 Laws and treaties","5.1 Australian law","5.2 European law","5.3 United States law","5.4 Ownership","6 Activism","6.1 Mitigation","7 See also","8 References","9 External links"]
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Human-created solid waste in the sea or ocean
"Ocean dumping" redirects here. For shipping of waste across international borders, see Environmental dumping.
Marine debris washed up on a beach at Sharm el-Naga, Egypt
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Marine debris, also known as marine litter, is human-created solid material that has deliberately or accidentally been released in seas or the ocean. Floating oceanic debris tends to accumulate at the center of gyres and on coastlines, frequently washing aground, when it is known as beach litter or tidewrack. Deliberate disposal of wastes at sea is called ocean dumping. Naturally occurring debris, such as driftwood and drift seeds, are also present. With the increasing use of plastic, human influence has become an issue as many types of (petrochemical) plastics do not biodegrade quickly, as would natural or organic materials. The largest single type of plastic pollution (~10%) and majority of large plastic in the oceans is discarded and lost nets from the fishing industry. Waterborne plastic poses a serious threat to fish, seabirds, marine reptiles, and marine mammals, as well as to boats and coasts.
Dumping, container spillages, litter washed into storm drains and waterways and wind-blown landfill waste all contribute to this problem. This increased water pollution has caused serious negative effects such as discarded fishing nets capturing animals, concentration of plastic debris in massive marine garbage patches, and increasing concentrations of contaminants in the food chain.
In efforts to prevent and mediate marine debris and pollutants, laws and policies have been adopted internationally, with the UN including reduced marine pollution in Sustainable Development Goal 14 "Life Below Water". Depending on relevance to the issues and various levels of contribution, some countries have introduced more specified protection policies. Moreover, some non-profits, NGOs, and government organizations are developing programs to collect and remove plastics from the ocean. However, in 2017 the UN estimated that by 2050 there will be more plastic than fish in the oceans if substantial measures are not taken.
Types
Debris on beach near Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
Debris collected from beaches on Tern Island in the French Frigate Shoals over one month
Researchers classify debris as either land- or ocean-based; in 1991, the United Nations Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution estimated that up to 80% of the pollution was land-based, with the remaining 20% originating from catastrophic events or maritime sources. More recent studies have found that more than half of plastic debris found on Korean shores is ocean-based.
A wide variety of man-made objects can become marine debris; plastic bags, balloons, buoys, rope, medical waste, glass and plastic bottles, cigarette stubs, cigarette lighters, beverage cans, polystyrene, lost fishing line and nets, and various wastes from cruise ships and oil rigs are among the items commonly found to have washed ashore. Six-pack rings, in particular, are considered emblematic of the problem.
The US military used ocean dumping for unused weapons and bombs, including ordinary bombs, UXO, landmines and chemical weapons from at least 1919 until 1970. Millions of pounds of ordnance were disposed of in the Gulf of Mexico and off the coasts of at least 16 states, from New Jersey to Hawaii (although these, of course, do not wash up onshore, and the US is not the only country who has practiced this).
Eighty percent of marine debris is plastic. Plastics accumulate because they typically do not biodegrade as many other substances do. They photodegrade on exposure to sunlight, although they do so only under dry conditions, as water inhibits photolysis. In a 2014 study using computer models, scientists from the group 5 Gyres, estimated 5.25 trillion pieces of plastic weighing 269,000 tons were dispersed in oceans in similar amount in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.
Persistent industrial marine debris
Some materials and activities used in industrial activities that do not readily degrade, that persist in the environment, and tend to accumulate over time. The activities can include fishing, boating, and aquaculture industries that harvest or use resources in the marine environment and may lose or discard gear, materials, machinery or solid wastes from industrial processes into the water or onto shorelines. This can include anything as large as a fishing boat or as small as particle from a Styrofoam lobster float. In 2003, a study was conducted to identify types, amounts, sources, and effects of persistent industrial marine debris in the coastal waters and along the shores of Charlotte County, New Brunswick, and examine any relationship between the amount and types of persistent industrial marine debris, and the types and numbers of industrial operations nearby. Materials like plastic or foam can break down into smaller particles and may look like small sea creatures to wildlife such as birds, cetaceans, and fish, and they may eat these particles. Indigestible material may accumulate in the gut creating blockages or a false sense of fullness and eventually death from lack of appropriate nutrient intake.
Ghost nets
This section is an excerpt from Ghost net.
A sea turtle entangled in a ghost net.
Ghost nets are fishing nets that have been abandoned, lost, or otherwise discarded in the ocean, lakes, and rivers. These nets, often nearly invisible in the dim light, can be left tangled on a rocky reef or drifting in the open sea. They can entangle fish, dolphins, sea turtles, sharks, dugongs, crocodiles, seabirds, crabs, and other creatures, including the occasional human diver. Acting as designed, the nets restrict movement, causing starvation, laceration and infection, and suffocation in those that need to return to the surface to breathe.
It's estimated that around 48 million tons (48,000 kt) of lost fishing gear is generated each year, not including those that were abandoned or discarded and these may linger in the oceans for a considerable time before breaking-up.
Macroplastic
Main article: Marine plastic pollution
Microplastics
This section is an excerpt from Marine plastic pollution § Microplastics.
A growing concern regarding plastic pollution in the marine ecosystem is the use of microplastics. Microplastics are beads of plastic less than 5 millimeters wide, and they are commonly found in hand soaps, face cleansers, and other exfoliators. When these products are used, the microplastics go through the water filtration system and into the ocean, but because of their small size they are likely to escape capture by the preliminary treatment screens on wastewater plants. These beads are harmful to the organisms in the ocean, especially filter feeders, because they can easily ingest the plastic and become sick. The microplastics are such a concern because it is difficult to clean them up due to their size, so humans can try to avoid using these harmful plastics by purchasing products that use environmentally safe exfoliates.
Because plastic is so widely used across the planet, microplastics have become widespread in the marine environment. For example, microplastics can be found on sandy beaches and surface waters as well as in the water column and deep sea sediment. Microplastics are also found within the many other types of marine particles such as dead biological material (tissue and shells) and some soil particles (blown in by wind and carried to the ocean by rivers). Population density and proximity to urban centers have been considered the main factors that influence the abundance of microplastics in the environment.
Deep-sea debris
Marine debris is found on the floor of the Arctic ocean. Although an increasing number of studies have been focused on plastic debris accumulation on the coasts, in off-shore surface waters, and that ingested by marine organisms that live in the upper levels of the water column, there is limited information on debris in the mesopelagic and deeper layers. Studies that have been done have conducted research through bottom sampling, video observation via remotely operated vehicles (ROVs), and submersibles. They are also mostly limited to one-off projects that do not extend long enough to show significant effects of deep-sea debris over time. Research thus far has shown that debris in the deep-ocean is in fact impacted by anthropogenic activities, and plastic has been frequently observed in the deep-sea, especially in areas off-shore of heavily populated regions, such as the Mediterranean.
Litter, made from diverse materials that are denser than surface water (such as glasses, metals and some plastics), have been found to spread over the floor of seas and open oceans, where it can become entangled in corals and interfere with other sea-floor life, or even become buried under sediment, making clean-up extremely difficult, especially due to the wide area of its dispersal compared to shipwrecks. Plastics that are usually negatively buoyant can sink with the adherence of phytoplankton and the aggregation of other organic particles. Other oceanic processes that affect circulation, such as coastal storms and offshore convection, play a part in transferring large volumes of particles and debris. Submarine topographic features can also augment downwelling currents, leading to the retention of microplastics at certain locations.
A Deep-sea Debris database by the Global Oceanographic Data Center of the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC), showing thirty years of photos and samples of marine debris since 1983, was made public in 2017. From the 5,010 dives in the database, using both ROVs and deep-sea submersibles, 3,425 man-made debris items were counted. The two most significant types of debris were macro-plastic, making up 33% of the debris found – 89% of which was single-use – and metal, making up 26%. Plastic debris was found at the bottom of the Mariana Trench, at a depth of 10,898m, and plastic bags were found entangled in hydrothermal vent and cold seep communities.
Garbage patches (gyres)
This section is an excerpt from Garbage patch.
A garbage patch is a gyre of marine debris particles caused by the effects of ocean currents and increasing plastic pollution by human populations. These human-caused collections of plastic and other debris are responsible for ecosystem and environmental problems that affect marine life, contaminate oceans with toxic chemicals, and contribute to greenhouse gas emissions. Once waterborne, marine debris becomes mobile. Flotsam can be blown by the wind, or follow the flow of ocean currents, often ending up in the middle of oceanic gyres where currents are weakest.
Sources
The travel of the Friendly Floatees
The 10 largest emitters of oceanic plastic pollution worldwide are, from the most to the least, China, Indonesia, Philippines, Vietnam, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Egypt, Malaysia, Nigeria, and Bangladesh, largely through the rivers Yangtze, Indus, Yellow, Hai, Nile, Ganges, Pearl, Amur, Niger, and the Mekong, and accounting for "90 percent of all the plastic that reaches the world's oceans."
An estimated 10,000 containers at sea each year are lost by container ships, usually during storms. One spillage occurred in the Pacific Ocean in 1992, when thousands of rubber ducks and other toys (now known as the "Friendly Floatees") went overboard during a storm. The toys have since been found all over the world, providing a better understanding of ocean currents. Similar incidents have happened before, such as when Hansa Carrier dropped 21 containers (with one notably containing buoyant Nike shoes).
In 2007, MSC Napoli beached in the English Channel, dropping hundreds of containers, most of which washed up on the Jurassic Coast, a World Heritage Site. A 2021 study following a 2014 loss of a container carrying printer cartridges calculated that some cartridges had dispersed at an average speed of between 6 cm and 13 cm per second. A 1997 accident of Tokio Express ship off the British coast resulted in loss of cargo container holding 5 million Lego pieces. Some of the pieces became valued among collectors who searched the beaches for Lego dragons. It also provided valuable insight in studying marine plastic degradation.
In Halifax Harbour, Nova Scotia, 52% of items were generated by recreational use of an urban park, 14% from sewage disposal and only 7% from shipping and fishing activities. Around four-fifths of oceanic debris is from rubbish blown onto the water from landfills, and urban runoff.
Some studies show that marine debris may be dominant in particular locations. For example, a 2016 study of Aruba found that debris found the windward side of the island was predominantly marine debris from distant sources. In 2013, debris from six beaches in Korea was collected and analyzed: 56% was found to be "ocean-based" and 44% "land-based".
In the 1987 Syringe Tide, medical waste washed ashore in New Jersey after having been blown from Fresh Kills Landfill. On the remote sub-Antarctic island of South Georgia, fishing-related debris, approximately 80% plastics, are responsible for the entanglement of large numbers of Antarctic fur seals.
Environmental impacts
The remains of an albatross containing ingested flotsam.
Not all anthropogenic artifacts placed in the oceans are harmful. Iron and concrete structures typically do little damage to the environment because they generally sink to the bottom and become immobile, and at shallow depths they can even provide scaffolding for artificial reefs. Ships and subway cars have been deliberately sunk for that purpose.
Additionally, hermit crabs have been known to use pieces of beach litter as a shell when they cannot find an actual seashell of the size they need.
Impacts from plastic pollution
Main article: Marine plastic pollution
Many animals that live on or in the sea consume flotsam by mistake, as it often looks similar to their natural prey. Overall, 1288 marine species are known to ingest plastic debris, with fish making up the largest fraction. Bulky plastic debris may become permanently lodged in the digestive tracts of these animals, blocking the passage of food and causing death through starvation or infection. Tiny floating plastic particles also resemble zooplankton, which can lead filter feeders to consume them and cause them to enter the ocean food chain. In addition, plastic in the marine environment that contaminates the food chain can have repercussions on the viability of fish and shellfish species.
COVID-19 pandemic impacts
In Kenya, the COVID-19 pandemic has impacted the amount of marine debris found on beaches with around 55% being a pandemic-related trash items. Although the pandemic-related trash has shown up along the beaches of Kenya, it has not made its way into the water. The reduction of litter in the ocean could be a result of the closing of beaches and lack of movement during the pandemic, so less trash was likely to end up in the ocean. Additional impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic have been seen in Hong Kong, where disposable masks have ended up along the beaches of Soko’s islands. This may be attributed to the increased production of medical products (masks and gloves) during the pandemic, leading to a rise in unconventional disposal of these products.
Removal
Skimmer boat used to remove floating debris and trash from the Potomac and Anacostia rivers
Coastal and river clean ups
Techniques for collecting and removing marine (or riverine) debris include the use of debris skimmer boats (pictured). Devices such as these can be used where floating debris presents a danger to navigation. For example, the US Army Corps of Engineers removes 90 tons of "drifting material" from San Francisco Bay every month. The Corps has been doing this work since 1942, when a seaplane carrying Admiral Chester W. Nimitz collided with a piece of floating debris and sank, costing the life of its pilot. The Ocean cleanup has also created a vessel for cleaning up riverine debris, called Interceptor. Once debris becomes "beach litter", collection by hand and specialized beach-cleaning machines are used to gather the debris.
There are also projects that stimulate fishing boats to remove any litter they accidentally fish up while fishing for fish.
Elsewhere, "trash traps" are installed on small rivers to capture waterborne debris before it reaches the sea. For example, South Australia's Adelaide operates a number of such traps, known as "trash racks" or "gross pollutant traps" on the Torrens River, which flows (during the wet season) into Gulf St Vincent.
In lakes or near the coast, manual removal can also be used. Project AWARE for example promotes the idea of letting dive clubs clean up litter, for example as a diving exercise.
Once a year there is a diving marine debris removal operation in Scapa Flow in Orkney, run by Ghost Fishing UK, funded by World Animal Protection and Fat Face Foundation.
Cleanup of marine debris can be stymied by inadequate collaboration across levels of government, and a patchwork of regulatory authorities (responsibility often differs for the ocean surface, the seabed, and the shore). For example, there are an estimated 1600 abandoned and derelict boats in the waters of British Columbia. In 2019 Canada's federal government passed legislation to make it illegal to abandon a vessel but enforcement is hampered because it is often difficult to determine who owns an abandoned boat since owners are not required to have a license – licensing is a provincial government responsibility. The Victoria-based non-profit Dead Boats Disposal Society notes that lack of enforcement means abandoned boats are often left to sink, which increases the cleanup cost and compounds the environmental hazard (due to seepage of fuel, oil, plastics, and other pollutants).
Mid-ocean clean ups
On the sea, the removal of artificial debris (i.e. plastics) is still in its infancy. However, some projects have been started which used ships with nets (Ocean Voyages Institute/Kaisei 2009 & 2010 and New Horizon 2009) to catch some plastics, primarily for research purposes. There is also Bluebird Marine System's SeaVax which was solar- and wind-powered and had an onboard shredder and cargo hold. The Sea Cleaners' Manta ship is similar in concept.
Another method to gather artificial litter has been proposed by The Ocean Cleanup's Boyan Slat. He suggested using platforms with arms to gather the debris, situated inside the current of gyres. The SAS Ocean Phoenix ship is somewhat similar in design.
In June 2019, Ocean Voyages Institute, conducted a cleanup utilizing GPS trackers and existing maritime equipment in the North Pacific Subtropical Convergence Zone setting the record for the largest mid-ocean cleanup accomplished in the North Pacific Gyre and removed over 84,000 pounds of polymer nets and consumer plastic trash from the ocean.
In May/June 2020, Ocean Voyages Institute conducted a cleanup expedition in the Gyre and set a new record for the largest mid-ocean cleanup accomplished in the North Pacific Gyre which removed over 170 tons (340,000 pounds) of consumer plastics and ghostnets from the ocean. Utilizing custom designed GPS satellite trackers which are deployed by vessels of opportunity, Ocean Voyages Institute is able to accurately track and send cleanup vessels to remove ghostnets. The GPS Tracker technology is being combined with satellite imagery increasing the ability to locate plastic trash and ghostnets in real time via satellite imagery which will greatly increase cleanup capacity and efficiency.
Another issue is that removing marine debris from the ocean can potentially cause more harm than good. Cleaning up microplastics could also accidentally take out plankton, which are the main lower level food group for the marine food chain and over half of the photosynthesis on earth. One of the most efficient and cost effective ways to help reduce the amount of plastic entering our oceans is to not participate in using single-use plastics, avoid plastic bottled drinks such as water bottles, use reusable shopping bags, and to buy products with reusable packaging.
Laws and treaties
The ocean is a global common, so negative externalities of marine debris are not usually experienced by the producer. In the 1950s, the importance of government intervention with marine pollution protocol was recognized at the First Conference on the Law of the Sea.
Ocean dumping is controlled by international law, including:
The London Convention (1972) – a United Nations agreement to control ocean dumping This Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter consisted of twenty two articles addressing expectations of contracting parties. The three annexes defined many compounds, substances, and materials that are unacceptable to deposit into the ocean. Examples of such matter include: mercury compounds, lead, cyanides, and radioactive wastes.
MARPOL 73/78 – a convention designed to minimize pollution of the seas, including dumping, oil and exhaust pollution The original MARPOL convention did not consider dumping from ships, but was revised in 1978 to include restrictions on marine vessels.
UNCLOS – signed in 1982, but effective in 1994, United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea emphasized the importance of protecting the entire ocean and not only specified coastal regions. UNCLOS enforced restrictions on pollution, including a stress on land-based sources.
Australian law
One of the earliest anti-dumping laws was Australia's Beaches, Fishing Grounds and Sea Routes Protection Act 1932, which prohibited the discharge of "garbage, rubbish, ashes or organic refuse" from "any vessel in Australian waters" without prior written permission from the federal government. It also required permission for scuttling. The act was passed in response to large amounts of garbage washing up on the beaches of Sydney and Newcastle from vessels outside the reach of local governments and the New South Wales government. It was repealed and replaced by the Environment Protection (Sea Dumping) Act 1981, which gave effect to the London Convention.
European law
In 1972 and 1974, conventions were held in Oslo and Paris respectively, and resulted in the passing of the OSPAR Convention, an international treaty controlling marine pollution in the north-east Atlantic Ocean. The Barcelona Convention protects the Mediterranean Sea. The Water Framework Directive of 2000 is a European Union directive committing EU member states to free inland and coastal waters from human influence. In the United Kingdom, the Marine and Coastal Access Act 2009 is designed to "ensure clean healthy, safe, productive and biologically diverse oceans and seas, by putting in place better systems for delivering sustainable development of marine and coastal environment".
In 2019, the EU parliament voted for an EU-wide ban on single-use plastic products such as plastic straws, cutlery, plates, and drink containers, polystyrene food and drink containers, plastic drink stirrers and plastic carrier bags and cotton buds. The law will take effect in 2021.
United States law
A sign above a storm drain in Colorado Springs warning people to not pollute the local stream by dumping. Eighty percent of marine debris reaches the sea via rivers.
In the waters of the United States, there have been many observed consequences of pollution including: hypoxic zones, harmful agal blooms, and threatened species. In 1972, the United States Congress passed the Ocean Dumping Act, giving the Environmental Protection Agency power to monitor and regulate the dumping of sewage sludge, industrial waste, radioactive waste and biohazardous materials into the nation's territorial waters. The Act was amended sixteen years later to include medical wastes. It is illegal to dispose of any plastic in US waters.
Ownership
Property law, admiralty law and the law of the sea may be of relevance when lost, mislaid, and abandoned property is found at sea. Salvage law rewards salvors for risking life and property to rescue the property of another from peril. On land the distinction between deliberate and accidental loss led to the concept of a "treasure trove". In the United Kingdom, shipwrecked goods should be reported to a Receiver of Wreck, and if identifiable, they should be returned to their rightful owner.
Activism
A large number of groups and individuals are active in preventing or educating about marine debris. For example, 5 Gyres is an organization aimed at reducing plastics pollution in the oceans, and was one of two organizations that recently researched the Great Pacific Garbage Patch. Heal the Bay is another organization, focusing on protecting California's Santa Monica Bay, by sponsoring beach cleanup programs along with other activities. Marina DeBris is an artist focusing most of her recent work on educating people about beach trash.
Interactive sites like Adrift demonstrate where marine plastic is carried, over time, on the worlds ocean currents.
On 11 April 2013 in order to create awareness, artist Maria Cristina Finucci founded the Garbage Patch State at UNESCO –Paris in front of Director General Irina Bokova. First of a series of events under the patronage of UNESCO and of Italian Ministry of the Environment.
Forty-eight plastics manufacturers from 25 countries, are members of the Global Plastic Associations for solutions on Marine Litter, have made the pledge to help prevent marine debris and to encourage recycling.
Mitigation
The decomposition times of marine debris
Marine debris is a widespread problem, not only the result of activities in coastal regions.
Plastic debris from inland states come from two main sources: ordinary litter and materials from open dumps and landfills that blow or wash away to inland waterways and wastewater outflows. The refuse finds its way from inland waterways, rivers, streams and lakes to the ocean. Though ocean and coastal area cleanups are important, it is crucial to address plastic waste that originates from inland and landlocked states.
At the systems level, there are various ways to reduce the amount of debris entering our waterways:
Improve waste transportation to and from sites by utilizing closed container storage and shipping
Restrict open waste facilities near waterways
Promote the use of refuse-derived fuels. Used plastic with low residual value often does not get recycled and is more likely to leak into the ocean. However, turning these unwanted plastics that would otherwise stay in landfills into refuse-derived fuels allows for further use; they can be used as supplement fuels at power plants
Improve recovery rates for plastic (in 2012, the United States generated 11.46 million tons of plastic waste, of which only 6.7% was recovered
Adapt Extended Producer Responsibility strategies to make producers responsible for product management when products and their packaging become waste; encourage reusable product design to minimize negative impacts on the environment.
Ban the use of cigarette filters and establish a deposit-system for e-cigarettes (similar to the one used for propane canisters)
Seven simple single-use swaps people can make to save trashConsumers can help to reduce the amount of plastic entering waterways by reducing usage of single-use plastics, avoiding microbeads, participate in a river or lake beach cleanup.
See also
Environment portalOceans portal
Citizen Science
Flotsam and jetsam
Kamilo Beach
Marina DeBris – Pseudonymous Australian artist who works with trash from oceans and beaches
Marine pollution
National Cleanup Day
Plastic pollution
Plastic-eating organisms
Project Kaisei
Waste management
World Cleanup Day
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External links
Media related to Marine debris at Wikimedia Commons
United Nations Environment Programme Marine Litter Publications
UNEP Year Book 2011: Emerging Issues in Our Global Environment Archived 13 February 2012 at the Library of Congress Web Archives Plastic debris, pp. 21–34. ISBN 978-9280731019.
NOAA Marine Debris Program – US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Marine Research, Education and Restoration – Algalita Marine Research Foundation
UK Marine Conservation Society
Harmful Marine Debris – Australian Government
High Seas GhostNet Survey – US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Social & Economic Costs of Marine Debris – NOAA Economics
Tiny Plastic Bits Too Small To See Are Destroying The Oceans, Business Insider
Ghost net remediation program – NASA, NOAA and ATI collaborating to detect ghost nets
Dunning, Brian (16 December 2008). "Skeptoid #132: The Sargasso Sea and the Pacific Garbage Patch". Skeptoid.
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For shipping of waste across international borders, see Environmental dumping.Marine debris washed up on a beach at Sharm el-Naga, EgyptMarine debris, also known as marine litter, is human-created solid material that has deliberately or accidentally been released in seas or the ocean. Floating oceanic debris tends to accumulate at the center of gyres and on coastlines, frequently washing aground, when it is known as beach litter or tidewrack. Deliberate disposal of wastes at sea is called ocean dumping. Naturally occurring debris, such as driftwood and drift seeds, are also present. With the increasing use of plastic, human influence has become an issue as many types of (petrochemical) plastics do not biodegrade quickly, as would natural or organic materials.[1] The largest single type of plastic pollution (~10%) and majority of large plastic in the oceans is discarded and lost nets from the fishing industry.[2] Waterborne plastic poses a serious threat to fish, seabirds, marine reptiles, and marine mammals, as well as to boats and coasts.[3]Dumping, container spillages, litter washed into storm drains and waterways and wind-blown landfill waste all contribute to this problem. This increased water pollution has caused serious negative effects such as discarded fishing nets capturing animals, concentration of plastic debris in massive marine garbage patches, and increasing concentrations of contaminants in the food chain.In efforts to prevent and mediate marine debris and pollutants, laws and policies have been adopted internationally, with the UN including reduced marine pollution in Sustainable Development Goal 14 \"Life Below Water\". Depending on relevance to the issues and various levels of contribution, some countries have introduced more specified protection policies. Moreover, some non-profits, NGOs, and government organizations are developing programs to collect and remove plastics from the ocean. However, in 2017 the UN estimated that by 2050 there will be more plastic than fish in the oceans if substantial measures are not taken.[4]","title":"Marine debris"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Beach_at_Msasani_Bay,_Dar_es_Salaam,_Tanzania.JPG"},{"link_name":"Dar es Salaam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dar_es_Salaam"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flostam_tern_island.JPG"},{"link_name":"French Frigate Shoals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Frigate_Shoals"},{"link_name":"United Nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"plastic bags","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_bag"},{"link_name":"balloons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balloon"},{"link_name":"buoys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buoy"},{"link_name":"rope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rope"},{"link_name":"medical waste","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_waste"},{"link_name":"glass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass"},{"link_name":"plastic bottles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_bottles"},{"link_name":"cigarette stubs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cigarette#Environmental_impact"},{"link_name":"cigarette lighters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lighter"},{"link_name":"beverage cans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beverage_can"},{"link_name":"polystyrene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polystyrene"},{"link_name":"lost fishing line and nets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost_net"},{"link_name":"cruise ships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cruise_ship_pollution"},{"link_name":"oil rigs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_platform"},{"link_name":"Six-pack rings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six-pack_rings"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"UXO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UXO"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wbgh-9"},{"link_name":"ordnance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unexploded_ordnance"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-me-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Weisman-11"},{"link_name":"biodegrade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodegradation"},{"link_name":"photodegrade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photodegradation"},{"link_name":"water","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_(molecule)"},{"link_name":"photolysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photolysis"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"text":"Debris on beach near Dar es Salaam, TanzaniaDebris collected from beaches on Tern Island in the French Frigate Shoals over one monthResearchers classify debris as either land- or ocean-based; in 1991, the United Nations Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution estimated that up to 80% of the pollution was land-based,[5] with the remaining 20% originating from catastrophic events or maritime sources.[6] More recent studies have found that more than half of plastic debris found on Korean shores is ocean-based.[7]A wide variety of man-made objects can become marine debris; plastic bags, balloons, buoys, rope, medical waste, glass and plastic bottles, cigarette stubs, cigarette lighters, beverage cans, polystyrene, lost fishing line and nets, and various wastes from cruise ships and oil rigs are among the items commonly found to have washed ashore. Six-pack rings, in particular, are considered emblematic of the problem.[8]The US military used ocean dumping for unused weapons and bombs, including ordinary bombs, UXO, landmines and chemical weapons from at least 1919 until 1970.[9] Millions of pounds of ordnance were disposed of in the Gulf of Mexico and off the coasts of at least 16 states, from New Jersey to Hawaii (although these, of course, do not wash up onshore, and the US is not the only country who has practiced this).[10]Eighty percent of marine debris is plastic.[11] Plastics accumulate because they typically do not biodegrade as many other substances do. They photodegrade on exposure to sunlight, although they do so only under dry conditions, as water inhibits photolysis.[12] In a 2014 study using computer models, scientists from the group 5 Gyres, estimated 5.25 trillion pieces of plastic weighing 269,000 tons were dispersed in oceans in similar amount in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.[13]","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Styrofoam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Styrofoam"},{"link_name":"Charlotte County, New Brunswick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte_County,_New_Brunswick"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"fullness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunger_(physiology)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Persistent industrial marine debris","text":"Some materials and activities used in industrial activities that do not readily degrade, that persist in the environment, and tend to accumulate over time. The activities can include fishing, boating, and aquaculture industries that harvest or use resources in the marine environment and may lose or discard gear, materials, machinery or solid wastes from industrial processes into the water or onto shorelines. This can include anything as large as a fishing boat or as small as particle from a Styrofoam lobster float. In 2003, a study was conducted to identify types, amounts, sources, and effects of persistent industrial marine debris in the coastal waters and along the shores of Charlotte County, New Brunswick, and examine any relationship between the amount and types of persistent industrial marine debris, and the types and numbers of industrial operations nearby.[14] Materials like plastic or foam can break down into smaller particles and may look like small sea creatures to wildlife such as birds, cetaceans, and fish, and they may eat these particles. Indigestible material may accumulate in the gut creating blockages or a false sense of fullness and eventually death from lack of appropriate nutrient intake.[citation needed]","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ghost net","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost_net"},{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ghost_net&action=edit"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Turtle_entangled_in_marine_debris_(ghost_net).jpg"},{"link_name":"Ghost nets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost_net"},{"link_name":"fishing nets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing_net"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"entangle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_pollution#Entanglement"},{"link_name":"fish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fish"},{"link_name":"dolphins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolphin"},{"link_name":"sea turtles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_turtle"},{"link_name":"sharks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shark"},{"link_name":"dugongs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dugong"},{"link_name":"crocodiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crocodile"},{"link_name":"seabirds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seabird"},{"link_name":"crabs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crab"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"sub_title":"Ghost nets","text":"This section is an excerpt from Ghost net.[edit]\nA sea turtle entangled in a ghost net.\nGhost nets are fishing nets that have been abandoned, lost, or otherwise discarded in the ocean, lakes, and rivers.[15] These nets, often nearly invisible in the dim light, can be left tangled on a rocky reef or drifting in the open sea. They can entangle fish, dolphins, sea turtles, sharks, dugongs, crocodiles, seabirds, crabs, and other creatures, including the occasional human diver.[16] Acting as designed, the nets restrict movement, causing starvation, laceration and infection, and suffocation in those that need to return to the surface to breathe.[17]\n\nIt's estimated that around 48 million tons (48,000 kt) of lost fishing gear is generated each year, not including those that were abandoned or discarded[18] and these may linger in the oceans for a considerable time before breaking-up.","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Macroplastic","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Marine plastic pollution § Microplastics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_plastic_pollution#Microplastics"},{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marine_plastic_pollution&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"sub_title":"Microplastics","text":"This section is an excerpt from Marine plastic pollution § Microplastics.[edit]\nA growing concern regarding plastic pollution in the marine ecosystem is the use of microplastics. Microplastics are beads of plastic less than 5 millimeters wide,[19] and they are commonly found in hand soaps, face cleansers, and other exfoliators. When these products are used, the microplastics go through the water filtration system and into the ocean, but because of their small size they are likely to escape capture by the preliminary treatment screens on wastewater plants.[20] These beads are harmful to the organisms in the ocean, especially filter feeders, because they can easily ingest the plastic and become sick. The microplastics are such a concern because it is difficult to clean them up due to their size, so humans can try to avoid using these harmful plastics by purchasing products that use environmentally safe exfoliates.\n\nBecause plastic is so widely used across the planet, microplastics have become widespread in the marine environment. For example, microplastics can be found on sandy beaches[21] and surface waters[22] as well as in the water column and deep sea sediment. Microplastics are also found within the many other types of marine particles such as dead biological material (tissue and shells) and some soil particles (blown in by wind and carried to the ocean by rivers). Population density and proximity to urban centers have been considered the main factors that influence the abundance of microplastics in the environment.","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-24"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-24"},{"link_name":"glasses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass"},{"link_name":"corals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral"},{"link_name":"sea-floor life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benthos"},{"link_name":"clean-up","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_salvage"},{"link_name":"shipwrecks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shipwrecks"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"microplastics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microplastics"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-26"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-24"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-24"}],"sub_title":"Deep-sea debris","text":"Marine debris is found on the floor of the Arctic ocean.[23] Although an increasing number of studies have been focused on plastic debris accumulation on the coasts, in off-shore surface waters, and that ingested by marine organisms that live in the upper levels of the water column, there is limited information on debris in the mesopelagic and deeper layers.[24] Studies that have been done have conducted research through bottom sampling, video observation via remotely operated vehicles (ROVs), and submersibles. They are also mostly limited to one-off projects that do not extend long enough to show significant effects of deep-sea debris over time. Research thus far has shown that debris in the deep-ocean is in fact impacted by anthropogenic activities, and plastic has been frequently observed in the deep-sea, especially in areas off-shore of heavily populated regions, such as the Mediterranean.[24]Litter, made from diverse materials that are denser than surface water (such as glasses, metals and some plastics), have been found to spread over the floor of seas and open oceans, where it can become entangled in corals and interfere with other sea-floor life, or even become buried under sediment, making clean-up extremely difficult, especially due to the wide area of its dispersal compared to shipwrecks.[25] Plastics that are usually negatively buoyant can sink with the adherence of phytoplankton and the aggregation of other organic particles. Other oceanic processes that affect circulation, such as coastal storms and offshore convection, play a part in transferring large volumes of particles and debris. Submarine topographic features can also augment downwelling currents, leading to the retention of microplastics at certain locations.[26]A Deep-sea Debris database by the Global Oceanographic Data Center of the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC), showing thirty years of photos and samples of marine debris since 1983, was made public in 2017. From the 5,010 dives in the database, using both ROVs and deep-sea submersibles, 3,425 man-made debris items were counted.[24] The two most significant types of debris were macro-plastic, making up 33% of the debris found – 89% of which was single-use – and metal, making up 26%. Plastic debris was found at the bottom of the Mariana Trench, at a depth of 10,898m, and plastic bags were found entangled in hydrothermal vent and cold seep communities.[24]","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Garbage patch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garbage_patch"},{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Garbage_patch&action=edit"},{"link_name":"garbage patch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garbage_patch"},{"link_name":"gyre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_gyre"},{"link_name":"ocean currents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_current"},{"link_name":"plastic pollution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_pollution"},{"link_name":"greenhouse gas emissions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions"},{"link_name":"oceanic gyres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic_gyre"}],"sub_title":"Garbage patches (gyres)","text":"This section is an excerpt from Garbage patch.[edit]\nA garbage patch is a gyre of marine debris particles caused by the effects of ocean currents and increasing plastic pollution by human populations. These human-caused collections of plastic and other debris are responsible for ecosystem and environmental problems that affect marine life, contaminate oceans with toxic chemicals, and contribute to greenhouse gas emissions. Once waterborne, marine debris becomes mobile. Flotsam can be blown by the wind, or follow the flow of ocean currents, often ending up in the middle of oceanic gyres where currents are weakest.","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Friendly_Floatees.png"},{"link_name":"Friendly Floatees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friendly_Floatees"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"containers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Containerization"},{"link_name":"container ships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Container_ship"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Pacific Ocean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ocean"},{"link_name":"rubber ducks and other toys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friendly_Floatees"},{"link_name":"ocean currents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_current"},{"link_name":"Hansa Carrier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hansa_Carrier"},{"link_name":"Nike","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nike,_Inc."},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"MSC Napoli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MSC_Napoli"},{"link_name":"English Channel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Channel"},{"link_name":"Jurassic Coast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurassic_Coast"},{"link_name":"World Heritage Site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Heritage_Site"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Tokio Express","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokio_Express"},{"link_name":"Lego","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lego"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lego_plastic-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Algalita-36"},{"link_name":"landfills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landfill"},{"link_name":"urban runoff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_runoff"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Facts22-3"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Syringe Tide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syringe_Tide"},{"link_name":"New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"Fresh Kills Landfill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fresh_Kills_Landfill"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"South Georgia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands"},{"link_name":"Antarctic fur seals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarctic_fur_seal"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"}],"text":"The travel of the Friendly FloateesThe 10 largest emitters of oceanic plastic pollution worldwide are, from the most to the least, China, Indonesia, Philippines, Vietnam, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Egypt, Malaysia, Nigeria, and Bangladesh,[27] largely through the rivers Yangtze, Indus, Yellow, Hai, Nile, Ganges, Pearl, Amur, Niger, and the Mekong, and accounting for \"90 percent of all the plastic that reaches the world's oceans.\"[28][29]An estimated 10,000 containers at sea each year are lost by container ships, usually during storms.[30] One spillage occurred in the Pacific Ocean in 1992, when thousands of rubber ducks and other toys (now known as the \"Friendly Floatees\") went overboard during a storm. The toys have since been found all over the world, providing a better understanding of ocean currents. Similar incidents have happened before, such as when Hansa Carrier dropped 21 containers (with one notably containing buoyant Nike shoes).[31]In 2007, MSC Napoli beached in the English Channel, dropping hundreds of containers, most of which washed up on the Jurassic Coast, a World Heritage Site.[32] A 2021 study following a 2014 loss of a container carrying printer cartridges calculated that some cartridges had dispersed at an average speed of between 6 cm and 13 cm per second.[33] A 1997 accident of Tokio Express ship off the British coast resulted in loss of cargo container holding 5 million Lego pieces. Some of the pieces became valued among collectors who searched the beaches for Lego dragons. It also provided valuable insight in studying marine plastic degradation.[34]In Halifax Harbour, Nova Scotia, 52% of items were generated by recreational use of an urban park, 14% from sewage disposal and only 7% from shipping and fishing activities.[35] Around four-fifths[36] of oceanic debris is from rubbish blown onto the water from landfills, and urban runoff.[3]Some studies show that marine debris may be dominant in particular locations. For example, a 2016 study of Aruba found that debris found the windward side of the island was predominantly marine debris from distant sources.[37] In 2013, debris from six beaches in Korea was collected and analyzed: 56% was found to be \"ocean-based\" and 44% \"land-based\".[38]In the 1987 Syringe Tide, medical waste washed ashore in New Jersey after having been blown from Fresh Kills Landfill.[39][40] On the remote sub-Antarctic island of South Georgia, fishing-related debris, approximately 80% plastics, are responsible for the entanglement of large numbers of Antarctic fur seals.[41]","title":"Sources"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albatross_at_Midway_Atoll_Refuge_(8080507529).jpg"},{"link_name":"albatross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laysan_albatross"},{"link_name":"anthropogenic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment"},{"link_name":"artificial reefs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_reef"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"hermit crabs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermit_crab"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"}],"text":"The remains of an albatross containing ingested flotsam.Not all anthropogenic artifacts placed in the oceans are harmful. Iron and concrete structures typically do little damage to the environment because they generally sink to the bottom and become immobile, and at shallow depths they can even provide scaffolding for artificial reefs. Ships and subway cars have been deliberately sunk for that purpose.[42]Additionally, hermit crabs have been known to use pieces of beach litter as a shell when they cannot find an actual seashell of the size they need.[43]","title":"Environmental impacts"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"consume","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feeding"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"zooplankton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zooplankton"},{"link_name":"filter feeders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filter_feeder"},{"link_name":"food chain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_chain"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"}],"sub_title":"Impacts from plastic pollution","text":"Many animals that live on or in the sea consume flotsam by mistake, as it often looks similar to their natural prey.[44] Overall, 1288 marine species are known to ingest plastic debris, with fish making up the largest fraction.[45] Bulky plastic debris may become permanently lodged in the digestive tracts of these animals, blocking the passage of food and causing death through starvation or infection.[46] Tiny floating plastic particles also resemble zooplankton, which can lead filter feeders to consume them and cause them to enter the ocean food chain. In addition, plastic in the marine environment that contaminates the food chain can have repercussions on the viability of fish and shellfish species.[47]","title":"Environmental impacts"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-48"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"}],"sub_title":"COVID-19 pandemic impacts","text":"In Kenya, the COVID-19 pandemic has impacted the amount of marine debris found on beaches with around 55% being a pandemic-related trash items. Although the pandemic-related trash has shown up along the beaches of Kenya, it has not made its way into the water. The reduction of litter in the ocean could be a result of the closing of beaches and lack of movement during the pandemic, so less trash was likely to end up in the ocean.[48] Additional impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic have been seen in Hong Kong, where disposable masks have ended up along the beaches of Soko’s islands.[49] This may be attributed to the increased production of medical products (masks and gloves) during the pandemic, leading to a rise in unconventional disposal of these products.[50]","title":"Environmental impacts"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DC_WASA_Marine_Debris_Skimmer.jpg"},{"link_name":"Potomac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potomac_River"},{"link_name":"Anacostia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anacostia_River"}],"text":"Skimmer boat used to remove floating debris and trash from the Potomac and Anacostia rivers","title":"Removal"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"US Army Corps of Engineers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Army_Corps_of_Engineers"},{"link_name":"San Francisco Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay"},{"link_name":"seaplane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seaplane"},{"link_name":"Chester W. Nimitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chester_W._Nimitz"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"Interceptor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ocean_Cleanup#Interceptor_river_clean-up"},{"link_name":"beach-cleaning machines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beach_cleaner"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"South Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Australia"},{"link_name":"Adelaide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adelaide"},{"link_name":"Torrens River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torrens_River"},{"link_name":"Gulf St Vincent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_St_Vincent"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"Project AWARE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_AWARE"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"Scapa Flow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scapa_Flow"},{"link_name":"Orkney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orkney"},{"link_name":"World Animal Protection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Animal_Protection"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-report-58"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-report-58"},{"link_name":"Dead Boats Disposal Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_Boats_Disposal_Society"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"}],"sub_title":"Coastal and river clean ups","text":"Techniques for collecting and removing marine (or riverine) debris include the use of debris skimmer boats (pictured). Devices such as these can be used where floating debris presents a danger to navigation. For example, the US Army Corps of Engineers removes 90 tons of \"drifting material\" from San Francisco Bay every month. The Corps has been doing this work since 1942, when a seaplane carrying Admiral Chester W. Nimitz collided with a piece of floating debris and sank, costing the life of its pilot.[51] The Ocean cleanup has also created a vessel for cleaning up riverine debris, called Interceptor. Once debris becomes \"beach litter\", collection by hand and specialized beach-cleaning machines are used to gather the debris.[citation needed]There are also projects that stimulate fishing boats to remove any litter they accidentally fish up while fishing for fish.[52]Elsewhere, \"trash traps\" are installed on small rivers to capture waterborne debris before it reaches the sea. For example, South Australia's Adelaide operates a number of such traps, known as \"trash racks\" or \"gross pollutant traps\" on the Torrens River, which flows (during the wet season) into Gulf St Vincent.[53]In lakes or near the coast, manual removal can also be used. Project AWARE for example promotes the idea of letting dive clubs clean up litter, for example as a diving exercise.[54]Once a year there is a diving marine debris removal operation in Scapa Flow in Orkney, run by Ghost Fishing UK, funded by World Animal Protection and Fat Face Foundation.[55][56][57]Cleanup of marine debris can be stymied by inadequate collaboration across levels of government, and a patchwork of regulatory authorities (responsibility often differs for the ocean surface, the seabed, and the shore).[58] For example, there are an estimated 1600 abandoned and derelict boats in the waters of British Columbia.[59] In 2019 Canada's federal government passed legislation to make it illegal to abandon a vessel[60] but enforcement is hampered because it is often difficult to determine who owns an abandoned boat since owners are not required to have a license – licensing is a provincial government responsibility.[58] The Victoria-based non-profit Dead Boats Disposal Society notes that lack of enforcement means abandoned boats are often left to sink, which increases the cleanup cost and compounds the environmental hazard (due to seepage of fuel, oil, plastics, and other pollutants).[61]","title":"Removal"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"The Ocean Cleanup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ocean_Cleanup"},{"link_name":"Boyan Slat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boyan_Slat"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"Ocean Voyages Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_Voyages_Institute"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"vessels of opportunity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vessel_of_opportunity"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-74"},{"link_name":"single-use","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disposable_product"},{"link_name":"reusable packaging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reusable_packaging"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"}],"sub_title":"Mid-ocean clean ups","text":"On the sea, the removal of artificial debris (i.e. plastics) is still in its infancy. However, some projects have been started which used ships with nets (Ocean Voyages Institute/Kaisei 2009 & 2010 and New Horizon 2009) to catch some plastics, primarily for research purposes. There is also Bluebird Marine System's SeaVax which was solar- and wind-powered and had an onboard shredder and cargo hold.[62][63] The Sea Cleaners' Manta ship is similar in concept.[64]Another method to gather artificial litter has been proposed by The Ocean Cleanup's Boyan Slat. He suggested using platforms with arms to gather the debris, situated inside the current of gyres.[65] The SAS Ocean Phoenix ship is somewhat similar in design.[66][67]In June 2019, Ocean Voyages Institute, conducted a cleanup utilizing GPS trackers and existing maritime equipment in the North Pacific Subtropical Convergence Zone setting the record for the largest mid-ocean cleanup accomplished in the North Pacific Gyre and removed over 84,000 pounds of polymer nets and consumer plastic trash from the ocean.[68][69]In May/June 2020, Ocean Voyages Institute conducted a cleanup expedition in the Gyre and set a new record for the largest mid-ocean cleanup accomplished in the North Pacific Gyre which removed over 170 tons (340,000 pounds) of consumer plastics and ghostnets from the ocean.[70][71] Utilizing custom designed GPS satellite trackers which are deployed by vessels of opportunity, Ocean Voyages Institute is able to accurately track and send cleanup vessels to remove ghostnets. The GPS Tracker technology is being combined with satellite imagery increasing the ability to locate plastic trash and ghostnets in real time via satellite imagery which will greatly increase cleanup capacity and efficiency.[72][73]Another issue is that removing marine debris from the ocean can potentially cause more harm than good. Cleaning up microplastics could also accidentally take out plankton, which are the main lower level food group for the marine food chain and over half of the photosynthesis on earth.[74] One of the most efficient and cost effective ways to help reduce the amount of plastic entering our oceans is to not participate in using single-use plastics, avoid plastic bottled drinks such as water bottles, use reusable shopping bags, and to buy products with reusable packaging.[75]","title":"Removal"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"global common","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_commons"},{"link_name":"externalities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Externality"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:03-76"},{"link_name":"international law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_law"},{"link_name":"The London Convention","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_the_Prevention_of_Marine_Pollution_by_Dumping_of_Wastes_and_Other_Matter"},{"link_name":"United Nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:12-78"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:12-78"},{"link_name":"mercury compounds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(element)"},{"link_name":"lead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead"},{"link_name":"cyanides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanide"},{"link_name":"radioactive wastes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_waste"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:12-78"},{"link_name":"MARPOL 73/78","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MARPOL_73/78"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"UNCLOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_on_the_Law_of_the_Sea"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:03-76"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:03-76"}],"text":"The ocean is a global common, so negative externalities of marine debris are not usually experienced by the producer. In the 1950s, the importance of government intervention with marine pollution protocol was recognized at the First Conference on the Law of the Sea.[76]Ocean dumping is controlled by international law, including:The London Convention (1972) – a United Nations agreement to control ocean dumping[77] This Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter consisted of twenty two articles addressing expectations of contracting parties.[78] The three annexes defined many compounds, substances, and materials that are unacceptable to deposit into the ocean.[78] Examples of such matter include: mercury compounds, lead, cyanides, and radioactive wastes.[78]\nMARPOL 73/78 – a convention designed to minimize pollution of the seas, including dumping, oil and exhaust pollution[79] The original MARPOL convention did not consider dumping from ships, but was revised in 1978 to include restrictions on marine vessels.[80]\nUNCLOS – signed in 1982, but effective in 1994, United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea emphasized the importance of protecting the entire ocean and not only specified coastal regions.[76] UNCLOS enforced restrictions on pollution, including a stress on land-based sources.[76]","title":"Laws and treaties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"scuttling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scuttling"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"Sydney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney"},{"link_name":"Newcastle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newcastle,_New_South_Wales"},{"link_name":"local governments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_government_in_Australia"},{"link_name":"New South Wales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_South_Wales"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"}],"sub_title":"Australian law","text":"One of the earliest anti-dumping laws was Australia's Beaches, Fishing Grounds and Sea Routes Protection Act 1932, which prohibited the discharge of \"garbage, rubbish, ashes or organic refuse\" from \"any vessel in Australian waters\" without prior written permission from the federal government. It also required permission for scuttling.[81] The act was passed in response to large amounts of garbage washing up on the beaches of Sydney and Newcastle from vessels outside the reach of local governments and the New South Wales government.[82] It was repealed and replaced by the Environment Protection (Sea Dumping) Act 1981, which gave effect to the London Convention.[83]","title":"Laws and treaties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Oslo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oslo"},{"link_name":"Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris"},{"link_name":"OSPAR Convention","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_for_the_Protection_of_the_Marine_Environment_of_the_North-East_Atlantic"},{"link_name":"Atlantic Ocean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"Barcelona Convention","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barcelona_Convention"},{"link_name":"Mediterranean Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea"},{"link_name":"Water Framework Directive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_Framework_Directive"},{"link_name":"European Union directive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directive_(European_Union)"},{"link_name":"EU member states","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_State_of_the_European_Union"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"Marine and Coastal Access Act 2009","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_and_Coastal_Access_Act_2009"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"}],"sub_title":"European law","text":"In 1972 and 1974, conventions were held in Oslo and Paris respectively, and resulted in the passing of the OSPAR Convention, an international treaty controlling marine pollution in the north-east Atlantic Ocean.[84] The Barcelona Convention protects the Mediterranean Sea. The Water Framework Directive of 2000 is a European Union directive committing EU member states to free inland and coastal waters from human influence.[85] In the United Kingdom, the Marine and Coastal Access Act 2009 is designed to \"ensure clean healthy, safe, productive and biologically diverse oceans and seas, by putting in place better systems for delivering sustainable development of marine and coastal environment\".[86]\nIn 2019, the EU parliament voted for an EU-wide ban on single-use plastic products such as plastic straws, cutlery, plates, and drink containers, polystyrene food and drink containers, plastic drink stirrers and plastic carrier bags and cotton buds. The law will take effect in 2021.[87]","title":"Laws and treaties"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:No_Dumping_Drains_to_Stream_by_David_Shankbone.jpg"},{"link_name":"Colorado Springs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_Springs,_Colorado"},{"link_name":"dumping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_dumping"},{"link_name":"hypoxic zones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_zone_(ecology)"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"United States Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Congress"},{"link_name":"Ocean Dumping Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_Dumping_Act"},{"link_name":"Environmental Protection Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"medical wastes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_waste"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Facts22-3"}],"sub_title":"United States law","text":"A sign above a storm drain in Colorado Springs warning people to not pollute the local stream by dumping. Eighty percent of marine debris reaches the sea via rivers.In the waters of the United States, there have been many observed consequences of pollution including: hypoxic zones, harmful agal blooms, and threatened species.[88] In 1972, the United States Congress passed the Ocean Dumping Act, giving the Environmental Protection Agency power to monitor and regulate the dumping of sewage sludge, industrial waste, radioactive waste and biohazardous materials into the nation's territorial waters.[89] The Act was amended sixteen years later to include medical wastes.[90] It is illegal to dispose of any plastic in US waters.[3]","title":"Laws and treaties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Property law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Property_law"},{"link_name":"admiralty law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admiralty_law"},{"link_name":"law of the sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_on_the_Law_of_the_Sea"},{"link_name":"lost, mislaid, and abandoned property","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lost,_mislaid,_and_abandoned_property"},{"link_name":"Salvage law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_salvage"},{"link_name":"treasure trove","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasure_trove"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Receiver of Wreck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Receiver_of_Wreck"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"}],"sub_title":"Ownership","text":"Property law, admiralty law and the law of the sea may be of relevance when lost, mislaid, and abandoned property is found at sea. Salvage law rewards salvors for risking life and property to rescue the property of another from peril. On land the distinction between deliberate and accidental loss led to the concept of a \"treasure trove\". In the United Kingdom, shipwrecked goods should be reported to a Receiver of Wreck, and if identifiable, they should be returned to their rightful owner.[91]","title":"Laws and treaties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"5 Gyres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5_Gyres"},{"link_name":"Great Pacific Garbage Patch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Pacific_Garbage_Patch"},{"link_name":"Heal the Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heal_the_Bay"},{"link_name":"California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California"},{"link_name":"Santa Monica Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Monica_Bay"},{"link_name":"Marina DeBris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marina_DeBris"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"},{"link_name":"Maria Cristina Finucci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Cristina_Finucci"},{"link_name":"Garbage Patch State","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garbage_Patch_State"},{"link_name":"UNESCO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO"},{"link_name":"Irina Bokova","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irina_Bokova"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-74"}],"text":"A large number of groups and individuals are active in preventing or educating about marine debris. For example, 5 Gyres is an organization aimed at reducing plastics pollution in the oceans, and was one of two organizations that recently researched the Great Pacific Garbage Patch. Heal the Bay is another organization, focusing on protecting California's Santa Monica Bay, by sponsoring beach cleanup programs along with other activities. Marina DeBris is an artist focusing most of her recent work on educating people about beach trash.\nInteractive sites like Adrift[92] demonstrate where marine plastic is carried, over time, on the worlds ocean currents.On 11 April 2013 in order to create awareness, artist Maria Cristina Finucci founded the Garbage Patch State at UNESCO –Paris in front of Director General Irina Bokova.[93] First of a series of events under the patronage of UNESCO and of Italian Ministry of the Environment.[94]Forty-eight plastics manufacturers from 25 countries, are members of the Global Plastic Associations for solutions on Marine Litter, have made the pledge to help prevent marine debris and to encourage recycling.[74]","title":"Activism"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:How_long_until_it%27s_gone.jpg"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"},{"link_name":"plastic waste","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_waste"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-97"},{"link_name":"refuse-derived fuels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refuse-derived_fuel"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-98"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-99"},{"link_name":"Extended Producer Responsibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_producer_responsibility"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-100"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nationalgeographic.com-101"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:7_Swaps.jpg"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-97"}],"sub_title":"Mitigation","text":"The decomposition times of marine debrisMarine debris is a widespread problem, not only the result of activities in coastal regions.[95]Plastic debris from inland states come from two main sources: ordinary litter and materials from open dumps and landfills that blow or wash away to inland waterways and wastewater outflows. The refuse finds its way from inland waterways, rivers, streams and lakes to the ocean. Though ocean and coastal area cleanups are important, it is crucial to address plastic waste that originates from inland and landlocked states.[96][97]At the systems level, there are various ways to reduce the amount of debris entering our waterways:Improve waste transportation to and from sites by utilizing closed container storage and shipping\nRestrict open waste facilities near waterways\nPromote the use of refuse-derived fuels. Used plastic with low residual value often does not get recycled and is more likely to leak into the ocean.[98] However, turning these unwanted plastics that would otherwise stay in landfills into refuse-derived fuels allows for further use; they can be used as supplement fuels at power plants\nImprove recovery rates for plastic (in 2012, the United States generated 11.46 million tons of plastic waste, of which only 6.7% was recovered[99]\nAdapt Extended Producer Responsibility strategies to make producers responsible for product management when products and their packaging become waste; encourage reusable product design to minimize negative impacts on the environment.[100]\nBan the use of cigarette filters and establish a deposit-system for e-cigarettes (similar to the one used for propane canisters)[101]Seven simple single-use swaps people can make to save trashConsumers can help to reduce the amount of plastic entering waterways by reducing usage of single-use plastics, avoiding microbeads, participate in a river or lake beach cleanup.[97]","title":"Activism"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Marine debris washed up on a beach at Sharm el-Naga, Egypt","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Beach_in_Sharm_el-Naga02.jpg/220px-Beach_in_Sharm_el-Naga02.jpg"},{"image_text":"Debris on beach near Dar es Salaam, Tanzania","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Beach_at_Msasani_Bay%2C_Dar_es_Salaam%2C_Tanzania.JPG/220px-Beach_at_Msasani_Bay%2C_Dar_es_Salaam%2C_Tanzania.JPG"},{"image_text":"Debris collected from beaches on Tern Island in the French Frigate Shoals over one month","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Flostam_tern_island.JPG/220px-Flostam_tern_island.JPG"},{"image_text":"A sea turtle entangled in a ghost net.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Turtle_entangled_in_marine_debris_%28ghost_net%29.jpg/300px-Turtle_entangled_in_marine_debris_%28ghost_net%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"The travel of the Friendly Floatees","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Friendly_Floatees.png/330px-Friendly_Floatees.png"},{"image_text":"The remains of an albatross containing ingested flotsam.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Albatross_at_Midway_Atoll_Refuge_%288080507529%29.jpg/220px-Albatross_at_Midway_Atoll_Refuge_%288080507529%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Skimmer boat used to remove floating debris and trash from the Potomac and Anacostia rivers","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/DC_WASA_Marine_Debris_Skimmer.jpg/220px-DC_WASA_Marine_Debris_Skimmer.jpg"},{"image_text":"A sign above a storm drain in Colorado Springs warning people to not pollute the local stream by dumping. Eighty percent of marine debris reaches the sea via rivers.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/No_Dumping_Drains_to_Stream_by_David_Shankbone.jpg/220px-No_Dumping_Drains_to_Stream_by_David_Shankbone.jpg"},{"image_text":"The decomposition times of marine debris","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/How_long_until_it%27s_gone.jpg/330px-How_long_until_it%27s_gone.jpg"},{"image_text":"Seven simple single-use swaps people can make to save trash","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/7_Swaps.jpg/220px-7_Swaps.jpg"}]
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[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg"},{"title":"Environment portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Environment"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg"},{"title":"Oceans portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Oceans"},{"title":"Citizen Science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizen_science#Plastics_and_pollution"},{"title":"Flotsam and jetsam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flotsam_and_jetsam"},{"title":"Kamilo Beach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamilo_Beach"},{"title":"Marina DeBris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marina_DeBris"},{"title":"Marine pollution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_pollution"},{"title":"National Cleanup Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Cleanup_Day"},{"title":"Plastic pollution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_pollution"},{"title":"Plastic-eating organisms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic-eating_organisms"},{"title":"Project Kaisei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Kaisei"},{"title":"Waste management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste_management"},{"title":"World Cleanup Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Cleanup_Day"}]
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfly_valve
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Butterfly valve
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["1 Principle of operation","2 Types","2.1 Wafer-style butterfly valve","2.2 Lug-style butterfly valve","2.3 Rotary valve","3 Use in industry","4 History","5 Images","6 See also","7 References"]
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Flow control device
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Large butterfly valve used on a hydroelectric power station water inlet pipe in Japan.
Duplex valve in wafer butterfly configuration.
A butterfly valve is a valve that isolates or regulates the flow of a fluid. The closing mechanism is a disk that rotates.
Principle of operation
Operation is similar to that of a ball valve, which allows for quick shut off. Butterfly valves are generally favored because they cost less than other valve designs, and are lighter weight so they need less support. The disc is positioned in the center of the pipe. A rod passes through the disc to an actuator on the outside of the valve. Rotating the actuator turns the disc either parallel or perpendicular to the flow. Unlike a ball valve, the disc is always present within the flow, so it induces a pressure drop, even when open.
A butterfly valve is from a family of valves called quarter-turn valves. In operation, the valve is fully open or closed when the disc is rotated a quarter turn. The "butterfly" is a metal disc mounted on a rod. When the valve is closed, the disc is turned so that it completely blocks off the passageway. When the valve is fully open, the disc is rotated a quarter turn so that it allows an almost unrestricted passage of the fluid. The valve may also be opened incrementally to throttle flow.
There are different kinds of butterfly valves, each adapted for different pressures and different usage. The zero-offset butterfly valve, which uses the flexibility of rubber, has the lowest pressure rating. The high-performance double offset butterfly valve, used in slightly higher-pressure systems, is offset from the center line of the disc seat and body seal (offset one), and the center line of the bore (offset two). This creates a cam action during operation to lift the seat out of the seal resulting in less friction than is created in the zero offset design and decreases its tendency to wear. The valve best suited for high-pressure systems is the triple offset butterfly valve. In this valve, the disc seat contact axis is offset, which acts to virtually eliminate sliding contact between disc and seat. In the case of triple offset valves the seat is made of metal so that it can be machined such as to achieve a bubble-tight shut-off when in contact with the disc.
Types
Concentric butterfly valves – this type of valve has a resilient rubber seat with a metal disc.
Doubly-eccentric butterfly valves (high-performance butterfly valves or double-offset butterfly valves) – different type of materials is used for seat and disc.
Triply-eccentric butterfly valves (triple-offset butterfly valves) – the seats are either laminated or solid metal seat design.
Wafer-style butterfly valve
The wafer style butterfly valve is designed to maintain a seal against bi-directional pressure differential to prevent any backflow in systems designed for unidirectional flow. It accomplishes this with a tightly fitting seal; i.e., gasket, o-ring, precision machined, and a flat valve face on the upstream and downstream sides of the valve.the drawback is that wafer butterfly valves only have a small flow control range. The pressure drop across wafer butterfly valves may be greater. Wafer butterfly valves are prone to clogging due to their design.
Lug-style butterfly valve
Lug-style valves have threaded inserts at both sides of the valve body. This allows them to be installed into a system using two sets of bolts and no nuts. The valve is installed between two flanges using a separate set of bolts for each flange. This setup permits either side of the piping system to be disconnected without disturbing the other side.
A lug-style butterfly valve used in dead end service generally has a reduced pressure rating. For example, a lug-style butterfly valve mounted between two flanges has a 1,000 kPa (150 psi) pressure rating. The same valve mounted with one flange, in dead end service, has a 520 kPa (75 psi) rating. Lugged valves are extremely resistant to chemicals and solvents and can handle temperatures up to 200 °C, which makes it a versatile solution.
Rotary valve
Rotary valves constitute a derivation of the general butterfly valves and are used mainly in powder processing industries. Instead of being flat, the butterfly is equipped with pockets. When closed, it acts exactly like a butterfly valve and is tight. But when it is in the rotation, the pockets allow dropping a defined amount of solids, which makes the valve suitable for dosing bulk product by gravity. Such valves are usually of small size (less than 300 mm), pneumatically activated and rotate 180 degrees back and forth.
Use in industry
In the pharmaceutical, chemical, and food industries, a butterfly valve is used to interrupt product flow (solid, liquid, gas) within the process. The valves used in these industries are usually manufactured according to cGMP guidelines (current good manufacturing practice). Butterfly valves generally replaced ball valves in many industries, particularly petroleum, due to lower cost and ease of installation, but pipelines containing butterfly valves cannot be 'pigged' for cleaning.
History
The butterfly valve has been in use since the late 18th century. James Watt used a butterfly valve in his steam engine prototypes. With advances in material manufacturing and technology, butterfly valves could be made smaller and withstand more-extreme temperatures. After World War II, synthetic rubbers were used in the sealer members, allowing the butterfly valve to be used in many more industries. In 1969 James E. Hemphill patented an improvement to the butterfly valve, reducing the hydrodynamic torque needed to change the output of the valve.
Images
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Butterfly valves.
Cast iron butterfly valve
Cast iron butterfly valve
Large butterfly valve
Butterfly valve DN3000
See also
Check valve
Control valve
Diaphragm valve
Gate valve
Globe valve
Needle valve
Plastic pressure pipe systems
References
^ sshaik (2023-04-13). "Everything you need to know about Wafer and Lug Style Butterfly Valve | Cair Euromation". Cair Euromatic Automation. Retrieved 2023-05-12.
^ "Pneumatic Rotary Valves - Rotary Valves pneumatically actuated - PowderProcess.net". www.powderprocess.net. Retrieved 2019-08-23.
^ "Valve Types: Butterfly Valves and Ball Valves | Blog - La Fox, Illinois-BI-TORQ Valve Automation". www.bitorq.com. Retrieved 2018-08-28., broken link
^ "Valve History". www.stoneleigh-eng.com. Retrieved 2018-03-04.
^ "Butterfly valve". James E Hemphill, Fisher Governor Co. 1966-09-19. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: others (link)
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The closing mechanism is a disk that rotates.","title":"Butterfly valve"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ball valve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ball_valve"},{"link_name":"actuator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuator"},{"link_name":"pressure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure"},{"link_name":"metal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal"},{"link_name":"throttle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Throttle"},{"link_name":"rubber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_rubber"}],"text":"Operation is similar to that of a ball valve, which allows for quick shut off. Butterfly valves are generally favored because they cost less than other valve designs, and are lighter weight so they need less support. The disc is positioned in the center of the pipe. A rod passes through the disc to an actuator on the outside of the valve. Rotating the actuator turns the disc either parallel or perpendicular to the flow. Unlike a ball valve, the disc is always present within the flow, so it induces a pressure drop, even when open.A butterfly valve is from a family of valves called quarter-turn valves. In operation, the valve is fully open or closed when the disc is rotated a quarter turn. The \"butterfly\" is a metal disc mounted on a rod. When the valve is closed, the disc is turned so that it completely blocks off the passageway. When the valve is fully open, the disc is rotated a quarter turn so that it allows an almost unrestricted passage of the fluid. The valve may also be opened incrementally to throttle flow.There are different kinds of butterfly valves, each adapted for different pressures and different usage. The zero-offset butterfly valve, which uses the flexibility of rubber, has the lowest pressure rating. The high-performance double offset butterfly valve, used in slightly higher-pressure systems, is offset from the center line of the disc seat and body seal (offset one), and the center line of the bore (offset two). This creates a cam action during operation to lift the seat out of the seal resulting in less friction than is created in the zero offset design and decreases its tendency to wear. The valve best suited for high-pressure systems is the triple offset butterfly valve. In this valve, the disc seat contact axis is offset, which acts to virtually eliminate sliding contact between disc and seat. In the case of triple offset valves the seat is made of metal so that it can be machined such as to achieve a bubble-tight shut-off when in contact with the disc.","title":"Principle of operation"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Concentric butterfly valves – this type of valve has a resilient rubber seat with a metal disc.\nDoubly-eccentric butterfly valves (high-performance butterfly valves or double-offset butterfly valves) – different type of materials is used for seat and disc.\nTriply-eccentric butterfly valves (triple-offset butterfly valves) – the seats are either laminated or solid metal seat design.","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"backflow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backflow"},{"link_name":"o-ring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/O-ring"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"sub_title":"Wafer-style butterfly valve","text":"The wafer style butterfly valve is designed to maintain a seal against bi-directional pressure differential to prevent any backflow in systems designed for unidirectional flow. It accomplishes this with a tightly fitting seal; i.e., gasket, o-ring, precision machined, and a flat valve face on the upstream and downstream sides of the valve.the drawback is that wafer butterfly valves only have a small flow control range. The pressure drop across wafer butterfly valves may be greater. Wafer butterfly valves are prone to clogging due to their design.[1]","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"flanges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flange"},{"link_name":"psi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pound_per_square_inch"}],"sub_title":"Lug-style butterfly valve","text":"Lug-style valves have threaded inserts at both sides of the valve body. This allows them to be installed into a system using two sets of bolts and no nuts. The valve is installed between two flanges using a separate set of bolts for each flange. This setup permits either side of the piping system to be disconnected without disturbing the other side.A lug-style butterfly valve used in dead end service generally has a reduced pressure rating. For example, a lug-style butterfly valve mounted between two flanges has a 1,000 kPa (150 psi) pressure rating. The same valve mounted with one flange, in dead end service, has a 520 kPa (75 psi) rating. Lugged valves are extremely resistant to chemicals and solvents and can handle temperatures up to 200 °C, which makes it a versatile solution.","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"sub_title":"Rotary valve","text":"Rotary valves constitute a derivation of the general butterfly valves and are used mainly in powder processing industries. Instead of being flat, the butterfly is equipped with pockets. When closed, it acts exactly like a butterfly valve and is tight. But when it is in the rotation, the pockets allow dropping a defined amount of solids,[2] which makes the valve suitable for dosing bulk product by gravity. Such valves are usually of small size (less than 300 mm), pneumatically activated and rotate 180 degrees back and forth.","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"'pigged'","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigging"}],"text":"In the pharmaceutical, chemical, and food industries, a butterfly valve is used to interrupt product flow (solid, liquid, gas) within the process.[3] The valves used in these industries are usually manufactured according to cGMP guidelines (current good manufacturing practice). Butterfly valves generally replaced ball valves in many industries, particularly petroleum, due to lower cost and ease of installation, but pipelines containing butterfly valves cannot be 'pigged' for cleaning.","title":"Use in industry"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"The butterfly valve has been in use since the late 18th century. James Watt used a butterfly valve in his steam engine prototypes. With advances in material manufacturing and technology, butterfly valves could be made smaller and withstand more-extreme temperatures. After World War II, synthetic rubbers were used in the sealer members, allowing the butterfly valve to be used in many more industries.[4] In 1969 James E. Hemphill patented an improvement to the butterfly valve, reducing the hydrodynamic torque needed to change the output of the valve.[5]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Butterfly valves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Butterfly_valves"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Butterfly-valve--The-Alloy-Valve-Stockist.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bidirectional_tight_butterfly_valve-The-Alloy-Valve-Stockist.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nasa-space-18408-l.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Butterfly_valve_dn3000.jpg"}],"text":"Wikimedia Commons has media related to Butterfly valves.Cast iron butterfly valve\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tCast iron butterfly valve\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tLarge butterfly valve\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tButterfly valve DN3000","title":"Images"}]
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[{"image_text":"Large butterfly valve used on a hydroelectric power station water inlet pipe in Japan.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Yagisawa_power_station_inlet_valve.jpg/170px-Yagisawa_power_station_inlet_valve.jpg"},{"image_text":"Duplex valve in wafer butterfly configuration.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Duplex-valve-The-Alloy-Valve-Stockist.JPG/220px-Duplex-valve-The-Alloy-Valve-Stockist.JPG"}]
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[{"title":"Check valve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Check_valve"},{"title":"Control valve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_valve"},{"title":"Diaphragm valve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diaphragm_valve"},{"title":"Gate valve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gate_valve"},{"title":"Globe valve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globe_valve"},{"title":"Needle valve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Needle_valve"},{"title":"Plastic pressure pipe systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_pressure_pipe_systems"}]
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[{"reference":"sshaik (2023-04-13). \"Everything you need to know about Wafer and Lug Style Butterfly Valve | Cair Euromation\". Cair Euromatic Automation. Retrieved 2023-05-12.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cairindia.com/everything-of-wafer-and-lug-style-butterfly-valves/","url_text":"\"Everything you need to know about Wafer and Lug Style Butterfly Valve | Cair Euromation\""}]},{"reference":"\"Pneumatic Rotary Valves - Rotary Valves pneumatically actuated - PowderProcess.net\". www.powderprocess.net. Retrieved 2019-08-23.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.powderprocess.net/Equipments%20html/Rotary_Valves.html","url_text":"\"Pneumatic Rotary Valves - Rotary Valves pneumatically actuated - PowderProcess.net\""}]},{"reference":"\"Valve Types: Butterfly Valves and Ball Valves | Blog - La Fox, Illinois-BI-TORQ Valve Automation\". www.bitorq.com. Retrieved 2018-08-28.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.bitorq.com/blog/valve-types-butterfly-valves-and-ball-valves/url-status=usurped","url_text":"\"Valve Types: Butterfly Valves and Ball Valves | Blog - La Fox, Illinois-BI-TORQ Valve Automation\""}]},{"reference":"\"Valve History\". www.stoneleigh-eng.com. Retrieved 2018-03-04.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.stoneleigh-eng.com/valvehistory.html","url_text":"\"Valve History\""}]},{"reference":"\"Butterfly valve\". James E Hemphill, Fisher Governor Co. 1966-09-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://patents.google.com/patent/US3485476","url_text":"\"Butterfly valve\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustained-release
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Modified-release dosage
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["1 List of abbreviations","2 Methods","2.1 Diffusion systems","2.2 Dissolution systems","2.3 Osmotic systems","2.4 Ion-exchange resin","2.5 Floating systems","2.6 Bio-adhesive systems","2.7 Matrix systems","2.8 Stimuli inducing release","3 Pill splitting","4 History","5 See also","6 Footnotes","7 External links"]
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Mechanism that delivers a drug with a delay after its administration
"Time release" redirects here. For the novel, see Time Release (novel).
Modified-release dosage is a mechanism that (in contrast to immediate-release dosage) delivers a drug with a delay after its administration (delayed-release dosage) or for a prolonged period of time (extended-release dosage) or to a specific target in the body (targeted-release dosage).
Sustained-release dosage forms are dosage forms designed to release (liberate) a drug at a predetermined rate in order to maintain a constant drug concentration for a specific period of time with minimum side effects. This can be achieved through a variety of formulations, including liposomes and drug-polymer conjugates (an example being hydrogels). Sustained release's definition is more akin to a "controlled release" rather than "sustained".
Extended-release dosage consists of either sustained-release (SR) or controlled-release (CR) dosage. SR maintains drug release over a sustained period but not at a constant rate. CR maintains drug release over a sustained period at a nearly constant rate.
Sometimes these and other terms are treated as synonyms, but the United States Food and Drug Administration has in fact defined most of these as different concepts. Sometimes the term "depot tablet" is used, by analogy to the term for an injection formulation of a drug which releases slowly over time, but this term is not medically or pharmaceutically standard for oral medication.
Modified-release dosage and its variants are mechanisms used in tablets (pills) and capsules to dissolve a drug over time in order to be released more slowly and steadily into the bloodstream, while having the advantage of being taken at less frequent intervals than immediate-release (IR) formulations of the same drug. For example, orally administered extended-release morphine can enable certain chronic pain patients to take only 1–2 tablets per day, rather than needing to redose every 4–6 hours as is typical with standard-release morphine tablets.
Most commonly it refers to time-dependent release in oral dose formulations. Timed release has several distinct variants such as sustained release where prolonged release is intended, pulse release, delayed release (e.g. to target different regions of the GI tract) etc. A distinction of controlled release is that it not only prolongs action, but it attempts to maintain drug levels within the therapeutic window to avoid potentially hazardous peaks in drug concentration following ingestion or injection and to maximize therapeutic efficiency.
In addition to pills, the mechanism can also apply to capsules and injectable drug carriers (that often have an additional release function), forms of controlled release medicines include gels, implants and devices (e.g. the vaginal ring and contraceptive implant) and transdermal patches.
Examples for cosmetic, personal care, and food science applications often centre on odour or flavour release.
The release technology scientific and industrial community is represented by the Controlled Release Society (CRS). The CRS is the worldwide society for delivery science and technologies. CRS serves more than 1,600 members from more than 50 countries. Two-thirds of CRS membership is represented by industry and one-third represents academia and government. CRS is affiliated with the Journal of Controlled Release and Drug Delivery and Translational Research scientific journals.
List of abbreviations
There is no industry standard for these abbreviations, and confusion and misreading have sometimes caused prescribing errors. Clear handwriting is necessary. For some drugs with multiple formulations, putting the meaning in parentheses is advisable.
Abbreviation
Meaning
Notes
CD
Controlled Delivery
CR
Controlled Release
CC
Continuous Control, Constant Control
DR
Delayed Release
ER
Extended Release
IR
Immediate Release
ID
Initial Depot
LA
Long-Acting
LAR
Long-Acting Release
MR
Modified Release
PR
Prolonged Release
SA
Sustained Action
Ambiguous, can sometimes mean Short-Acting
SR
Sustained Release
TR
Timed Release
XL
Extra Long
XR
Extended/Extra Release
XT
Extended/Extra Time
LS
Lesser/Lower Strength
DS
Double Strength
DA
Double Action
ES
Extra Strength
XS
Extra Strength
A few other abbreviations are similar to these (in that they may serve as suffixes) but refer to dose rather than release rate. They include ES and XS (Extra Strength).
Methods
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Today, most time-release drugs are formulated so that the active ingredient is embedded in a matrix of insoluble substance(s) (various: some acrylics, even chitin; these substances are often patented) such that the dissolving drug must find its way out through the holes.
In some SR formulations, the drug dissolves into the matrix, and the matrix physically swells to form a gel, allowing the drug to exit through the gel's outer surface.
Micro-encapsulation is also regarded as a more complete technology to produce complex dissolution profiles. Through coating an active pharmaceutical ingredient around an inert core and layering it with insoluble substances to form a microsphere, one can obtain more consistent and replicable dissolution rates in a convenient format that can be mixed and matched with other instant release pharmaceutical ingredients into any two piece gelatin capsule.
There are certain considerations for the formation of sustained-release formulation:
If the pharmacological activity of the active compound is not related to its blood levels, time releasing has no purpose except in some cases, such as bupropion, to reduce possible side effects.
If the absorption of the active compound involves an active transport, the development of a time-release product may be problematic.
The biological half-life of the drug refers to the drug's elimination from the bloodstream which can be caused by metabolism, urine, and other forms of excretion. If the active compound has a long half-life (over 6 hours), it is sustained on its own. If the active compound has a short half-life, it would require a large amount to maintain a prolonged effective dose. In this case, a broad therapeutic window is necessary to avoid toxicity; otherwise, the risk is unwarranted and another mode of administration would be recommended. Appropriate half-lives used to apply sustained methods are typically 3–4 hours and a drug dose greater than 0.5 grams is too high.
The therapeutic index also factors whether a drug can be used as a time release drug. A drug with a thin therapeutic range, or small therapeutic index, will be determined unfit for a sustained release mechanism in partial fear of dose dumping which can prove fatal at the conditions mentioned. For a drug that is made to be released over time, the objective is to stay within the therapeutic range as long as needed.
There are many different methods used to obtain a sustained release.
Diffusion systems
Diffusion systems' rate release is dependent on the rate at which the drug dissolves through a barrier which is usually a type of polymer. Diffusion systems can be broken into two subcategories, reservoir devices and matrix devices.
Reservoir devices coat the drug with polymers and in order for the reservoir devices to have sustained-release effects, the polymer must not dissolve and let the drug be released through diffusion. The rate of reservoir devices can be altered by changing the polymer and is possible be made to have zero-order release; however, drugs with higher molecular weight have difficulty diffusing through the membrane.
Matrix devices forms a matrix (drug(s) mixed with a gelling agent) where the drug is dissolved/dispersed. The drug is usually dispersed within a polymer and then released by undergoing diffusion. However, to make the drug SR in this device, the rate of dissolution of the drug within the matrix needs to be higher than the rate at which it is released. The matrix device cannot achieve a zero-order release but higher molecular weight molecules can be used. The diffusion matrix device also tends to be easier to produce and protect from changing in the gastrointestinal tract, but factors such as food can affect the release rate.
Dissolution systems
Dissolution systems must have the system dissolved slowly in order for the drug to have sustained release properties which can be achieved by using appropriate salts and/or derivatives as well as coating the drug with a dissolving material. It is used for drug compounds with high solubility in water. When the drug is covered with some slow dissolving coat, it will eventually release the drug. Instead of diffusion, the drug release depends on the solubility and thickness of the coating. Because of this mechanism, the dissolution will be the rate limiting factor for drug release. Dissolution systems can be broken down to subcategories called reservoir devices and matrix devices.
The reservoir device coats the drug with an appropriate material which will dissolve slowly. It can also be used to administer beads as a group with varying thickness, making the drug release in multiple times creating a SR.
The matrix device has the drug in a matrix and the matrix is dissolved instead of a coating. It can come either as drug-impregnated spheres or drug-impregnated tablets.
Osmotic systems
Main article: Osmotic controlled-release oral delivery system
A 54mg tablet of Concerta, which uses OROS technology.
Osmotic controlled-release oral delivery systems (OROS) have the form of a rigid tablet with a semi-permeable outer membrane and one or more small laser drilled holes in it. As the tablet passes through the body, water is absorbed through the semipermeable membrane via osmosis, and the resulting osmotic pressure is used to push the active drug through the opening(s) in the tablet. OROS is a trademarked name owned by ALZA Corporation, which pioneered the use of osmotic pumps for oral drug delivery.
Osmotic release systems have a number of major advantages over other controlled-release mechanisms. They are significantly less affected by factors such as pH, food intake, GI motility, and differing intestinal environments. Using an osmotic pump to deliver drugs has additional inherent advantages regarding control over drug delivery rates. This allows for much more precise drug delivery over an extended period of time, which results in much more predictable pharmacokinetics. However, osmotic release systems are relatively complicated, somewhat difficult to manufacture, and may cause irritation or even blockage of the GI tract due to prolonged release of irritating drugs from the non-deformable tablet.
Ion-exchange resin
Main article: Ion-exchange resin
In the ion-exchange method, the resins are cross-linked water-insoluble polymers that contain ionisable functional groups that form a repeating pattern of polymers, creating a polymer chain. The drug is attached to the resin and is released when an appropriate interaction of ions and ion exchange groups occur. The area and length of the drug release and number of cross-link polymers dictate the rate at which the drug is released, determining the SR effect.
Floating systems
A floating system is a system where it floats on gastric fluids due to low density. The density of the gastric fluids is about 1 g/mL; thus, the drug/tablet administered must have a smaller density. The buoyancy will allow the system to float to the top of the stomach and release at a slower rate without worry of excreting it. This system requires that there are enough gastric fluids present as well as food. Many types of forms of drugs use this method such as powders, capsules, and tablets.
Bio-adhesive systems
Bio-adhesive systems generally are meant to stick to mucus and can be favorable for mouth based interactions due to high mucus levels in the general area but not as simple for other areas. Magnetic materials can be added to the drug so another magnet can hold it from outside the body to assist in holding the system in place. However, there is low patient compliance with this system.
Matrix systems
The matrix system is the mixture of materials with the drug, which will cause the drug to slow down. However, this system has several subcategories: hydrophobic matrices, lipid matrices, hydrophilic matrices, biodegradable matrices, and mineral matrices.
A hydrophobic matrix is a drug mixed with a hydrophobic polymer. This causes SR because the drug, after being dissolved, will have to be released by going through channels made by the hydrophilic polymer.
A hydrophilic matrix will go back to the matrix as discussed before where a matrix is a mixture of a drug or drugs with a gelling agent. This system is well liked because of its cost and broad regulatory acceptance. The polymers used can be broken down into categories: cellulose derivatives, non-cellulose natural, and polymers of acrylic acid.
A lipid matrix uses wax or similar materials. Drug release happens via diffusion through, and erosion of, the wax and tends to be sensitive to digestive fluids.
Biodegradable matrices are made with unstable, linked monomers that will erode by biological compounds such as enzymes and proteins.
A mineral matrix which generally means the polymers used are obtained in seaweed.
Stimuli inducing release
Examples of stimuli that may be used to bring about release include pH, enzymes, light, magnetic fields, temperature, ultrasonics, osmosis, cellular traction forces, and electronic control of MEMS and NEMS.
Spherical hydrogels, in micro-size (50-600 μm diameter) with 3-dimensional cross-linked polymer, can be used as drug carrier to control the release of the drug. These hydrogels are called microgels. They may possess a negative charge as example DC-beads. By ion-exchange mechanism, a large amount of oppositely charged amphiphilic drugs can be loaded inside these microgels. Then, the release of these drugs can be controlled by a specific triggering factor like pH, ionic strength or temperature.
Pill splitting
Empty half-shell of a split bupropion XL 150mg manufactured by Anchen Pharmaceuticals that was soaked in water overnight and then shaken.
Some time release formulations do not work properly if split, such as controlled-release tablet coatings, while other formulations such as micro-encapsulation still work if the microcapsules inside are swallowed whole.
Among the health information technology (HIT) that pharmacists use are medication safety tools to help manage this problem. For example, the ISMP "do not crush" list can be entered into the system so that warning stickers can be printed at the point of dispensing, to be stuck on the pill bottle.
Pharmaceutical companies that do not supply a range of half-dose and quarter-dose versions of time-release tablets can make it difficult for patients to be slowly tapered off their drugs.
History
The earliest SR drugs are associated with a patent in 1938 by Israel Lipowski, who coated pellets which led to coating particles. The science of controlled release developed further with more oral sustained-release products in the late 1940s and early 1950s, the development of controlled release of marine anti-foulants in the 1950s, and controlled release fertilizer in the 1970s where sustained and controlled delivery of nutrients was achieved following a single application to the soil. Delivery is usually effected by dissolution, degradation, or disintegration of an excipient in which the active compound is formulated. Enteric coating and other encapsulation technologies can further modify release profiles.
See also
Depot injection
Tablet (pharmacy)
Footnotes
^ a b c Pharmaceutics: Drug Delivery and Targeting, p. 7-13
^ Pennsylvania Patient Safety Authority (December 2004), "Drug name suffix confusion is a common source of errors", PA PSRS Patient Saf Advis, 1 (4): 17–18, archived from the original on 2013-07-24.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Lilesh Khalane, Atulal Kunte, and Arunadevi Blrajdar. Sustained Release Drug Delivery System: A Concise Review. Pharmatutor: pharmacy infopedia. 2016. Accessed: May 30, 2016.
^ Sampath Kumar, Debjit Bhowmik, Shweta Srivastava, Shravan Paswan, and A. Dutta. Sustained. Release Drug Delivery System Potential. The Pharma Innovation. 2012. Accessed: May 30, 2016.
^ Kapil Patil, Prashant Patil , Javesh Patil , and Sunil Pawar. A Basic Approach on Sustained Release Drug Delivery System. American Journal of PharmTech Research. 2011. Accessed: May 30, 2016.
^ a b c d e f g h Ratnaparkhi P. and Gupta P. Sustained Release Oral Drug Delivery System – An Overview. International Journal of Pharma Research & Review. 2013. Accessed: May 30, 2016.
^ a b c Navin Dixit, Sheo Dutt Maurya, and Bhanu Sagar. Sustained Release Drug Delivery System. Indian Journal of Research in Pharmacy and Biotechnology. 2013. Accessed: May 30, 2016.
^ a b Perrie, Y., & Rades, T. Pharmaceutics: Drug delivery and targeting. London: Pharmaceutical Press. Accessed: May 30, 2016.
^ Tarun Parashar, Soniya, Vishal Singh, Gaurav Singh, Satyanand Tyagi, Chirag Patel, and Anil Gupta. International Journal of Research and Development in Pharmacy and Life Sciences. Novel Oral Sustained Release Technology: A Concise Review. 2013. Accessed: May 30, 2016.
^ a b Malaterre, V; Ogorka, J; Loggia, N; Gurny, R (November 2009). "Oral osmotically driven systems: 30 years of development and clinical use". European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics. 73 (3): 311–23. doi:10.1016/j.ejpb.2009.07.002. PMID 19602438.
^ Theeuwes, F; Yum, SI; Haak, R; Wong, P (1991). "Systems for triggered, pulsed, and programmed drug delivery". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 618 (1): 428–40. Bibcode:1991NYASA.618..428T. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1991.tb27262.x. PMID 2006800. S2CID 31442663.
^ Conley, R; Gupta, SK; Sathyan, G (October 2006). "Clinical spectrum of the osmotic-controlled release oral delivery system (OROS), an advanced oral delivery form". Current Medical Research and Opinion. 22 (10): 1879–92. doi:10.1185/030079906x132613. PMID 17022845. S2CID 42490425.
^ Gupta, BP; Thakur, N; Jain, NP; Banweer, J; Jain, S (2010). "Osmotically controlled drug delivery system with associated drugs". Journal of Pharmacy & Pharmaceutical Sciences. 13 (4): 571–88. doi:10.18433/j38w25. PMID 21486532.
^ Verma, RK; Mishra, B; Garg, S (July 2000). "Osmotically controlled oral drug delivery". Drug Development and Industrial Pharmacy. 26 (7): 695–708. doi:10.1081/ddc-100101287. PMID 10872087. S2CID 35670161.
^ van den Berg, G; van Steveninck, F; Gubbens-Stibbe, JM; Schoemaker, HC; de Boer, AG; Cohen, AF (1990). "Influence of food on the bioavailability of metoprolol from an OROS system; a study in healthy volunteers". European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 39 (3): 315–6. doi:10.1007/bf00315121. PMID 2257873. S2CID 1838636.
^ Bass, DM; Prevo, M; Waxman, DS (2002). "Gastrointestinal safety of an extended-release, nondeformable, oral dosage form (OROS: a retrospective study". Drug Safety. 25 (14): 1021–33. doi:10.2165/00002018-200225140-00004. PMID 12408733. S2CID 35424637.
^ Modi, NB; Wang, B; Hu, WT; Gupta, SK (January 2000). "Effect of food on the pharmacokinetics of osmotic controlled-release methylphenidate HCl in healthy subjects". Biopharmaceutics & Drug Disposition. 21 (1): 23–31. doi:10.1002/1099-081x(200001)21:1<23::aid-bdd212>3.0.co;2-v. PMID 11038435. S2CID 33413277.
^ Auiler, JF; Liu, K; Lynch, JM; Gelotte, CK (2002). "Effect of food on early drug exposure from extended-release stimulants: results from the Concerta, Adderall XR Food Evaluation (CAFE) Study". Current Medical Research and Opinion. 18 (5): 311–6. doi:10.1185/030079902125000840. PMID 12240794. S2CID 25994524.
^ Dusane Ratilal, Gaikwad D., Banker H., and Pawar P. A Review On: Sustained Release Technology. International Journal of Research in Ayurveda and Pharmacy. 2011. Accessed: May 30, 2016.
^ Jaimini Manish and Kothari Abhay. Sustained Release Matrix Type Drug Delivery System: A Review. Journal of Drug Delivery & Therapeutics. 2012. Accessed: May 30, 2016.
^ Stejskalová, Anna; Oliva, Nuria; England, Frances J.; Almquist, Benjamin D. (2019). "Biologically Inspired, Cell-Selective Release of Aptamer-Trapped Growth Factors by Traction Forces". Advanced Materials. 31 (7): 1806380. Bibcode:2019AdM....3106380S. doi:10.1002/adma.201806380. ISSN 1521-4095. PMC 6375388. PMID 30614086.
^ Maloney JM, Uhland S, Polito B, Sheppard NF Jr, Pelta C, Santini JT Jr (2005). "Electrothermally activated microchips for implantable drug delivery and biosensing" (PDF). Journal of Controlled Release. 109 (1–3): 244–255. doi:10.1016/j.jconrel.2005.09.035. PMID 16278032.
^ You JO, Almeda D, Ye GJ, Auguste DT (2010). "Bioresponsive matrices in drug delivery". J Biol Eng. 4: 15. doi:10.1186/1754-1611-4-15. PMC 3002303. PMID 21114841.
^ Ahnfelt, E.; Gernandt, J.; Al-Tikriti, Y.; Sjögren, E.; Lennernäs, H.; Hansson, P. (2018-12-28). "Single bead investigation of a clinical drug delivery system – A novel release mechanism". Journal of Controlled Release. 292: 235–247. doi:10.1016/j.jconrel.2018.11.011. ISSN 0168-3659. PMID 30419268.
^ "Equasym XL (methylphenidate)". netdoctor.co.uk. 24 May 2013. Archived from the original on 8 December 2011. Retrieved 16 August 2016.
^ Vranić, E; Uzunović, A (August 2009). "Influence of splitting on dissolution properties of metoprolol tablets". Bosnian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences. 9 (3): 245–9. doi:10.17305/bjbms.2009.2815. PMC 5632511. PMID 19754482.
^ Institute for Safe Medication Practices (ISMP) (20 November 2017), ISMP "do not crush" list: Oral dosage forms that should not be crushed (PDF)
External links
Controlled Release Society
United Kingdom & Ireland Controlled Release Society
Controlled Release Technology 5-day short course at MIT with Professor Robert Langer.
vteRoutes of administration, dosage formsOralDigestive tract (enteral)Solids
Tablet
Capsule
Pastille
Time release technology
Osmotic delivery system
Liquids
Decoction
Elixir
Electuary
Emulsion
Effervescent powder or tablet
Herbal tea
Hydrogel
Molecular encapsulation
Powder
Softgel
Solution
Suspension
Syrup
Tincture
Oral mucosa (buccal, sublabial, sublingual)Solids
Orally disintegrating tablet
Film
Lollipop
Sublingual drops
Lozenges
Effervescent tablet
Chewing gum
Liquids
Mouthwash
Toothpaste
Ointment
Spray
Respiratory tract (inhalation)Solids
Dry-powder inhaler
Smoking
00Liquids
Anesthetic vaporizer
Heated humidified high-flow therapy
Medical inhalants
Metered-dose inhaler (MDI)
Nebulizer
Vaporizer
Gas
Oxygen mask and Nasal cannula
Oxygen concentrator
Anaesthetic machine
Medical inhalants
Relative analgesia machine
Ophthalmic,otic, nasal
Nasal spray
Ear drops
Eye drops
Ointment
Hydrogel
Insufflation
Mucoadhesive microdiscUrogenital
Ointment
Pessary
Vaginal ring
Douche
Intrauterine device (IUD)
Extra-amniotic infusion
Intravesical infusion
Rectal (enteral)
Ointment
Suppository
Enema
Solution
Hydrogel
Murphy drip
Nutrient enemaDermal (topical)
Ointment
Topical cream
Topical gel
Liniment
Paste
Film
DMSO solution
Iontophoresis
Hydrogel
Liposomes
Transfersome vesicles
Cream
Lotion
Lip balm
Medicated shampoo
Dermal patch
Transdermal patch
Transdermal spray
Jet injectorParenteralsInjectionsinfusions(into tissue/blood)Skin (transdermal)
Intradermal
Subcutaneous
Injector pen
Transdermal implant
Organs
Intracavernous
Intravitreal
Intra-articular
Central nervous system
Intracerebral
Intrathecal
Epidural
Circulatory,musculoskeletal
Intravenous
Intracardiac
Intramuscular
Intraosseous
Intraperitoneal
Nanocell injection
Patient-controlled analgesia pump
PIC line
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Time Release (novel)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_Release_(novel)"},{"link_name":"dosage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dose_(biochemistry)"},{"link_name":"drug","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug"},{"link_name":"administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Route_of_administration"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pharm-1"},{"link_name":"dosage forms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dosage_form"},{"link_name":"release (liberate) a drug","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberation_(pharmacology)"},{"link_name":"side effects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Side_effect"},{"link_name":"liposomes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liposome"},{"link_name":"hydrogels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogel"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pharm-1"},{"link_name":"other terms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#List_of_abbreviations"},{"link_name":"Food and Drug Administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pharm-1"},{"link_name":"injection formulation of a drug which releases slowly over time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depot_injection"},{"link_name":"tablets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tablet_(pharmacy)"},{"link_name":"capsules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capsule_(pharmacy)"},{"link_name":"dissolve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solvation"},{"link_name":"drug","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug"},{"link_name":"extended-release morphine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended-release_morphine"},{"link_name":"therapeutic window","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therapeutic_window"},{"link_name":"drug carriers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug_carriers"},{"link_name":"vaginal ring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaginal_ring"},{"link_name":"contraceptive implant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contraceptive_implant"},{"link_name":"transdermal patches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transdermal_patches"},{"link_name":"Journal of Controlled Release","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Controlled_Release"}],"text":"\"Time release\" redirects here. For the novel, see Time Release (novel).Modified-release dosage is a mechanism that (in contrast to immediate-release dosage) delivers a drug with a delay after its administration (delayed-release dosage) or for a prolonged period of time (extended-release [ER, XR, XL] dosage) or to a specific target in the body (targeted-release dosage).[1]Sustained-release dosage forms are dosage forms designed to release (liberate) a drug at a predetermined rate in order to maintain a constant drug concentration for a specific period of time with minimum side effects. This can be achieved through a variety of formulations, including liposomes and drug-polymer conjugates (an example being hydrogels). Sustained release's definition is more akin to a \"controlled release\" rather than \"sustained\".Extended-release dosage consists of either sustained-release (SR) or controlled-release (CR) dosage. SR maintains drug release over a sustained period but not at a constant rate. CR maintains drug release over a sustained period at a nearly constant rate.[1]Sometimes these and other terms are treated as synonyms, but the United States Food and Drug Administration has in fact defined most of these as different concepts.[1] Sometimes the term \"depot tablet\" is used, by analogy to the term for an injection formulation of a drug which releases slowly over time, but this term is not medically or pharmaceutically standard for oral medication.Modified-release dosage and its variants are mechanisms used in tablets (pills) and capsules to dissolve a drug over time in order to be released more slowly and steadily into the bloodstream, while having the advantage of being taken at less frequent intervals than immediate-release (IR) formulations of the same drug. For example, orally administered extended-release morphine can enable certain chronic pain patients to take only 1–2 tablets per day, rather than needing to redose every 4–6 hours as is typical with standard-release morphine tablets.Most commonly it refers to time-dependent release in oral dose formulations. Timed release has several distinct variants such as sustained release where prolonged release is intended, pulse release, delayed release (e.g. to target different regions of the GI tract) etc. A distinction of controlled release is that it not only prolongs action, but it attempts to maintain drug levels within the therapeutic window to avoid potentially hazardous peaks in drug concentration following ingestion or injection and to maximize therapeutic efficiency.In addition to pills, the mechanism can also apply to capsules and injectable drug carriers (that often have an additional release function), forms of controlled release medicines include gels, implants and devices (e.g. the vaginal ring and contraceptive implant) and transdermal patches.Examples for cosmetic, personal care, and food science applications often centre on odour or flavour release.The release technology scientific and industrial community is represented by the Controlled Release Society (CRS). The CRS is the worldwide society for delivery science and technologies. CRS serves more than 1,600 members from more than 50 countries. Two-thirds of CRS membership is represented by industry and one-third represents academia and government. CRS is affiliated with the Journal of Controlled Release and Drug Delivery and Translational Research scientific journals.","title":"Modified-release dosage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"There is no industry standard for these abbreviations, and confusion and misreading have sometimes caused prescribing errors.[2] Clear handwriting is necessary. For some drugs with multiple formulations, putting the meaning in parentheses is advisable.A few other abbreviations are similar to these (in that they may serve as suffixes) but refer to dose rather than release rate. They include ES and XS (Extra Strength).","title":"List of abbreviations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"active ingredient","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_ingredient"},{"link_name":"acrylics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acrylyl_group"},{"link_name":"chitin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chitin"},{"link_name":"patented","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patented"},{"link_name":"Micro-encapsulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micro-encapsulation"},{"link_name":"capsule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capsule_(pharmacy)"},{"link_name":"active transport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_transport"},{"link_name":"biological half-life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_half-life"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pharmatutor-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"therapeutic index","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therapeutic_index"},{"link_name":"dose dumping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dose_dumping"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-overview-6"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pharmatutor-3"}],"text":"Today, most time-release drugs are formulated so that the active ingredient is embedded in a matrix of insoluble substance(s) (various: some acrylics, even chitin; these substances are often patented) such that the dissolving drug must find its way out through the holes.In some SR formulations, the drug dissolves into the matrix, and the matrix physically swells to form a gel, allowing the drug to exit through the gel's outer surface.Micro-encapsulation is also regarded as a more complete technology to produce complex dissolution profiles. Through coating an active pharmaceutical ingredient around an inert core and layering it with insoluble substances to form a microsphere, one can obtain more consistent and replicable dissolution rates in a convenient format that can be mixed and matched with other instant release pharmaceutical ingredients into any two piece gelatin capsule.There are certain considerations for the formation of sustained-release formulation:If the pharmacological activity of the active compound is not related to its blood levels, time releasing has no purpose except in some cases, such as bupropion, to reduce possible side effects.\nIf the absorption of the active compound involves an active transport, the development of a time-release product may be problematic.The biological half-life of the drug refers to the drug's elimination from the bloodstream which can be caused by metabolism, urine, and other forms of excretion. If the active compound has a long half-life (over 6 hours), it is sustained on its own. If the active compound has a short half-life, it would require a large amount to maintain a prolonged effective dose. In this case, a broad therapeutic window is necessary to avoid toxicity; otherwise, the risk is unwarranted and another mode of administration would be recommended.[3] Appropriate half-lives used to apply sustained methods are typically 3–4 hours and a drug dose greater than 0.5 grams is too high.[4][5]The therapeutic index also factors whether a drug can be used as a time release drug. A drug with a thin therapeutic range, or small therapeutic index, will be determined unfit for a sustained release mechanism in partial fear of dose dumping which can prove fatal at the conditions mentioned.[6] For a drug that is made to be released over time, the objective is to stay within the therapeutic range as long as needed.[3]There are many different methods used to obtain a sustained release.","title":"Methods"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pharmatutor-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pharmatutor-3"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Navin-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Perrie-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Perrie-8"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Navin-7"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-overview-6"}],"sub_title":"Diffusion systems","text":"Diffusion systems' rate release is dependent on the rate at which the drug dissolves through a barrier which is usually a type of polymer. Diffusion systems can be broken into two subcategories, reservoir devices and matrix devices.[3]Reservoir devices coat the drug with polymers and in order for the reservoir devices to have sustained-release effects, the polymer must not dissolve and let the drug be released through diffusion.[3] The rate of reservoir devices can be altered by changing the polymer and is possible be made to have zero-order release; however, drugs with higher molecular weight have difficulty diffusing through the membrane.[7][8]\nMatrix devices forms a matrix (drug(s) mixed with a gelling agent)[9] where the drug is dissolved/dispersed.[8] The drug is usually dispersed within a polymer and then released by undergoing diffusion. However, to make the drug SR in this device, the rate of dissolution of the drug within the matrix needs to be higher than the rate at which it is released. The matrix device cannot achieve a zero-order release but higher molecular weight molecules can be used.[7] The diffusion matrix device also tends to be easier to produce and protect from changing in the gastrointestinal tract, but factors such as food can affect the release rate.[6]","title":"Methods"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pharmatutor-3"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-overview-6"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pharmatutor-3"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-overview-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-overview-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-overview-6"}],"sub_title":"Dissolution systems","text":"Dissolution systems must have the system dissolved slowly in order for the drug to have sustained release properties which can be achieved by using appropriate salts and/or derivatives as well as coating the drug with a dissolving material.[3] It is used for drug compounds with high solubility in water.[6] When the drug is covered with some slow dissolving coat, it will eventually release the drug. Instead of diffusion, the drug release depends on the solubility and thickness of the coating. Because of this mechanism, the dissolution will be the rate limiting factor for drug release.[3] Dissolution systems can be broken down to subcategories called reservoir devices and matrix devices.[6]The reservoir device coats the drug with an appropriate material which will dissolve slowly. It can also be used to administer beads as a group with varying thickness, making the drug release in multiple times creating a SR.[6]\nThe matrix device has the drug in a matrix and the matrix is dissolved instead of a coating. It can come either as drug-impregnated spheres or drug-impregnated tablets.[6]","title":"Methods"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Concerta_54mg_OROS.png"},{"link_name":"tablet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tablet_(pharmacy)"},{"link_name":"laser drilled","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_drilling"},{"link_name":"passes through the body","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Route_of_administration#Gastrointestinal/enteral"},{"link_name":"semipermeable membrane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semipermeable_membrane"},{"link_name":"osmosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmosis"},{"link_name":"osmotic pressure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmotic_pressure"},{"link_name":"drug","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug"},{"link_name":"ALZA Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ALZA_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid19602438-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid2006800-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid17022845-12"},{"link_name":"pH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH"},{"link_name":"GI motility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastrointestinal_physiology#Motility"},{"link_name":"pharmacokinetics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmacokinetics"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid19602438-10"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid21486532-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid10872087-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid2257873-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid12408733-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid11038435-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid12240794-18"}],"sub_title":"Osmotic systems","text":"A 54mg tablet of Concerta, which uses OROS technology.Osmotic controlled-release oral delivery systems (OROS) have the form of a rigid tablet with a semi-permeable outer membrane and one or more small laser drilled holes in it. As the tablet passes through the body, water is absorbed through the semipermeable membrane via osmosis, and the resulting osmotic pressure is used to push the active drug through the opening(s) in the tablet. OROS is a trademarked name owned by ALZA Corporation, which pioneered the use of osmotic pumps for oral drug delivery.[10][11][12]Osmotic release systems have a number of major advantages over other controlled-release mechanisms. They are significantly less affected by factors such as pH, food intake, GI motility, and differing intestinal environments. Using an osmotic pump to deliver drugs has additional inherent advantages regarding control over drug delivery rates. This allows for much more precise drug delivery over an extended period of time, which results in much more predictable pharmacokinetics. However, osmotic release systems are relatively complicated, somewhat difficult to manufacture, and may cause irritation or even blockage of the GI tract due to prolonged release of irritating drugs from the non-deformable tablet.[10][13][14][15][16][17][18]","title":"Methods"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pharmatutor-3"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-overview-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-overview-6"}],"sub_title":"Ion-exchange resin","text":"In the ion-exchange method, the resins are cross-linked water-insoluble polymers that contain ionisable functional groups that form a repeating pattern of polymers, creating a polymer chain.[3][6] The drug is attached to the resin and is released when an appropriate interaction of ions and ion exchange groups occur. The area and length of the drug release and number of cross-link polymers dictate the rate at which the drug is released, determining the SR effect.[6]","title":"Methods"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"buoyancy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buoyancy"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pharmatutor-3"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dusane-19"}],"sub_title":"Floating systems","text":"A floating system is a system where it floats on gastric fluids due to low density. The density of the gastric fluids is about 1 g/mL; thus, the drug/tablet administered must have a smaller density. The buoyancy will allow the system to float to the top of the stomach and release at a slower rate without worry of excreting it. This system requires that there are enough gastric fluids present as well as food.[3] Many types of forms of drugs use this method such as powders, capsules, and tablets.[19]","title":"Methods"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bio-adhesive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioadhesive"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pharmatutor-3"}],"sub_title":"Bio-adhesive systems","text":"Bio-adhesive systems generally are meant to stick to mucus and can be favorable for mouth based interactions due to high mucus levels in the general area but not as simple for other areas. Magnetic materials can be added to the drug so another magnet can hold it from outside the body to assist in holding the system in place. However, there is low patient compliance with this system.[3]","title":"Methods"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pharmatutor-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pharmatutor-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pharmatutor-3"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pharmatutor-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pharmatutor-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pharmatutor-3"}],"sub_title":"Matrix systems","text":"The matrix system is the mixture of materials with the drug, which will cause the drug to slow down. However, this system has several subcategories: hydrophobic matrices, lipid matrices, hydrophilic matrices, biodegradable matrices, and mineral matrices.[3]A hydrophobic matrix is a drug mixed with a hydrophobic polymer. This causes SR because the drug, after being dissolved, will have to be released by going through channels made by the hydrophilic polymer.[3]\nA hydrophilic matrix will go back to the matrix as discussed before where a matrix is a mixture of a drug or drugs with a gelling agent.[3] This system is well liked because of its cost and broad regulatory acceptance. The polymers used can be broken down into categories: cellulose derivatives, non-cellulose natural, and polymers of acrylic acid.[20]\nA lipid matrix uses wax or similar materials. Drug release happens via diffusion through, and erosion of, the wax and tends to be sensitive to digestive fluids.[3]\nBiodegradable matrices are made with unstable, linked monomers that will erode by biological compounds such as enzymes and proteins.[3]\nA mineral matrix which generally means the polymers used are obtained in seaweed.[3]","title":"Methods"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"MEMS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MEMS"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Maloney-22"},{"link_name":"NEMS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanoelectromechanical_systems"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"sub_title":"Stimuli inducing release","text":"Examples of stimuli that may be used to bring about release include pH, enzymes, light, magnetic fields, temperature, ultrasonics, osmosis, cellular traction forces,[21] and electronic control of MEMS[22] and NEMS.[23]Spherical hydrogels, in micro-size (50-600 μm diameter) with 3-dimensional cross-linked polymer, can be used as drug carrier to control the release of the drug. These hydrogels are called microgels. They may possess a negative charge as example DC-beads. By ion-exchange mechanism, a large amount of oppositely charged amphiphilic drugs can be loaded inside these microgels. Then, the release of these drugs can be controlled by a specific triggering factor like pH, ionic strength or temperature.[24]","title":"Methods"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Split_Bupropion_XL_shell_Anchen.jpg"},{"link_name":"bupropion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bupropion"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"health information technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_information_technology"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ISMP_DoNotCrush-27"}],"text":"Empty half-shell of a split bupropion XL 150mg manufactured by Anchen Pharmaceuticals that was soaked in water overnight and then shaken.Some time release formulations do not work properly if split, such as controlled-release tablet coatings, while other formulations such as micro-encapsulation still work if the microcapsules inside are swallowed whole.[25][26]Among the health information technology (HIT) that pharmacists use are medication safety tools to help manage this problem. For example, the ISMP \"do not crush\" list[27] can be entered into the system so that warning stickers can be printed at the point of dispensing, to be stuck on the pill bottle.Pharmaceutical companies that do not supply a range of half-dose and quarter-dose versions of time-release tablets can make it difficult for patients to be slowly tapered off their drugs.","title":"Pill splitting"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Navin-7"},{"link_name":"controlled release fertilizer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Controlled_release_fertilizer"},{"link_name":"excipient","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excipient"},{"link_name":"Enteric coating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enteric_coating"}],"text":"The earliest SR drugs are associated with a patent in 1938 by Israel Lipowski, who coated pellets which led to coating particles.[7] The science of controlled release developed further with more oral sustained-release products in the late 1940s and early 1950s, the development of controlled release of marine anti-foulants in the 1950s, and controlled release fertilizer in the 1970s where sustained and controlled delivery of nutrients was achieved following a single application to the soil. Delivery is usually effected by dissolution, degradation, or disintegration of an excipient in which the active compound is formulated. Enteric coating and other encapsulation technologies can further modify release profiles.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-pharm_1-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-pharm_1-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-pharm_1-2"},{"link_name":"Pharmaceutics: Drug Delivery and Targeting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20220428170202/http://www.pharmpress.com/files/docs/ft_pharmaceutics_drug_delivery_sample.pdf"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"\"Drug name suffix confusion is a common source of errors\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20130724105938/http://patientsafetyauthority.org/ADVISORIES/AdvisoryLibrary/2004/dec1(4)/Pages/17.aspx"},{"link_name":"the 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original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.netdoctor.co.uk/medicines/100004842.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-26"},{"link_name":"\"Influence of splitting on dissolution properties of metoprolol tablets\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5632511"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.17305/bjbms.2009.2815","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.17305%2Fbjbms.2009.2815"},{"link_name":"PMC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"5632511","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5632511"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"19754482","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19754482"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-ISMP_DoNotCrush_27-0"},{"link_name":"ISMP \"do not crush\" 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European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 39 (3): 315–6. doi:10.1007/bf00315121. PMID 2257873. S2CID 1838636.\n\n^ Bass, DM; Prevo, M; Waxman, DS (2002). \"Gastrointestinal safety of an extended-release, nondeformable, oral dosage form (OROS: a retrospective study\". Drug Safety. 25 (14): 1021–33. doi:10.2165/00002018-200225140-00004. PMID 12408733. S2CID 35424637.\n\n^ Modi, NB; Wang, B; Hu, WT; Gupta, SK (January 2000). \"Effect of food on the pharmacokinetics of osmotic controlled-release methylphenidate HCl in healthy subjects\". Biopharmaceutics & Drug Disposition. 21 (1): 23–31. doi:10.1002/1099-081x(200001)21:1<23::aid-bdd212>3.0.co;2-v. PMID 11038435. S2CID 33413277.\n\n^ Auiler, JF; Liu, K; Lynch, JM; Gelotte, CK (2002). \"Effect of food on early drug exposure from extended-release stimulants: results from the Concerta, Adderall XR Food Evaluation (CAFE) Study\". Current Medical Research and Opinion. 18 (5): 311–6. doi:10.1185/030079902125000840. PMID 12240794. S2CID 25994524.\n\n^ Dusane Ratilal, Gaikwad D., Banker H., and Pawar P. A Review On: Sustained Release Technology. International Journal of Research in Ayurveda and Pharmacy. 2011. Accessed: May 30, 2016.\n\n^ Jaimini Manish and Kothari Abhay. Sustained Release Matrix Type Drug Delivery System: A Review. Journal of Drug Delivery & Therapeutics. 2012. Accessed: May 30, 2016.\n\n^ Stejskalová, Anna; Oliva, Nuria; England, Frances J.; Almquist, Benjamin D. (2019). \"Biologically Inspired, Cell-Selective Release of Aptamer-Trapped Growth Factors by Traction Forces\". Advanced Materials. 31 (7): 1806380. Bibcode:2019AdM....3106380S. doi:10.1002/adma.201806380. ISSN 1521-4095. PMC 6375388. PMID 30614086.\n\n^ Maloney JM, Uhland S, Polito B, Sheppard NF Jr, Pelta C, Santini JT Jr (2005). \"Electrothermally activated microchips for implantable drug delivery and biosensing\" (PDF). Journal of Controlled Release. 109 (1–3): 244–255. doi:10.1016/j.jconrel.2005.09.035. PMID 16278032.\n\n^ You JO, Almeda D, Ye GJ, Auguste DT (2010). \"Bioresponsive matrices in drug delivery\". J Biol Eng. 4: 15. doi:10.1186/1754-1611-4-15. PMC 3002303. PMID 21114841.\n\n^ Ahnfelt, E.; Gernandt, J.; Al-Tikriti, Y.; Sjögren, E.; Lennernäs, H.; Hansson, P. (2018-12-28). \"Single bead investigation of a clinical drug delivery system – A novel release mechanism\". Journal of Controlled Release. 292: 235–247. doi:10.1016/j.jconrel.2018.11.011. ISSN 0168-3659. PMID 30419268.\n\n^ \"Equasym XL (methylphenidate)\". netdoctor.co.uk. 24 May 2013. Archived from the original on 8 December 2011. Retrieved 16 August 2016.\n\n^ Vranić, E; Uzunović, A (August 2009). \"Influence of splitting on dissolution properties of metoprolol tablets\". Bosnian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences. 9 (3): 245–9. doi:10.17305/bjbms.2009.2815. PMC 5632511. PMID 19754482.\n\n^ Institute for Safe Medication Practices (ISMP) (20 November 2017), ISMP \"do not crush\" list: Oral dosage forms that should not be crushed (PDF)","title":"Footnotes"}]
|
[{"image_text":"A 54mg tablet of Concerta, which uses OROS technology.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Concerta_54mg_OROS.png/220px-Concerta_54mg_OROS.png"},{"image_text":"Empty half-shell of a split bupropion XL 150mg manufactured by Anchen Pharmaceuticals that was soaked in water overnight and then shaken.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Split_Bupropion_XL_shell_Anchen.jpg/200px-Split_Bupropion_XL_shell_Anchen.jpg"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Action_photo_of_nasal_spray_on_a_black_background.jpg/30px-Action_photo_of_nasal_spray_on_a_black_background.jpg"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Glycerin_suppositories.jpg/30px-Glycerin_suppositories.jpg"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/SPF15SunBlock.JPG/40px-SPF15SunBlock.JPG"}]
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[{"title":"Depot injection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depot_injection"},{"title":"Tablet (pharmacy)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tablet_(pharmacy)"}]
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PMID 19602438.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ejpb.2009.07.002","url_text":"10.1016/j.ejpb.2009.07.002"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19602438","url_text":"19602438"}]},{"reference":"Theeuwes, F; Yum, SI; Haak, R; Wong, P (1991). \"Systems for triggered, pulsed, and programmed drug delivery\". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 618 (1): 428–40. Bibcode:1991NYASA.618..428T. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1991.tb27262.x. PMID 2006800. S2CID 31442663.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1991NYASA.618..428T","url_text":"1991NYASA.618..428T"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1749-6632.1991.tb27262.x","url_text":"10.1111/j.1749-6632.1991.tb27262.x"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2006800","url_text":"2006800"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:31442663","url_text":"31442663"}]},{"reference":"Conley, R; Gupta, SK; Sathyan, G (October 2006). \"Clinical spectrum of the osmotic-controlled release oral delivery system (OROS), an advanced oral delivery form\". Current Medical Research and Opinion. 22 (10): 1879–92. doi:10.1185/030079906x132613. PMID 17022845. S2CID 42490425.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1185%2F030079906x132613","url_text":"10.1185/030079906x132613"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17022845","url_text":"17022845"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:42490425","url_text":"42490425"}]},{"reference":"Gupta, BP; Thakur, N; Jain, NP; Banweer, J; Jain, S (2010). \"Osmotically controlled drug delivery system with associated drugs\". Journal of Pharmacy & Pharmaceutical Sciences. 13 (4): 571–88. doi:10.18433/j38w25. PMID 21486532.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.18433%2Fj38w25","url_text":"\"Osmotically controlled drug delivery system with associated drugs\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.18433%2Fj38w25","url_text":"10.18433/j38w25"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21486532","url_text":"21486532"}]},{"reference":"Verma, RK; Mishra, B; Garg, S (July 2000). \"Osmotically controlled oral drug delivery\". Drug Development and Industrial Pharmacy. 26 (7): 695–708. doi:10.1081/ddc-100101287. PMID 10872087. S2CID 35670161.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1081%2Fddc-100101287","url_text":"10.1081/ddc-100101287"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10872087","url_text":"10872087"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:35670161","url_text":"35670161"}]},{"reference":"van den Berg, G; van Steveninck, F; Gubbens-Stibbe, JM; Schoemaker, HC; de Boer, AG; Cohen, AF (1990). \"Influence of food on the bioavailability of metoprolol from an OROS system; a study in healthy volunteers\". European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 39 (3): 315–6. doi:10.1007/bf00315121. PMID 2257873. S2CID 1838636.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf00315121","url_text":"10.1007/bf00315121"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2257873","url_text":"2257873"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1838636","url_text":"1838636"}]},{"reference":"Bass, DM; Prevo, M; Waxman, DS (2002). \"Gastrointestinal safety of an extended-release, nondeformable, oral dosage form (OROS: a retrospective study\". Drug Safety. 25 (14): 1021–33. doi:10.2165/00002018-200225140-00004. PMID 12408733. 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S2CID 33413277.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2F1099-081x%28200001%2921%3A1%3C23%3A%3Aaid-bdd212%3E3.0.co%3B2-v","url_text":"10.1002/1099-081x(200001)21:1<23::aid-bdd212>3.0.co;2-v"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11038435","url_text":"11038435"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:33413277","url_text":"33413277"}]},{"reference":"Auiler, JF; Liu, K; Lynch, JM; Gelotte, CK (2002). \"Effect of food on early drug exposure from extended-release stimulants: results from the Concerta, Adderall XR Food Evaluation (CAFE) Study\". Current Medical Research and Opinion. 18 (5): 311–6. doi:10.1185/030079902125000840. PMID 12240794. 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PMID 30614086.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6375388","url_text":"\"Biologically Inspired, Cell-Selective Release of Aptamer-Trapped Growth Factors by Traction Forces\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019AdM....3106380S","url_text":"2019AdM....3106380S"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fadma.201806380","url_text":"10.1002/adma.201806380"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1521-4095","url_text":"1521-4095"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6375388","url_text":"6375388"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30614086","url_text":"30614086"}]},{"reference":"Maloney JM, Uhland S, Polito B, Sheppard NF Jr, Pelta C, Santini JT Jr (2005). \"Electrothermally activated microchips for implantable drug delivery and biosensing\" (PDF). Journal of Controlled Release. 109 (1–3): 244–255. doi:10.1016/j.jconrel.2005.09.035. PMID 16278032.","urls":[{"url":"http://john.maloney.org/Papers/Electrothermally_activated_microchips.pdf","url_text":"\"Electrothermally activated microchips for implantable drug delivery and biosensing\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jconrel.2005.09.035","url_text":"10.1016/j.jconrel.2005.09.035"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16278032","url_text":"16278032"}]},{"reference":"You JO, Almeda D, Ye GJ, Auguste DT (2010). \"Bioresponsive matrices in drug delivery\". J Biol Eng. 4: 15. doi:10.1186/1754-1611-4-15. PMC 3002303. PMID 21114841.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3002303","url_text":"\"Bioresponsive matrices in drug delivery\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1754-1611-4-15","url_text":"10.1186/1754-1611-4-15"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3002303","url_text":"3002303"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21114841","url_text":"21114841"}]},{"reference":"Ahnfelt, E.; Gernandt, J.; Al-Tikriti, Y.; Sjögren, E.; Lennernäs, H.; Hansson, P. (2018-12-28). \"Single bead investigation of a clinical drug delivery system – A novel release mechanism\". Journal of Controlled Release. 292: 235–247. doi:10.1016/j.jconrel.2018.11.011. ISSN 0168-3659. PMID 30419268.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jconrel.2018.11.011","url_text":"\"Single bead investigation of a clinical drug delivery system – A novel release mechanism\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jconrel.2018.11.011","url_text":"10.1016/j.jconrel.2018.11.011"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0168-3659","url_text":"0168-3659"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30419268","url_text":"30419268"}]},{"reference":"\"Equasym XL (methylphenidate)\". netdoctor.co.uk. 24 May 2013. Archived from the original on 8 December 2011. Retrieved 16 August 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20111208120921/http://www.netdoctor.co.uk/medicines/100004842.html","url_text":"\"Equasym XL (methylphenidate)\""},{"url":"http://www.netdoctor.co.uk/medicines/100004842.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Vranić, E; Uzunović, A (August 2009). \"Influence of splitting on dissolution properties of metoprolol tablets\". Bosnian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences. 9 (3): 245–9. doi:10.17305/bjbms.2009.2815. PMC 5632511. PMID 19754482.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5632511","url_text":"\"Influence of splitting on dissolution properties of metoprolol tablets\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.17305%2Fbjbms.2009.2815","url_text":"10.17305/bjbms.2009.2815"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5632511","url_text":"5632511"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19754482","url_text":"19754482"}]},{"reference":"Institute for Safe Medication Practices (ISMP) (20 November 2017), ISMP \"do not crush\" list: Oral dosage forms that should not be crushed (PDF)","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ismp.org/Tools/DoNotCrush.pdf","url_text":"ISMP \"do not crush\" list: Oral dosage forms that should not be crushed"}]}]
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bias_(mythology)
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Bias (mythology)
|
["1 See also","2 Notes","3 References"]
|
For other uses, see Bias (disambiguation).
Several characters in Greek mythology
In Greek mythology, Bias (/ˈbaɪ.əs/; Ancient Greek: Βίας; Latin: Biantes) may refer to the following characters:
Bias, a Megarian prince as a son of King Lelex and brother to Cleson and Pterelaus. He was killed by his nephew Pylas, also a Megarian king. After the murder, Pylas gave the kingdom to the deposed king of Athens, Pandion and later founded the city of Pylos in Peloponnesus.
Bias, son of Amythaon and brother of Melampus.
Bias, son of Melampus and Iphianira thus a nephew of the earlier Bias. But his name has been proposed to read "Abas", another son of Melampus.
Bias, one of the Epigoni and son of Parthenopaeus, one of the Seven Against Thebes.
Bias, a Trojan prince as one of the sons of King Priam of Troy by other women. He was the father of two Trojan warriors, Laogonus and Dardanus. In another account, Bias and his brothers, Dryops and Chorithan, were instead slain by Idomeneus.
Bias, an Athenian soldier who supported Menestheus against the attacks of Hector.
Bias, a Pylian soldier who fought under their leader Nestor during the Trojan War.
Bias, one of the Suitors of Penelope who came from Dulichium along with other 56 wooers. He, with the other suitors, was slain by Odysseus with the aid of Eumaeus, Philoetius, and Telemachus.
See also
Naming citation for Jovian asteroid 38050 Bias
Notes
Ancient Greece portalMyths portal
^ Pausanias, 1.39.6
^ Eustathius on Homer, p. 1473; Scholia on Apollonius Rhodius, 1.747
^ Apollodorus, 3.15.5
^ Apollodorus, 1.9.10–11 & 2.2.2
^ Diodorus Siculus, 4.68.5
^ Apollonius Rhodius, 1.142; Apollodorus, 1.9; Pausanias, 1.4e
^ Hyginus, Fabulae 71
^ Apollodorus, 3.12.5; Hyginus, Fabulae 90; Dictys Cretensis, 4.7
^ Homer, Iliad 20.460
^ Dictys Cretensis, 4.7
^ Homer, Iliad 13.691
^ Homer, Iliad 4.295
^ Apollodorus, E.7.26–27
^ Apollodorus, E.7.33
References
Apollodorus, The Library with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. ISBN 0-674-99135-4. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website.
Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica translated by Robert Cooper Seaton (1853-1915), R. C. Loeb Classical Library Volume 001. London, William Heinemann Ltd, 1912. Online version at the Topos Text Project.
Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica. George W. Mooney. London. Longmans, Green. 1912. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Diodorus Siculus, The Library of History translated by Charles Henry Oldfather. Twelve volumes. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1989. Vol. 3. Books 4.59–8. Online version at Bill Thayer's Web Site
Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica. Vol 1-2. Immanel Bekker. Ludwig Dindorf. Friedrich Vogel. in aedibus B. G. Teubneri. Leipzig. 1888–1890. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Gaius Julius Hyginus, Fabulae from The Myths of Hyginus translated and edited by Mary Grant. University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies. Online version at the Topos Text Project.
Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. ISBN 978-0674995796. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Homer, Homeri Opera in five volumes. Oxford, Oxford University Press. 1920. ISBN 978-0198145318. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Pausanias, Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. ISBN 0-674-99328-4. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library
Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio. 3 vols. Leipzig, Teubner. 1903. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
vteCharacters in the IliadAchaeans
Acamas
Achilles
Agamemnon (king of Mycenae)
Agapenor
Ajax the Greater (king of Salamis)
Ajax the Lesser
Alcimus
Anticlus
Antilochus
Arcesilaus
Ascalaphus
Automedon
Balius and Xanthus
Bias
Calchas (prophet)
Diomedes (king of Argos)
Elephenor
Epeius
Eudoros
Euryalus
Eurybates
Eurydamas
Eurypylus
Guneus
Helen (queen of Sparta)
Ialmenus
Idomeneus (king of Crete)
Iphigenia (princess of Mycenae)
Leitus
Leonteus
Lycomedes
Machaon
Medon
Meges
Menelaus (king of Sparta)
Menestheus
Meriones
Neoptolemus
Nestor (king of Pylos)
Nireus
Odysseus (king of Ithaca)
Palamedes
Patroclus
Peneleos
Philoctetes
Phoenix
Podalirius
Podarces
Polites
Polypoetes
Promachus
Protesilaus
Prothoenor
Schedius
Sinon
Stentor
Sthenelus
Talthybius
Teucer
Thersites
Thoas
Thrasymedes
Tlepolemus
Trojans
Aeneas (royal demigod)
Aesepus
Agenor
Alcathous
Amphimachus
Anchises
Andromache
Antenor (king's brother-in-law)
Antiphates
Antiphus
Archelochus
Asius
Asteropaios
Astyanax
Atymnius
Axylus
Briseis
Calesius
Caletor
Cassandra (princess of Troy)
Chryseis
Chryses (priest of Apollo)
Clytius
Coön
Dares Phrygius
Deiphobus (prince of Troy)
Dolon
Epistrophus
Euphemus
Euphorbus
Glaucus
Gorgythion
Hector (prince of Troy)
Hecuba (queen of Troy)
Helenus
Hyperenor
Hypsenor
Iamenus
Ilioneus
Imbrius
Iphidamas
Kebriones
Laocoön
Lycaon (prince of Troy)
Melanippus
Memnon (King of Ethiopia)
Mentes
Mydon
Mygdon of Phrygia
Othryoneus
Pandarus
Panthous
Paris (prince of Troy)
Pedasus
Peirous
Penthesilea (Queen of the Amazons)
Phorcys
Podes
Polites
Polydamas
Polybus
Polydorus (prince of Troy)
Polyxena (princess of Troy)
Priam (king of Troy)
Pylaemenes
Pylaeus
Pyraechmes
Rhesus of Thrace
Sarpedon (king of Lycia)
Scamandrius
Theano
Ucalegon
Gods
Aphrodite
Apollo
Ares
Artemis
Athena
Dionysus
Eris
Hades
Helios
Hephaestus
Hera
Hermes
Hypnos
Iris
Leto
Poseidon
Scamander
Thanatos
Thetis
Zeus
This article includes a list of Greek mythological figures with the same or similar names. If an internal link for a specific Greek mythology article referred you to this page, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended Greek mythology article, if one exists.
|
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After the murder, Pylas gave the kingdom to the deposed king of Athens, Pandion and later founded the city of Pylos in Peloponnesus.[3]\nBias, son of Amythaon and brother of Melampus.[4]\nBias, son of Melampus and Iphianira thus a nephew of the earlier Bias.[5] But his name has been proposed to read \"Abas\", another son of Melampus.[6]\nBias, one of the Epigoni and son of Parthenopaeus, one of the Seven Against Thebes.[7]\nBias, a Trojan prince as one of the sons of King Priam of Troy by other women.[8] He was the father of two Trojan warriors, Laogonus and Dardanus.[9] In another account, Bias and his brothers, Dryops and Chorithan, were instead slain by Idomeneus.[10]\nBias, an Athenian soldier who supported Menestheus against the attacks of Hector.[11]\nBias, a Pylian soldier who fought under their leader Nestor during the Trojan War.[12]\nBias, one of the Suitors of Penelope who came from Dulichium along with other 56 wooers.[13] He, with the other suitors, was slain by Odysseus with the aid of Eumaeus, Philoetius, and Telemachus.[14]","title":"Bias (mythology)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ancient Greece portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Greece"},{"link_name":"Myths portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Myths"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"Pausanias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"Eustathius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eustathius_of_Thessalonica"},{"link_name":"Homer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homer"},{"link_name":"Scholia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scholia"},{"link_name":"Apollonius Rhodius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollonius_of_Rhodes"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"Diodorus Siculus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus"},{"link_name":"4.68.5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/4D*.html#68.5"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"Hyginus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Hyginus"},{"link_name":"71","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//topostext.org/work/206#71"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"90","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//topostext.org/work/206#90"},{"link_name":"Dictys Cretensis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictys_Cretensis"},{"link_name":"4.7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//topostext.org/work/152#4.7"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"Iliad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iliad"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"4.7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//topostext.org/work/152#4.7"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-12"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-13"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-14"}],"text":"Ancient Greece portalMyths portal^ Pausanias, 1.39.6\n\n^ Eustathius on Homer, p. 1473; Scholia on Apollonius Rhodius, 1.747\n\n^ Apollodorus, 3.15.5\n\n^ Apollodorus, 1.9.10–11 & 2.2.2\n\n^ Diodorus Siculus, 4.68.5\n\n^ Apollonius Rhodius, 1.142; Apollodorus, 1.9; Pausanias, 1.4e\n\n^ Hyginus, Fabulae 71\n\n^ Apollodorus, 3.12.5; Hyginus, Fabulae 90; Dictys Cretensis, 4.7\n\n^ Homer, Iliad 20.460\n\n^ Dictys Cretensis, 4.7\n\n^ Homer, Iliad 13.691\n\n^ Homer, Iliad 4.295\n\n^ Apollodorus, E.7.26–27\n\n^ Apollodorus, E.7.33","title":"Notes"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"Naming citation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meanings_of_minor_planet_names:_38001%E2%80%9339000#050"},{"title":"38050 Bias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/38050_Bias"}]
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[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_steroid
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Sex hormone
|
["1 Production","2 Types","3 Synthetic sex steroids","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]
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Type of steroid hormone
Sex hormoneDrug classEstradiol, an important estrogen sex hormone in both women and menClass identifiersSynonymsSex steroid; Gonadal steroidUseVariousBiological targetSex hormone receptorsChemical classSteroidal; NonsteroidalLegal statusIn Wikidata
Sex hormones, also known as sex steroids, gonadocorticoids and gonadal steroids, are steroid hormones that interact with vertebrate steroid hormone receptors. The sex hormones include the androgens, estrogens, and progestogens. Their effects are mediated by slow genomic mechanisms through nuclear receptors as well as by fast nongenomic mechanisms through membrane-associated receptors and signaling cascades. The polypeptide hormones luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone and gonadotropin-releasing hormone – each associated with the gonadotropin axis – are usually not regarded as sex hormones, although they play major sex-related roles.
Production
Natural sex hormones are made by the gonads (ovaries or testicles), by adrenal glands, or by conversion from other sex steroids in other tissue such as liver or fat.
vte Production rates, secretion rates, clearance rates, and blood levels of major sex hormones
Sex
Sex hormone
Reproductivephase
Bloodproduction rate
Gonadalsecretion rate
Metabolicclearance rate
Reference range (serum levels)
SI units
Non-SI units
Men
Androstenedione
–
2.8 mg/day
1.6 mg/day
2200 L/day
2.8–7.3 nmol/L
80–210 ng/dL
Testosterone
–
6.5 mg/day
6.2 mg/day
950 L/day
6.9–34.7 nmol/L
200–1000 ng/dL
Estrone
–
150 μg/day
110 μg/day
2050 L/day
37–250 pmol/L
10–70 pg/mL
Estradiol
–
60 μg/day
50 μg/day
1600 L/day
<37–210 pmol/L
10–57 pg/mL
Estrone sulfate
–
80 μg/day
Insignificant
167 L/day
600–2500 pmol/L
200–900 pg/mL
Women
Androstenedione
–
3.2 mg/day
2.8 mg/day
2000 L/day
3.1–12.2 nmol/L
89–350 ng/dL
Testosterone
–
190 μg/day
60 μg/day
500 L/day
0.7–2.8 nmol/L
20–81 ng/dL
Estrone
Follicular phase
110 μg/day
80 μg/day
2200 L/day
110–400 pmol/L
30–110 pg/mL
Luteal phase
260 μg/day
150 μg/day
2200 L/day
310–660 pmol/L
80–180 pg/mL
Postmenopause
40 μg/day
Insignificant
1610 L/day
22–230 pmol/L
6–60 pg/mL
Estradiol
Follicular phase
90 μg/day
80 μg/day
1200 L/day
<37–360 pmol/L
10–98 pg/mL
Luteal phase
250 μg/day
240 μg/day
1200 L/day
699–1250 pmol/L
190–341 pg/mL
Postmenopause
6 μg/day
Insignificant
910 L/day
<37–140 pmol/L
10–38 pg/mL
Estrone sulfate
Follicular phase
100 μg/day
Insignificant
146 L/day
700–3600 pmol/L
250–1300 pg/mL
Luteal phase
180 μg/day
Insignificant
146 L/day
1100–7300 pmol/L
400–2600 pg/mL
Progesterone
Follicular phase
2 mg/day
1.7 mg/day
2100 L/day
0.3–3 nmol/L
0.1–0.9 ng/mL
Luteal phase
25 mg/day
24 mg/day
2100 L/day
19–45 nmol/L
6–14 ng/mL
Notes and sources
Notes: "The concentration of a steroid in the circulation is determined by the rate at which it is secreted from glands, the rate of metabolism of precursor or prehormones into the steroid, and the rate at which it is extracted by tissues and metabolized. The secretion rate of a steroid refers to the total secretion of the compound from a gland per unit time. Secretion rates have been assessed by sampling the venous effluent from a gland over time and subtracting out the arterial and peripheral venous hormone concentration. The metabolic clearance rate of a steroid is defined as the volume of blood that has been completely cleared of the hormone per unit time. The production rate of a steroid hormone refers to entry into the blood of the compound from all possible sources, including secretion from glands and conversion of prohormones into the steroid of interest. At steady state, the amount of hormone entering the blood from all sources will be equal to the rate at which it is being cleared (metabolic clearance rate) multiplied by blood concentration (production rate = metabolic clearance rate × concentration). If there is little contribution of prohormone metabolism to the circulating pool of steroid, then the production rate will approximate the secretion rate." Sources: See template.
Types
In many contexts, the two main classes of sex hormones are androgens and estrogens, of which the most important human derivatives are testosterone and estradiol, respectively. Other contexts will include progestogens as a third class of sex steroids, distinct from androgens and estrogens. Progesterone is the most important and only naturally occurring human progestogen. In general, androgens are considered "male sex hormones", since they have masculinizing effects, while estrogens and progestogens are considered "female sex hormones" although all types are present in each sex at different levels.
Sex hormones include:
Progestogens
Pregnenolone → Progesterone → Allopregnanedione → Allopregnanolone
17α-Hydroxypregnenolone → 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone
Androgens
Dehydroepiandrosterone → Androstenedione → Androstanedione → Androsterone
Androstenediol → Testosterone → Dihydrotestosterone → Androstanediol
Estrogens
2-Hydroxyestrone ← Estrone → 16α-Hydroxyestrone
2-Hydroxyestradiol ← Estradiol → Estriol → Estetrol
Synthetic sex steroids
There are also many synthetic sex steroids. Synthetic androgens are often referred to as anabolic steroids. Synthetic estrogens and progestins are used in methods of hormonal contraception. Ethinylestradiol is a semi-synthetic estrogen. Specific compounds that have partial agonist activity for steroid receptors, and therefore act in part like natural steroid hormones, are in use in medical conditions that require treatment with steroid in one cell type, but where systemic effects of the particular steroid in the entire organism are only desirable within certain limits.
See also
List of investigational sex-hormonal agents
Effects of hormones on sexual motivation
Sex hormone therapy
References
^ Guerriero, G (April 2009). "Vertebrate sex steroid receptors: evolution, ligands, and neurodistribution". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1163 (1): 154–68. Bibcode:2009NYASA1163..154G. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04460.x. PMID 19456336. S2CID 5790990.
^ Thakur, MK; Paramanik, V (2009). "Role of steroid hormone coregulators in health and disease". Hormone Research. 71 (4): 194–200. doi:10.1159/000201107 (inactive 2024-06-11). PMID 19258710.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of June 2024 (link)
^ Brook, CG (1999). "Mechanism of puberty". Hormone Research. 51 Suppl 3 (3): 52–4. doi:10.1159/000053162 (inactive 2024-06-11). PMID 10592444. S2CID 33671883.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of June 2024 (link)
^ Catherine Panter-Brick; Agustín Fuentes. "Glossary". Health, Risk, and Adversity - Volume 2 of Studies of the Biosocial Society. Berghahn Books, 2011. p. 280.
^ "An Overview Of Sex Hormones". News-Medical.net. 2022-06-24. Retrieved 2023-05-22.
^ ElAttar, TM; Hugoson, A (1974). "Comparative metabolism of female sex steroids in normal and chronically inflamed gingiva of the dog". Journal of Periodontal Research. 9 (5): 284–9. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0765.1974.tb00683.x. PMID 4281823.
^ "Effect of endogenous and synthetic sex steroids on the clearance of antibody-coated cells". journals.aai.org. Retrieved 2023-05-22.
^ Copland, JA; Sheffield-Moore, M; Koldzic-Zivanovic, N; Gentry, S; Lamprou, G; Tzortzatou-Stathopoulou, F; Zoumpourlis, V; Urban, RJ; Vlahopoulos, SA (June 2009). "Sex steroid receptors in skeletal differentiation and epithelial neoplasia: is tissue-specific intervention possible?". BioEssays. 31 (6): 629–41. doi:10.1002/bies.200800138. PMID 19382224. S2CID 205469320.
External links
Sex+Steroid+Hormones at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
vteEndogenous steroidsPrecursors
Cholesterol
22R-Hydroxycholesterol
20α,22R-Dihydroxycholesterol
Pregnenolone
11β-Hydroxypregnenolone
17α-Hydroxypregnenolone
21-Hydroxypregnenolone
17α,21-Dihydroxypregnenolone
11β,17α,21-Trihydroxypregnenolone
CorticosteroidsGlucocorticoids
3α,5α-Tetrahydrocorticosterone
5α-Dihydrocorticosterone
11-Deoxycorticosterone
11-Deoxycortisol
11-Ketoprogesterone
21-Deoxycortisol
21-Deoxycortisone
Corticosterone
Cortisol
Cortisone
17α-Hydroxypregnenolone
17α-Hydroxyprogesterone
Pregnenolone
Progesterone
Metabolites: 5α-Dihydrocortisol
3α,5α-Tetrahydrocortisol
Mineralocorticoids
5α-Dihydroaldosterone
11-Dehydrocorticosterone (11-oxocorticosterone, 17-deoxycortisone)
11-Deoxycortisol
11-Deoxycorticosterone
11β-Hydroxyprogesterone (21-deoxycorticosterone)
18-Hydroxy-11-deoxycorticosterone
18-Hydroxycorticosterone
18-Hydroxyprogesterone
Aldosterone
Corticosterone
Cortisol
Sex steroidsAndrogens
11-Ketodihydrotestosterone
11-Ketotestosterone
7β-Hydroxyepiandrosterone
11β-Hydroxyandrostenedione
Adrenosterone (11-ketoandrostenedione)
Androstenediol
Androstenedione
Androsterone
Dehydroandrosterone
DHEA
DHEA sulfate
Dihydrotestosterone
Epiandrosterone
Epitestosterone
16α-Hydroxyandrostenedione
16α-Hydroxy-DHEA
16α-Hydroxy-DHEA sulfate
Testosterone
Metabolites: 3α-Androstanediol
3α-Androstanediol glucuronide
3β-Androstanediol
5β-Dihydrotestosterone
3α-Etiocholanediol
3β-Etiocholanediol
Androstanetriols
Androstenediol sulfate
Androsterone glucuronide
Androsterone sulfate
Dihydrotestosterone glucuronide
Dihydrotestosterone sulfate
Etiocholanedione
Etiocholanolone
Etiocholanolone glucuronide
Epietiocholanolone
Testosterone glucuronide
Testosterone sulfate
Estrogens
Estranes: Estetrol
Estradiol
Estrone
Estriol
17α-Estradiol
16β-Epiestriol (16β-hydroxyestradiol)
17α-Epiestriol (16α-hydroxy-17α-estradiol)
16β,17α-Epiestriol (16β-hydroxy-17α-estradiol)
2-Hydroxyestradiol
2-Hydroxyestriol
2-Hydroxyestrone
4-Hydroxyestradiol
4-Hydroxyestriol
4-Hydroxyestrone
4-Methoxyestradiol
4-Methoxyestrone
16α-Hydroxyestrone
16β-Hydroxyestrone
16-Ketoestradiol
16-Ketoestrone
Others: 27-Hydroxycholesterol
3α-Androstanediol
3β-Androstanediol
4-Androstenedione
5-Androstenediol
DHEA
DHEA sulfate
7-Keto-DHEA
7α-Hydroxy-DHEA
16α-Hydroxy-DHEA
Metabolites: 2-Methoxyestradiol
2-Methoxyestrone
2-Methoxyestriol
4-Methoxyestriol
Estradiol disulfate
Estradiol glucuronide
Estradiol 3-glucuronide
Estradiol 3-glucuronide 17β-sulfate
Estradiol sulfate
Estradiol 17β-sulfate
Estrone glucuronide
Estrone sulfate
Estriol glucuronide
Estriol sulfate
Lipoidal estradiol (e.g., estradiol stearate, estradiol palmitate)
Progestogens
Progesterone
16α-Hydroxyprogesterone
17α-Hydroxyprogesterone
20α-Dihydroprogesterone
20β-Dihydroprogesterone
5α-Dihydroprogesterone
11-Deoxycorticosterone
5α-DHDOC
Metabolites: Allopregnanediol
Pregnanediol
Pregnanediol glucuronide
Pregnanetriol
Neurosteroids
Cholestanes: 24S-Hydroxycholesterol
Cholesterol
Pregnanes: 3α-Dihydroprogesterone
3β-Dihydroprogesterone
5α-Dihydrocorticosterone
5α-Dihydroprogesterone
5β-Dihydroprogesterone
Allopregnanolone
Corticosterone
DHC
DHDOC
11-Deoxycorticosterone
Epipregnanolone
Isopregnanolone
Pregnanolone
Pregnenolone
Pregnenolone sulfate
Progesterone
THB
THDOC
Androstanes: 3α-Androstanediol
3α-Androstenol
7-Keto-DHEA
7α-Hydroxy-DHEA
7β-Hydroxy-DHEA
7α-Hydroxyepiandrosterone
7β-Hydroxyepiandrosterone
Androsterone
DHEA
DHEA sulfate
Etiocholanolone
Pheromones: 3α-Androstenol
3β-Androstenol
Androstadienol
Androstadienone
Androstenone
Androsterone
Estratetraenol
Others
Vitamin D: 7-Dehydrocholesterol
Calcidiol/Calcifediol
Calcitriol
Cholecalciferol
Others: 7α-Hydroxycholesterol
11α-Hydroxyprogesterone
11β-Hydroxyprogesterone
Cholesterol sulfate
vteMajor chemical drug groups – based upon the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification Systemgastrointestinal tract/ metabolism (A)
stomach acid
Antacids
H2 antagonists
Proton-pump inhibitors
Antiemetics
Laxatives
Antidiarrhoeals / Antipropulsives
Anti-obesity drugs
Diabetes medication
Vitamins
Dietary minerals
blood and bloodforming organs (B)
Antithrombotics
Antiplatelets
Anticoagulants
Thrombolytics / fibrinolytics
Antihemorrhagics
Platelets
Coagulants
Antifibrinolytics
cardiovascularsystem (C)
cardiac therapy / antianginals
Cardiac glycosides
Antiarrhythmics
Cardiac stimulants
Antihypertensives
Diuretics
Vasodilators
Beta blockers
Calcium channel blockers
renin–angiotensin system
ACE inhibitors
Angiotensin II receptor antagonists
Renin inhibitors
Antihyperlipidemics
Statins
Fibrates
Bile acid sequestrants
skin (D)
Emollients
Cicatrizants
Antipruritics
Antipsoriatics
Medicated dressings
genitourinarysystem (G)
Hormonal contraception
Fertility agents
Selective estrogen receptor modulators
Sex hormones
endocrinesystem (H)
Hypothalamic–pituitary hormones
Corticosteroids
Glucocorticoids
Mineralocorticoids
Sex hormones
Thyroid hormones / Antithyroid agents
infections andinfestations (J, P, QI)
Antimicrobials: Antibacterials (Antimycobacterials)
Antifungals
Antivirals
Antiparasitics
Antiprotozoals
Anthelmintics
Ectoparasiticides
Intravenous immunoglobulin
Vaccines
malignant disease(L01–L02)
Anticancer agents
Antimetabolites
Alkylating
Spindle poisons
Antineoplastic
Topoisomerase inhibitors
immune disease(L03–L04)
Immunomodulators
Immunostimulants
Immunosuppressants
muscles, bones,and joints (M)
Anabolic steroids
Anti-inflammatories
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
Antirheumatics
Corticosteroids
Muscle relaxants
Bisphosphonates
brain andnervous system (N)
Analgesics
Anesthetics
General
Local
Anorectics
Anti-ADHD agents
Antiaddictives
Anticonvulsants
Antidementia agents
Antidepressants
Antimigraine agents
Antiparkinson agents
Antipsychotics
Anxiolytics
Aphrodisiacs
Depressants
Entactogens
Entheogens
Euphoriants
Hallucinogens
Psychedelics
Dissociatives
Deliriants
Hypnotics / Sedatives
Mood stabilizers
Neuroprotectives
Nootropics
Neurotoxins
Orexigenics
Serenics
Stimulants
Wakefulness-promoting agents
respiratorysystem (R)
Decongestants
Bronchodilators
Cough medicines
H1 antagonists
sensory organs (S)
Ophthalmologicals
Otologicals
other ATC (V)
Antidotes
Contrast media
Radiopharmaceuticals
Dressings
Senotherapeutics
Drugs
Pharmacological classification systems
ATC codes
Medicine portal
Sex steroidergics
vteAndrogen receptor modulatorsARTooltip Androgen receptorAgonists
Testosterone derivatives: 4-Androstenediol
4-Dehydroepiandrosterone (4-DHEA)
4-Hydroxytestosterone
4,17α-Dimethyltestosterone
5-Androstenedione
11-Ketotestosterone
11β-Hydroxyandrostenedione
Adrenosterone (11-ketoandrostenedione, 11-oxoandrostenedione)
Androstenediol (5-androstenediol)
Androstenediol 3β-acetate
Androstenediol 17β-acetate
Androstenediol diacetate
Androstenediol dipropionate
Androstenedione (4-androstenedione)
Atamestane
Boldenone
Boldenone undecylenate
Boldione (1,4-androstadienedione)
Clostebol
Clostebol acetate
Clostebol caproate
Clostebol propionate
Cloxotestosterone
Cloxotestosterone acetate
Dehydroandrosterone
DHEA (androstenolone, prasterone; 5-DHEA)
DHEA enanthate (prasterone enanthate)
DHEA sulfate
Exemestane
Formestane
Plomestane
Quinbolone
Silandrone
Testosterone# (+dutasteride)
Testosterone esters
Polytestosterone phloretin phosphate
5α-Dihydrotestosterone derivatives: 1-Androstenediol
1-Androstenedione
1-Androsterone (1-andro, 1-DHEA)
1-Testosterone
3α-Androstanediol
5α-Androst-2-en-17-one
7β-Hydroxyepiandrosterone
11-Ketodihydrotestosterone
Androsterone
Bolazine
Bolazine capronate
Dihydroethyltestosterone
Dihydrofluoxymesterone
Dihydromethylandrostenediol
Dihydrotestosterone (DHT) (androstanolone, stanolone)
Dihydrotestosterone esters
Drostanolone
Drostanolone propionate
Epiandrosterone
Epitiostanol
Mepitiostane
Mesabolone
Mesterolone
Mesterolone cipionate
Methyldiazinol
Nisterime
Nisterime acetate
Prostanozol
Stenbolone
Stenbolone acetate
Testifenon (testiphenon, testiphenone)
19-Nortestosterone derivatives: 7α-Methyl-19-norandrostenedione (MENT dione, trestione)
11β-Methyl-19-nortestosterone
11β-Methyl-19-nortestosterone dodecylcarbonate
19-Nor-5-androstenediol
19-Nor-5-androstenedione
19-Nordehydroepiandrosterone
Bolandiol
Bolandiol dipropionate
Bolandione (19-nor-4-androstenedione)
Bolmantalate (nandrolone adamantoate)
Dienedione
Dienolone
Dimethandrolone
Dimethandrolone buciclate
Dimethandrolone dodecylcarbonate
Dimethandrolone undecanoate
LS-1727 (nandrolone 17β-N-(2-chloroethyl)-N-nitrosocarbamate)
Methoxydienone (methoxygonadiene)
Nandrolone
Nandrolone esters
Norclostebol
Norclostebol acetate
Normethandrone (methylestrenolone, normethisterone)
Oxabolone
Oxabolone cipionate (oxabolone cypionate)
Trenbolone
Trenbolone acetate
Trenbolone enanthate
Trenbolone hexahydrobenzylcarbonate
Trenbolone undecanoate
Trendione
Trestolone (MENT)
Trestolone acetate
Trestolone enanthate
5α-Dihydro-19-nortestosterone derivatives: 5α-Dihydronandrolone
5α-Dihydrotrestolone
19-Norandrosterone
17α-Alkylated testosterone derivatives: Bolasterone
Calusterone
Chlorodehydromethylandrostenediol (CDMA)
Chlorodehydromethyltestosterone (CDMT)
Chloromethylandrostenediol (CMA)
Enestebol
Ethyltestosterone
Fluoxymesterone
Formebolone
Hydroxystenozole
Metandienone (methandrostenolone)
Methandriol (methylandrostenediol)
Methandriol bisenanthoyl acetate
Methandriol diacetate
Methandriol dipropionate
Methandriol propionate
Methylclostebol (chloromethyltestosterone)
Methyltestosterone (+esterified estrogens)
Methyltestosterone 3-hexyl ether
Oxymesterone
Penmesterol
Tiomesterone
17α-Alkylated 5α-dihydrotestosterone derivatives: Androisoxazole
Desoxymethyltestosterone
Furazabol
Mebolazine (dimethazine)
Mestanolone
Metenolone
Metenolone acetate
Metenolone enanthate
Methasterone
Methyl-1-testosterone
Methylepitiostanol
Methylstenbolone
Oxandrolone
Oxymetholone
Stanozolol
17α-Alkylated 19-nortestosterone derivatives: Bolenol
Dimethyldienolone
Dimethyltrienolone
Ethyldienolone
Ethylestrenol
Methyldienolone
Methylhydroxynandrolone (MOHN, MHN)
Metribolone
Mibolerone
Norboletone
Norethandrolone
Propetandrol
RU-2309
Tetrahydrogestrinone
17α-Alkylated 5α-dihydro-19-nortestosterone derivatives: 5α-Dihydronorethandrolone
5α-Dihydronormethandrone
17α-Vinyltestosterone derivatives: Norvinisterone (vinylnortestosterone)
17α-Vinyl-19-nortestosterone derivatives: Vinyltestosterone
17α-Ethynyltestosterone derivatives: Danazol
Ethinylandrostenediol
Ethandrostate
Ethisterone (ethynyltestosterone)
5α-Dihydro-17α-ethynyltestosterone derivatives: 17α-Ethynyl-3α-androstanediol
17α-Ethynyl-3β-androstanediol
Dihydroethisterone
17α-Ethynyl-19-nortestosterone derivatives: Δ4-Tibolone
Desogestrel
Etonogestrel
Etynodiol
Etynodiol diacetate
Gestodene
Gestrinone
Levonorgestrel
Levonorgestrel esters (e.g., levonorgestrel butanoate)
Lynestrenol
Lynestrenol phenylpropionate
Norethisterone
Norethisterone esters (e.g., norethisterone acetate, norethisterone enanthate)
Norgestrel
Norgestrienone
Quingestanol
Quingestanol acetate
Tibolone
5α-Dihydro-17α-ethynyl-19-nortestosterone derivatives: 5α-Dihydrolevonorgestrel
5α-Dihydronorethisterone
Progesterone derivatives: 6α-Methylprogesterone
Medroxyprogesterone acetate
Megestrol acetate
Others/unsorted: 3-Keto-5α-abiraterone
5α-Androstane
Alternariol
Cl-4AS-1
Drupanol
Trilostane
ZM-182345
SARMsTooltip Selective androgen receptor modulator
Nonsteroidal: 198RL26
ACP-105
AC-262,536
Acetothiolutamide
Acetoxolutamide
Andarine (acetamidoxolutamide, androxolutamide, GTx-007, S-4)
BMS-564,929
DTIB
Enobosarm (ostarine, MK-2866, GTx-024, S-22)
FTBU-1
GLPG-0492
GSK2881078
GSK-4336A
GSK-8698
LG121071 (LGD-121071)
LGD-2226
LGD-2941 (LGD-122941)
LGD-3303
LGD-4033
LY305
JNJ-26146900
JNJ-28330835
JNJ-37654032
OPK-88004 (LY-2452473, TT-701)
ORM-11984
PF-06260414
R-1
RU-59063
S-1
S-23
S-40503
S-101479
Vosilasarm
Steroidal: EM-9017
MK-0773
TFM-4AS-1
YK-11
Antagonists
Steroidal: 7α-Thioprogesterone
7α-Thiospironolactone
7α-Thiomethylspironolactone
11α-Hydroxyprogesterone
15β-Hydroxycyproterone acetate
Abiraterone
Abiraterone acetate
Allyltestosterone
Benorterone
BOMT
Canrenoic acid
Canrenone
Chlormadinone acetate
Clascoterone
Clometerone
Cyproheptadine
Cyproterone
Cyproterone acetate
Delanterone
Delmadinone acetate
Dicirenone
Dienogest
Drospirenone
DU-41165
Edogestrone
EM-4350
EM-5854
EM-5855
EM-6537
Epitestosterone
Galeterone
Guggulsterone
Ludaterone
Medrogestone
Megestrol acetate
Mespirenone
Metogest
Mexrenone
Mifepristone
Nomegestrol acetate
Nordinone
Osaterone
Osaterone acetate
Oxendolone
Potassium canrenoate
Promegestone
Prorenone
Rosterolone
RU-15328
SC-5233 (spirolactone)
Spironolactone
Spirorenone
Spiroxasone
Topterone
Trimegestone
Trimethyltrienolone (R-2956)
Zanoterone
Nonsteroidal: 5N-Bicalutamide
AA560
Antarlides
Arabilin
Apalutamide
Atraric acid
AZD-3514
Bakuchiol
Bavdegalutamide
BAY-1024767
Bicalutamide
Bisphenols (e.g., BADGE, BFDGE, bisphenol A, bisphenol F, bisphenol S)
BMS-501949
BMS-570511
BMS-641988
CH5137291
Cimetidine
Cioteronel
Cyanonilutamide
Darolutamide
DDT (via metabolite p,p’-DDE)
Dieldrin
DIMP
Endosulfan
Enzalutamide
EPI-001
Fenarimol
Flutamide
Hydroxyflutamide
Inocoterone
Inocoterone acetate
Ketoconazole
Ketodarolutamide
Lavender oil
LG-105
LG-120907
LGD-1331
Linuron
Masofaniten
Methiocarb
N-Butylbenzenesulfonamide
N-Desmethylapalutamide
N-Desmethylenzalutamide
Nilutamide
ONC1-13B
Pentomone
PF-998425
Phenothrin
Prochloraz
Procymidone
Proxalutamide
Pyrilutamide
Ralaniten (EPI-002)
Ralaniten acetate (EPI-506)
RD-162
Rezvilutamide
Ro 2-7239
Ro 5-2537
RU-22930
RU-56187
RU-57073
RU-58642
RU-58841
Seviteronel
Thalidomide
Topilutamide (fluridil)
Valproic acid
Vinclozolin
YM-580
YM-92088
YM-175735
GPRC6AAgonists
Cations (incl. aluminium, calcium, gadolinium, magnesium, strontium, zinc)
Dehydroandrosterone
Dihydrotestosterone
Estradiol
L-α-Amino acids (incl. L-arginine, L-lysine, L-ornithine)
Osteocalcin
SHBGTooltip Sex hormone-binding globulin
Testosterone
See also
Receptor/signaling modulators
Androgens and antiandrogens
Estrogen receptor modulators
Progesterone receptor modulators
List of androgens and anabolic steroids
vteEstrogen receptor modulatorsERTooltip Estrogen receptorAgonists
Steroidal: 2-Hydroxyestradiol
2-Hydroxyestrone
3-Methyl-19-methyleneandrosta-3,5-dien-17β-ol
3α-Androstanediol
3α,5α-Dihydrolevonorgestrel
3β,5α-Dihydrolevonorgestrel
3α-Hydroxytibolone
3β-Hydroxytibolone
3β-Androstanediol
4-Androstenediol
4-Androstenedione
4-Fluoroestradiol
4-Hydroxyestradiol
4-Hydroxyestrone
4-Methoxyestradiol
4-Methoxyestrone
5-Androstenediol
7-Oxo-DHEA
7α-Hydroxy-DHEA
7α-Methylestradiol
7β-Hydroxyepiandrosterone
8,9-Dehydroestradiol
8,9-Dehydroestrone
8β-VE2
10β,17β-Dihydroxyestra-1,4-dien-3-one (DHED)
11β-Chloromethylestradiol
11β-Methoxyestradiol
15α-Hydroxyestradiol
16-Ketoestradiol
16-Ketoestrone
16α-Fluoroestradiol
16α-Hydroxy-DHEA
16α-Hydroxyestrone
16α-Iodoestradiol
16α-LE2
16β-Hydroxyestrone
16β,17α-Epiestriol (16β-hydroxy-17α-estradiol)
17α-Estradiol (alfatradiol)
17α-Dihydroequilenin
17α-Dihydroequilin
17α-Epiestriol (16α-hydroxy-17α-estradiol)
17α-Ethynyl-3α-androstanediol
17α-Ethynyl-3β-androstanediol
17β-Dihydroequilenin
17β-Dihydroequilin
17β-Methyl-17α-dihydroequilenin
Abiraterone
Abiraterone acetate
Alestramustine
Almestrone
Anabolic steroids (e.g., testosterone and esters, methyltestosterone, metandienone (methandrostenolone), nandrolone and esters, many others; via estrogenic metabolites)
Atrimustine
Bolandiol
Bolandiol dipropionate
Butolame
Clomestrone
Cloxestradiol
Cloxestradiol acetate
Conjugated estriol
Conjugated estrogens
Cyclodiol
Cyclotriol
DHEA
DHEA-S
ent-Estradiol
Epiestriol (16β-epiestriol, 16β-hydroxy-17β-estradiol)
Epimestrol
Equilenin
Equilin
ERA-63 (ORG-37663)
Esterified estrogens
Estetrol
Estradiol
Estradiol esters
Lipoidal estradiol
Polyestradiol phosphate
Estramustine
Estramustine phosphate
Estrapronicate
Estrazinol
Estriol
Estriol esters
Polyestriol phosphate
Estrofurate
Estrogenic substances
Estromustine
Estrone
Estrone esters
Estrone methyl ether
Estropipate
Etamestrol (eptamestrol)
Ethinylandrostenediol
Ethandrostate
Ethinylestradiol
Ethinylestradiol 3-benzoate
Ethinylestradiol sulfonate
Ethinylestriol
Ethylestradiol
Etynodiol
Etynodiol diacetate
Hexolame
Hippulin
Hydroxyestrone diacetate
Lynestrenol
Lynestrenol phenylpropionate
Mestranol
Methylestradiol
Moxestrol
Mytatrienediol
Nilestriol
Norethisterone
Noretynodrel
Orestrate
Pentolame
Prodiame
Prolame
Promestriene
RU-16117
Quinestradol
Quinestrol
Tibolone
Nonsteroidal: (R,R)-THC
(S,S)-THC
2,8-DHHHC
β-LGND1
β-LGND2 (GTx-878)
AC-186
Allenestrol
Allenolic acid
Benzestrol
Bifluranol
Bisdehydrodoisynolic acid
Butestrol
Carbestrol
D-15414
DCW234
Diarylpropionitrile
Dienestrol
Dienestrol diacetate
Diethylstilbestrol
Diethylstilbestrol esters
Dimestrol (dianisylhexene)
Dimethylstilbestrol
Doisynoestrol (fenocycline)
Doisynolic acid
Efavirenz
Elacestrant
ERB-196 (WAY-202196)
Erteberel (SERBA-1, LY-500307)
Estrobin (DBE)
Fenestrel
FERb 033
Fosfestrol (diethylstilbestrol diphosphate)
Furostilbestrol (diethylstilbestrol difuroate)
GTx-758
Hexestrol
Hexestrol esters
ICI-85966 (Stilbostat)
M2613
meso-Butestrol
meso-Hexestrol
Mestilbol
Methallenestril
Methestrol
Methestrol dipropionate
Paroxypropione
Pentafluranol
Phenestrol
Prinaberel (ERB-041, WAY-202041)
Propylpyrazoletriol
Quadrosilan
SC-3296
SC-4289
SERBA-2
SKF-82,958
Terfluranol
Triphenylbromoethylene
Triphenylchloroethylene
Triphenyliodoethylene
Triphenylmethylethylene (triphenylpropene)
WAY-166818
WAY-169916
WAY-200070
WAY-204688 (SIM-688)
WAY-214156
Unknown/unsorted: ERB-26
ERA-45
ERB-79
ZK-283197
Xenoestrogens: Anise-related (e.g., anethole, anol, dianethole, dianol, photoanethole)
Chalconoids (e.g., isoliquiritigenin, phloretin, phlorizin (phloridzin), wedelolactone)
Coumestans (e.g., coumestrol, psoralidin)
Flavonoids (incl. 7,8-DHF, 8-prenylnaringenin, apigenin, baicalein, baicalin, biochanin A, calycosin, catechin, daidzein, daidzin, ECG, EGCG, epicatechin, equol, formononetin, glabrene, glabridin, genistein, genistin, glycitein, kaempferol, liquiritigenin, mirificin, myricetin, naringenin, penduletin, pinocembrin, prunetin, puerarin, quercetin, tectoridin, tectorigenin)
Lavender oil
Lignans (e.g., enterodiol, enterolactone, nyasol (cis-hinokiresinol))
Metalloestrogens (e.g., cadmium)
Pesticides (e.g., alternariol, dieldrin, endosulfan, fenarimol, HPTE, methiocarb, methoxychlor, triclocarban, triclosan)
Phytosteroids (e.g., digitoxin (digitalis), diosgenin, guggulsterone)
Phytosterols (e.g., β-sitosterol, campesterol, stigmasterol)
Resorcylic acid lactones (e.g., zearalanone, α-zearalenol, β-zearalenol, zearalenone, zeranol (α-zearalanol), taleranol (teranol, β-zearalanol))
Steroid-like (e.g., deoxymiroestrol, miroestrol)
Stilbenoids (e.g., resveratrol, rhaponticin)
Synthetic xenoestrogens (e.g., alkylphenols, bisphenols (e.g., BPA, BPF, BPS), DDT, parabens, PBBs, PHBA, phthalates, PCBs)
Others (e.g., agnuside, rotundifuran)
Mixed(SERMsTooltip Selective estrogen receptor modulators)
2-Phenylbenzofuran
2-Phenylbenzothiophene
4'-Hydroxynorendoxifen
27-Hydroxycholesterol
Acefluranol
Acolbifene
Afimoxifene
Anordiol
Anordrin
Arzoxifene
Bazedoxifene
Brilanestrant
Broparestrol
Camizestrant
Chlorotrianisene
Clomifene
Clomifenoxide
CN-55945-27
Cyclofenil
D-15413
Desmethylchlorotrianisene
Droloxifene
Enclomifene
Endoxifen
Etacstil (GW-5638, DPC-974)
Ethamoxytriphetol (MER-25)
Femarelle
Fispemifene
GW-7604
ICI-55548
Idoxifene
Lasofoxifene
Levormeloxifene
LN-1643
LN-2299
LY-117018
Menerba
Miproxifene
Miproxifene phosphate
MRL-37
Nafoxidine
Nitromifene
NNC 45-0095
NNC 45-0320
NNC 45-0781
NNC 45-1506
Ormeloxifene
Ospemifene
Panomifene
Pipendoxifene
Promensil
Raloxifene
Rimostil (P-081)
Spironolactone
SS1010
Tamoxifen
TAS-108 (SR-16234)
Toremifene
Trioxifene
TZE-5323
U-11555A
U-11634
Y-134
Zindoxifene
Zuclomifene
Antagonists
(R,R)-THC
7β-Hydroxy-DHEA
Chloroindazole
Cytestrol acetate
EM-800 (SCH-57050)
Epitiostanol
ERA-90
ERB-88
Fulvestrant (ICI-182780)
Glyceollins (I, II, III, IV)
ICI-164384
MDL-101906
Mepitiostane
Methylepitiostanol
Methylpiperidinopyrazole
MIBE
Oxabicycloheptene sulfonate
Phenytoin
PHTPP
Prochloraz
RU-39411
RU-58668
SS1020
TAS-108 (SR-16234)
ZB716
ZK-164015
ZK-191703
Coregulator-binding modulators: ERX-11
Noncompetitive inhibitors: Trilostane
GPERTooltip G protein-coupled estrogen receptorAgonists
2-Methoxyestradiol
7β-Hydroxyepiandrosterone
Afimoxifene (4-hydroxytamoxifen)
Aldosterone
Atrazine
Bisphenol A
Daidzein
DDT (p,p'-DDT, o',p'-DDE)
Diarylpropionitrile
Equol
Estradiol
Ethinylestradiol
Fulvestrant (ICI-182780)
G-1
Genistein
GPER-L1
GPER-L2
Hydroxytyrosol
Kepone
Niacin
Niacinamide
Nonylphenol
Oleuropein
PCBs (2,2',5'-PCB-4-OH)
Propylpyrazoletriol
Quercetin
Raloxifene
Resveratrol
STX
Tamoxifen
Tectoridin
Antagonists
CCL18
Estriol
G-15
G-36
MIBE
Unknown
Diethylstilbestrol
Zearalenone
See also
Receptor/signaling modulators
Estrogens and antiestrogens
Androgen receptor modulators
Progesterone receptor modulators
List of estrogens
vteProgesterone receptor modulatorsPRTooltip Progesterone receptorAgonists
Progesterone derivatives: 3β-Dihydroprogesterone
5α-Dihydroprogesterone
6α-Methylprogesterone
9α-Bromo-11-ketoprogesterone
11-Dehydroprogesterone
11-Deoxycorticosterone
16α-Hydroxyprogesterone
17α-Methyl-11-deoxycorticosterone acetate
20α-Dihydroprogesterone
20β-Dihydroprogesterone
Dimepregnen
Diosgenin
P1-185
Progesterone
Progesterone 3-acetyl enol ether
Quingestrone
Retroprogesterone derivatives: 20α-Dihydrodydrogesterone
20α-Dihydrotrengestone
DU-41164
DU-41165
Dydrogesterone
Retroprogesterone
Ro 6-3129
Trengestone
17α-Substituted progesterone derivatives: 6α-Methyl-17α-bromoprogesterone
15β-Hydroxycyproterone acetate
16-Methylene-17α-hydroxyprogesterone acetate
17α-Bromoprogesterone
17α-Hydroxyprogesterone (hydroxyprogesterone)
17α-Methylprogesterone
Acetomepregenol (mepregenol diacetate)
Algestone
Algestone acetonide
Algestone acetophenide
Anagestone
Anagestone acetate
Bromethenmadinone
Bromethenmadinone acetate
Butagest (buterol)
Chlormadinone
Chlormadinone acetate
Chlormadinone caproate
Chlormethenmadinone
Chlormethenmadinone acetate
Cismadinone
Cismadinone acetate
Clogestone
Clogestone acetate
Clomegestone
Clomegestone acetate
Cymegesolate
Cyproterone acetate
Delmadinone
Delmadinone acetate
Edogestrone
Flugestone
Flugestone acetate
Fluorometholone
Fluorometholone acetate
Flumedroxone
Flumedroxone acetate
Fluoromedroxyprogesterone acetate
Gestaclone
Gestobutanoyl
Haloprogesterone
Hydromadinone
Hydromadinone acetate
Hydroxyprogesterone acetate
Hydroxyprogesterone caproate (hydroxyprogesterone hexanoate)
Hydroxyprogesterone heptanoate (hydroxyprogesterone enanthate)
Hydroxyprogesterone heptanoate benzilic acid hydrazone
Mecigestone (pentarane B)
Medrogestone
Medroxyprogesterone
Medroxyprogesterone acetate
Medroxyprogesterone caproate
Megestrol
Megestrol acetate
Megestrol caproate
Melengestrol
Melengestrol acetate
Methenmadinone
Methenmadinone acetate
Methenmadinone caproate
Mometasone
Mometasone furoate
Osaterone
Osaterone acetate
Pentagestrone
Pentagestrone acetate
Pentarane A
Proligestone
Triamcinolone acetonide
19-Norprogesterone derivatives: 17α-Methyl-19-norprogesterone
18-Methylsegesterone acetate
19-Norprogesterone
Amadinone
Amadinone acetate
Demegestone
Fluoro ethyl norprogesterone
Fluoro furanyl norprogesterone
Gestadienol
Gestadienol acetate
Gestonorone acetate (gestronol acetate)
Gestonorone caproate (gestronol hexanoate)
Gestronol (gestonorone)
Nomegestrol
Nomegestrol acetate
Norgestomet
ORG-2058
Oxogestone
Oxogestone phenpropionate (xinogestone)
Promegestone
Segesterone
Segesterone acetate (nestorone)
Trimegestone
Testosterone derivatives: Progestins: 6,6-Difluoronorethisterone
6,6-Difluoronorethisterone acetate
17α-Allyl-19-nortestosterone
Allylestrenol
Altrenogest
Chloroethynylnorgestrel
Cingestol
Danazol
Desogestrel
Dienogest
Ethinylandrostenediol
Ethandrostate
Ethisterone
Ethynerone
Etonogestrel
Etynodiol
Etynodiol diacetate
Gestodene
Gestrinone
Levonorgestrel
Levonorgestrel esters (e.g., levonorgestrel butanoate)
Lynestrenol
Lynestrenol phenylpropionate
Metynodiol
Metynodiol diacetate
Norelgestromin
Norethisterone (norethindrone)
Norethisterone esters (e.g., norethisterone acetate, norethisterone enanthate)
Noretynodrel
Norgesterone
Norgestimate
Norgestrel
Norgestrienone
Norvinisterone
Oxendolone
Quingestanol
Quingestanol acetate
Tibolone
Tigestol
Tosagestin; Anabolic–androgenic steroids: 11β-Methyl-19-nortestosterone
11β-Methyl-19-nortestosterone dodecylcarbonate
19-Nor-5-androstenediol
19-Nor-5-androstenedione
19-Nordehydroepiandrosterone
Bolandiol
Bolandiol dipropionate
Bolandione
Dimethisterone
Dienedione
Dienolone
Dimethandrolone
Dimethandrolone buciclate
Dimethandrolone dodecylcarbonate
Dimethandrolone undecanoate
Dimethyldienolone
Dimethyltrienolone
Ethyldienolone
Ethylestrenol (ethylnandrol)
Methyldienolone
Metribolone (R-1881)
Methoxydienone (methoxygonadiene)
Mibolerone
Nandrolone
Nandrolone esters (e.g., nandrolone decanoate, nandrolone phenylpropionate)
Norethandrolone
Normethandrone (methylestrenolone, normethandrolone, normethisterone)
RU-2309
Tetrahydrogestrinone
Trenbolone (trienolone)
Trenbolone esters (e.g., trenbolone acetate, trenbolone enanthate)
Trendione
Trestolone
Trestolone acetate
Spirolactone derivatives: Canrenoic acid
Canrenone
Drospirenone
Mespirenone
Potassium canrenoate
Prorenone
SC-5233 (spirolactone)
SC-8109
Spironolactone
Spirorenone
Nonsteroidal: 3,8-Dihydrodiligustilide
LG-2527
LG-100128
Riligustilide
RWJ-26819
RWJ-49853
RWJ-60130
Tanaproget
ZM-182345
Unknown: ORG-47241
ORG-201745
Mixed(SPRMsTooltip Selective progesterone receptor modulators)
Steroidal: Dihydroethisterone
5α-Dihydrolevonorgestrel
5α-Dihydronorethisterone
Asoprisnil
Asoprisnil ecamate
Guggulsterone
J1042
LG-120838
Metapristone (RU-42633)
Mifepristone (RU-486)
ORF-9371
ORF-9326
ORG-31710
ORG-33628
RMI-12936
Telapristone
Ulipristal acetate
Vilaprisan
ZK-137316
Nonsteroidal: Apigenin
Kaempferol
LG-120920
Naringenin
PRA-910
Syringic acid
Antagonists
Steroidal: Aglepristone
Lilopristone
Lonaprisan
Onapristone
ORG-31710
ORG-31806
ORG-33628
RTI 3021–022
Toripristone
Zanoterone
Nonsteroidal: Darolutamide
LG-001447
LG-100127
LG-100128
LG-120830
LG-121046
Valproic acid
ZM-150271
ZM-172406
mPRTooltip Membrane progesterone receptor(PAQRTooltip Progestin and adipoQ receptor)Agonists
5α-Dihydroprogesterone
5β-Dihydroprogesterone
11-Deoxycortisone (21-hydroxyprogesterone)
11-Deoxycortisol (17α,21-dihydroxyprogesterone)
17α-Hydroxyprogesterone
Allopregnanolone
Mifepristone
Pregnenolone
Progesterone
Antagonists
Mifepristone
See also
Receptor/signaling modulators
Progestogens and antiprogestogens
Androgen receptor modulators
Estrogen receptor modulators
List of progestogens
Authority control databases: National
Germany
United States
Japan
Czech Republic
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"steroid hormones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steroid_hormone"},{"link_name":"vertebrate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebrate"},{"link_name":"steroid hormone receptors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steroid_hormone_receptor"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid19456336-1"},{"link_name":"androgens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgen"},{"link_name":"estrogens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estrogen"},{"link_name":"progestogens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progestogen"},{"link_name":"nuclear receptors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_receptor"},{"link_name":"signaling cascades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signaling_cascade"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid19258710-2"},{"link_name":"polypeptide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polypeptide"},{"link_name":"luteinizing hormone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luteinizing_hormone"},{"link_name":"follicle-stimulating hormone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Follicle-stimulating_hormone"},{"link_name":"gonadotropin-releasing hormone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonadotropin-releasing_hormone"},{"link_name":"gonadotropin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonadotropin"}],"text":"Sex hormones, also known as sex steroids, gonadocorticoids and gonadal steroids, are steroid hormones that interact with vertebrate steroid hormone receptors.[1] The sex hormones include the androgens, estrogens, and progestogens. Their effects are mediated by slow genomic mechanisms through nuclear receptors as well as by fast nongenomic mechanisms through membrane-associated receptors and signaling cascades.[2] The polypeptide hormones luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone and gonadotropin-releasing hormone – each associated with the gonadotropin axis – are usually not regarded as sex hormones, although they play major sex-related roles.","title":"Sex hormone"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"gonads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonad"},{"link_name":"ovaries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovary"},{"link_name":"testicles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testicle"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid10592444-3"},{"link_name":"adrenal glands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenal_gland"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Steroidogenesis.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biosinthesis_of_steroid_hormones_(simplified_version).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biosinthesis_of_steroid_hormones_(extended_version).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B7_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B7_%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B7_%D1%8D%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2.jpg"}],"text":"Natural sex hormones are made by the gonads (ovaries or testicles),[3] by adrenal glands, or by conversion from other sex steroids in other tissue such as liver or fat.[4]","title":"Production"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"testosterone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testosterone"},{"link_name":"estradiol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estradiol"},{"link_name":"progestogens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progestogen"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Progesterone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progesterone"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid4281823-6"},{"link_name":"Progestogens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progestogen"},{"link_name":"Pregnenolone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pregnenolone"},{"link_name":"Progesterone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progesterone"},{"link_name":"Allopregnanedione","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allopregnanedione"},{"link_name":"Allopregnanolone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allopregnanolone"},{"link_name":"17α-Hydroxypregnenolone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/17%CE%B1-Hydroxypregnenolone"},{"link_name":"17α-Hydroxyprogesterone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/17%CE%B1-Hydroxyprogesterone"},{"link_name":"Androgens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgen"},{"link_name":"Dehydroepiandrosterone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dehydroepiandrosterone"},{"link_name":"Androstenedione","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androstenedione"},{"link_name":"Androstanedione","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androstanedione"},{"link_name":"Androsterone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androsterone"},{"link_name":"Androstenediol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androstenediol"},{"link_name":"Testosterone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testosterone"},{"link_name":"Dihydrotestosterone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dihydrotestosterone"},{"link_name":"Androstanediol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androstanediol"},{"link_name":"Estrogens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estrogen"},{"link_name":"2-Hydroxyestrone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2-Hydroxyestrone"},{"link_name":"Estrone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estrone"},{"link_name":"16α-Hydroxyestrone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/16%CE%B1-Hydroxyestrone"},{"link_name":"2-Hydroxyestradiol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2-Hydroxyestradiol"},{"link_name":"Estradiol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estradiol"},{"link_name":"Estriol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estriol"},{"link_name":"Estetrol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estetrol"}],"text":"In many contexts, the two main classes of sex hormones are androgens and estrogens, of which the most important human derivatives are testosterone and estradiol, respectively. Other contexts will include progestogens as a third class of sex steroids, distinct from androgens and estrogens.[5] Progesterone is the most important and only naturally occurring human progestogen. In general, androgens are considered \"male sex hormones\", since they have masculinizing effects, while estrogens and progestogens are considered \"female sex hormones\"[6] although all types are present in each sex at different levels.Sex hormones include:Progestogens\nPregnenolone → Progesterone → Allopregnanedione → Allopregnanolone\n17α-Hydroxypregnenolone → 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone\nAndrogens\nDehydroepiandrosterone → Androstenedione → Androstanedione → Androsterone\nAndrostenediol → Testosterone → Dihydrotestosterone → Androstanediol\nEstrogens\n2-Hydroxyestrone ← Estrone → 16α-Hydroxyestrone\n2-Hydroxyestradiol ← Estradiol → Estriol → Estetrol","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"anabolic steroids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anabolic_steroid"},{"link_name":"hormonal contraception","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hormonal_contraception"},{"link_name":"Ethinylestradiol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethinylestradiol"},{"link_name":"steroid receptors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steroid_receptors"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid19382224-8"}],"text":"There are also many synthetic sex steroids.[7] Synthetic androgens are often referred to as anabolic steroids. Synthetic estrogens and progestins are used in methods of hormonal contraception. Ethinylestradiol is a semi-synthetic estrogen. Specific compounds that have partial agonist activity for steroid receptors, and therefore act in part like natural steroid hormones, are in use in medical conditions that require treatment with steroid in one cell type, but where systemic effects of the particular steroid in the entire organism are only desirable within certain limits.[8]","title":"Synthetic sex steroids"}]
|
[]
|
[{"title":"List of investigational sex-hormonal agents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_investigational_sex-hormonal_agents"},{"title":"Effects of hormones on sexual motivation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_hormones_on_sexual_motivation"},{"title":"Sex hormone therapy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_hormone_therapy"}]
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[{"reference":"Guerriero, G (April 2009). \"Vertebrate sex steroid receptors: evolution, ligands, and neurodistribution\". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1163 (1): 154–68. Bibcode:2009NYASA1163..154G. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04460.x. PMID 19456336. S2CID 5790990.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009NYASA1163..154G","url_text":"2009NYASA1163..154G"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1749-6632.2009.04460.x","url_text":"10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04460.x"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19456336","url_text":"19456336"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5790990","url_text":"5790990"}]},{"reference":"Thakur, MK; Paramanik, V (2009). \"Role of steroid hormone coregulators in health and disease\". Hormone Research. 71 (4): 194–200. doi:10.1159/000201107 (inactive 2024-06-11). PMID 19258710.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.karger.com/Article/Pdf/201107","url_text":"\"Role of steroid hormone coregulators in health and disease\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1159%2F000201107","url_text":"10.1159/000201107"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19258710","url_text":"19258710"}]},{"reference":"Brook, CG (1999). \"Mechanism of puberty\". Hormone Research. 51 Suppl 3 (3): 52–4. doi:10.1159/000053162 (inactive 2024-06-11). PMID 10592444. S2CID 33671883.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1159%2F000053162","url_text":"10.1159/000053162"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10592444","url_text":"10592444"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:33671883","url_text":"33671883"}]},{"reference":"Catherine Panter-Brick; Agustín Fuentes. \"Glossary\". Health, Risk, and Adversity - Volume 2 of Studies of the Biosocial Society. Berghahn Books, 2011. p. 280.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"An Overview Of Sex Hormones\". News-Medical.net. 2022-06-24. Retrieved 2023-05-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.news-medical.net/health/An-Overview-Of-Sex-Hormones.aspx","url_text":"\"An Overview Of Sex Hormones\""}]},{"reference":"ElAttar, TM; Hugoson, A (1974). \"Comparative metabolism of female sex steroids in normal and chronically inflamed gingiva of the dog\". Journal of Periodontal Research. 9 (5): 284–9. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0765.1974.tb00683.x. PMID 4281823.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1600-0765.1974.tb00683.x","url_text":"10.1111/j.1600-0765.1974.tb00683.x"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4281823","url_text":"4281823"}]},{"reference":"\"Effect of endogenous and synthetic sex steroids on the clearance of antibody-coated cells\". journals.aai.org. Retrieved 2023-05-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://journals.aai.org/jimmunol/article-abstract/141/9/2959/21053/Effect-of-endogenous-and-synthetic-sex-steroids-on","url_text":"\"Effect of endogenous and synthetic sex steroids on the clearance of antibody-coated cells\""}]},{"reference":"Copland, JA; Sheffield-Moore, M; Koldzic-Zivanovic, N; Gentry, S; Lamprou, G; Tzortzatou-Stathopoulou, F; Zoumpourlis, V; Urban, RJ; Vlahopoulos, SA (June 2009). \"Sex steroid receptors in skeletal differentiation and epithelial neoplasia: is tissue-specific intervention possible?\". BioEssays. 31 (6): 629–41. doi:10.1002/bies.200800138. PMID 19382224. S2CID 205469320.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fbies.200800138","url_text":"10.1002/bies.200800138"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19382224","url_text":"19382224"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:205469320","url_text":"205469320"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regenerative_amplification
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Regenerative amplification
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["1 Operating principle","1.1 Radio frequency operation","2 See also","3 References","4 External links"]
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Not to be confused with regenerative circuit.
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In laser science, regenerative amplification is a process used to generate short but strong pulses of laser light. It is based on a pulse trapped in a laser resonator, which stays in there until it extracts all of the energy stored in the amplification medium. Pulse trapping and dumping is done using a polarizer and a Pockels cell, which acts like a quarter wave-plate.
Operating principle
When a pulse with vertical polarization is reflected off the polarizer, after a double pass through the Pockels cell it will become horizontally polarized and will be transmitted by the polarizer. After a double pass through the amplification medium, having the same horizontal polarization, the pulse will be transmitted by the polarizer. If a voltage is applied to the Pockels cell, a double pass through it will change the polarization of the pulse to vertical, so the pulse will be reflected off the polarizer and will exit the cavity. If no voltage is applied, then a double pass through the Pockels cell will not change the polarization and the pulse will get trapped inside the cavity of the resonator. The pulse can stay in the cavity until it reaches saturation or until it extracts most of the energy stored in the gain medium. When the pulse will achieve a high amplification, a second voltage can be applied to the Pockels cell in order to release the pulse from the resonator.
Radio frequency operation
Regenerative amplifier can also operate at Radio Frequency, using the feedback between the transistor's source and gate to transform a capacitive impedance on the transistor's source to a negative resistance on its gate. Compared to voltage-gated amplifiers, this "negative resistance amplifier" will only require a tiny amount of power to achieve high gain.
See also
Chirped pulse amplification
Gain-switching
Modelocking
Optical amplifier
Q-switching
Raman amplification
References
^ Qian, C; Duan, Q; Dodd, S; Koretsky, A; Murphy-Boesch, J (2016). "Sensitivity Enhancement of an Inductively Coupled Local Detector Using a HEMT-based Current Amplifier". Magnetic Resonance in Medicine. 75 (6): 2573–2578. doi:10.1002/mrm.25850. PMC 4720591. PMID 26192998.
External links
RP Photonics encyclopedia article
vteLasers
List of laser articles
List of laser types
List of laser applications
Laser acronyms
Types of lasers
Chemical laser
Dye laser
Bubble
Liquid-crystal
Gas laser
Carbon dioxide
Excimer
Helium–neon
Ion
Nitrogen
Free-electron laser
Laser diode
Solid-state laser
Er:YAG
Nd:YAG
Raman
Ruby
Ti-sapphire
X-ray laser
Laser physics
Active laser medium
Amplified spontaneous emission
Continuous wave
Laser ablation
Laser linewidth
Lasing threshold
Population inversion
Ultrashort pulse
Laser optics
Beam expander
Beam homogenizer
Chirped pulse amplification
Gain-switching
Gaussian beam
Injection seeder
Laser beam profiler
M squared
Mode locking
Multiple-prism grating laser oscillator
Optical amplifier
Optical cavity
Optical isolator
Output coupler
Q-switching
Category
This optics-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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[]
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[{"title":"Chirped pulse amplification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chirped_pulse_amplification"},{"title":"Gain-switching","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gain-switching"},{"title":"Modelocking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modelocking"},{"title":"Optical amplifier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_amplifier"},{"title":"Q-switching","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q-switching"},{"title":"Raman amplification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raman_amplification"}]
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[{"reference":"Qian, C; Duan, Q; Dodd, S; Koretsky, A; Murphy-Boesch, J (2016). \"Sensitivity Enhancement of an Inductively Coupled Local Detector Using a HEMT-based Current Amplifier\". Magnetic Resonance in Medicine. 75 (6): 2573–2578. doi:10.1002/mrm.25850. PMC 4720591. PMID 26192998.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4720591","url_text":"\"Sensitivity Enhancement of an Inductively Coupled Local Detector Using a HEMT-based Current Amplifier\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fmrm.25850","url_text":"10.1002/mrm.25850"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4720591","url_text":"4720591"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26192998","url_text":"26192998"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarmatians
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Sarmatians
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["1 Etymology","2 Location","3 History","3.1 Origin","3.2 In the Pontic Steppe and Europe","3.3 Decline","4 Archaeology","5 Ethnology","6 Culture","6.1 Language","6.2 Equipment","6.3 Metalwork","7 Genetics","7.1 Autosomal DNA","7.2 Haplogroups","8 Physical appearance","9 Sarmatism","10 Tribes","11 See also","12 References","13 Sources","14 External links"]
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Large Iranian confederation that existed in classical antiquity
For other uses, see Sarmatia (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with Samaritans.
SarmatiansGeographical rangeSouthern Ural, Northern Caucasus, Black SeaPeriodIron AgeDates3rd century BC – 4th century ADPreceded bySauromatiansFollowed byHunnic Empire
Sarmatian cataphracts in Trajan's column, 2nd century CE.
The Sarmatians (/sɑːrˈmeɪʃiənz/; Ancient Greek: Σαρμάται, romanized: Sarmatai; Latin: Sarmatae ) were a large confederation of ancient Iranian equestrian nomadic peoples who dominated the Pontic steppe from about the 3rd century BC to the 4th century AD.
The earliest reference to the Sarmatians is in the Avesta, Sairima-, which is in the later Iranian sources recorded as *Sarm and Salm. Originating in the central parts of the Eurasian Steppe, the Sarmatians were part of the wider Scythian cultures. They started migrating westward around the fourth and third centuries BC, coming to dominate the closely related Scythians by 200 BC. At their greatest reported extent, around 100 BC, these tribes ranged from the Vistula River to the mouth of the Danube and eastward to the Volga, bordering the shores of the Black and Caspian seas as well as the Caucasus to the south.
In the first century AD, the Sarmatians began encroaching upon the Roman Empire in alliance with Germanic tribes. In the third century AD, their dominance of the Pontic Steppe was broken by the Germanic Goths. With the Hunnic invasions of the fourth century, many Sarmatians joined the Goths and other Germanic tribes (Vandals) in the settlement of the Western Roman Empire. Since large parts of today's Russia, specifically the land between the Ural Mountains and the Don River, were controlled in the fifth century BC by the Sarmatians, the Volga–Don and Ural steppes sometimes are called "Sarmatian Motherland."
The Sarmatians in the Bosporan Kingdom assimilated into the Greek civilization, while others were absorbed by the proto-Circassian Maeotian people, the Alans and the Goths. Other Sarmatians were assimilated and absorbed by the Early Slavs. A people related to the Sarmatians, known as the Alans, survived in the North Caucasus into the Early Middle Ages, ultimately giving rise to the modern Ossetic ethnic group. The Polish nobility claims to stem from the Sarmatians. Genomic studies suggest that this group may have been genetically similar to the eastern Yamnaya Bronze Age group.
Etymology
Map of the Roman empire under Hadrian (ruled 117–138 AD), showing the location of the Sarmatae in the Ukrainian steppe region
The Greek name Sarmatai (Σαρμαται) is derived from the Old Iranic Sarmatian endonym *Sarmata or *Sarumata, of which another variant, *Saᵘrumata, gave rise to the ancient Greek name Sauromatai (Σαυρομαται). The form *Sarmata or *Sarumata was the main form of the name, and initially coexisted with the form *Saᵘrumata until the late 4th to early 3rd centuries BC, when *Sarmata/*Sarumata became the only variant of the name in use.
This name meant "armed with throwing darts and arrows," and is cognate with the Indic Sanskrit term śárumant (शरुमन्त्), which makes it semantically similar to the endonym of the Scythians, *Skuδatā, meaning "archers."
The later, Middle Iranic, form of *Saᵘrumata was *Sōrmata or *Sōrumata, of which the later form, *Sūrmata or *Sūrumata, was recorded in ancient Greek as Syrmatai (Συρμαται; Latin: Syrmatae).
Location
The territory inhabited by the Sarmatians, which was known as Sarmatia (/sɑːrˈmeɪʃiə/) to Greco-Roman ethnographers, covered the western part of greater Scythia, and corresponded to today's Central Ukraine, South-Eastern Ukraine, Southern Russia, Russian Volga, and South-Ural regions, and to a smaller extent the northeastern Balkans and around Moldova.
History
Origin
Main article: Sauromatians
Evolution of sword types of the South Urals, from Sauromatian (5th-4th centuries BCE) to Early Sarmatian (3rd-1st centuries BCE).
Reconstruction of early Sarmatian chieftain. Araltobe kurgan, Kazakhstan, III-II c. BC. Excavation of Z. Samashev.
The ethnogenesis of the Sarmatians occurred during the 4th to 3rd centuries BC, when nomads from Central Asia migrated into the territory of the Sauromatians in the southern Ural mountains. These nomads conquered the Sauromatians, resulting in an increased incidence of eastern Asiatic features in the Early Sarmatians, similar to those of the Sakas.
The name "Sarmatians" eventually came to be applied to the whole of the new people formed out of these migrations, whose constituent tribes were the Aorsi, Roxolani, Alans, and the Iazyges. Despite the similarity between the names Sarmatian and Sauromatian, modern authors distinguish between the two, since Sarmatian culture did not directly develop from the Sauromatian culture and the core of the Sarmatian culture was composed of these newly arrived migrants. A typical transitional site between these two periods is found in the Filippovka kurgans, which are Late Sauromatian-Early Sarmatian, and dated to the 5th-4th century BCE.
In the Pontic Steppe and Europe
Gold mirror, Mayerovsky III Kurgan 4 (Nikolaevsky District, Volgograd region), 2nd-1st centuries BCE.
During the 4th and 3rd centuries BC, the centre of Sarmatian power remained north of the Caucasus and in the 3rd century BC the most important centres were around the lower Don, Kalmykia, the Kuban area, and the Central Caucasus.
During the end of the 4th century BC, the Scythians, the then dominant power in the Black Sea Steppe, were militarily defeated by the Macedonian kings Philip II of Macedon and Lysimachus in 339 and 313 BC respectively. They experienced another military setback after participating in the Bosporan Civil War in 309 BC and came under pressure from the Thracian Getae and the Celtic Bastarnae. At the same time, in Central Asia, following the Macedonian conquest of the Achaemenid Empire, the new Seleucid Empire started attacking the Sakā and Dahā nomads who lived to the north of its borders, who in turn put westward pressure on the Sarmatians. Pressured by the Sakā and Dahā in the east and taking advantage of the decline of Scythian power, the Sarmatians began crossing the Don river and invaded Scythia and also migrated south into the North Caucasus.
The first wave of westward Sarmatian migration happened during the 2nd century BC, and involved the Royal Sarmatians, or Saioi (from Scytho-Sarmatian *xšaya, meaning "kings"), who moved into the Pontic Steppe, and the Iazyges, also called the Iaxamatai or Iazamatai, who initially settled between the Don and Dnieper rivers. The Roxolani, who might have been a mixed Scytho-Sarmatian tribe, followed the Iazyges and occupied the Black Sea steppes up to the Dnipro and raided the Crimean region during that century, at the end of which they were involved in a conflict with the generals of the Pontic king Mithridates VI Eupator in the Bosporan Chersonesus, while the Iazyges became his allies.
That the tribes formerly referred to by Herodotus as Scythians were now called Sarmatians by Hellenistic and Roman authors implies that the Sarmatian conquest did not involve a displacement of the Scythians from the Pontic Steppe, but rather that the Scythian tribes were absorbed by the Sarmatians. After their conquest of Scythia, the Sarmatians became the dominant political power in the northern Pontic Steppe, where Sarmatian graves first started appearing in the 2nd century BC. Meanwhile, the populations which still identified as Scythians proper became reduced to Crimea and the Dobruja region, and at one point the Crimean Scythians were the vassals of the Sarmatian queen Amage. Sarmatian power in the Pontic Steppes was also directed against the Greek cities on its shores, with the city of Pontic Olbia being forced to pay repeated tribute to the Royal Sarmatians and their king Saitapharnes, who is mentioned in the Protogenes inscription along with the tribes of the Thisamatae, Scythians, and Saudaratae. Another Sarmatian king, Gatalos, was named in a peace treaty concluded by the king Pharnaces I of Pontus with his enemies.
Two other Sarmatian tribes, the Siraces, who had previously originated in the Transcaspian Plains immediately to the northeast of Hyrcania before migrating to the west, and the Aorsi, moved to the west across the Volga and into the Caucasus mountains' foothills between the 2nd to 1st centuries BC. From there, the pressure from their growing power forcing the more western Sarmatian tribes to migrate further west, and the Aorsi and Siraces destroyed the power of the Royal Sarmatians and the Iazyges, with the Aorsi being able to extend their rule over a large region stretching from the Caucasus across the Terek–Kuma Lowland and Kalmykia in the west up to the Aral Sea region in the east. Yet another new Sarmatian group, the Alans, originated in Central Asia out of the merger of some old tribal groups with the Massagetae. Related to the Asii who invaded Bactria in the 2nd century BC, the Alans were pushed west by the Kangju people (known to Graeco-Roman authors as the Ιαξαρται Iaxartai in Greek, and the Iaxartae in Latin) who were living in the Syr Darya basin, from where they expanded their rule from Fergana to the Aral Sea region.
Sarmatian bottle and lid (1st century CE, reproduction)
The hegemony of the Sarmatians in the Pontic Steppe continued during the 1st century BC, when they were allied with the Scythians against Diophantus, a general of Mithradates VI Eupator, before allying with Mithradates against the Romans and fighting for him in both Europe and Asia, demonstrating the Sarmatians' complete involvement in the affairs of the Pontic and Danubian regions. During the early part of the century, the Alans had migrated to the area to the northeast of the Lake Maeotis. Meanwhile, the Iazyges moved westwards until they reached the Danube, and the Roxolani moved into the area between the Dnipro and the Danube and from there further west. These two peoples attacked the regions around Tomis and Moesia, respectively. During this period, the Iazyges and Roxolani also attacked the Roman province of Thracia, whose governor Tiberius Plautius Silvanus Aelianus had to defend the Roman border of the Danube. During the 1st century BC, various Sarmatians reached the Pannonian Basin, with the Iazyges passing through the territories corresponding to modern-day Moldavia and Wallachia before settling in the Tisza valley, by the middle of the century.
Although the Sarmatian movements stopped temporarily during the 1st century BC due to the rise of the Dacian kingdom of Burebista, they resumed after the collapse of his kingdom following his assassination and in 16 BC. Lucius Tarius Rufus had to repel a Sarmatian attack on Thracia and Macedonia, while further attacks around 10 BC and 2 BC were defeated by Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus.
Sarmatian cup with animal handle (1st century CE, reproduction)
Meanwhile, other Sarmatian tribes, possibly the Aorsi, sent ambassadors to the Roman emperor Augustus, who tried to establish a diplomatic accommodation with them. During the 1st century AD, the Siraces and Aorsi, who were mutually hostile, participated in the Roman–Bosporan War on opposite sides: the Siraces and their king Zorsines allied with Mithridates III against his half-brother Cotys I, who was allied with Rome and the Aorsi. With the defeat of Mithridates, the Siraces were also routed and lost rulership over most of their lands. Between 50 and 60 CE, the Alans had appeared in the foothills of the Caucasus, from where they attacked the Caucasus and Transcaucasus areas and the Parthian Empire. During the 1st century AD, the Alans expanded across the Volga to the west, absorbing part of the Aorsi and displacing the rest, and pressure from the Alans forced the Iazyges and Roxolani to continue attacking the Roman Empire from across the Danube. During the 1st century AD, two Sarmatian rulers from the steppe named Pharzoios and Inismeōs were minting coins in Pontic Olbia.
Headgear of the Sarmatians in Trajan's column
The Roxolani continued their westward migration following the conflict on the Bosporan Chersonesus, and by 69 AD they were close enough to the lower Danube that they were able to attack across the river when it was frozen in winter, and soon later they and the Alans were living on the coast of the Black Sea, and they later moved further west and were living in the areas corresponding to modern-day Moldavia and western Ukraine.
The Sarmatian tribe of the Arraei, who had had close contacts with the Romans, eventually settled to the south of the Danube river, in Thrace, and another Sarmatian tribe, the Koralloi, were also living in the same area alongside a section of the Scythian Sindi.
During the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, the Iazyges often bothered the Roman authorities in Pannonia; they participated in the destruction of the Quadian kingdom of Vannius, and often migrated to the east across the Transylvanian Plateau and the Carpathian Mountains during seasonal movements or for trade.
By the 2nd century AD, the Alans had conquered the steppes of the north Caucasus and of the north Black Sea area and created a powerful confederation of tribes under their rule. Under the hegemony of the Alans a trade route connected the Pontic Steppe, the southern Urals, and the region presently known as Western Turkestan. One group of the Alans, the Antae, migrated north into the territory of what is presently Poland.
Sarmatian cataphracts during Dacian Wars as depicted on Trajan's Column.
Decline
See also: Alans and Ossetians
The hegemony of the Sarmatians in the steppes began to decline over the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, when the Huns conquered Sarmatian territory in the Caspian Steppe and the Ural region. The supremacy of the Sarmatians was finally destroyed when the Germanic Goths migrating from the Baltic Sea region conquered the Pontic Steppe around 200 AD. In 375 AD, the Huns conquered most of the Alans living to the east of the Don river, massacred a significant number of them, and absorbed them into their tribal polity, while the Alans to the west of the Don remained free from Hunnish domination. As part of the Hunnic state, the Alans participated in the Huns' defeat and conquest of the kingdom of the Ostrogoths on the Pontic Steppe. Some free Alans fled into the mountains of the Caucasus, where they participated in the ethnogenesis of populations including the Ossetians and the Kabardians, and other Alan groupings survived in Crimea. Others migrated into Central and then Western Europe, from where some of them went to Britannia and Hispania, and some joined the Germanic Vandals into crossing the Strait of Gibraltar and creating the Vandal Kingdom in North Africa.
The Sarmatians in the Bosporan Kingdom assimilated into the Greek civilization. Others assimilated with the proto-Circassian Meot people, and may have influenced the Circassian language. Some Sarmatians were absorbed by the Alans and Goths. During the Early Middle Ages, the Proto-Slavic population of Eastern Europe assimilated and absorbed Sarmatians during the political upheavals of that era. However, a people related to the Sarmatians, known as the Alans, survived in the North Caucasus into the Early Middle Ages, ultimately giving rise to the modern Ossetic ethnic group.
Archaeology
Lower-Volga Sarmatian burials, 2nd-1st centuries BCE. The burials have two types of swords: swords with traditional Sarmatian crescent-shaped pommels and swords with Asian ring pommels, indicative of the influx of new populations from Central Asia.
A Sarmatian-Parthian gold necklace and amulet, second century AD - Tamoikin Art Fund.
In 1947, Soviet archaeologist Boris Grakov defined a culture flourishing from the 6th century BC to the 4th century AD, apparent in late kurgan graves (buried within earthwork mounds), sometimes reusing part of much older kurgans. It was a nomadic steppe culture ranging from the Black Sea eastward to beyond the Volga that is especially evident at two of the major sites at Kardaielova and Chernaya in the trans-Uralic steppe. The four phases – distinguished by grave construction, burial customs, grave goods, and geographical spread – are:
Sauromatian, 6th–5th centuries BC, also called the "Blumenfeld culture"
Early Sarmatian, 4th–2nd centuries BC, also called the "Prokhorovka culture"
Middle Sarmatian, late 2nd century BC to late 2nd century AD, also called the "Suslov culture"
Late Sarmatian, late 2nd century AD to 4th century AD, also called the "Shipov culture"
While "Sarmatian" and "Sauromatian" are synonymous as ethnonyms, by convention they are given different meanings as archaeological technical terms. The term "Prokhorovka culture" derives from a complex of mounds in the Prokhorovski District, Orenburg region, excavated by S. I. Rudenko in 1916.
Reportedly, during 2001 and 2006 a great Late Sarmatian pottery centre was unearthed near Budapest, Hungary in the Üllő5 archaeological site. Typical grey, granular Üllő5 ceramics form a distinct group of Sarmatian pottery is found ubiquitously in the north-central part of the Great Hungarian Plain region, indicating a lively trading activity.
A 1998 paper on the study of glass beads found in Sarmatian graves suggests wide cultural and trade links.
A 2023 paper on a grave discovered in Cambridgeshire, England found via archaeogenetics that the person had Sarmatian-related ancestry, and was not related to the local population. Stable isotope analysis of his teeth determined that he had probably migrated long distances twice in his life. One tooth was radiocarbon dated to cal 126-228 CE.
Archaeological evidence suggests that Scythian-Sarmatian cultures may have given rise to the Greek legends of Amazons. Graves of armed women have been found in southern Ukraine and Russia. David Anthony noted that approximately 20% of Scythian-Sarmatian "warrior graves" on the lower Don and lower Volga contained women dressed for battle as warriors and he asserts that encountering that cultural phenomenon "probably inspired the Greek tales about the Amazons."
Ethnology
A Sarmatian diadem, found at the Khokhlach kurgan near Novocherkassk (first century AD, Hermitage Museum).
The Sarmatians were part of the Iranian steppe peoples, among whom were also Scythians and Saka. These also are grouped together as "East Iranians." Archaeology has established the connection 'between the Iranian-speaking Scythians, Sarmatians, and Saka and the earlier Timber-grave and Andronovo cultures'. Based on building construction, these three peoples were the likely descendants of those earlier archaeological cultures. The Sarmatians and Saka used the same stone construction methods as the earlier Andronovo culture. The Timber grave (Srubnaya culture) and Andronovo house building traditions were further developed by these three peoples. Andronovo pottery was continued by the Saka and Sarmatians. Archaeologists describe the Andronovo culture people as exhibiting pronounced Caucasoid features.
The first Sarmatians are mostly identified with the Prokhorovka culture, which moved from the southern Urals to the Lower Volga and then to the northern Pontic steppe, in the fourth–third centuries BC. During the migration, the Sarmatian population seems to have grown and they divided themselves into several groups, such as the Alans, Aorsi, Roxolani, and Iazyges. By 200 BC, the Sarmatians replaced the Scythians as the dominant people of the steppes. The Sarmatians and Scythians had fought on the Pontic steppe to the north of the Black Sea. The Sarmatians, described as a large confederation, were to dominate these territories over the next five centuries. According to Brzezinski and Mielczarek, the Sarmatians were formed between the Don River and the Ural Mountains. Pliny the Elder wrote that they ranged from the Vistula River (in present-day Poland) to the Danube.
Culture
Language
Main article: Scytho-Sarmatian languages
Iranic peoples of Central Asia during the Iron Age, including Sarmatians
Sarmatians warriors (reconstruction)
The Sarmatians spoke an Iranian language that was derived from 'Old Iranian' and was heterogenous. By the first century BC, the Iranian tribes in what is today South Russia spoke different languages or dialects, clearly distinguishable. According to a group of Iranologists writing in 1968, the numerous Iranian personal names in Greek inscriptions from the Black Sea coast indicate that the Sarmatians spoke a North-Eastern Iranian dialect ancestral to Alanian-Ossetian. However, Harmatta (1970) argued that "the language of the Sarmatians or that of the Alans as a whole cannot be simply regarded as being Old Ossetian."
Equipment
The Roxolani, who were one of the earlier Sarmatian tribes to have migrated into Europe and therefore were among the more geographically western Sarmatians, used helmets and corselets made of raw ox hide, and wicker shields, as well as spears, bows, and swords. The Roxolani adopted these forms of armour and weaponry from the Germanic Bastarnae near whom they lived. The more eastern Sarmatian tribes used scale armour and used a long lance called the contus and bows in battle.
Metalwork
The early Sarmatians already possessed the technique of decorating with gold inclusions, observed in Achaemenid metalwork. It was spread by nomads in the Eurasian steppes during the 7th-5th century BC, from the Altai Mountains (Arzhan-2 kurgan) westward to central Kazakhstan and the southern Urals. Peter the Great particularly cherished his Demidov Gift, a Sarmatian gold collection, now exhibited in the Gold Chamber at the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg. The Novocherkassk Treasure with the famous Sarmatian Diadem adorned with the Tree of Life can also be seen in the Hermitage Gold Room. It is a Sarmatian hoard of gold, silver and bronze articles and jewellery discovered in the Khokhlach barrow in Novocherkassk in 1864. Chronologically it belongs to the first and second centuries AD.
Numerous weapons, armour, helmets were already found in the excavations of the Early Sarmatian Filippovka kurgan (c. 450-300 BCE):
Many Chinese mirrors can be found in graves of the Middle-Sarmatian to Late-Sarmatian periods.
Filippovka 1 Iron armour from burial 2 mound 4
Filippovka 1, Horn armour from mound 29
Filippovka 1, bronze arrowheads from burial 2, mound 4
Filippovka 1, iron helmets from mound 11
Filippovka 1, iron swords and daggers
Filippovka 1, bronze and inlaid gold dagger
Genetics
See also: Scythians § Archaeogenetics, and Western Steppe Herders
Autosomal DNA
Genetic makeup of Bronze and Iron Age Steppe populationsMap of Scythian cultures, including different Saka populations with genetic profilesSarmatians emerged primarily from the Bronze and Iron Age Western Steppe Herders (Steppe_MLBA), associated with the Sintashta, Srubnaya and Andronovo cultures, but also carried a small amount of admixed from an East Asian-derived population represented by Khövsgöl LBA groups, which may have been indirectly mediated via contact with the related Saka from the Altai region, which are regared as the oldest Scythoid cultural group. The Sarmatians also received geneflow from an ancient Iranian population associated with the Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex.
A genetic study published in Current Biology in 2022 regarding the genetic origin of Huns, Avars, and conquering Hungarians. 265 ancient genomes were analized, it revealed that the Hungarian conquerors admixed with Sarmatians and Huns. Sarmatian ancestry was also detected among several Hun samples which implies a significant Sarmatian influence on European Huns.
There is also evidence for a later eastwards expansion of Sarmatian-like ancestry, evident in a Saka-associated sample from southeastern Kazakhstan (Konyr Tobe 300CE), displaying around 85% Sarmatian and 15% additional BMAC-like ancestry. Sarmatian-like contributions have also been detected among some Xiongnu remains.
Haplogroups
Afanasiev et al. (2014) analyzed ten Alanic burials on the Don River. Four of them carried Y-DNA Haplogroup G2 and six of them possessed mtDNA haplogroup I.
In 2015, again Afanasiev et al. analyzed skeletons of various Sarmato-Alan and Saltovo-Mayaki culture Kurgan burials. The two Alan samples from the fourth to sixth century AD belonged to Y-DNA haplogroups G2a-P15 and R1a-Z94, while two of the three Sarmatian samples from the second to third century AD ound to belonged to Y-DNA haplogroup J1-M267, and one belonged to R1a. Three Saltovo-Mayaki samples from the eighth to ninth century AD turned out to have Y-DNA corresponding to haplogroups G, J2a-M410 and R1a-z94.
A genetic study published in Nature Communications in March 2017 examined several Sarmatian individuals buried in Pokrovka, Russia (southwest of the Ural Mountains) between the fifth century BC and the second century BC. The sample of Y-DNA extracted belonged to haplogroup R1b1a2a2. This was the dominant lineage among males of the earlier Yamnaya culture. The eleven samples of mtDNA extracted belonged to the haplogroups U3, M, U1a'c, T, F1b, N1a1a1a1a, T2, U2e2, H2a1f, T1a, and U5a1d2b. The Sarmatians examined were found to be closely related to peoples of the earlier Yamnaya culture and to the Poltavka culture.
A genetic study published in Nature in May 2018 examined the remains of twelve Sarmatians buried between 400 BC and 400 AD. The five samples of Y-DNA extracted belonged to haplogroup R1a1, I2b, R (two samples), and R1. The eleven samples of mtDNA extracted belonged to C4a1a, U4a2 (two samples), C4b1, I1, A, U2e1h (two samples), U4b1a4, H28, and U5a1.
A genetic study published in Science Advances in October 2018 examined the remains of five Sarmatians buried between 55 AD and 320 AD. The three samples of Y-DNA extracted belonged to haplogroup R1a1a and R1b1a2a2 (two samples), while the five samples of mtDNA extracted belonged to haplogroup H2a1, T1a1, U5b2b (two samples), and D4q.
A genetic study published in Current Biology in July 2019 examined the remains of nine Sarmatians from the southern Ural Mountains between 7th–2nd century BC. The five samples of Y-DNA extracted belonged to haplogroup Q1c-L332, R1a1e-CTS1123, R1a-Z645 (two samples), and E1b1b-PF6746, while the nine samples of mtDNA extracted belonged to haplogroup W, W3a, T1a1, U5a2, U5b2a1a2, T1a1d, C1e, U5b2a1a1, U5b2c, and U5b2c.
A archaeogenetic study published in Cell in 2022, analyzed 17 Late Sarmatian samples from 4-5th century AD from the Pannonian Basin in Hungary. The nine extraced Y-DNA belonged to a diverse set of haplogroups, 2x I2a1b1a2b1-CTS4348, 2x I1a2a1a1a-Z141, I1a-DF29, G2a1-FGC725, E1b1b-L142.1, R1a1a1b2a2a1-Z2123 and R1b1a1b1a1a2b-PF6570, while the mtDNA haplogroups C5, H, 2x H1, H5, H7, H40, H59, HV0 I1, J1, 2x K1a, T1a, 2x T2b, U2.
Physical appearance
Forensic reconstruction based on the skull of a mature male (40–50 years old) from the Elton cemetery, kurgan 10, burial 9, Early Sarmatian time, 4th century BCE.Early Sarmatian chieftain, Araltobe kurgan, 3rd-2nd century BCE.Early Sarmatian woman, 3rd-2nd century BCE, Old Knishkin burial, Bashkortostan.
The Early Samartians from the Filippovka kurgans (4th century BC) combined Western (Timber Grave and Andronovo) and Eastern characteristics. Compared with classical Sauromatians, Early Sarmatians, such as those of Filippovka, generally display an increased incidence of eastern Asiatic features. They most closely resembled the Saka populations of Central Asia, particularly from the Altai region (Pazyryk), and were very different from the western Scythians, or the Sarmatians of the Volga River area.
The Roman author Ovid recorded that one of the Sarmatian tribes, the Coralli, had blond hair, which is a characteristic that Ammianus Marcellinus also ascribed to the Alans. He wrote that nearly all of the Alani were "of great stature and beauty, their hair is somewhat yellow, their eyes are frighteningly fierce."
Modern historians have offered conflicting opinions about the description of the Alans as being tall and having blond hair. For instance, Roger Batty has posited that "presumably, only some of the Alans would have been blond". Bernard Bachrach has likewise suggested that because the Alans assimilated so many foreigners, the majority of them are unlikely to have been blond-haired, and that there was no distinguishing physical characteristic of the Alans. However, John Day has argued that Bachrach's analysis is flawed, because he mistranslated the original passage from Ammianus Marcellinus, and that the majority of the Alans were in fact blond. Iver Neumann has suggested that the description of Alans as blond may mean that their Indo-Iranian ancestry was greater than it was in the Huns. Charles Previté-Orton wrote that the Alans were only partly of Iranian heritage, and that the other part of their ancestry came from captive women and slaves.
Sarmatism
Main article: Sarmatism
Sarmatism (or Sarmatianism) is an ethno-cultural concept with a shade of politics designating the formation of an idea of the origin of Poland from Sarmatians within the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. It was the dominant Baroque culture and ideology of the nobility (szlachta) that existed in times of the Renaissance to the eighteenth centuries. Together with another concept of "Golden Liberty," it formed a central aspect of the Commonwealth's culture and society. At its core was the unifying belief that the people of the Polish Commonwealth descended from the ancient Iranic Sarmatians, the legendary invaders of Slavic lands in antiquity.
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Eurasian nomads
References
^ Bennett, Matthew; Dawson, Doyne; Field, Ron; Hawthornwaite, Philip; Loades, Mike (15 September 2016). The History of Warfare: The Ultimate Visual Guide to the History of Warfare from the Ancient World to the American Civil War. Book Sales. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-7858-3461-8.
^ Abaev, V. I.; Bailey, H. W. (26 August 2020), "ALANS", Encyclopaedia Iranica Online, Brill, retrieved 16 November 2023
^ Unterländer et al. 2017, p. 2. "During the first millennium BC, nomadic people spread over the Eurasian Steppe from the Altai Mountains over the northern Black Sea area as far as the Carpathian Basin... Greek and Persian historians of the 1st millennium BC chronicle the existence of the Massagetae and Sauromatians, and later, the Sarmatians and Sacae: cultures possessing artefacts similar to those found in classical Scythian monuments, such as weapons, horse harnesses and a distinctive ‘Animal Style' artistic tradition. Accordingly, these groups are often assigned to the Scythian culture...
^ "Sarmatian | people". Encyclopedia Britannica. 25 July 2023.
^ Kozlovskaya 2017.
^ Davies, Norman (1996). Europe: A History. Oxford University Press. p. 105. ISBN 978-0-19-820171-7. (...) "the Iranic Sarmatians, whose ability to assimilate into preceding Greek civilization created a brilliant new synthesis"
^ Richmond, Walter (11 June 2008). The Northwest Caucasus: Past, Present, Future. Routledge. p. 12. ISBN 978-1-134-00249-8. "While the Sarmatians dominated the Meot lands, they were themselves assimilated and the language of the Meots, the predecessor of the modern Circassian dialects, survived."
^ Eterovich, Francis H.; Spalatin, Christopher (15 December 1964). Croatia: Land, People, Culture Volume I. University of Toronto Press. p. 112. ISBN 978-1-4875-9676-7. On the shores of the Black Sea the Alans absorbed two Sarmatian peoples, the Siraci and Aorsi (...) Also, the Goths undoubtedly absorbed both Sarmatian and Slavic groups during their two centuries of rule over the steppe land
^ Chodorow, Stanley (1989). The Mainstream of Civilization. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. p. 368. ISBN 978-0-15-551579-6. But the Slavic tribes survived the collapse of these empires, and gradually the remnants of the Avars, Sarmatians, and others were absorbed into the Slavic culture.
^ Slovene Studies. Vol. 9–11. Society for Slovene Studies. 1987. p. 36. (..) For example, the ancient Scythians, Sarmatians (amongst others), and many other attested but now extinct peoples were assimilated in the course of history by Proto-Slavs.
^ Minahan, James (2000). "Ossetians". One Europe, Many Nations: A Historical Dictionary of European National Groups. Praeger security international. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 518. ISBN 9780313309847. Retrieved 27 March 2020. The Ossetians, calling themselves Iristi and their homeland Iryston, are the most northerly of the Iranian peoples. They are descended from a division of Sarmatians, the Alans, who were pushed out of the Terek River lowlands and into the Caucasus foothills by invading Huns in the fourth century A.D.
^ "Large variation génétique sur la steppe pontique-caspienne". fr.scienceaq.com. Retrieved 1 September 2023.
^ Tokhtasyev 2005, p. 299.
^ Tokhtasyev 2005, p. 300.
^ a b Tokhtasyev 2005, p. 296.
^ Tokhtasyev 2005, p. 298-299.
^ Сергеевич, Савельев Никита (2018). "Находки мечей и кинжалов скифо-сарматского времени из юго-западных предгорий Южного Урала (к вопросу об освоении территории и особенностях расселения кочевников)". Oriental Studies. 4: 24–31. doi:10.22162/2619-0990-2018-37-3-24-31 (inactive 31 January 2024).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2024 (link)
^ Ualikhanova, Aruzhan (22 April 2023). "Archeologists Discover Golden Artifacts in Abai Region's Bozai Burial Ground". The Astana Times.
^ Noyanov, Edyl Noyanuly; Yernazar, Sergazy (2016). "THE "GOLDEN PEOPLE" OF KAZAKHSTAN" (PDF). World Science: 46.
^ Yablonsky, Leonid Teodorovich (2010). "New Excavations of the Early Nomadic Burial Ground at Filippovka (Southern Ural Region, Russia)". American Journal of Archaeology. 114 (1): 141. doi:10.3764/aja.114.1.129. ISSN 0002-9114. JSTOR 20627646. S2CID 191399666.
^ For the complexity of the interactions of these peoples see, e.g. Mordvintseva 2013 and Kozlovskaya 2017.
^ The Golden Deer of Eurasia: Scythian and Sarmatian Treasures from the Russian Steppes : the State Hermitage, Saint Petersburg, and the Archaeological Museum, Ufa. Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2000. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-87099-959-8. In skull shape and facial structure, the Filippovka specimens differ considerably from remains of Scythians and Volga River-area Sarmatians. The Filipovka skulls most closely resemble those of Saka from Kazakhstan and the Aral Sea region, and those of the Usuns from Eastern Kazhakhstan.
^ a b c d e f g h i j Olbrycht 2000.
^ a b c d e f g h i j Melyukova 1990.
^ Yablonsky, Leonid Teodorovich (2010). "New Excavations of the Early Nomadic Burial Ground at Filippovka (Southern Ural Region, Russia)". American Journal of Archaeology. 114 (1): 141. doi:10.3764/aja.114.1.129. ISSN 0002-9114. JSTOR 20627646. S2CID 191399666. with artifacts found in other barrows, afford us the opportunity to refine the chronology of each object and of the site as a whole and to date it to the second half of the fifth through the fourth centuries B.C.E. (...) Filippovka cemetery is a transition site between the Sauromation and the Sarmatian epochs.
^ Yatsenko, Sergey A. (2022). "Sarmatian Goddess with Two Horses". RSUH/RGGU Bulletin. "Literary Theory. Linguistics. Cultural Studies" Series (7): 211–224. doi:10.28995/2686-7249-2022-7-211-224. S2CID 256651585.
^ "Moscow State Historical Museum". www.myvirtualmuseum.ru.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k Batty 2007, p. 225-236.
^ Bennett, Matthew; Dawson, Doyne; Field, Ron; Hawthornwaite, Philip; Loades, Mike (15 September 2016). The History of Warfare: The Ultimate Visual Guide to the History of Warfare from the Ancient World to the American Civil War. Book Sales. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-7858-3461-8.
^ Davies, Norman (1996). Europe: A History. Oxford University Press. p. 105. ISBN 978-0-19-820171-7. (...) "the Iranic Sarmatians, whose ability to assimilate into preceding Greek civilization created a brilliant new synthesis"
^ Richmond, Walter (11 June 2008). The Northwest Caucasus: Past, Present, Future. Routledge. p. 12. ISBN 978-1-134-00249-8. ""While the Sarmatians dominated the Meot lands, they were themselves assimilated and the language of the Meots, the predecessor of the modern Circassian dialects, survived."
^ Eterovich, Francis H.; Spalatin, Christopher (15 December 1964). Croatia: Land, People, Culture Volume I. University of Toronto Press. p. 112. ISBN 978-1-4875-9676-7. On the shores of the Black Sea the Alans absorbed two Sarmatian peoples, the Siraci and Aorsi ... Also, the Goths undoubtedly absorbed both Sarmatian and Slavic groups during their two centuries of rule over the steppe land
^ Chodorow, Stanley (1989). The Mainstream of Civilization. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. p. 368. ISBN 978-0-15-551579-6. But the Slavic tribes survived the collapse of these empires, and gradually the remnants of the Avars, Sarmatians, and others were absorbed into the Slavic culture.
^ Slovene Studies. Vol. 9–11. Society for Slovene Studies. 1987. p. 36. (..) For example, the ancient Scythians, Sarmatians (amongst others), and many other attested but now extinct peoples were assimilated in the course of history by Proto-Slavs.
^ Minahan, James (2000). "Ossetians". One Europe, Many Nations: A Historical Dictionary of European National Groups. Praeger security international. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 518. ISBN 9780313309847. Retrieved 27 March 2020. The Ossetians, calling themselves Iristi and their homeland Iryston, are the most northerly of the Iranian peoples. They are descended from a division of Sarmatians, the Alans, who were pushed out of the Terek River lowlands and into the Caucasus foothills by invading Huns in the fourth century A.D.
^ Skripkin, A. S.; Klepikov, V. M. (17 May 2020). "ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES OF THE LOWER VOLGA REGION OF THE 2nd—1st CENTURIES BC AND SOME ETHNIC ISSUES OF THE SARMATIANS". Archaeology and Early History of Ukraine. 36 (3): 214–222. doi:10.37445/adiu.2020.03.11. The paper concerns with chronological analysis of Early Sarmatian military burials with two swords in the Lower Volga region dated to the last centuries BC. There are two combinations of the different bladed weapons in the burials: swords with a ring pommel and daggers with a crescent-shaped pommel; swords without metal pommel with the rhomboid cross-bar and daggers with a crescent-shaped pommel. Swords and daggers with a crescent-shaped pommel are absent in the burials after the turn of AD. Swords and daggers with ring pommel or rhomboid-shaped cross-bar have appeared during the new migration wave in the Lower Volga region not earlier than in the 2nd century BC. This determines the chronological framework of the assemblages. Daggers and swords with a crescent-shaped pommel are the local product, they were used much earlier than the swords of migratory origin. The authors suggest that the emergence of innovations is associated with the migration of the 2nd—1st centuries BC from Central Asia, because in addition to swords with ring pommel and bronze cross-bar without metal pommel, there were found bronze openwork and lattice buckles, jet buckles and cubic incense burners, well known in the East.
^ Schubert, Charlotte; Weiß, Alexander (22 March 2013). Amazonen zwischen Griechen und Skythen: Gegenbilder in Mythos und Geschichte (in German). Walter de Gruyter. p. 85. ISBN 978-3-11-028616-8.
^ Граков Б. Н. ГYNAIKOKPATOYMENOI (Пережитки матриархата у сарматов) Archived 21 November 2021 at the Wayback Machine//ВДИ, 1947. № 3
^ a b Sinor 1990, p. 113.
^ Genito, Bruno (1 November 2002). The Elusive Frontiers of the Eurasian Steppes. All’Insegna del Giglio. pp. 57–. ISBN 978-88-7814-283-1.
^ Gursoy, M. (28 February 2023). "Жазба Және Археологиялық Деректер Негізінде Савромат-Сармат Тайпаларының Шығу Тегі". BULLETIN Series Historical and Socio-political Sciences. 1 (72): 158. doi:10.51889/2022-1.1728-5461.16. In particular, B. N. Grakov proposed a general four-stage chronology of the Savromat-Sarmatian tribes, based on the specifics of their burial structures, burial traditions and material world: 1.The Savromat period or Blumenfeld -VI-IV centuries BC. 2.Savromat-Sarmatian or Prokhorov period-IV-II Centuries BC. 3.The middle Sarmatian period or Suslov -II BC -II Centuries AD. 4.The late Sarmatian period or Shipov –II –IV centuries AD. Since this proposal is generally supported by the majority, this chronology is taken as a basis in the research papers.
^ Yablonskii, Leonid; Balakhvantsev, Archil (1 January 2009). "A Silver Bowl from the New Excavations of the Early Sarmatian Burial-Ground Near the Village of Prokhorovka". Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia. 15 (1–2): 167–169. doi:10.1163/092907709X12474657004809.
^ "Chemical Analyses of Sarmatian Glass Beads from Pokrovka, Russia" Archived 15 April 2005 at the Library of Congress Web Archives, by Mark E. Hall and Leonid Yablonsky.
^ Silva, Marina; Booth, Thomas; Moore, Joanna; Anastasiadou, Kyriaki; Walker, Don; Gilardet, Alexandre; Barrington, Christopher; Kelly, Monica; Williams, Mia; Henderson, Michael; Smith, Alex; Bowsher, David; Montgomery, Janel; Skoglund, Pontus (19 December 2023). "An individual with Sarmatian-related ancestry in Roman Britain". Current Biology. 34 (1): 204–212.e6. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2023.11.049. PMID 38118448.
^ Ghosh, Pallab (19 December 2023). "DNA sleuths solve mystery of the 2,000-year old corpse". BBC News. Retrieved 21 December 2023.
^ Anthony, David W. (2007). The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-05887-0.
^ The Golden Deer of Eurasia: Scythian and Sarmatian Treasures from the Russian Steppes : the State Hermitage, Saint Petersburg, and the Archaeological Museum, Ufa. Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2000. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-87099-959-8.
^ Kuzmina 2007, p. 220.
^ Kuzmina 2007, p. 445.
^ Kuzmina 2007, p. xiv.
^ Kuzmina 2007, p. 50.
^ Kuzmina 2007, p. 51.
^ Kuzmina 2007, p. 64.
^ Kuzmina 2007, p. 78.
^ Keyser, Christine; Bouakaze, Caroline; Crubézy, Eric; Nikolaev, Valery G.; Montagnon, Daniel; Reis, Tatiana; Ludes, Bertrand (16 May 2009). "Ancient DNA provides new insights into the history of south Siberian Kurgan people". Human Genetics. 126 (3): 395–410. doi:10.1007/s00439-009-0683-0. PMID 19449030. S2CID 21347353.
^ Barry W. Cunliffe (2001). The Oxford Illustrated History of Prehistoric Europe. Oxford University Press. pp. 402–. ISBN 978-0-19-285441-4.
^ Grousset, Rene (1970). The Empire of the Steppes. Rutgers University Press. pp. 15. ISBN 978-0-8135-1304-1.
^ a b Brzezinski & Mielczarek 2002.
^ a b Harmatta 1970, 3.4.
^ Handbuch der Orientalistik, Iranistik. By I. Gershevitch, O. Hansen, B. Spuler, M.J. Dresden, Prof M Boyce, M. Boyce Summary. E.J. Brill. 1968.
^ Shemakhanskaya, Marina; Treister, Mikhail; Yablonsky, Leonid (31 December 2009). "The technique of gold inlaid decoration in the 5th-4th centuries BC: silver and iron finds from the early Sarmatian barrows of Filippovka, Southern Urals". ArcheoSciences. Revue d'archéométrie (in French) (33): 211–220. doi:10.4000/archeosciences.2223. ISSN 1960-1360.
^ Haskins, John F. (1959). "Sarmatian Gold Collected by Peter the Great: - VII; The Demidov Gift and Conclusions". Artibus Asiae. 22 (1/2): 64–78. doi:10.2307/3249145. ISSN 0004-3648. JSTOR 3249145.
^ "Realms Of Gold The Novel: Treasures of the Sarmatians: Diadem". Realms Of Gold The Novel. Retrieved 1 September 2023.
^ "Hermitage Gold Room - uVisitRussia". www.uvisitrussia.com. Retrieved 1 September 2023.
^ "State Hermitage Museum: East/Central Europe (including early nomads)". depts.washington.edu. Retrieved 1 September 2023.
^ Yablonsky, L.T. (2013). "РАННЕСАРМАТСКИЙ РЫЦАРЬ (Sarmatian warrior)" (PDF). Поволжская археология (The Volga River Region Archaeology). 2 (4): 104–135.
^ Treister, Mikhail; Ravich, Irina (June 2021). "Chinese mirrors from the burials of the nomads of Eastern Europe of the second half of the 1st millennium BC-first centuries AD: Typology, chronology, distribution and technology of manufacture". Advances in Archaeomaterials. 2 (1): 24–48. doi:10.1016/j.aia.2021.07.001.
^ Unterländer, Martina; Palstra, Friso; Lazaridis, Iosif; Pilipenko, Aleksandr; Hofmanová, Zuzana; Groß, Melanie; Sell, Christian; Blöcher, Jens; Kirsanow, Karola; Rohland, Nadin; Rieger, Benjamin; Kaiser, Elke; Schier, Wolfram; Pozdniakov, Dimitri; Khokhlov, Aleksandr (3 March 2017). "Ancestry and demography and descendants of Iron Age nomads of the Eurasian Steppe". Nature Communications. 8 (1): 14615. Bibcode:2017NatCo...814615U. doi:10.1038/ncomms14615. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 5337992. PMID 28256537.
^ a b Gnecchi-Ruscone, Guido Alberto; Khussainova, Elmira; Kahbatkyzy, Nurzhibek; Musralina, Lyazzat; Spyrou, Maria A.; Bianco, Raffaela A.; Radzeviciute, Rita; Martins, Nuno Filipe Gomes; Freund, Caecilia; Iksan, Olzhas; Garshin, Alexander; Zhaniyazov, Zhassulan; Bekmanov, Bakhytzhan; Kitov, Egor; Samashev, Zainolla (26 March 2021). "Ancient genomic time transect from the Central Asian Steppe unravels the history of the Scythians". Science Advances. 7 (13). Bibcode:2021SciA....7.4414G. doi:10.1126/sciadv.abe4414. ISSN 2375-2548. PMC 7997506. PMID 33771866.
^ Järve, Mari; Saag, Lehti; Scheib, Christiana Lyn; Pathak, Ajai K.; Montinaro, Francesco; Pagani, Luca; Flores, Rodrigo; Guellil, Meriam; Saag, Lauri; Tambets, Kristiina; Kushniarevich, Alena; Solnik, Anu; Varul, Liivi; Zadnikov, Stanislav; Petrauskas, Oleg (11 July 2019). "Shifts in the Genetic Landscape of the Western Eurasian Steppe Associated with the Beginning and End of the Scythian Dominance". Current Biology. 29 (14): 2430–2441.e10. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2019.06.019. ISSN 0960-9822. PMID 31303491.
^ Maróti, Zoltán; Neparáczki, Endre; Schütz, Oszkár; Maár, Kitti; Varga, Gergely I.B.; Kovács, Bence; Kalmár, Tibor; Nyerki, Emil; Nagy, István; Latinovics, Dóra; Tihanyi, Balázs; Marcsik, Antónia; Pálfi, György; Bernert, Zsolt; Gallina, Zsolt; Horváth, Ciprián; Varga, Sándor; Költő, László; Raskó, István; Nagy, Péter L.; Balogh, Csilla; Zink, Albert; Maixner, Frank; Götherström, Anders; George, Robert; Szalontai, Csaba; Szenthe, Gergely; Gáll, Erwin; Kiss, Attila P.; Gulyás, Bence; Kovacsóczy, Bernadett Ny.; Gál, Sándor Szilárd; Tomka, Péter; Török, Tibor (25 May 2022). "The genetic origin of Huns, Avars, and conquering Hungarians". Current Biology. 32 (13): 2858–2870.e7. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2022.04.093. PMID 35617951. S2CID 246191357.
^ Jeong, Choongwon; Wang, Ke; Wilkin, Shevan; Taylor, William Timothy Treal; Miller, Bryan K.; Bemmann, Jan H.; Stahl, Raphaela; Chiovelli, Chelsea; Knolle, Florian; Ulziibayar, Sodnom; Khatanbaatar, Dorjpurev; Erdenebaatar, Diimaajav; Erdenebat, Ulambayar; Ochir, Ayudai; Ankhsanaa, Ganbold (5 November 2020). "A Dynamic 6,000-Year Genetic History of Eurasia's Eastern Steppe". Cell. 183 (4): 890–904.e29. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2020.10.015. ISSN 0092-8674. PMC 7664836. PMID 33157037.
^ Afanasiev, Gennady E.; Dobrovolskaya, M. V.; Korobov, D. S.; Reshetova, Irina K. (2014). "О культурной, антропологической и генетической специфике донских алан ". In Korobov, D. S. (ed.). Е.И. Крупнов и развитие археологии Северного Кавказа . XXVIII Krupnov's readings : Proceedings of the International Scientific Conference, Moscow, 21–25 April 2014. Moscow: Institute of Archaeology, Russian Academy of Sciences. pp. 312–315. ISBN 978-5-94375-162-2 – via www.academia.edu.
^ Afanasiev, Gennady E.; et al. (2015). "Хазарские конфедераты в бассейне Дона ". In Dobrovolskaya, M. V.; Chernykh, E. N. (eds.). Естественнонаучные методы исследования и парадигма современной археологии . Proceedings of the All-Russian Scientific Conference, Moscow, Institute of Archeology RAS, 8–11 December 2015. Moscow: Языки славянской культуры for Institute of Archaeology, Russian Academy of Sciences. pp. 146–153. ISBN 978-5-94457-2431 – via www.academia.edu.
^ Unterländer et al. 2017, Supplementary Information, pp. 55, 72. "Individual I0575 (Sarmatian) belonged to haplogroup R1b1a2a2, and was thus related to the dominant Ychromosome lineage of the Yamnaya (Pit Grave) males from Samara..."
^ Unterländer et al. 2017, Supplementary Information, p. 25, Supplementary Table 1.
^ Unterländer et al. 2017, pp. 3–4. "The two Early Sarmatian samples from the West... fall close to an Iron Age sample from the Samara district... and are generally close to the Early Bronze Age Yamnaya samples from Samara... and Kalmykia... and the Middle Bronze Age Poltavka samples from Samara..."
^ Damgaard et al. 2018, Supplementary Table 2, Rows 19, 21-22, 25, 90-93, 95-97, 116.
^ Damgaard et al. 2018, Supplementary Table 9, Rows 15, 18, 64, 67, 68.
^ Damgaard et al. 2018, Supplementary Table 8, Rows 57, 79-80, 84, 25-27, 31-33, 59.
^ Krzewińska et al. 2018, Supplementary Materials, Table S3 Summary, Rows 4-8.
^ Järve et al. 2019, Table S2.
^ Gnecchi-Ruscone et al. 2022, Table S1.
^ Balabanova, Maria; Nechvaloda, Aleksey (December 2022). "Ancient Population of the Lower Volga Region According to Craniology and Anthropological Facial Sculptural Reconstruction from a Skull". Nizhnevolzhskiy Arheologicheskiy Vestnik (2): 158–173. doi:10.15688/nav.jvolsu.2022.2.10.
^ Ualikhanova, Aruzhan (22 April 2023). "Archeologists Discover Golden Artifacts in Abai Region's Bozai Burial Ground". The Astana Times.
^ Noyanov, Edyl Noyanuly; Yernazar, Sergazy (2016). "The "Golden People" of Kazakhstan" (PDF). World Science: 46.
^ Ufa Ethnology museum
^ a b The Golden Deer of Eurasia: Scythian and Sarmatian Treasures from the Russian Steppes : the State Hermitage, Saint Petersburg, and the Archaeological Museum, Ufa. Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2000. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-87099-959-8.
^ Batty 2007, p. 235 (Footnote 224) "In reality, presumably only some Alans were blond."
^ Bachrach, Bernard (1973). A history of the Alans in the West : from their first appearance in the sources of classical antiquity through the early Middle Ages. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. p. 76-77. ISBN 0-8166-0678-1.
^ Day, John V. (2001). Indo-European origins : the anthropological evidence. Institute for the Study of Man. p. 57. ISBN 0-941694-75-5. Mistranslating their hair colour as ' generally blond ', Bachrach doubts that Alans really were so fair, considering that, as Ammianus Marcellinus says, they had assimilated so many other ethnic groups (1973:19).
^ Neumann, Iver B.; Wigen, Einar (19 July 2018). The Steppe Tradition in International Relations: Russians, Turks and European State Building 4000 BC–2017 AD. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. p. 103-104. ISBN 978-1-108-42079-2. "They saw Alans as tall and blond, whereas the Huns were seen as squat and ugly (Bachrach 1973:19), we may take this to mean that the Alans looked more like Romans, i.e. that the Iranic element was stronger in them than it was in the Huns."
^ Previté-Orton, C. W. (24 July 1975). Cambridge Medieval History, Shorter: Volume 1, The Later Roman Empire to the Twelfth Century. Cambridge University Press. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-521-20962-5. "...the blond Alans between the Don, the Volga, and Mount Caucasus were Iranian in speech and partly in blood, and remnants of other Iranian nomads, not to mention descendants of captive women and slaves..."
^ a b Kresin, O. Sarmatism Ukrainian. Ukrainian History
^ Tadeusz Sulimirski, The Sarmatians (New York: Praeger Publishers 1970) at 167.
^ P. M. Barford, The Early Slavs (Ithaca: Cornell University 2001) at 28.
Sources
Books
Batty, Roger (2007). Rome and the Nomads: The Pontic-Danubian Realm in Antiquity. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-198-14936-1.
Brzezinski, Richard; Mielczarek, Mariusz (2002). The Sarmatians 600 BC–AD 450. Men-At-Arms (373). Bloomsbury USA; Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84176-485-6.
Davis-Kimball, Jeannine; Bashilov, Vladimir A.; Yablonsky, Leonid T. (1995). Nomads of the Eurasian Steppes in the Early Iron Age. Berkeley: Zinat Press. ISBN 978-1-885979-00-1.
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Hinds, Kathryn (2009). Scythians and Sarmatians. Marshall Cavendish. ISBN 978-0-7614-4519-7.
Istvánovits, Eszter; Kulcsár, Valéria (2017). Sarmatians: History and Archaeology of a Forgotten People. Schnell & Steiner. ISBN 978-3-7954-3234-8.
Kozlovskaya, Valeriya (2017). The Northern Black Sea in Antiquity: networks, connectivity, and cultural interactions. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-01951-5.
Kuzmina, Elena Efimovna (2007). The Origin of the Indo-Iranians. BRILL. pp. 50, 51, 56, 64, 78, 83, 220, 410. ISBN 978-90-04-16054-5.
Melyukova, A. I. (1990). Sinor, Denis (ed.). The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia. Vol. 1. Translated by Crookenden, Julia. Cambridge, United Kingdom; New York City, United States: Cambridge University Press. p. 97-117. ISBN 978-0-521-24304-9.
Olbrycht, Marek Jan (2000). "Remarks on the Presence of Iranian Peoples in Europe and Their Asiatic Relations". Collectanea Celto-Asiatica Cracoviensia. Kraków: Księgarnia Akademicka. pp. 105–107. ISBN 978-8-371-88337-8.
Sinor, Denis, ed. (1990). The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24304-9.
К.Ф. Смирнов. Сарматы и утверждение их политического господства в Скифии. Рипол Классик. ISBN 978-5-458-40072-5.
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Journals
Абрамова, М. П. (1988). "Сарматы и Северный Кавказ". Проблемы сарматской археологии и истории: 4–18.
Damgaard, P. B.; et al. (9 May 2018). "137 ancient human genomes from across the Eurasian steppes". Nature. 557 (7705). Nature Research: 369–373. Bibcode:2018Natur.557..369D. doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0094-2. hdl:1887/3202709. PMID 29743675. S2CID 13670282. Retrieved 11 April 2020.
Genito, Bruno (1988). "The Archaeological Cultures of the Sarmatians with a Preliminary Note on the Trial-Trenches at Gyoma 133: a Sarmatian Settlement in South-Eastern Hungary (Campaign 1985)" (PDF). Annali dell'Istituto Universitario Orientale di Napoli. 42: 81–126.
Gnecchi-Ruscone, Guido Alberto; Szécsényi-Nagy, Anna; Koncz, István; Csiky, Gergely; Rácz, Zsófia; Rohrlach, A. B.; Brandt, Guido; Rohland, Nadin; Csáky, Veronika; Cheronet, Olivia; Szeifert, Bea (14 April 2022). "Ancient genomes reveal origin and rapid trans-Eurasian migration of 7th century Avar elites". Cell. 185 (8): 1402–1413.e21. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2022.03.007. ISSN 0092-8674. PMC 9042794. PMID 35366416. S2CID 247859905.
Järve, Mari; et al. (11 July 2019). "Shifts in the Genetic Landscape of the Western Eurasian Steppe Associated with the Beginning and End of the Scythian Dominance". Current Biology. 29 (14). Cell Press: 2430–2441. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2019.06.019. PMID 31303491.
Harmatta, J. (1970). "Studies in the History and Language of the Sarmatians". Acta Antique et Archaeologica. XIII.
Krzewińska, Maja; et al. (3 October 2018). "Ancient genomes suggest the eastern Pontic-Caspian steppe as the source of western Iron Age nomads". Science Advances. 4 (10). American Association for the Advancement of Science: eaat4457. Bibcode:2018SciA....4.4457K. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aat4457. PMC 6223350. PMID 30417088.
Клепиков, В. М.; Скрипкин, А. С. (1997). "Ранние сарматы в контексте исторических событий Восточной Европы". Донские древности. 5: 28–40.
Козлова, Р. М. (2004). О Сормах, Сарматах, Сорматских горах. Студії з ономастики та етимології (in Ukrainian).
Lebedynsky, Iaroslav (2002). Les Sarmates: amazones et lanciers cuirassés entre Oural et Danube, VIIe siècle av. J.-C.-VIe siècle apr. J.-C. Errance. ISBN 978-2-87772-235-3.
Mordvintseva, Valentina I. (2015). "Сарматы, Сарматия и Северное Причерноморье" (PDF). Вестник древней истории . 1 (292): 109–135.
Mordvintseva, Valentina I. (2013). "The Sarmatians: The Creation of Archaeological Evidence". Oxford Journal of Archaeology. 32 (2): 203–219. doi:10.1111/ojoa.12010.
Moshkova, M. G. (1995). "A brief review of the history of the Sauromatian and Sarmatian tribes". Nomads of the Eurasian Steppes in the Early Iron Age: 85–89.
Perevalov, S. M. (2002). "The Sarmatian Lance and the Sarmatian Horse-Riding Posture". Anthropology & Archeology of Eurasia. 40 (4): 7–21. doi:10.2753/aae1061-195940047. S2CID 161826066.
Rjabchikov, Sergei V. (2004). "Remarks on the Scythian, Sarmatian and Meotian Beliefs". AnthroGlobe Journal.
Симоненко, А. В.; Лобай, Б. И. (1991). "Сарматы Северо-Западного Причерноморья в I в. н. э.". Погребения знати у с. Пороги (in Russian).
Tokhtasyev, Sergey (2005). "Sauromatae - Syrmatae - Sarmatae". Херсонесский сборник (in Russian). 14: 291–306. Retrieved 4 September 2023.
Unterländer, Martina; et al. (3 March 2017). "Ancestry and demography and descendants of Iron Age nomads of the Eurasian Steppe". Nature Communications. 8 (14615). Nature Research: 14615. Bibcode:2017NatCo...814615U. doi:10.1038/ncomms14615. PMC 5337992. PMID 28256537.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sarmatians.
Yatsenko, S. A. (1992). "CLOTHING vii. Of the Iranian Tribes on the Pontic Steppes and in the Caucaus". CLOTHING vii. Of the Iranian Tribes – Encyclopaedia Iranica. Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. V, Fasc. 7. pp. 758–760.
Ptolemaic Map (Digital Scriptorium) Archived 11 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine
Kurgans, Ritual Sites, and Settlements: Eurasian Bronze and Iron Age
Nomadic Art of the Eastern Eurasian Steppes, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Sarmatians
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Ancient Greek: Σαρμάται, romanized: Sarmatai; Latin: Sarmatae [ˈsarmatae̯]) were a large confederation of ancient Iranian equestrian nomadic peoples who dominated the Pontic steppe from about the 3rd century BC to the 4th century AD.The earliest reference to the Sarmatians is in the Avesta, Sairima-, which is in the later Iranian sources recorded as *Sarm and Salm.[2] Originating in the central parts of the Eurasian Steppe, the Sarmatians were part of the wider Scythian cultures.[3] They started migrating westward around the fourth and third centuries BC, coming to dominate the closely related Scythians by 200 BC. At their greatest reported extent, around 100 BC, these tribes ranged from the Vistula River to the mouth of the Danube and eastward to the Volga, bordering the shores of the Black and Caspian seas as well as the Caucasus to the south.In the first century AD, the Sarmatians began encroaching upon the Roman Empire in alliance with Germanic tribes. In the third century AD, their dominance of the Pontic Steppe was broken by the Germanic Goths. With the Hunnic invasions of the fourth century, many Sarmatians joined the Goths and other Germanic tribes (Vandals) in the settlement of the Western Roman Empire. Since large parts of today's Russia, specifically the land between the Ural Mountains and the Don River, were controlled in the fifth century BC by the Sarmatians, the Volga–Don and Ural steppes sometimes are called \"Sarmatian Motherland.\"[4][5]The Sarmatians in the Bosporan Kingdom assimilated into the Greek civilization,[6] while others were absorbed by the proto-Circassian Maeotian people,[7] the Alans and the Goths.[8] Other Sarmatians were assimilated and absorbed by the Early Slavs.[9][10] A people related to the Sarmatians, known as the Alans, survived in the North Caucasus into the Early Middle Ages, ultimately giving rise to the modern Ossetic ethnic group.[11] The Polish nobility claims to stem from the Sarmatians. Genomic studies suggest that this group may have been genetically similar to the eastern Yamnaya Bronze Age group.[12]","title":"Sarmatians"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roman_Empire_125.png"},{"link_name":"Hadrian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadrian"},{"link_name":"steppe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steppe"},{"link_name":"Old Iranic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_languages#Old_Iranian"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTETokhtasyev2005299-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTETokhtasyev2005300-14"},{"link_name":"Indic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages"},{"link_name":"Sanskrit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTETokhtasyev2005296-15"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTETokhtasyev2005296-15"},{"link_name":"Middle Iranic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_languages#Middle_Iranian"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_language"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTETokhtasyev2005298-299-16"}],"text":"Map of the Roman empire under Hadrian (ruled 117–138 AD), showing the location of the Sarmatae in the Ukrainian steppe regionThe Greek name Sarmatai (Σαρμαται) is derived from the Old Iranic Sarmatian endonym *Sarmata or *Sarumata, of which another variant, *Saᵘrumata, gave rise to the ancient Greek name Sauromatai (Σαυρομαται).[13] The form *Sarmata or *Sarumata was the main form of the name, and initially coexisted with the form *Saᵘrumata until the late 4th to early 3rd centuries BC, when *Sarmata/*Sarumata became the only variant of the name in use.[14]This name meant \"armed with throwing darts and arrows,\" and is cognate with the Indic Sanskrit term śárumant (शरुमन्त्),[15] which makes it semantically similar to the endonym of the Scythians, *Skuδatā, meaning \"archers.\"[15]The later, Middle Iranic, form of *Saᵘrumata was *Sōrmata or *Sōrumata, of which the later form, *Sūrmata or *Sūrumata, was recorded in ancient Greek as Syrmatai (Συρμαται; Latin: Syrmatae).[16]","title":"Etymology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"/sɑːrˈmeɪʃiə/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"Scythia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scythia"},{"link_name":"Central Ukraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Ukraine"},{"link_name":"Southern Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Federal_District"},{"link_name":"Volga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volga"},{"link_name":"South-Ural regions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ural_(region)"},{"link_name":"Balkans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkans"},{"link_name":"Moldova","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldova"}],"text":"The territory inhabited by the Sarmatians, which was known as Sarmatia (/sɑːrˈmeɪʃiə/) to Greco-Roman ethnographers, covered the western part of greater Scythia, and corresponded to today's Central Ukraine, South-Eastern Ukraine, Southern Russia, Russian Volga, and South-Ural regions, and to a smaller extent the northeastern Balkans and around Moldova.","title":"Location"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sword_types_of_the_South_Urals,_Sauromatian_to_Early_Sarmatian_5th-1st_centuries_BCE.png"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Reconstruction_of_Sarmatian_chieftain._Araltobe_mount,_Kazakhstan,_III-II_cc._BC._Excavation_of_Z._Samashev._Heritage_of_the_Great_Steppe_exhibition,_Gda%C5%84sk_Main_Town_Hall.jpg"},{"link_name":"Araltobe kurgan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Araltobe_kurgan"},{"link_name":"Kazakhstan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstan"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Central Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Asia"},{"link_name":"Sauromatians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sauromatian_culture"},{"link_name":"Ural mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ural_mountains"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Sakas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakas"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Aorsi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorsi"},{"link_name":"Roxolani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roxolani"},{"link_name":"Alans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alans"},{"link_name":"Iazyges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iazyges"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlbrycht2000-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelyukova1990-24"},{"link_name":"Filippovka kurgans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filippovka_kurgans"},{"link_name":"Sauromatian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sauromatian"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Y141-25"}],"sub_title":"Origin","text":"Evolution of sword types of the South Urals, from Sauromatian (5th-4th centuries BCE) to Early Sarmatian (3rd-1st centuries BCE).[17]Reconstruction of early Sarmatian chieftain. Araltobe kurgan, Kazakhstan, III-II c. BC. Excavation of Z. Samashev.[18][19]The ethnogenesis of the Sarmatians occurred during the 4th to 3rd centuries BC, when nomads from Central Asia migrated into the territory of the Sauromatians in the southern Ural mountains.[20][21] These nomads conquered the Sauromatians, resulting in an increased incidence of eastern Asiatic features in the Early Sarmatians, similar to those of the Sakas.[22]The name \"Sarmatians\" eventually came to be applied to the whole of the new people formed out of these migrations, whose constituent tribes were the Aorsi, Roxolani, Alans, and the Iazyges. Despite the similarity between the names Sarmatian and Sauromatian, modern authors distinguish between the two, since Sarmatian culture did not directly develop from the Sauromatian culture and the core of the Sarmatian culture was composed of these newly arrived migrants.[23][24] A typical transitional site between these two periods is found in the Filippovka kurgans, which are Late Sauromatian-Early Sarmatian, and dated to the 5th-4th century BCE.[25]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gold_mirror_Mayerovsky_III_Kurgan_4.jpg"},{"link_name":"Nikolaevsky District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolayevsky_District,_Volgograd_Oblast"},{"link_name":"Volgograd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volgograd"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Kalmykia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalmykia"},{"link_name":"Kuban","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuban"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelyukova1990-24"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlbrycht2000-23"},{"link_name":"Scythians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scythians"},{"link_name":"Macedonian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)"},{"link_name":"Philip II of Macedon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon"},{"link_name":"Lysimachus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysimachus"},{"link_name":"Bosporan Civil War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosporan_Civil_War"},{"link_name":"Thracian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thracians"},{"link_name":"Getae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Getae"},{"link_name":"Celtic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_peoples"},{"link_name":"Bastarnae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bastarnae"},{"link_name":"conquest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%27s_conquest_of_Persia"},{"link_name":"Achaemenid Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire"},{"link_name":"Seleucid Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seleucid_Empire"},{"link_name":"Sakā","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saka"},{"link_name":"Dahā","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dahae"},{"link_name":"Scythia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scythia"},{"link_name":"North Caucasus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Caucasus"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelyukova1990-24"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlbrycht2000-23"},{"link_name":"Iazyges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iazyges"},{"link_name":"Roxolani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roxolani"},{"link_name":"Dnipro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dnieper"},{"link_name":"Crimean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimea"},{"link_name":"Pontic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus"},{"link_name":"Mithridates VI Eupator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithridates_VI_Eupator"},{"link_name":"Bosporan Chersonesus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimea"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelyukova1990-24"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlbrycht2000-23"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBatty2007225-236-28"},{"link_name":"Herodotus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodotus"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBatty2007225-236-28"},{"link_name":"Dobruja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dobruja"},{"link_name":"Amage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amage"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece"},{"link_name":"Pontic Olbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontic_Olbia"},{"link_name":"Saitapharnes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saitapharnes&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Protogenes inscription","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Protogenes_inscription&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Thisamatae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thisamatae&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saudaratae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudaratae"},{"link_name":"Pharnaces I of Pontus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharnaces_I_of_Pontus"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelyukova1990-24"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlbrycht2000-23"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBatty2007225-236-28"},{"link_name":"Siraces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siraces"},{"link_name":"Hyrcania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyrcania"},{"link_name":"Terek–Kuma Lowland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terek%E2%80%93Kuma_Lowland"},{"link_name":"Kalmykia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalmykia"},{"link_name":"Alans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alans"},{"link_name":"Massagetae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massagetae"},{"link_name":"Asii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asii"},{"link_name":"Bactria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bactria"},{"link_name":"Kangju","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kangju"},{"link_name":"Syr Darya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syr_Darya"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelyukova1990-24"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlbrycht2000-23"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sarmatian_bottle_and_lid_(1st_century_CE,_reproduction).jpg"},{"link_name":"Diophantus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diophantus_(general)"},{"link_name":"Romans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Rome"},{"link_name":"Lake Maeotis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_of_Azov"},{"link_name":"Danube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danube"},{"link_name":"Tomis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constan%C8%9Ba"},{"link_name":"Moesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moesia"},{"link_name":"Thracia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thracia"},{"link_name":"Tiberius Plautius Silvanus Aelianus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberius_Plautius_Silvanus_Aelianus"},{"link_name":"Pannonian Basin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pannonian_Basin"},{"link_name":"Moldavia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldavia"},{"link_name":"Wallachia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallachia"},{"link_name":"Tisza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tisza"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelyukova1990-24"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlbrycht2000-23"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBatty2007225-236-28"},{"link_name":"Dacian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dacians"},{"link_name":"Burebista","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burebista"},{"link_name":"Lucius Tarius Rufus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucius_Tarius_Rufus"},{"link_name":"Macedonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(Roman_province)"},{"link_name":"Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnaeus_Cornelius_Lentulus_Augur"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBatty2007225-236-28"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sarmatian_cup_with_animal_handle_(1st_century_CE,_reproduction).jpg"},{"link_name":"Augustus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus"},{"link_name":"Roman–Bosporan War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Bosporan_War"},{"link_name":"Zorsines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zorsines"},{"link_name":"Mithridates III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberius_Julius_Mithridates"},{"link_name":"Cotys I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberius_Julius_Cotys_I"},{"link_name":"Parthian Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthian_Empire"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlbrycht2000-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelyukova1990-24"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBatty2007225-236-28"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Headgear_of_the_Sarmatians_in_Trajan%27s_column.jpg"},{"link_name":"Trajan's column","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trajan%27s_column"},{"link_name":"Moldavia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldavia"},{"link_name":"Ukraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukraine"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBatty2007225-236-28"},{"link_name":"Sindi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sindi_people"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBatty2007225-236-28"},{"link_name":"Pannonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pannonia"},{"link_name":"Quadian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadi"},{"link_name":"Vannius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vannius"},{"link_name":"Transylvanian Plateau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transylvanian_Plateau"},{"link_name":"Carpathian Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carpathian_Mountains"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBatty2007225-236-28"},{"link_name":"Western Turkestan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Turkestan"},{"link_name":"Antae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antes_people"},{"link_name":"Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelyukova1990-24"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlbrycht2000-23"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sarmatian_cataphracts_in_Trajan%27s_column,_2nd_century_CE.jpg"},{"link_name":"cataphracts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cataphract"},{"link_name":"Dacian Wars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trajan%27s_Dacian_Wars"},{"link_name":"Trajan's Column","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trajan%27s_Column"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"}],"sub_title":"In the Pontic Steppe and Europe","text":"Gold mirror, Mayerovsky III Kurgan 4 (Nikolaevsky District, Volgograd region), 2nd-1st centuries BCE.[26][27]During the 4th and 3rd centuries BC, the centre of Sarmatian power remained north of the Caucasus and in the 3rd century BC the most important centres were around the lower Don, Kalmykia, the Kuban area, and the Central Caucasus.[24][23]During the end of the 4th century BC, the Scythians, the then dominant power in the Black Sea Steppe, were militarily defeated by the Macedonian kings Philip II of Macedon and Lysimachus in 339 and 313 BC respectively. They experienced another military setback after participating in the Bosporan Civil War in 309 BC and came under pressure from the Thracian Getae and the Celtic Bastarnae. At the same time, in Central Asia, following the Macedonian conquest of the Achaemenid Empire, the new Seleucid Empire started attacking the Sakā and Dahā nomads who lived to the north of its borders, who in turn put westward pressure on the Sarmatians. Pressured by the Sakā and Dahā in the east and taking advantage of the decline of Scythian power, the Sarmatians began crossing the Don river and invaded Scythia and also migrated south into the North Caucasus.[24][23]The first wave of westward Sarmatian migration happened during the 2nd century BC, and involved the Royal Sarmatians, or Saioi (from Scytho-Sarmatian *xšaya, meaning \"kings\"), who moved into the Pontic Steppe, and the Iazyges, also called the Iaxamatai or Iazamatai, who initially settled between the Don and Dnieper rivers. The Roxolani, who might have been a mixed Scytho-Sarmatian tribe, followed the Iazyges and occupied the Black Sea steppes up to the Dnipro and raided the Crimean region during that century, at the end of which they were involved in a conflict with the generals of the Pontic king Mithridates VI Eupator in the Bosporan Chersonesus, while the Iazyges became his allies.[24][23][28]That the tribes formerly referred to by Herodotus as Scythians were now called Sarmatians by Hellenistic and Roman authors implies that the Sarmatian conquest did not involve a displacement of the Scythians from the Pontic Steppe, but rather that the Scythian tribes were absorbed by the Sarmatians.[28] After their conquest of Scythia, the Sarmatians became the dominant political power in the northern Pontic Steppe, where Sarmatian graves first started appearing in the 2nd century BC. Meanwhile, the populations which still identified as Scythians proper became reduced to Crimea and the Dobruja region, and at one point the Crimean Scythians were the vassals of the Sarmatian queen Amage. Sarmatian power in the Pontic Steppes was also directed against the Greek cities on its shores, with the city of Pontic Olbia being forced to pay repeated tribute to the Royal Sarmatians and their king Saitapharnes, who is mentioned in the Protogenes inscription along with the tribes of the Thisamatae, Scythians, and Saudaratae. Another Sarmatian king, Gatalos, was named in a peace treaty concluded by the king Pharnaces I of Pontus with his enemies.[24][23][28]Two other Sarmatian tribes, the Siraces, who had previously originated in the Transcaspian Plains immediately to the northeast of Hyrcania before migrating to the west, and the Aorsi, moved to the west across the Volga and into the Caucasus mountains' foothills between the 2nd to 1st centuries BC. From there, the pressure from their growing power forcing the more western Sarmatian tribes to migrate further west, and the Aorsi and Siraces destroyed the power of the Royal Sarmatians and the Iazyges, with the Aorsi being able to extend their rule over a large region stretching from the Caucasus across the Terek–Kuma Lowland and Kalmykia in the west up to the Aral Sea region in the east. Yet another new Sarmatian group, the Alans, originated in Central Asia out of the merger of some old tribal groups with the Massagetae. Related to the Asii who invaded Bactria in the 2nd century BC, the Alans were pushed west by the Kangju people (known to Graeco-Roman authors as the Ιαξαρται Iaxartai in Greek, and the Iaxartae in Latin) who were living in the Syr Darya basin, from where they expanded their rule from Fergana to the Aral Sea region.[24][23]Sarmatian bottle and lid (1st century CE, reproduction)The hegemony of the Sarmatians in the Pontic Steppe continued during the 1st century BC, when they were allied with the Scythians against Diophantus, a general of Mithradates VI Eupator, before allying with Mithradates against the Romans and fighting for him in both Europe and Asia, demonstrating the Sarmatians' complete involvement in the affairs of the Pontic and Danubian regions. During the early part of the century, the Alans had migrated to the area to the northeast of the Lake Maeotis. Meanwhile, the Iazyges moved westwards until they reached the Danube, and the Roxolani moved into the area between the Dnipro and the Danube and from there further west. These two peoples attacked the regions around Tomis and Moesia, respectively. During this period, the Iazyges and Roxolani also attacked the Roman province of Thracia, whose governor Tiberius Plautius Silvanus Aelianus had to defend the Roman border of the Danube. During the 1st century BC, various Sarmatians reached the Pannonian Basin, with the Iazyges passing through the territories corresponding to modern-day Moldavia and Wallachia before settling in the Tisza valley, by the middle of the century.[24][23][28]Although the Sarmatian movements stopped temporarily during the 1st century BC due to the rise of the Dacian kingdom of Burebista, they resumed after the collapse of his kingdom following his assassination and in 16 BC. Lucius Tarius Rufus had to repel a Sarmatian attack on Thracia and Macedonia, while further attacks around 10 BC and 2 BC were defeated by Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus.[28]Sarmatian cup with animal handle (1st century CE, reproduction)Meanwhile, other Sarmatian tribes, possibly the Aorsi, sent ambassadors to the Roman emperor Augustus, who tried to establish a diplomatic accommodation with them. During the 1st century AD, the Siraces and Aorsi, who were mutually hostile, participated in the Roman–Bosporan War on opposite sides: the Siraces and their king Zorsines allied with Mithridates III against his half-brother Cotys I, who was allied with Rome and the Aorsi. With the defeat of Mithridates, the Siraces were also routed and lost rulership over most of their lands. Between 50 and 60 CE, the Alans had appeared in the foothills of the Caucasus, from where they attacked the Caucasus and Transcaucasus areas and the Parthian Empire. During the 1st century AD, the Alans expanded across the Volga to the west, absorbing part of the Aorsi and displacing the rest, and pressure from the Alans forced the Iazyges and Roxolani to continue attacking the Roman Empire from across the Danube. During the 1st century AD, two Sarmatian rulers from the steppe named Pharzoios and Inismeōs were minting coins in Pontic Olbia.[23][24][28]Headgear of the Sarmatians in Trajan's columnThe Roxolani continued their westward migration following the conflict on the Bosporan Chersonesus, and by 69 AD they were close enough to the lower Danube that they were able to attack across the river when it was frozen in winter, and soon later they and the Alans were living on the coast of the Black Sea, and they later moved further west and were living in the areas corresponding to modern-day Moldavia and western Ukraine.[28]The Sarmatian tribe of the Arraei, who had had close contacts with the Romans, eventually settled to the south of the Danube river, in Thrace, and another Sarmatian tribe, the Koralloi, were also living in the same area alongside a section of the Scythian Sindi.[28]During the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, the Iazyges often bothered the Roman authorities in Pannonia; they participated in the destruction of the Quadian kingdom of Vannius, and often migrated to the east across the Transylvanian Plateau and the Carpathian Mountains during seasonal movements or for trade.[28]By the 2nd century AD, the Alans had conquered the steppes of the north Caucasus and of the north Black Sea area and created a powerful confederation of tribes under their rule. Under the hegemony of the Alans a trade route connected the Pontic Steppe, the southern Urals, and the region presently known as Western Turkestan. One group of the Alans, the Antae, migrated north into the territory of what is presently Poland.[24][23]Sarmatian cataphracts during Dacian Wars as depicted on Trajan's Column.[29]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Alans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alans"},{"link_name":"Ossetians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ossetians"},{"link_name":"Huns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huns"},{"link_name":"Germanic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_peoples"},{"link_name":"Goths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goths"},{"link_name":"Baltic Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_Sea"},{"link_name":"Ossetians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ossetians"},{"link_name":"Kabardians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabardians"},{"link_name":"Britannia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Britain"},{"link_name":"Hispania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispania"},{"link_name":"Vandals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vandals"},{"link_name":"Strait of Gibraltar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strait_of_Gibraltar"},{"link_name":"Vandal Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vandal_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlbrycht2000-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelyukova1990-24"},{"link_name":"Bosporan Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosporan_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Circassian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circassians"},{"link_name":"Circassian language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circassian_language"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Alans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alans"},{"link_name":"Goths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goths"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Proto-Slavic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Slavs"},{"link_name":"Eastern Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Europe"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Alans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alans"},{"link_name":"North Caucasus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Caucasus"},{"link_name":"Middle Ages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages"},{"link_name":"Ossetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ossetians"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"}],"sub_title":"Decline","text":"See also: Alans and OssetiansThe hegemony of the Sarmatians in the steppes began to decline over the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, when the Huns conquered Sarmatian territory in the Caspian Steppe and the Ural region. The supremacy of the Sarmatians was finally destroyed when the Germanic Goths migrating from the Baltic Sea region conquered the Pontic Steppe around 200 AD. In 375 AD, the Huns conquered most of the Alans living to the east of the Don river, massacred a significant number of them, and absorbed them into their tribal polity, while the Alans to the west of the Don remained free from Hunnish domination. As part of the Hunnic state, the Alans participated in the Huns' defeat and conquest of the kingdom of the Ostrogoths on the Pontic Steppe. Some free Alans fled into the mountains of the Caucasus, where they participated in the ethnogenesis of populations including the Ossetians and the Kabardians, and other Alan groupings survived in Crimea. Others migrated into Central and then Western Europe, from where some of them went to Britannia and Hispania, and some joined the Germanic Vandals into crossing the Strait of Gibraltar and creating the Vandal Kingdom in North Africa.[23][24]The Sarmatians in the Bosporan Kingdom assimilated into the Greek civilization.[30] Others assimilated with the proto-Circassian Meot people, and may have influenced the Circassian language.[31] Some Sarmatians were absorbed by the Alans and Goths.[32] During the Early Middle Ages, the Proto-Slavic population of Eastern Europe assimilated and absorbed Sarmatians during the political upheavals of that era.[33][34] However, a people related to the Sarmatians, known as the Alans, survived in the North Caucasus into the Early Middle Ages, ultimately giving rise to the modern Ossetic ethnic group.[35]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lower-Volga_Sarmatian_burials,_2nd-1st_centuries_BCE.png"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Samartian-Persian_necklace_and_amulet.png"},{"link_name":"Boris Grakov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Grakov"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"kurgan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurgan"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"nomadic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomad"},{"link_name":"Black Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Sea"},{"link_name":"Volga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volga"},{"link_name":"Chernaya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chernaya_River_(Saint_Petersburg)"},{"link_name":"burial customs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burial_customs"},{"link_name":"grave goods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grave_goods"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESinor1990113-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Genito2002-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MG158-41"},{"link_name":"Sauromatian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sauromatian_culture"},{"link_name":"Prokhorovski District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prokhorovski_District"},{"link_name":"Orenburg region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orenburg_Oblast"},{"link_name":"S. I. Rudenko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergei_Rudenko"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"Budapest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budapest"},{"link_name":"Hungary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungary"},{"link_name":"Üllő5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Cll%C5%915"},{"link_name":"Great Hungarian Plain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Hungarian_Plain"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"Cambridgeshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridgeshire"},{"link_name":"archaeogenetics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeogenetics"},{"link_name":"isotope analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotope_analysis#Reconstructing_ancient_diets"},{"link_name":"radiocarbon dated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"Amazons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazons"},{"link_name":"Don","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don_River_(Russia)"},{"link_name":"lower Volga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_Volga"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-anthonyd-46"}],"text":"Lower-Volga Sarmatian burials, 2nd-1st centuries BCE. The burials have two types of swords: swords with traditional Sarmatian crescent-shaped pommels and swords with Asian ring pommels, indicative of the influx of new populations from Central Asia.[36]A Sarmatian-Parthian gold necklace and amulet, second century AD - Tamoikin Art Fund.In 1947, Soviet archaeologist Boris Grakov[37] defined a culture flourishing from the 6th century BC to the 4th century AD, apparent in late kurgan graves (buried within earthwork mounds), sometimes reusing part of much older kurgans.[38] It was a nomadic steppe culture ranging from the Black Sea eastward to beyond the Volga that is especially evident at two of the major sites at Kardaielova and Chernaya in the trans-Uralic steppe. The four phases – distinguished by grave construction, burial customs, grave goods, and geographical spread – are:[39][40][41]Sauromatian, 6th–5th centuries BC, also called the \"Blumenfeld culture\"\nEarly Sarmatian, 4th–2nd centuries BC, also called the \"Prokhorovka culture\"\nMiddle Sarmatian, late 2nd century BC to late 2nd century AD, also called the \"Suslov culture\"\nLate Sarmatian, late 2nd century AD to 4th century AD, also called the \"Shipov culture\"While \"Sarmatian\" and \"Sauromatian\" are synonymous as ethnonyms, by convention they are given different meanings as archaeological technical terms. The term \"Prokhorovka culture\" derives from a complex of mounds in the Prokhorovski District, Orenburg region, excavated by S. I. Rudenko in 1916.[42]Reportedly, during 2001 and 2006 a great Late Sarmatian pottery centre was unearthed near Budapest, Hungary in the Üllő5 archaeological site. Typical grey, granular Üllő5 ceramics form a distinct group of Sarmatian pottery is found ubiquitously in the north-central part of the Great Hungarian Plain region, indicating a lively trading activity.A 1998 paper on the study of glass beads found in Sarmatian graves suggests wide cultural and trade links.[43]A 2023 paper on a grave discovered in Cambridgeshire, England found via archaeogenetics that the person had Sarmatian-related ancestry, and was not related to the local population. Stable isotope analysis of his teeth determined that he had probably migrated long distances twice in his life. One tooth was radiocarbon dated to cal 126-228 CE.[44][45]Archaeological evidence suggests that Scythian-Sarmatian cultures may have given rise to the Greek legends of Amazons. Graves of armed women have been found in southern Ukraine and Russia. David Anthony noted that approximately 20% of Scythian-Sarmatian \"warrior graves\" on the lower Don and lower Volga contained women dressed for battle as warriors and he asserts that encountering that cultural phenomenon \"probably inspired the Greek tales about the Amazons.\"[46]","title":"Archaeology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sarmatian_crown.jpg"},{"link_name":"diadem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diadem"},{"link_name":"kurgan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurgan"},{"link_name":"Novocherkassk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novocherkassk"},{"link_name":"Hermitage Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermitage_Museum"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"Scythians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scythians"},{"link_name":"Saka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saka"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuzmina2007220-48"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuzmina2007445-49"},{"link_name":"Andronovo cultures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andronovo_culture"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuzmina2007xiv-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuzmina200750-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuzmina200751-52"},{"link_name":"Timber grave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timber-grave_culture"},{"link_name":"Srubnaya culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srubnaya_culture"},{"link_name":"Andronovo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andronovo_culture"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuzmina200764-53"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuzmina200778-54"},{"link_name":"Caucasoid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasoid"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"southern Urals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Urals"},{"link_name":"Lower Volga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_Volga"},{"link_name":"Pontic steppe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontic_steppe"},{"link_name":"Alans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alans"},{"link_name":"Aorsi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorsi"},{"link_name":"Roxolani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roxolani"},{"link_name":"Iazyges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iazyges"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cunliffe2001-56"},{"link_name":"Pontic steppe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontic_steppe"},{"link_name":"the Black Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Black_Sea"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rene-57"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESinor1990113-39"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrzezinskiMielczarek2002-58"},{"link_name":"formed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnogenesis"},{"link_name":"Don River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don_River_(Russia)"},{"link_name":"Ural Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ural_Mountains"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrzezinskiMielczarek2002-58"},{"link_name":"Pliny the Elder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder"},{"link_name":"Vistula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vistula"},{"link_name":"Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland"},{"link_name":"Danube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danube"}],"text":"A Sarmatian diadem, found at the Khokhlach kurgan near Novocherkassk (first century AD, Hermitage Museum).[47]The Sarmatians were part of the Iranian steppe peoples, among whom were also Scythians and Saka.[48] These also are grouped together as \"East Iranians.\"[49] Archaeology has established the connection 'between the Iranian-speaking Scythians, Sarmatians, and Saka and the earlier Timber-grave and Andronovo cultures'.[50] Based on building construction, these three peoples were the likely descendants of those earlier archaeological cultures.[51] The Sarmatians and Saka used the same stone construction methods as the earlier Andronovo culture.[52] The Timber grave (Srubnaya culture) and Andronovo house building traditions were further developed by these three peoples.[53] Andronovo pottery was continued by the Saka and Sarmatians.[54] Archaeologists describe the Andronovo culture people as exhibiting pronounced Caucasoid features.[55]The first Sarmatians are mostly identified with the Prokhorovka culture, which moved from the southern Urals to the Lower Volga and then to the northern Pontic steppe, in the fourth–third centuries BC. During the migration, the Sarmatian population seems to have grown and they divided themselves into several groups, such as the Alans, Aorsi, Roxolani, and Iazyges. By 200 BC, the Sarmatians replaced the Scythians as the dominant people of the steppes.[56] The Sarmatians and Scythians had fought on the Pontic steppe to the north of the Black Sea.[57] The Sarmatians, described as a large confederation,[39] were to dominate these territories over the next five centuries.[58] According to Brzezinski and Mielczarek, the Sarmatians were formed between the Don River and the Ural Mountains.[58] Pliny the Elder wrote that they ranged from the Vistula River (in present-day Poland) to the Danube.","title":"Ethnology"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Assimilation_of_Baltic_and_Aryan_Peoples_by_Uralic_Speakers_in_the_Middle_and_Upper_Volga_Basin_(Shaded_Relief_BG).png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sarmatians_warriors_(reconstruction).jpg"},{"link_name":"Iranian language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_language"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarmatta19703.4-59"},{"link_name":"Black Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Sea"},{"link_name":"North-Eastern Iranian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North-Eastern_Iranian"},{"link_name":"Ossetian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ossetian_language"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarmatta19703.4-59"}],"sub_title":"Language","text":"Iranic peoples of Central Asia during the Iron Age, including SarmatiansSarmatians warriors (reconstruction)The Sarmatians spoke an Iranian language that was derived from 'Old Iranian' and was heterogenous. By the first century BC, the Iranian tribes in what is today South Russia spoke different languages or dialects, clearly distinguishable.[59] According to a group of Iranologists writing in 1968, the numerous Iranian personal names in Greek inscriptions from the Black Sea coast indicate that the Sarmatians spoke a North-Eastern Iranian dialect ancestral to Alanian-Ossetian.[60] However, Harmatta (1970) argued that \"the language of the Sarmatians or that of the Alans as a whole cannot be simply regarded as being Old Ossetian.\"[59]","title":"Culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Germanic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_peoples"},{"link_name":"Bastarnae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bastarnae"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBatty2007225-236-28"},{"link_name":"contus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kontos_(weapon)"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBatty2007225-236-28"}],"sub_title":"Equipment","text":"The Roxolani, who were one of the earlier Sarmatian tribes to have migrated into Europe and therefore were among the more geographically western Sarmatians, used helmets and corselets made of raw ox hide, and wicker shields, as well as spears, bows, and swords. The Roxolani adopted these forms of armour and weaponry from the Germanic Bastarnae near whom they lived.[28] The more eastern Sarmatian tribes used scale armour and used a long lance called the contus and bows in battle.[28]","title":"Culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Arzhan-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arzhan-2"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"Peter the Great","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_the_Great"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"Hermitage Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermitage_Museum"},{"link_name":"St. Petersburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Petersburg"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"Tree of Life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_of_life"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"Filippovka kurgan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filippovka_kurgan"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LTY2013-66"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Filippovka_1_Iron_armour_from_burial_2_mound_4.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Filippovka_1,_Horn_armour_from_mound_29.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Filippovka_1,_bronze_arrowheads_from_burial_2,_mound_4.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Filippovka_1,_iron_helmets_from_mound_11.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Filippovka_1,_iron_sowrds_and_daggers.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%D0%97%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE_%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B9._Gold_of_the_Sarmatian_-_Dagger,_Kurgan_4,_Burial_2,_Filippovka.jpg"}],"sub_title":"Metalwork","text":"The early Sarmatians already possessed the technique of decorating with gold inclusions, observed in Achaemenid metalwork. It was spread by nomads in the Eurasian steppes during the 7th-5th century BC, from the Altai Mountains (Arzhan-2 kurgan) westward to central Kazakhstan and the southern Urals.[61] Peter the Great particularly cherished his Demidov Gift, a Sarmatian gold collection,[62] now exhibited in the Gold Chamber at the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg. The Novocherkassk Treasure with the famous Sarmatian Diadem[63] adorned with the Tree of Life can also be seen in the Hermitage Gold Room.[64] It is a Sarmatian hoard of gold, silver and bronze articles and jewellery discovered in the Khokhlach barrow in Novocherkassk in 1864. Chronologically it belongs to the first and second centuries AD.[65]Numerous weapons, armour, helmets were already found in the excavations of the Early Sarmatian Filippovka kurgan (c. 450-300 BCE):[66]Many Chinese mirrors can be found in graves of the Middle-Sarmatian to Late-Sarmatian periods.[67]Filippovka 1 Iron armour from burial 2 mound 4\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tFilippovka 1, Horn armour from mound 29\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tFilippovka 1, bronze arrowheads from burial 2, mound 4\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tFilippovka 1, iron helmets from mound 11\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tFilippovka 1, iron swords and daggers\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tFilippovka 1, bronze and inlaid gold dagger","title":"Culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Scythians § Archaeogenetics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scythians#Archaeogenetics"},{"link_name":"Western Steppe Herders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Steppe_Herders"}],"text":"See also: Scythians § Archaeogenetics, and Western Steppe Herders","title":"Genetics"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bronze_to_Iron_Age_Steppe_peoples_genetic_makeup.png"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Genetic_makeup_of_the_Saka_and_Scythian_cultures.png"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-69"},{"link_name":"Bronze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Age"},{"link_name":"Iron Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Age"},{"link_name":"Western Steppe Herders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Steppe_Herders"},{"link_name":"Sintashta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sintashta_culture"},{"link_name":"Srubnaya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srubnaya_culture"},{"link_name":"Andronovo cultures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andronovo_culture"},{"link_name":"Khövsgöl LBA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kh%C3%B6vsg%C3%B6l_LBA"},{"link_name":"Saka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saka"},{"link_name":"Altai region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altai_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-69"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"Current Biology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current_Biology"},{"link_name":"Hungarian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarians"},{"link_name":"Huns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huns"},{"link_name":"Huns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huns"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:22-71"},{"link_name":"Kazakhstan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstan"},{"link_name":"Xiongnu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiongnu"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"}],"sub_title":"Autosomal DNA","text":"Genetic makeup of Bronze and Iron Age Steppe populations[68]Map of Scythian cultures, including different Saka populations with genetic profiles[69]Sarmatians emerged primarily from the Bronze and Iron Age Western Steppe Herders (Steppe_MLBA), associated with the Sintashta, Srubnaya and Andronovo cultures, but also carried a small amount of admixed from an East Asian-derived population represented by Khövsgöl LBA groups, which may have been indirectly mediated via contact with the related Saka from the Altai region, which are regared as the oldest Scythoid cultural group. The Sarmatians also received geneflow from an ancient Iranian population associated with the Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex.[69][70]A genetic study published in Current Biology in 2022 regarding the genetic origin of Huns, Avars, and conquering Hungarians. 265 ancient genomes were analized, it revealed that the Hungarian conquerors admixed with Sarmatians and Huns. Sarmatian ancestry was also detected among several Hun samples which implies a significant Sarmatian influence on European Huns.[71]There is also evidence for a later eastwards expansion of Sarmatian-like ancestry, evident in a Saka-associated sample from southeastern Kazakhstan (Konyr Tobe 300CE), displaying around 85% Sarmatian and 15% additional BMAC-like ancestry. Sarmatian-like contributions have also been detected among some Xiongnu remains.[72]","title":"Genetics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"Nature Communications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_Communications"},{"link_name":"Ural Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ural_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Y-DNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y-DNA"},{"link_name":"Yamnaya culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamnaya_culture"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"mtDNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MtDNA"},{"link_name":"U3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_U_(mtDNA)#Haplogroup_U3"},{"link_name":"M","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_M_(mtDNA)"},{"link_name":"U1a'c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_U_(mtDNA)#Haplogroup_U1"},{"link_name":"T","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_T_(mtDNA)"},{"link_name":"F1b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_F_(mtDNA)"},{"link_name":"N1a1a1a1a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_N_(mtDNA)"},{"link_name":"T2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_T_(mtDNA)"},{"link_name":"U2e2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_U_(mtDNA)#Haplogroup_U2e2"},{"link_name":"H2a1f","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_H_(mtDNA)#H2,_H6_and_H8"},{"link_name":"T1a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_T_(mtDNA)"},{"link_name":"U5a1d2b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_U_(mtDNA)#Haplogroup_U5"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUnterl%C3%A4nder_et_al.2017Supplementary_Information,_p._25,_Supplementary_Table_1-76"},{"link_name":"Poltavka culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poltavka_culture"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"Nature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(journal)"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamgaard_et_al.2018Supplementary_Table_2,_Rows_19,_21-22,_25,_90-93,_95-97,_116-78"},{"link_name":"haplogroup R1a1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_R1a"},{"link_name":"I2b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_I-M438"},{"link_name":"R","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_R_(Y-DNA)"},{"link_name":"R1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_R1"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamgaard_et_al.2018Supplementary_Table_9,_Rows_15,_18,_64,_67,_68-79"},{"link_name":"C4a1a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_C_(mtDNA)"},{"link_name":"U4a2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_U_(mtDNA)#Haplogroup_U4"},{"link_name":"C4b1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_C_(mtDNA)"},{"link_name":"I1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_I_(mtDNA)#I1"},{"link_name":"A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_A_(mtDNA)"},{"link_name":"U2e1h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_U_(mtDNA)#Haplogroup_U2"},{"link_name":"U4b1a4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_U_(mtDNA)#Haplogroup_U4"},{"link_name":"H28","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_H_(mtDNA)"},{"link_name":"U5a1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_U_(mtDNA)#Haplogroup_U4"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamgaard_et_al.2018Supplementary_Table_8,_Rows_57,_79-80,_84,_25-27,_31-33,_59-80"},{"link_name":"Science Advances","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Advances"},{"link_name":"haplogroup R1a1a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_R1a"},{"link_name":"R1b1a2a2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_R-M269"},{"link_name":"H2a1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_H_(mtDNA)#H2,_H6_and_H8"},{"link_name":"T1a1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_T_(mtDNA)"},{"link_name":"U5b2b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_U_(mtDNA)#Haplogroup_U5"},{"link_name":"D4q","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_D_(mtDNA)#D4"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrzewi%C5%84ska_et_al.2018Supplementary_Materials,_Table_S3_Summary,_Rows_4-8-81"},{"link_name":"Current Biology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current_Biology"},{"link_name":"Ural Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ural_Mountains"},{"link_name":"haplogroup Q1c-L332","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_Q-M242"},{"link_name":"R1a1e-CTS1123","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_R1a"},{"link_name":"R1a-Z645","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_R1a"},{"link_name":"E1b1b-PF6746","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_E-M123"},{"link_name":"haplogroup W","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_W_(mtDNA)"},{"link_name":"W3a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_W_(mtDNA)"},{"link_name":"T1a1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_T_(mtDNA)"},{"link_name":"U5a2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_U_(mtDNA)#Haplogroup_U5"},{"link_name":"U5b2a1a2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_U_(mtDNA)#Haplogroup_U5"},{"link_name":"T1a1d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_T_(mtDNA)"},{"link_name":"C1e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_C_(mtDNA)"},{"link_name":"U5b2a1a1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_U_(mtDNA)#Haplogroup_U5"},{"link_name":"U5b2c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_U_(mtDNA)#Haplogroup_U5"},{"link_name":"U5b2c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_U_(mtDNA)#Haplogroup_U5"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJ%C3%A4rve_et_al.2019Table_S2-82"},{"link_name":"Cell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(journal)"},{"link_name":"Pannonian Basin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pannonian_Basin"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGnecchi-RusconeSz%C3%A9cs%C3%A9nyi-NagyKonczCsiky2022Table_S1-83"}],"sub_title":"Haplogroups","text":"Afanasiev et al. (2014) analyzed ten Alanic burials on the Don River. Four of them carried Y-DNA Haplogroup G2 and six of them possessed mtDNA haplogroup I.[73]In 2015, again Afanasiev et al. analyzed skeletons of various Sarmato-Alan and Saltovo-Mayaki culture Kurgan burials. The two Alan samples from the fourth to sixth century AD belonged to Y-DNA haplogroups G2a-P15 and R1a-Z94, while two of the three Sarmatian samples from the second to third century AD ound to belonged to Y-DNA haplogroup J1-M267, and one belonged to R1a. Three Saltovo-Mayaki samples from the eighth to ninth century AD turned out to have Y-DNA corresponding to haplogroups G, J2a-M410 and R1a-z94.[74]A genetic study published in Nature Communications in March 2017 examined several Sarmatian individuals buried in Pokrovka, Russia (southwest of the Ural Mountains) between the fifth century BC and the second century BC. The sample of Y-DNA extracted belonged to haplogroup R1b1a2a2. This was the dominant lineage among males of the earlier Yamnaya culture.[75] The eleven samples of mtDNA extracted belonged to the haplogroups U3, M, U1a'c, T, F1b, N1a1a1a1a, T2, U2e2, H2a1f, T1a, and U5a1d2b.[76] The Sarmatians examined were found to be closely related to peoples of the earlier Yamnaya culture and to the Poltavka culture.[77]A genetic study published in Nature in May 2018 examined the remains of twelve Sarmatians buried between 400 BC and 400 AD.[78] The five samples of Y-DNA extracted belonged to haplogroup R1a1, I2b, R (two samples), and R1.[79] The eleven samples of mtDNA extracted belonged to C4a1a, U4a2 (two samples), C4b1, I1, A, U2e1h (two samples), U4b1a4, H28, and U5a1.[80]A genetic study published in Science Advances in October 2018 examined the remains of five Sarmatians buried between 55 AD and 320 AD. The three samples of Y-DNA extracted belonged to haplogroup R1a1a and R1b1a2a2 (two samples), while the five samples of mtDNA extracted belonged to haplogroup H2a1, T1a1, U5b2b (two samples), and D4q.[81]A genetic study published in Current Biology in July 2019 examined the remains of nine Sarmatians from the southern Ural Mountains between 7th–2nd century BC. The five samples of Y-DNA extracted belonged to haplogroup Q1c-L332, R1a1e-CTS1123, R1a-Z645 (two samples), and E1b1b-PF6746, while the nine samples of mtDNA extracted belonged to haplogroup W, W3a, T1a1, U5a2, U5b2a1a2, T1a1d, C1e, U5b2a1a1, U5b2c, and U5b2c.[82]A archaeogenetic study published in Cell in 2022, analyzed 17 Late Sarmatian samples from 4-5th century AD from the Pannonian Basin in Hungary. The nine extraced Y-DNA belonged to a diverse set of haplogroups, 2x I2a1b1a2b1-CTS4348, 2x I1a2a1a1a-Z141, I1a-DF29, G2a1-FGC725, E1b1b-L142.1, R1a1a1b2a2a1-Z2123 and R1b1a1b1a1a2b-PF6570, while the mtDNA haplogroups C5, H, 2x H1, H5, H7, H40, H59, HV0 I1, J1, 2x K1a, T1a, 2x T2b, U2.[83]","title":"Genetics"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Reconstruction_based_on_the_skull_of_a_mature_male_(40%E2%80%9350_years_old)_from_the_Elton_cemetery,_kurgan_10,_burial_9,_Early_Sarmatian_time,_4th_century_BCE.jpg"},{"link_name":"Elton cemetery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Elton"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Early_Sarmatian_chieftain,_Araltobe_kurgan,_3rd-2nd_century_BCE.jpg"},{"link_name":"Araltobe kurgan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Araltobe_kurgan"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Early_Sarmatian_woman,_3rd-2nd_century_BCE,_Old_Knishkin_Burial_ground,_Bashkortostan,_Karmikalyi_Ri.jpg"},{"link_name":"Bashkortostan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bashkortostan"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"Filippovka kurgans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filippovka_kurgans"},{"link_name":"Timber Grave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timber_Grave"},{"link_name":"Andronovo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andronovo"},{"link_name":"Sauromatians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sauromatians"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GD39-88"},{"link_name":"Saka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saka"},{"link_name":"Central Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Asia"},{"link_name":"Altai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altai_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Pazyryk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pazyryk_culture"},{"link_name":"Scythians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scythians"},{"link_name":"Volga River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volga_River"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GD39-88"},{"link_name":"Ovid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovid"},{"link_name":"Ammianus Marcellinus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus"},{"link_name":"Roger Batty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Batty"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"Bernard Bachrach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Bachrach"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"Iver Neumann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iver_Neumann"},{"link_name":"Indo-Iranian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Iranians"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"},{"link_name":"Charles Previté-Orton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Previt%C3%A9-Orton"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"}],"text":"Forensic reconstruction based on the skull of a mature male (40–50 years old) from the Elton cemetery, kurgan 10, burial 9, Early Sarmatian time, 4th century BCE.[84]Early Sarmatian chieftain, Araltobe kurgan, 3rd-2nd century BCE.[85][86]Early Sarmatian woman, 3rd-2nd century BCE, Old Knishkin burial, Bashkortostan.[87]The Early Samartians from the Filippovka kurgans (4th century BC) combined Western (Timber Grave and Andronovo) and Eastern characteristics. Compared with classical Sauromatians, Early Sarmatians, such as those of Filippovka, generally display an increased incidence of eastern Asiatic features.[88] They most closely resembled the Saka populations of Central Asia, particularly from the Altai region (Pazyryk), and were very different from the western Scythians, or the Sarmatians of the Volga River area.[88]The Roman author Ovid recorded that one of the Sarmatian tribes, the Coralli, had blond hair, which is a characteristic that Ammianus Marcellinus also ascribed to the Alans. He wrote that nearly all of the Alani were \"of great stature and beauty, their hair is somewhat yellow, their eyes are frighteningly fierce.\"Modern historians have offered conflicting opinions about the description of the Alans as being tall and having blond hair. For instance, Roger Batty has posited that \"presumably, only some of the Alans would have been blond\".[89] Bernard Bachrach has likewise suggested that because the Alans assimilated so many foreigners, the majority of them are unlikely to have been blond-haired, and that there was no distinguishing physical characteristic of the Alans.[90] However, John Day has argued that Bachrach's analysis is flawed, because he mistranslated the original passage from Ammianus Marcellinus, and that the majority of the Alans were in fact blond.[91] Iver Neumann has suggested that the description of Alans as blond may mean that their Indo-Iranian ancestry was greater than it was in the Huns.[92] Charles Previté-Orton wrote that the Alans were only partly of Iranian heritage, and that the other part of their ancestry came from captive women and slaves.[93]","title":"Physical appearance"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sarmatism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarmatism"},{"link_name":"Sarmatianism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarmatianism"},{"link_name":"concept","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept"},{"link_name":"Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland"},{"link_name":"Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ukrsar-94"},{"link_name":"Baroque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baroque_in_Poland"},{"link_name":"culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture"},{"link_name":"ideology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideology"},{"link_name":"szlachta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szlachta"},{"link_name":"Renaissance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ukrsar-94"},{"link_name":"Golden Liberty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Liberty"},{"link_name":"Iranic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_peoples"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"}],"text":"Sarmatism (or Sarmatianism) is an ethno-cultural concept with a shade of politics designating the formation of an idea of the origin of Poland from Sarmatians within the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.[94] It was the dominant Baroque culture and ideology of the nobility (szlachta) that existed in times of the Renaissance to the eighteenth centuries.[94] Together with another concept of \"Golden Liberty,\" it formed a central aspect of the Commonwealth's culture and society. At its core was the unifying belief that the people of the Polish Commonwealth descended from the ancient Iranic Sarmatians, the legendary invaders of Slavic lands in antiquity.[95][96]","title":"Sarmatism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Alans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alans"},{"link_name":"Ossetians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ossetians"},{"link_name":"Jasz people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jasz_people"},{"link_name":"Roxolani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roxolani"},{"link_name":"Iazyges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iazyges"},{"link_name":"Aorsi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorsi"},{"link_name":"Arcaragantes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcaragantes"},{"link_name":"Hamaxobii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamaxobii"},{"link_name":"Limigantes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limigantes"},{"link_name":"Saii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saii&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Serboi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serboi"},{"link_name":"Siraces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siraces"},{"link_name":"Spali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spali"},{"link_name":"Taifals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taifals"}],"text":"Alans\nOssetians\nJasz people\nRoxolani\nIazyges\nAorsi\nArcaragantes\nHamaxobii (possibly)\nLimigantes\nSaii\nSerboi\nSiraces\nSpali\nTaifals (possibly)","title":"Tribes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-198-14936-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-198-14936-1"},{"link_name":"The Sarmatians 600 BC–AD 450","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=tCknvgAACAAJ"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-84176-485-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84176-485-6"},{"link_name":"Davis-Kimball, Jeannine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeannine_Davis-Kimball"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-885979-00-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-885979-00-1"},{"link_name":"Indo-European origins: the anthropological evidence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=GiQSAQAAIAAJ"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0941694759","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0941694759"},{"link_name":"Scythians and Sarmatians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=400IFGXTvpYC"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-7614-4519-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7614-4519-7"},{"link_name":"Sarmatians: History and Archaeology of a Forgotten People","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=B34uMQAACAAJ"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-7954-3234-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7954-3234-8"},{"link_name":"The Northern Black Sea in Antiquity: networks, connectivity, and cultural interactions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=hcwnDwAAQBAJ"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-107-01951-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-01951-5"},{"link_name":"The Origin of the Indo-Iranians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=x5J9rn8p2-IC"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-90-04-16054-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16054-5"},{"link_name":"Melyukova, A. 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nomads\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6223350"},{"link_name":"Science Advances","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Advances"},{"link_name":"American Association for the Advancement of Science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Science"},{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2018SciA....4.4457K","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018SciA....4.4457K"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1126/sciadv.aat4457","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1126%2Fsciadv.aat4457"},{"link_name":"PMC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"6223350","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6223350"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"30417088","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30417088"},{"link_name":"Les Sarmates: amazones et lanciers cuirassés entre Oural et Danube, VIIe siècle av. J.-C.-VIe siècle apr. J.-C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=-stoAAAAMAAJ"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-2-87772-235-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-87772-235-3"},{"link_name":"\"Сарматы, Сарматия и Северное Причерноморье\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgftp//istorichka.ru/Periodika/Vestnik_drevnej_istorii/2015/2015_1.pdf"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1111/ojoa.12010","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1111%2Fojoa.12010"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.2753/aae1061-195940047","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.2753%2Faae1061-195940047"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"161826066","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161826066"},{"link_name":"\"Remarks on the Scythian, Sarmatian and Meotian Beliefs\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.pax-barbarorum.ru/s-a/rjabchikov_remarks.doc"},{"link_name":"Tokhtasyev, Sergey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D1%85%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%B5%D0%B2,_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B9_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87"},{"link_name":"\"Sauromatae - Syrmatae - Sarmatae\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.academia.edu/7169847"},{"link_name":"Херсонесский сборник","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA"},{"link_name":"\"Ancestry and demography and descendants of Iron Age nomads of the Eurasian Steppe\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5337992"},{"link_name":"Nature Communications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_Communications"},{"link_name":"Nature Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_Research"},{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2017NatCo...814615U","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017NatCo...814615U"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1038/ncomms14615","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1038%2Fncomms14615"},{"link_name":"PMC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"5337992","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5337992"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"28256537","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28256537"}],"text":"Books\nBatty, Roger (2007). Rome and the Nomads: The Pontic-Danubian Realm in Antiquity. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-198-14936-1.\nBrzezinski, Richard; Mielczarek, Mariusz (2002). The Sarmatians 600 BC–AD 450. Men-At-Arms (373). Bloomsbury USA; Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84176-485-6.\nDavis-Kimball, Jeannine; Bashilov, Vladimir A.; Yablonsky, Leonid T. (1995). Nomads of the Eurasian Steppes in the Early Iron Age. Berkeley: Zinat Press. ISBN 978-1-885979-00-1.\nDay, John V. (2001). Indo-European origins: the anthropological evidence. Institute for the Study of Man. ISBN 978-0941694759.\nHinds, Kathryn (2009). Scythians and Sarmatians. Marshall Cavendish. ISBN 978-0-7614-4519-7.\nIstvánovits, Eszter; Kulcsár, Valéria (2017). Sarmatians: History and Archaeology of a Forgotten People. Schnell & Steiner. ISBN 978-3-7954-3234-8.\nKozlovskaya, Valeriya (2017). The Northern Black Sea in Antiquity: networks, connectivity, and cultural interactions. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-01951-5.\nKuzmina, Elena Efimovna (2007). The Origin of the Indo-Iranians. BRILL. pp. 50, 51, 56, 64, 78, 83, 220, 410. ISBN 978-90-04-16054-5.\nMelyukova, A. I. (1990). Sinor, Denis (ed.). The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia. Vol. 1. Translated by Crookenden, Julia. Cambridge, United Kingdom; New York City, United States: Cambridge University Press. p. 97-117. ISBN 978-0-521-24304-9.\nOlbrycht, Marek Jan (2000). \"Remarks on the Presence of Iranian Peoples in Europe and Their Asiatic Relations\". Collectanea Celto-Asiatica Cracoviensia. Kraków: Księgarnia Akademicka. pp. 105–107. ISBN 978-8-371-88337-8.\nSinor, Denis, ed. (1990). The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24304-9.\nК.Ф. Смирнов. Сарматы и утверждение их политического господства в Скифии. Рипол Классик. ISBN 978-5-458-40072-5.\nSulimirski, Tadeusz (1970). The Sarmatians. Ancient People and Places, vol. 73. Praeger.\nJournals\nАбрамова, М. П. (1988). \"Сарматы и Северный Кавказ\". Проблемы сарматской археологии и истории: 4–18.\nDamgaard, P. B.; et al. (9 May 2018). \"137 ancient human genomes from across the Eurasian steppes\". Nature. 557 (7705). Nature Research: 369–373. Bibcode:2018Natur.557..369D. doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0094-2. hdl:1887/3202709. PMID 29743675. S2CID 13670282. Retrieved 11 April 2020.\nGenito, Bruno (1988). \"The Archaeological Cultures of the Sarmatians with a Preliminary Note on the Trial-Trenches at Gyoma 133: a Sarmatian Settlement in South-Eastern Hungary (Campaign 1985)\" (PDF). Annali dell'Istituto Universitario Orientale di Napoli. 42: 81–126.\nGnecchi-Ruscone, Guido Alberto; Szécsényi-Nagy, Anna; Koncz, István; Csiky, Gergely; Rácz, Zsófia; Rohrlach, A. B.; Brandt, Guido; Rohland, Nadin; Csáky, Veronika; Cheronet, Olivia; Szeifert, Bea (14 April 2022). \"Ancient genomes reveal origin and rapid trans-Eurasian migration of 7th century Avar elites\". Cell. 185 (8): 1402–1413.e21. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2022.03.007. ISSN 0092-8674. PMC 9042794. PMID 35366416. S2CID 247859905.\nJärve, Mari; et al. (11 July 2019). \"Shifts in the Genetic Landscape of the Western Eurasian Steppe Associated with the Beginning and End of the Scythian Dominance\". Current Biology. 29 (14). Cell Press: 2430–2441. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2019.06.019. PMID 31303491.\nHarmatta, J. (1970). \"Studies in the History and Language of the Sarmatians\". Acta Antique et Archaeologica. XIII.\nKrzewińska, Maja; et al. (3 October 2018). \"Ancient genomes suggest the eastern Pontic-Caspian steppe as the source of western Iron Age nomads\". Science Advances. 4 (10). American Association for the Advancement of Science: eaat4457. Bibcode:2018SciA....4.4457K. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aat4457. PMC 6223350. PMID 30417088.\nКлепиков, В. М.; Скрипкин, А. С. (1997). \"Ранние сарматы в контексте исторических событий Восточной Европы\". Донские древности. 5: 28–40.\nКозлова, Р. М. (2004). О Сормах, Сарматах, Сорматских горах. Студії з ономастики та етимології (in Ukrainian).\nLebedynsky, Iaroslav (2002). Les Sarmates: amazones et lanciers cuirassés entre Oural et Danube, VIIe siècle av. J.-C.-VIe siècle apr. J.-C. Errance. ISBN 978-2-87772-235-3.\nMordvintseva, Valentina I. (2015). \"Сарматы, Сарматия и Северное Причерноморье\" [Sarmatia, the Sarmatians and the North Pontic Area] (PDF). Вестник древней истории [Journal of Ancient History]. 1 (292): 109–135.\nMordvintseva, Valentina I. (2013). \"The Sarmatians: The Creation of Archaeological Evidence\". Oxford Journal of Archaeology. 32 (2): 203–219. doi:10.1111/ojoa.12010.\nMoshkova, M. G. (1995). \"A brief review of the history of the Sauromatian and Sarmatian tribes\". Nomads of the Eurasian Steppes in the Early Iron Age: 85–89.\nPerevalov, S. M. (2002). \"The Sarmatian Lance and the Sarmatian Horse-Riding Posture\". Anthropology & Archeology of Eurasia. 40 (4): 7–21. doi:10.2753/aae1061-195940047. S2CID 161826066.\nRjabchikov, Sergei V. (2004). \"Remarks on the Scythian, Sarmatian and Meotian Beliefs\". AnthroGlobe Journal.\nСимоненко, А. В.; Лобай, Б. И. (1991). \"Сарматы Северо-Западного Причерноморья в I в. н. э.\". Погребения знати у с. Пороги (in Russian).\nTokhtasyev, Sergey [in Russian] (2005). \"Sauromatae - Syrmatae - Sarmatae\". Херсонесский сборник [Chersonesian Collection] (in Russian). 14: 291–306. Retrieved 4 September 2023.\nUnterländer, Martina; et al. (3 March 2017). \"Ancestry and demography and descendants of Iron Age nomads of the Eurasian Steppe\". Nature Communications. 8 (14615). Nature Research: 14615. Bibcode:2017NatCo...814615U. doi:10.1038/ncomms14615. PMC 5337992. PMID 28256537.","title":"Sources"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Sarmatian cataphracts in Trajan's column, 2nd century CE.[1]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Sarmatian_cataphract_in_Trajan%27s_colmun%2C_2nd_century_CE.jpg/300px-Sarmatian_cataphract_in_Trajan%27s_colmun%2C_2nd_century_CE.jpg"},{"image_text":"Map of the Roman empire under Hadrian (ruled 117–138 AD), showing the location of the Sarmatae in the Ukrainian steppe region","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Roman_Empire_125.png/330px-Roman_Empire_125.png"},{"image_text":"Evolution of sword types of the South Urals, from Sauromatian (5th-4th centuries BCE) to Early Sarmatian (3rd-1st centuries BCE).[17]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Sword_types_of_the_South_Urals%2C_Sauromatian_to_Early_Sarmatian_5th-1st_centuries_BCE.png/390px-Sword_types_of_the_South_Urals%2C_Sauromatian_to_Early_Sarmatian_5th-1st_centuries_BCE.png"},{"image_text":"Reconstruction of early Sarmatian chieftain. Araltobe kurgan, Kazakhstan, III-II c. BC. Excavation of Z. Samashev.[18][19]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Reconstruction_of_Sarmatian_chieftain._Araltobe_mount%2C_Kazakhstan%2C_III-II_cc._BC._Excavation_of_Z._Samashev._Heritage_of_the_Great_Steppe_exhibition%2C_Gda%C5%84sk_Main_Town_Hall.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg"},{"image_text":"Gold mirror, Mayerovsky III Kurgan 4 (Nikolaevsky District, Volgograd region), 2nd-1st centuries BCE.[26][27]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Gold_mirror_Mayerovsky_III_Kurgan_4.jpg/170px-Gold_mirror_Mayerovsky_III_Kurgan_4.jpg"},{"image_text":"Sarmatian bottle and lid (1st century CE, reproduction)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Sarmatian_bottle_and_lid_%281st_century_CE%2C_reproduction%29.jpg/220px-Sarmatian_bottle_and_lid_%281st_century_CE%2C_reproduction%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Sarmatian cup with animal handle (1st century CE, reproduction)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Sarmatian_cup_with_animal_handle_%281st_century_CE%2C_reproduction%29.jpg/220px-Sarmatian_cup_with_animal_handle_%281st_century_CE%2C_reproduction%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Headgear of the Sarmatians in Trajan's column","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Headgear_of_the_Sarmatians_in_Trajan%27s_column.jpg/170px-Headgear_of_the_Sarmatians_in_Trajan%27s_column.jpg"},{"image_text":"Sarmatian cataphracts during Dacian Wars as depicted on Trajan's Column.[29]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Sarmatian_cataphracts_in_Trajan%27s_column%2C_2nd_century_CE.jpg/220px-Sarmatian_cataphracts_in_Trajan%27s_column%2C_2nd_century_CE.jpg"},{"image_text":"Lower-Volga Sarmatian burials, 2nd-1st centuries BCE. The burials have two types of swords: swords with traditional Sarmatian crescent-shaped pommels and swords with Asian ring pommels, indicative of the influx of new populations from Central Asia.[36]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Lower-Volga_Sarmatian_burials%2C_2nd-1st_centuries_BCE.png/330px-Lower-Volga_Sarmatian_burials%2C_2nd-1st_centuries_BCE.png"},{"image_text":"A Sarmatian-Parthian gold necklace and amulet, second century AD - Tamoikin Art Fund.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Samartian-Persian_necklace_and_amulet.png/220px-Samartian-Persian_necklace_and_amulet.png"},{"image_text":"A Sarmatian diadem, found at the Khokhlach kurgan near Novocherkassk (first century AD, Hermitage Museum).[47]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e4/Sarmatian_crown.jpg/220px-Sarmatian_crown.jpg"},{"image_text":"Iranic peoples of Central Asia during the Iron Age, including Sarmatians","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Assimilation_of_Baltic_and_Aryan_Peoples_by_Uralic_Speakers_in_the_Middle_and_Upper_Volga_Basin_%28Shaded_Relief_BG%29.png/220px-Assimilation_of_Baltic_and_Aryan_Peoples_by_Uralic_Speakers_in_the_Middle_and_Upper_Volga_Basin_%28Shaded_Relief_BG%29.png"},{"image_text":"Sarmatians warriors (reconstruction)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Sarmatians_warriors_%28reconstruction%29.jpg/220px-Sarmatians_warriors_%28reconstruction%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Scythian and related populations","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Assimilation_of_Baltic_and_Aryan_Peoples_by_Uralic_Speakers_in_the_Middle_and_Upper_Volga_Basin_%28Shaded_Relief_BG%29.png/180px-Assimilation_of_Baltic_and_Aryan_Peoples_by_Uralic_Speakers_in_the_Middle_and_Upper_Volga_Basin_%28Shaded_Relief_BG%29.png"}]
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[{"title":"List of ancient Iranian peoples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ancient_Iranian_peoples"},{"title":"Sarm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salm_(Shahnameh)"},{"title":"Sharma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharma"},{"title":"Andronovo culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andronovo_culture"},{"title":"Alans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alans"},{"title":"Cimmerians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cimmerians"},{"title":"Early Slavs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Slavs"},{"title":"Eurasian nomads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasian_nomads"}]
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[{"reference":"Bennett, Matthew; Dawson, Doyne; Field, Ron; Hawthornwaite, Philip; Loades, Mike (15 September 2016). The History of Warfare: The Ultimate Visual Guide to the History of Warfare from the Ancient World to the American Civil War. Book Sales. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-7858-3461-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=27KTDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA31","url_text":"The History of Warfare: The Ultimate Visual Guide to the History of Warfare from the Ancient World to the American Civil War"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7858-3461-8","url_text":"978-0-7858-3461-8"}]},{"reference":"Abaev, V. I.; Bailey, H. W. (26 August 2020), \"ALANS\", Encyclopaedia Iranica Online, Brill, retrieved 16 November 2023","urls":[{"url":"https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-iranica-online/alans-COM_5117","url_text":"\"ALANS\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sarmatian | people\". Encyclopedia Britannica. 25 July 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sarmatian","url_text":"\"Sarmatian | people\""}]},{"reference":"Davies, Norman (1996). Europe: A History. Oxford University Press. p. 105. ISBN 978-0-19-820171-7. (...) \"the Iranic Sarmatians, whose ability to assimilate into preceding Greek civilization created a brilliant new synthesis\"","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=jrVW9W9eiYMC&pg=PA105","url_text":"Europe: A History"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-820171-7","url_text":"978-0-19-820171-7"}]},{"reference":"Richmond, Walter (11 June 2008). The Northwest Caucasus: Past, Present, Future. Routledge. p. 12. ISBN 978-1-134-00249-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=E6Z5AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA12","url_text":"The Northwest Caucasus: Past, Present, Future"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-00249-8","url_text":"978-1-134-00249-8"}]},{"reference":"Eterovich, Francis H.; Spalatin, Christopher (15 December 1964). Croatia: Land, People, Culture Volume I. University of Toronto Press. p. 112. ISBN 978-1-4875-9676-7. On the shores of the Black Sea the Alans absorbed two Sarmatian peoples, the Siraci and Aorsi (...) Also, the Goths undoubtedly absorbed both Sarmatian and Slavic groups during their two centuries of rule over the steppe land","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=XO8_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT112","url_text":"Croatia: Land, People, Culture Volume I"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4875-9676-7","url_text":"978-1-4875-9676-7"}]},{"reference":"Chodorow, Stanley (1989). The Mainstream of Civilization. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. p. 368. ISBN 978-0-15-551579-6. But the Slavic tribes survived the collapse of these empires, and gradually the remnants of the Avars, Sarmatians, and others were absorbed into the Slavic culture.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=NP64BLqDQNIC","url_text":"The Mainstream of Civilization"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-15-551579-6","url_text":"978-0-15-551579-6"}]},{"reference":"Slovene Studies. Vol. 9–11. Society for Slovene Studies. 1987. p. 36. (..) For example, the ancient Scythians, Sarmatians (amongst others), and many other attested but now extinct peoples were assimilated in the course of history by Proto-Slavs.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Minahan, James (2000). \"Ossetians\". One Europe, Many Nations: A Historical Dictionary of European National Groups. Praeger security international. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 518. ISBN 9780313309847. Retrieved 27 March 2020. The Ossetians, calling themselves Iristi and their homeland Iryston, are the most northerly of the Iranian peoples. [...] They are descended from a division of Sarmatians, the Alans, who were pushed out of the Terek River lowlands and into the Caucasus foothills by invading Huns in the fourth century A.D.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=NwvoM-ZFoAgC","url_text":"One Europe, Many Nations: A Historical Dictionary of European National Groups"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780313309847","url_text":"9780313309847"}]},{"reference":"\"Large variation génétique sur la steppe pontique-caspienne\". fr.scienceaq.com. Retrieved 1 September 2023.","urls":[{"url":"http://fr.scienceaq.com/Autres/1001104705.html","url_text":"\"Large variation génétique sur la steppe pontique-caspienne\""}]},{"reference":"Сергеевич, Савельев Никита (2018). \"Находки мечей и кинжалов скифо-сарматского времени из юго-западных предгорий Южного Урала (к вопросу об освоении территории и особенностях расселения кочевников)\". Oriental Studies. 4: 24–31. doi:10.22162/2619-0990-2018-37-3-24-31 (inactive 31 January 2024).","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.22162%2F2619-0990-2018-37-3-24-31","url_text":"10.22162/2619-0990-2018-37-3-24-31"}]},{"reference":"Ualikhanova, Aruzhan (22 April 2023). \"Archeologists Discover Golden Artifacts in Abai Region's Bozai Burial Ground\". The Astana Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://astanatimes.com/2023/04/archeologists-discover-golden-artifacts-in-abai-regions-bozai-burial-ground/","url_text":"\"Archeologists Discover Golden Artifacts in Abai Region's Bozai Burial Ground\""}]},{"reference":"Noyanov, Edyl Noyanuly; Yernazar, Sergazy (2016). \"THE \"GOLDEN PEOPLE\" OF KAZAKHSTAN\" (PDF). World Science: 46.","urls":[{"url":"https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/the-golden-people-of-kazakhstan.pdf","url_text":"\"THE \"GOLDEN PEOPLE\" OF KAZAKHSTAN\""}]},{"reference":"Yablonsky, Leonid Teodorovich (2010). \"New Excavations of the Early Nomadic Burial Ground at Filippovka (Southern Ural Region, Russia)\". American Journal of Archaeology. 114 (1): 141. doi:10.3764/aja.114.1.129. ISSN 0002-9114. JSTOR 20627646. S2CID 191399666.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/20627646","url_text":"\"New Excavations of the Early Nomadic Burial Ground at Filippovka (Southern Ural Region, Russia)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.3764%2Faja.114.1.129","url_text":"10.3764/aja.114.1.129"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0002-9114","url_text":"0002-9114"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/20627646","url_text":"20627646"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:191399666","url_text":"191399666"}]},{"reference":"The Golden Deer of Eurasia: Scythian and Sarmatian Treasures from the Russian Steppes : the State Hermitage, Saint Petersburg, and the Archaeological Museum, Ufa. Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2000. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-87099-959-8. In skull shape and facial structure, the Filippovka specimens differ considerably from remains of Scythians and Volga River-area Sarmatians. The Filipovka skulls most closely resemble those of Saka from Kazakhstan and the Aral Sea region, and those of the Usuns from Eastern Kazhakhstan.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=GWcjhsRCWG4C&pg=PA39","url_text":"The Golden Deer of Eurasia: Scythian and Sarmatian Treasures from the Russian Steppes : the State Hermitage, Saint Petersburg, and the Archaeological Museum, Ufa"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87099-959-8","url_text":"978-0-87099-959-8"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saka","url_text":"Saka"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstan","url_text":"Kazakhstan"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aral_Sea","url_text":"Aral Sea"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wusun","url_text":"Usuns"}]},{"reference":"Yablonsky, Leonid Teodorovich (2010). \"New Excavations of the Early Nomadic Burial Ground at Filippovka (Southern Ural Region, Russia)\". American Journal of Archaeology. 114 (1): 141. doi:10.3764/aja.114.1.129. ISSN 0002-9114. JSTOR 20627646. S2CID 191399666. with artifacts found in other barrows, afford us the opportunity to refine the chronology of each object and of the site as a whole and to date it to the second half of the fifth through the fourth centuries B.C.E. (...) Filippovka cemetery is a transition site between the Sauromation and the Sarmatian epochs.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/20627646","url_text":"\"New Excavations of the Early Nomadic Burial Ground at Filippovka (Southern Ural Region, Russia)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.3764%2Faja.114.1.129","url_text":"10.3764/aja.114.1.129"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0002-9114","url_text":"0002-9114"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/20627646","url_text":"20627646"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:191399666","url_text":"191399666"}]},{"reference":"Yatsenko, Sergey A. (2022). \"Sarmatian Goddess with Two Horses\". RSUH/RGGU Bulletin. \"Literary Theory. Linguistics. Cultural Studies\" Series (7): 211–224. doi:10.28995/2686-7249-2022-7-211-224. S2CID 256651585.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.28995%2F2686-7249-2022-7-211-224","url_text":"10.28995/2686-7249-2022-7-211-224"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:256651585","url_text":"256651585"}]},{"reference":"\"Moscow State Historical Museum\". www.myvirtualmuseum.ru.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.myvirtualmuseum.ru/text/moscow/gim/greekgold.htm","url_text":"\"Moscow State Historical Museum\""}]},{"reference":"Bennett, Matthew; Dawson, Doyne; Field, Ron; Hawthornwaite, Philip; Loades, Mike (15 September 2016). The History of Warfare: The Ultimate Visual Guide to the History of Warfare from the Ancient World to the American Civil War. Book Sales. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-7858-3461-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=27KTDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA31","url_text":"The History of Warfare: The Ultimate Visual Guide to the History of Warfare from the Ancient World to the American Civil War"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7858-3461-8","url_text":"978-0-7858-3461-8"}]},{"reference":"Davies, Norman (1996). Europe: A History. Oxford University Press. p. 105. ISBN 978-0-19-820171-7. (...) \"the Iranic Sarmatians, whose ability to assimilate into preceding Greek civilization created a brilliant new synthesis\"","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=jrVW9W9eiYMC&pg=PA105","url_text":"Europe: A History"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-820171-7","url_text":"978-0-19-820171-7"}]},{"reference":"Richmond, Walter (11 June 2008). The Northwest Caucasus: Past, Present, Future. Routledge. p. 12. ISBN 978-1-134-00249-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=E6Z5AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA12","url_text":"The Northwest Caucasus: Past, Present, Future"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-00249-8","url_text":"978-1-134-00249-8"}]},{"reference":"Eterovich, Francis H.; Spalatin, Christopher (15 December 1964). Croatia: Land, People, Culture Volume I. University of Toronto Press. p. 112. ISBN 978-1-4875-9676-7. On the shores of the Black Sea the Alans absorbed two Sarmatian peoples, the Siraci and Aorsi ... Also, the Goths undoubtedly absorbed both Sarmatian and Slavic groups during their two centuries of rule over the steppe land","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=XO8_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT112","url_text":"Croatia: Land, People, Culture Volume I"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4875-9676-7","url_text":"978-1-4875-9676-7"}]},{"reference":"Chodorow, Stanley (1989). The Mainstream of Civilization. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. p. 368. ISBN 978-0-15-551579-6. But the Slavic tribes survived the collapse of these empires, and gradually the remnants of the Avars, Sarmatians, and others were absorbed into the Slavic culture.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=NP64BLqDQNIC","url_text":"The Mainstream of Civilization"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-15-551579-6","url_text":"978-0-15-551579-6"}]},{"reference":"Slovene Studies. Vol. 9–11. Society for Slovene Studies. 1987. p. 36. (..) For example, the ancient Scythians, Sarmatians (amongst others), and many other attested but now extinct peoples were assimilated in the course of history by Proto-Slavs.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Minahan, James (2000). \"Ossetians\". One Europe, Many Nations: A Historical Dictionary of European National Groups. Praeger security international. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 518. ISBN 9780313309847. Retrieved 27 March 2020. The Ossetians, calling themselves Iristi and their homeland Iryston, are the most northerly of the Iranian peoples. [...] They are descended from a division of Sarmatians, the Alans, who were pushed out of the Terek River lowlands and into the Caucasus foothills by invading Huns in the fourth century A.D.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=NwvoM-ZFoAgC","url_text":"One Europe, Many Nations: A Historical Dictionary of European National Groups"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780313309847","url_text":"9780313309847"}]},{"reference":"Skripkin, A. S.; Klepikov, V. M. (17 May 2020). \"ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES OF THE LOWER VOLGA REGION OF THE 2nd—1st CENTURIES BC AND SOME ETHNIC ISSUES OF THE SARMATIANS\". Archaeology and Early History of Ukraine. 36 (3): 214–222. doi:10.37445/adiu.2020.03.11. The paper concerns with chronological analysis of Early Sarmatian military burials with two swords in the Lower Volga region dated to the last centuries BC. There are two combinations of the different bladed weapons in the burials: swords with a ring pommel and daggers with a crescent-shaped pommel; swords without metal pommel with the rhomboid cross-bar and daggers with a crescent-shaped pommel. Swords and daggers with a crescent-shaped pommel are absent in the burials after the turn of AD. Swords and daggers with ring pommel or rhomboid-shaped cross-bar have appeared during the new migration wave in the Lower Volga region not earlier than in the 2nd century BC. This determines the chronological framework of the assemblages. Daggers and swords with a crescent-shaped pommel are the local product, they were used much earlier than the swords of migratory origin. The authors suggest that the emergence of innovations is associated with the migration of the 2nd—1st centuries BC from Central Asia, because in addition to swords with ring pommel and bronze cross-bar without metal pommel, there were found bronze openwork and lattice buckles, jet buckles and cubic incense burners, well known in the East.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.37445%2Fadiu.2020.03.11","url_text":"\"ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES OF THE LOWER VOLGA REGION OF THE 2nd—1st CENTURIES BC AND SOME ETHNIC ISSUES OF THE SARMATIANS\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.37445%2Fadiu.2020.03.11","url_text":"10.37445/adiu.2020.03.11"}]},{"reference":"Schubert, Charlotte; Weiß, Alexander (22 March 2013). Amazonen zwischen Griechen und Skythen: Gegenbilder in Mythos und Geschichte (in German). Walter de Gruyter. p. 85. ISBN 978-3-11-028616-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Q1gX0IFEAFoC&pg=PA85","url_text":"Amazonen zwischen Griechen und Skythen: Gegenbilder in Mythos und Geschichte"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-028616-8","url_text":"978-3-11-028616-8"}]},{"reference":"Genito, Bruno (1 November 2002). The Elusive Frontiers of the Eurasian Steppes. All’Insegna del Giglio. pp. 57–. ISBN 978-88-7814-283-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=5WMZDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA57","url_text":"The Elusive Frontiers of the Eurasian Steppes"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-7814-283-1","url_text":"978-88-7814-283-1"}]},{"reference":"Gursoy, M. (28 February 2023). \"Жазба Және Археологиялық Деректер Негізінде Савромат-Сармат Тайпаларының Шығу Тегі\". BULLETIN Series Historical and Socio-political Sciences. 1 (72): 158. doi:10.51889/2022-1.1728-5461.16. In particular, B. N. Grakov proposed a general four-stage chronology of the Savromat-Sarmatian tribes, based on the specifics of their burial structures, burial traditions and material world: 1.The Savromat period or Blumenfeld -VI-IV centuries BC. 2.Savromat-Sarmatian or Prokhorov period-IV-II Centuries BC. 3.The middle Sarmatian period or Suslov -II BC -II Centuries AD. 4.The late Sarmatian period or Shipov –II –IV centuries AD. Since this proposal is generally supported by the majority, this chronology is taken as a basis in the research papers.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.51889%2F2022-1.1728-5461.16","url_text":"\"Жазба Және Археологиялық Деректер Негізінде Савромат-Сармат Тайпаларының Шығу Тегі\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.51889%2F2022-1.1728-5461.16","url_text":"10.51889/2022-1.1728-5461.16"}]},{"reference":"Yablonskii, Leonid; Balakhvantsev, Archil (1 January 2009). \"A Silver Bowl from the New Excavations of the Early Sarmatian Burial-Ground Near the Village of Prokhorovka\". Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia. 15 (1–2): 167–169. doi:10.1163/092907709X12474657004809.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.academia.edu/24230329","url_text":"\"A Silver Bowl from the New Excavations of the Early Sarmatian Burial-Ground Near the Village of Prokhorovka\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1163%2F092907709X12474657004809","url_text":"10.1163/092907709X12474657004809"}]},{"reference":"Silva, Marina; Booth, Thomas; Moore, Joanna; Anastasiadou, Kyriaki; Walker, Don; Gilardet, Alexandre; Barrington, Christopher; Kelly, Monica; Williams, Mia; Henderson, Michael; Smith, Alex; Bowsher, David; Montgomery, Janel; Skoglund, Pontus (19 December 2023). \"An individual with Sarmatian-related ancestry in Roman Britain\". Current Biology. 34 (1): 204–212.e6. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2023.11.049. PMID 38118448.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2023.11.049","url_text":"\"An individual with Sarmatian-related ancestry in Roman Britain\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2023.11.049","url_text":"10.1016/j.cub.2023.11.049"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38118448","url_text":"38118448"}]},{"reference":"Ghosh, Pallab (19 December 2023). \"DNA sleuths solve mystery of the 2,000-year old corpse\". BBC News. Retrieved 21 December 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-67755415","url_text":"\"DNA sleuths solve mystery of the 2,000-year old corpse\""}]},{"reference":"Anthony, David W. (2007). The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-05887-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=rOG5VcYxhiEC","url_text":"The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-05887-0","url_text":"978-0-691-05887-0"}]},{"reference":"The Golden Deer of Eurasia: Scythian and Sarmatian Treasures from the Russian Steppes : the State Hermitage, Saint Petersburg, and the Archaeological Museum, Ufa. Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2000. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-87099-959-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=GWcjhsRCWG4C&pg=PA13","url_text":"The Golden Deer of Eurasia: Scythian and Sarmatian Treasures from the Russian Steppes : the State Hermitage, Saint Petersburg, and the Archaeological Museum, Ufa"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87099-959-8","url_text":"978-0-87099-959-8"}]},{"reference":"Keyser, Christine; Bouakaze, Caroline; Crubézy, Eric; Nikolaev, Valery G.; Montagnon, Daniel; Reis, Tatiana; Ludes, Bertrand (16 May 2009). \"Ancient DNA provides new insights into the history of south Siberian Kurgan people\". Human Genetics. 126 (3): 395–410. doi:10.1007/s00439-009-0683-0. PMID 19449030. S2CID 21347353.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Genetics_(journal)","url_text":"Human Genetics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00439-009-0683-0","url_text":"10.1007/s00439-009-0683-0"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19449030","url_text":"19449030"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:21347353","url_text":"21347353"}]},{"reference":"Barry W. Cunliffe (2001). The Oxford Illustrated History of Prehistoric Europe. Oxford University Press. pp. 402–. ISBN 978-0-19-285441-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=NAwGLzAfyhEC&pg=PA402","url_text":"The Oxford Illustrated History of Prehistoric Europe"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-285441-4","url_text":"978-0-19-285441-4"}]},{"reference":"Grousset, Rene (1970). The Empire of the Steppes. Rutgers University Press. pp. 15. ISBN 978-0-8135-1304-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppes00grou","url_text":"The Empire of the Steppes"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppes00grou/page/15","url_text":"15"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-1304-1","url_text":"978-0-8135-1304-1"}]},{"reference":"Shemakhanskaya, Marina; Treister, Mikhail; Yablonsky, Leonid (31 December 2009). \"The technique of gold inlaid decoration in the 5th-4th centuries BC: silver and iron finds from the early Sarmatian barrows of Filippovka, Southern Urals\". ArcheoSciences. Revue d'archéométrie (in French) (33): 211–220. doi:10.4000/archeosciences.2223. ISSN 1960-1360.","urls":[{"url":"https://journals.openedition.org/archeosciences/2223","url_text":"\"The technique of gold inlaid decoration in the 5th-4th centuries BC: silver and iron finds from the early Sarmatian barrows of Filippovka, Southern Urals\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.4000%2Farcheosciences.2223","url_text":"10.4000/archeosciences.2223"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1960-1360","url_text":"1960-1360"}]},{"reference":"Haskins, John F. (1959). \"Sarmatian Gold Collected by Peter the Great: - VII; The Demidov Gift and Conclusions\". Artibus Asiae. 22 (1/2): 64–78. doi:10.2307/3249145. ISSN 0004-3648. JSTOR 3249145.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/3249145","url_text":"\"Sarmatian Gold Collected by Peter the Great: - VII; The Demidov Gift and Conclusions\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3249145","url_text":"10.2307/3249145"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0004-3648","url_text":"0004-3648"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/3249145","url_text":"3249145"}]},{"reference":"\"Realms Of Gold The Novel: Treasures of the Sarmatians: Diadem\". Realms Of Gold The Novel. Retrieved 1 September 2023.","urls":[{"url":"http://realmsofgoldthenovel.blogspot.com/2013/04/treasures-of-samaritans-diadem.html","url_text":"\"Realms Of Gold The Novel: Treasures of the Sarmatians: Diadem\""}]},{"reference":"\"Hermitage Gold Room - uVisitRussia\". www.uvisitrussia.com. Retrieved 1 September 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.uvisitrussia.com/hermitage-gold-room/","url_text":"\"Hermitage Gold Room - uVisitRussia\""}]},{"reference":"\"State Hermitage Museum: East/Central Europe (including early nomads)\". depts.washington.edu. Retrieved 1 September 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/museums/shm/shmeeur.html","url_text":"\"State Hermitage Museum: East/Central Europe (including early nomads)\""}]},{"reference":"Yablonsky, L.T. (2013). \"РАННЕСАРМАТСКИЙ РЫЦАРЬ (Sarmatian warrior)\" (PDF). Поволжская археология (The Volga River Region Archaeology). 2 (4): 104–135.","urls":[{"url":"http://archtat.ru/content/uploads/2017/12/PA_2013_24.pdf","url_text":"\"РАННЕСАРМАТСКИЙ РЫЦАРЬ (Sarmatian warrior)\""}]},{"reference":"Treister, Mikhail; Ravich, Irina (June 2021). \"Chinese mirrors from the burials of the nomads of Eastern Europe of the second half of the 1st millennium BC-first centuries AD: Typology, chronology, distribution and technology of manufacture\". Advances in Archaeomaterials. 2 (1): 24–48. doi:10.1016/j.aia.2021.07.001.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.aia.2021.07.001","url_text":"\"Chinese mirrors from the burials of the nomads of Eastern Europe of the second half of the 1st millennium BC-first centuries AD: Typology, chronology, distribution and technology of manufacture\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.aia.2021.07.001","url_text":"10.1016/j.aia.2021.07.001"}]},{"reference":"Unterländer, Martina; Palstra, Friso; Lazaridis, Iosif; Pilipenko, Aleksandr; Hofmanová, Zuzana; Groß, Melanie; Sell, Christian; Blöcher, Jens; Kirsanow, Karola; Rohland, Nadin; Rieger, Benjamin; Kaiser, Elke; Schier, Wolfram; Pozdniakov, Dimitri; Khokhlov, Aleksandr (3 March 2017). \"Ancestry and demography and descendants of Iron Age nomads of the Eurasian Steppe\". Nature Communications. 8 (1): 14615. Bibcode:2017NatCo...814615U. doi:10.1038/ncomms14615. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 5337992. PMID 28256537.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5337992","url_text":"\"Ancestry and demography and descendants of Iron Age nomads of the Eurasian Steppe\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017NatCo...814615U","url_text":"2017NatCo...814615U"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fncomms14615","url_text":"10.1038/ncomms14615"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2041-1723","url_text":"2041-1723"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5337992","url_text":"5337992"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28256537","url_text":"28256537"}]},{"reference":"Gnecchi-Ruscone, Guido Alberto; Khussainova, Elmira; Kahbatkyzy, Nurzhibek; Musralina, Lyazzat; Spyrou, Maria A.; Bianco, Raffaela A.; Radzeviciute, Rita; Martins, Nuno Filipe Gomes; Freund, Caecilia; Iksan, Olzhas; Garshin, Alexander; Zhaniyazov, Zhassulan; Bekmanov, Bakhytzhan; Kitov, Egor; Samashev, Zainolla (26 March 2021). \"Ancient genomic time transect from the Central Asian Steppe unravels the history of the Scythians\". Science Advances. 7 (13). Bibcode:2021SciA....7.4414G. doi:10.1126/sciadv.abe4414. ISSN 2375-2548. PMC 7997506. PMID 33771866.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7997506","url_text":"\"Ancient genomic time transect from the Central Asian Steppe unravels the history of the Scythians\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021SciA....7.4414G","url_text":"2021SciA....7.4414G"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fsciadv.abe4414","url_text":"10.1126/sciadv.abe4414"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2375-2548","url_text":"2375-2548"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7997506","url_text":"7997506"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33771866","url_text":"33771866"}]},{"reference":"Järve, Mari; Saag, Lehti; Scheib, Christiana Lyn; Pathak, Ajai K.; Montinaro, Francesco; Pagani, Luca; Flores, Rodrigo; Guellil, Meriam; Saag, Lauri; Tambets, Kristiina; Kushniarevich, Alena; Solnik, Anu; Varul, Liivi; Zadnikov, Stanislav; Petrauskas, Oleg (11 July 2019). \"Shifts in the Genetic Landscape of the Western Eurasian Steppe Associated with the Beginning and End of the Scythian Dominance\". Current Biology. 29 (14): 2430–2441.e10. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2019.06.019. ISSN 0960-9822. PMID 31303491.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2019.06.019","url_text":"\"Shifts in the Genetic Landscape of the Western Eurasian Steppe Associated with the Beginning and End of the Scythian Dominance\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2019.06.019","url_text":"10.1016/j.cub.2019.06.019"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0960-9822","url_text":"0960-9822"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31303491","url_text":"31303491"}]},{"reference":"Maróti, Zoltán; Neparáczki, Endre; Schütz, Oszkár; Maár, Kitti; Varga, Gergely I.B.; Kovács, Bence; Kalmár, Tibor; Nyerki, Emil; Nagy, István; Latinovics, Dóra; Tihanyi, Balázs; Marcsik, Antónia; Pálfi, György; Bernert, Zsolt; Gallina, Zsolt; Horváth, Ciprián; Varga, Sándor; Költő, László; Raskó, István; Nagy, Péter L.; Balogh, Csilla; Zink, Albert; Maixner, Frank; Götherström, Anders; George, Robert; Szalontai, Csaba; Szenthe, Gergely; Gáll, Erwin; Kiss, Attila P.; Gulyás, Bence; Kovacsóczy, Bernadett Ny.; Gál, Sándor Szilárd; Tomka, Péter; Török, Tibor (25 May 2022). \"The genetic origin of Huns, Avars, and conquering Hungarians\". Current Biology. 32 (13): 2858–2870.e7. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2022.04.093. PMID 35617951. S2CID 246191357.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2022.04.093","url_text":"\"The genetic origin of Huns, Avars, and conquering Hungarians\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2022.04.093","url_text":"10.1016/j.cub.2022.04.093"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35617951","url_text":"35617951"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:246191357","url_text":"246191357"}]},{"reference":"Jeong, Choongwon; Wang, Ke; Wilkin, Shevan; Taylor, William Timothy Treal; Miller, Bryan K.; Bemmann, Jan H.; Stahl, Raphaela; Chiovelli, Chelsea; Knolle, Florian; Ulziibayar, Sodnom; Khatanbaatar, Dorjpurev; Erdenebaatar, Diimaajav; Erdenebat, Ulambayar; Ochir, Ayudai; Ankhsanaa, Ganbold (5 November 2020). \"A Dynamic 6,000-Year Genetic History of Eurasia's Eastern Steppe\". Cell. 183 (4): 890–904.e29. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2020.10.015. ISSN 0092-8674. PMC 7664836. PMID 33157037.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7664836","url_text":"\"A Dynamic 6,000-Year Genetic History of Eurasia's Eastern Steppe\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cell.2020.10.015","url_text":"10.1016/j.cell.2020.10.015"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0092-8674","url_text":"0092-8674"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7664836","url_text":"7664836"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33157037","url_text":"33157037"}]},{"reference":"Afanasiev, Gennady E.; Dobrovolskaya, M. V.; Korobov, D. S.; Reshetova, Irina K. (2014). \"О культурной, антропологической и генетической специфике донских алан [On the cultural, anthropological and genetic specifics of the Don Alans ]\". In Korobov, D. S. (ed.). Е.И. Крупнов и развитие археологии Северного Кавказа [E.I. Krupnov and the development of the archeology of the North Caucasus]. XXVIII Krupnov's readings : Proceedings of the International Scientific Conference, Moscow, 21–25 April 2014. Moscow: Institute of Archaeology, Russian Academy of Sciences. pp. 312–315. ISBN 978-5-94375-162-2 – via www.academia.edu.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.academia.edu/7061155","url_text":"Е.И. Крупнов и развитие археологии Северного Кавказа"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5-94375-162-2","url_text":"978-5-94375-162-2"}]},{"reference":"Afanasiev, Gennady E.; et al. (2015). \"Хазарские конфедераты в бассейне Дона [Khazar confederates in the Don basin]\". In Dobrovolskaya, M. V.; Chernykh, E. N. (eds.). Естественнонаучные методы исследования и парадигма современной археологии [Natural scientific methods of research and the paradigm of modern archaeology]. Proceedings of the All-Russian Scientific Conference, Moscow, Institute of Archeology RAS, 8–11 December 2015. Moscow: Языки славянской культуры [Languages of Slavic Culture] for Institute of Archaeology, Russian Academy of Sciences. pp. 146–153. ISBN 978-5-94457-2431 – via www.academia.edu.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.academia.edu/15713987","url_text":"Естественнонаучные методы исследования и парадигма современной археологии"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5-94457-2431","url_text":"978-5-94457-2431"}]},{"reference":"Balabanova, Maria; Nechvaloda, Aleksey (December 2022). \"Ancient Population of the Lower Volga Region According to Craniology and Anthropological Facial Sculptural Reconstruction from a Skull\". Nizhnevolzhskiy Arheologicheskiy Vestnik (2): 158–173. doi:10.15688/nav.jvolsu.2022.2.10.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/366524989","url_text":"\"Ancient Population of the Lower Volga Region According to Craniology and Anthropological Facial Sculptural Reconstruction from a Skull\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.15688%2Fnav.jvolsu.2022.2.10","url_text":"10.15688/nav.jvolsu.2022.2.10"}]},{"reference":"Ualikhanova, Aruzhan (22 April 2023). \"Archeologists Discover Golden Artifacts in Abai Region's Bozai Burial Ground\". The Astana Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://astanatimes.com/2023/04/archeologists-discover-golden-artifacts-in-abai-regions-bozai-burial-ground/","url_text":"\"Archeologists Discover Golden Artifacts in Abai Region's Bozai Burial Ground\""}]},{"reference":"Noyanov, Edyl Noyanuly; Yernazar, Sergazy (2016). \"The \"Golden People\" of Kazakhstan\" (PDF). World Science: 46.","urls":[{"url":"https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/the-golden-people-of-kazakhstan.pdf","url_text":"\"The \"Golden People\" of Kazakhstan\""}]},{"reference":"The Golden Deer of Eurasia: Scythian and Sarmatian Treasures from the Russian Steppes : the State Hermitage, Saint Petersburg, and the Archaeological Museum, Ufa. Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2000. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-87099-959-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=GWcjhsRCWG4C&pg=PA39","url_text":"The Golden Deer of Eurasia: Scythian and Sarmatian Treasures from the Russian Steppes : the State Hermitage, Saint Petersburg, and the Archaeological Museum, Ufa"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87099-959-8","url_text":"978-0-87099-959-8"}]},{"reference":"Bachrach, Bernard (1973). A history of the Alans in the West : from their first appearance in the sources of classical antiquity through the early Middle Ages. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. p. 76-77. ISBN 0-8166-0678-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=SXER_fLym9kC&pg=PA76","url_text":"A history of the Alans in the West : from their first appearance in the sources of classical antiquity through the early Middle Ages"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8166-0678-1","url_text":"0-8166-0678-1"}]},{"reference":"Day, John V. (2001). Indo-European origins : the anthropological evidence. Institute for the Study of Man. p. 57. ISBN 0-941694-75-5. Mistranslating their hair colour as ' generally blond ', Bachrach doubts that Alans really were so fair, considering that, as Ammianus Marcellinus says, they had assimilated so many other ethnic groups (1973:19).","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=GiQSAQAAIAAJ","url_text":"Indo-European origins : the anthropological evidence"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-941694-75-5","url_text":"0-941694-75-5"}]},{"reference":"Neumann, Iver B.; Wigen, Einar (19 July 2018). The Steppe Tradition in International Relations: Russians, Turks and European State Building 4000 BC–2017 AD. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. p. 103-104. ISBN 978-1-108-42079-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=huRfDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA104","url_text":"The Steppe Tradition in International Relations: Russians, Turks and European State Building 4000 BC–2017 AD"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-42079-2","url_text":"978-1-108-42079-2"}]},{"reference":"Previté-Orton, C. W. (24 July 1975). Cambridge Medieval History, Shorter: Volume 1, The Later Roman Empire to the Twelfth Century. Cambridge University Press. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-521-20962-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=RXU5AAAAIAAJ","url_text":"Cambridge Medieval History, Shorter: Volume 1, The Later Roman Empire to the Twelfth Century"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-20962-5","url_text":"978-0-521-20962-5"}]},{"reference":"Batty, Roger (2007). Rome and the Nomads: The Pontic-Danubian Realm in Antiquity. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-198-14936-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-198-14936-1","url_text":"978-0-198-14936-1"}]},{"reference":"Brzezinski, Richard; Mielczarek, Mariusz (2002). The Sarmatians 600 BC–AD 450. Men-At-Arms (373). Bloomsbury USA; Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84176-485-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=tCknvgAACAAJ","url_text":"The Sarmatians 600 BC–AD 450"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84176-485-6","url_text":"978-1-84176-485-6"}]},{"reference":"Davis-Kimball, Jeannine; Bashilov, Vladimir A.; Yablonsky, Leonid T. (1995). Nomads of the Eurasian Steppes in the Early Iron Age. Berkeley: Zinat Press. ISBN 978-1-885979-00-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeannine_Davis-Kimball","url_text":"Davis-Kimball, Jeannine"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-885979-00-1","url_text":"978-1-885979-00-1"}]},{"reference":"Day, John V. (2001). Indo-European origins: the anthropological evidence. Institute for the Study of Man. ISBN 978-0941694759.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=GiQSAQAAIAAJ","url_text":"Indo-European origins: the anthropological evidence"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0941694759","url_text":"978-0941694759"}]},{"reference":"Hinds, Kathryn (2009). Scythians and Sarmatians. Marshall Cavendish. ISBN 978-0-7614-4519-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=400IFGXTvpYC","url_text":"Scythians and Sarmatians"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7614-4519-7","url_text":"978-0-7614-4519-7"}]},{"reference":"Istvánovits, Eszter; Kulcsár, Valéria (2017). Sarmatians: History and Archaeology of a Forgotten People. Schnell & Steiner. ISBN 978-3-7954-3234-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=B34uMQAACAAJ","url_text":"Sarmatians: History and Archaeology of a Forgotten People"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7954-3234-8","url_text":"978-3-7954-3234-8"}]},{"reference":"Kozlovskaya, Valeriya (2017). The Northern Black Sea in Antiquity: networks, connectivity, and cultural interactions. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-01951-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=hcwnDwAAQBAJ","url_text":"The Northern Black Sea in Antiquity: networks, connectivity, and cultural interactions"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-01951-5","url_text":"978-1-107-01951-5"}]},{"reference":"Kuzmina, Elena Efimovna (2007). The Origin of the Indo-Iranians. BRILL. pp. 50, 51, 56, 64, 78, 83, 220, 410. ISBN 978-90-04-16054-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=x5J9rn8p2-IC","url_text":"The Origin of the Indo-Iranians"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16054-5","url_text":"978-90-04-16054-5"}]},{"reference":"Melyukova, A. I. (1990). Sinor, Denis (ed.). The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia. Vol. 1. Translated by Crookenden, Julia. Cambridge, United Kingdom; New York City, United States: Cambridge University Press. p. 97-117. ISBN 978-0-521-24304-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Melyukova","url_text":"Melyukova, A. I."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Sinor","url_text":"Sinor, Denis"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge","url_text":"Cambridge"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom","url_text":"United Kingdom"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City","url_text":"New York City"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States","url_text":"United States"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press","url_text":"Cambridge University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24304-9","url_text":"978-0-521-24304-9"}]},{"reference":"Olbrycht, Marek Jan (2000). \"Remarks on the Presence of Iranian Peoples in Europe and Their Asiatic Relations\". Collectanea Celto-Asiatica Cracoviensia. Kraków: Księgarnia Akademicka. pp. 105–107. ISBN 978-8-371-88337-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.academia.edu/11934986","url_text":"\"Remarks on the Presence of Iranian Peoples in Europe and Their Asiatic Relations\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w","url_text":"Kraków"},{"url":"https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ksi%C4%99garnia_Akademicka","url_text":"Księgarnia Akademicka"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8-371-88337-8","url_text":"978-8-371-88337-8"}]},{"reference":"Sinor, Denis, ed. (1990). The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24304-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Sinor","url_text":"Sinor, Denis"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ST6TRNuWmHsC&pg=PA295","url_text":"The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24304-9","url_text":"978-0-521-24304-9"}]},{"reference":"К.Ф. Смирнов. Сарматы и утверждение их политического господства в Скифии. Рипол Классик. ISBN 978-5-458-40072-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=EY79AgAAQBAJ","url_text":"Сарматы и утверждение их политического господства в Скифии"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5-458-40072-5","url_text":"978-5-458-40072-5"}]},{"reference":"Sulimirski, Tadeusz (1970). The Sarmatians. Ancient People and Places, vol. 73. Praeger.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadeusz_Sulimirski","url_text":"Sulimirski, Tadeusz"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/sarmatians0000suli","url_text":"The Sarmatians"}]},{"reference":"Абрамова, М. П. (1988). \"Сарматы и Северный Кавказ\". Проблемы сарматской археологии и истории: 4–18.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Damgaard, P. B.; et al. (9 May 2018). \"137 ancient human genomes from across the Eurasian steppes\". Nature. 557 (7705). Nature Research: 369–373. Bibcode:2018Natur.557..369D. doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0094-2. hdl:1887/3202709. PMID 29743675. S2CID 13670282. 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Steppe\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cell.2020.10.015","external_links_name":"10.1016/j.cell.2020.10.015"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0092-8674","external_links_name":"0092-8674"},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7664836","external_links_name":"7664836"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33157037","external_links_name":"33157037"},{"Link":"https://www.academia.edu/7061155","external_links_name":"Е.И. Крупнов и развитие археологии Северного Кавказа"},{"Link":"https://www.academia.edu/15713987","external_links_name":"Естественнонаучные методы исследования и парадигма современной археологии"},{"Link":"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/366524989","external_links_name":"\"Ancient Population of the Lower Volga Region According to Craniology and Anthropological Facial Sculptural Reconstruction from a Skull\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.15688%2Fnav.jvolsu.2022.2.10","external_links_name":"10.15688/nav.jvolsu.2022.2.10"},{"Link":"https://astanatimes.com/2023/04/archeologists-discover-golden-artifacts-in-abai-regions-bozai-burial-ground/","external_links_name":"\"Archeologists Discover Golden Artifacts in Abai Region's Bozai Burial Ground\""},{"Link":"https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/the-golden-people-of-kazakhstan.pdf","external_links_name":"\"The \"Golden People\" of Kazakhstan\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=GWcjhsRCWG4C&pg=PA39","external_links_name":"The Golden Deer of Eurasia: Scythian and Sarmatian Treasures from the Russian Steppes : the State Hermitage, Saint Petersburg, and the Archaeological Museum, Ufa"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=mRokAQAAIAAJ","external_links_name":"235"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=SXER_fLym9kC&pg=PA76","external_links_name":"A history of the Alans in the West : from their first appearance in the sources of classical antiquity through the early Middle Ages"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=GiQSAQAAIAAJ","external_links_name":"Indo-European origins : the anthropological evidence"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=huRfDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA104","external_links_name":"The Steppe Tradition in International Relations: Russians, Turks and European State Building 4000 BC–2017 AD"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=RXU5AAAAIAAJ","external_links_name":"Cambridge Medieval History, Shorter: Volume 1, The Later Roman Empire to the Twelfth Century"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170416130854/http://www.ukrhistory.narod.ru/texts/kresin-2.htm","external_links_name":"Sarmatism Ukrainian"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=tCknvgAACAAJ","external_links_name":"The Sarmatians 600 BC–AD 450"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=GiQSAQAAIAAJ","external_links_name":"Indo-European origins: the anthropological evidence"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=400IFGXTvpYC","external_links_name":"Scythians and Sarmatians"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=B34uMQAACAAJ","external_links_name":"Sarmatians: History and Archaeology of a Forgotten People"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=hcwnDwAAQBAJ","external_links_name":"The Northern Black Sea in Antiquity: networks, connectivity, and cultural interactions"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=x5J9rn8p2-IC","external_links_name":"The Origin of the Indo-Iranians"},{"Link":"https://www.academia.edu/11934986","external_links_name":"\"Remarks on the Presence of Iranian Peoples in Europe and Their Asiatic Relations\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ST6TRNuWmHsC&pg=PA295","external_links_name":"The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=EY79AgAAQBAJ","external_links_name":"Сарматы и утверждение их политического господства в Скифии"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/sarmatians0000suli","external_links_name":"The Sarmatians"},{"Link":"https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0094-2","external_links_name":"\"137 ancient human genomes from across the Eurasian steppes\""},{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018Natur.557..369D","external_links_name":"2018Natur.557..369D"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-018-0094-2","external_links_name":"10.1038/s41586-018-0094-2"},{"Link":"https://hdl.handle.net/1887%2F3202709","external_links_name":"1887/3202709"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29743675","external_links_name":"29743675"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:13670282","external_links_name":"13670282"},{"Link":"http://opar.unior.it/592/1/2_Annali_1988_48_(f2)_Genito.pdf","external_links_name":"\"The Archaeological Cultures of the Sarmatians with a Preliminary Note on the Trial-Trenches at Gyoma 133: a Sarmatian Settlement in South-Eastern Hungary (Campaign 1985)\""},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9042794","external_links_name":"\"Ancient genomes reveal origin and rapid trans-Eurasian migration of 7th century Avar 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J.-C"},{"Link":"ftp://istorichka.ru/Periodika/Vestnik_drevnej_istorii/2015/2015_1.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Сарматы, Сарматия и Северное Причерноморье\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fojoa.12010","external_links_name":"10.1111/ojoa.12010"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.2753%2Faae1061-195940047","external_links_name":"10.2753/aae1061-195940047"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161826066","external_links_name":"161826066"},{"Link":"http://www.pax-barbarorum.ru/s-a/rjabchikov_remarks.doc","external_links_name":"\"Remarks on the Scythian, Sarmatian and Meotian Beliefs\""},{"Link":"https://www.academia.edu/7169847","external_links_name":"\"Sauromatae - Syrmatae - Sarmatae\""},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5337992","external_links_name":"\"Ancestry and demography and descendants of Iron Age nomads of the Eurasian Steppe\""},{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017NatCo...814615U","external_links_name":"2017NatCo...814615U"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fncomms14615","external_links_name":"10.1038/ncomms14615"},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5337992","external_links_name":"5337992"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28256537","external_links_name":"28256537"},{"Link":"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/clothing-vii","external_links_name":"CLOTHING vii. Of the Iranian Tribes – Encyclopaedia Iranica"},{"Link":"http://dpg.lib.berkeley.edu/webdb/dsheh/heh_brf?Description=&CallNumber=HM+1092","external_links_name":"Ptolemaic Map (Digital Scriptorium)"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170211090054/http://dpg.lib.berkeley.edu/webdb/dsheh/heh_brf?Description=&CallNumber=HM+1092","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20061009045233/http://www.csen.org/BAR%20Book/BAR.%20Part%2001.TofC.html","external_links_name":"Kurgans, Ritual Sites, and Settlements: Eurasian Bronze and Iron Age"},{"Link":"http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/96120/rec/302","external_links_name":"Nomadic Art of the Eastern Eurasian Steppes"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007558193305171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph138538&CON_LNG=ENG","external_links_name":"Czech Republic"},{"Link":"https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/207424","external_links_name":"Pleiades"},{"Link":"http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages\\S\\A\\Sarmatians","external_links_name":"Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Rail_Class_482
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British Rail Class 482
|
["1 Fleet details","2 Gallery","3 References","4 External links"]
|
British electric multiple unit train type
This article is about the trains used on the Waterloo & City line immediately prior to its takeover by London Underground in 1994. For their service after 1994, see London Underground 1992 Stock.
British Rail Class 482Network SouthEast liveried Class 482 at Bank in 2003Interior of a Class 482In service1993 – 1994 (British Rail)1994 – present (London Underground)ManufacturerABBBuilt atDerby Litchurch Lane WorksFamily nameTubeReplacedClass 487Constructed1992–1993Number built10 unitsFormation2 cars per unit, 2 units per trainCapacity72 seatsOperatorsBritish RailDepotsWaterloo (Waterloo & City line)Lines servedWaterloo & City lineSpecificationsMaximum speed60 mph (97 km/h)Traction systemABB GTO chopperTraction motorsBrush LT130 DC motorElectric system(s)750 V DC fourth railTrack gauge1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in) standard gauge
The British Rail Class 482 electric multiple units were built by ABB in 1992, for use on the Waterloo & City line. The units are almost identical to the 1992 tube stock built for the Central line.
Ten 2-car units were built, numbered 482501–510. Each unit consisted of a type "E" driving motor, numbered 65501–510, and a type "F" non-driving motor, numbered 67501–510. Trains were operated using two units semi-permanently coupled, with the driving motors outermost.
The units were built as direct replacements for the elderly Class 487 units, dating from 1940. They were delivered to Ruislip depot during March 1993, and were painted in Network SouthEast livery; however, as the Waterloo & City line was completely separate from the rest of the National Rail network, and was entirely underground, they did not receive yellow front ends. Following commissioning (which included test runs as 8-car trains over most of the Central line), they were delivered by road to the Waterloo & City line during May and June 1993, and following further test runs, entered service on 19 July 1993.
On 1 April 1994, operational control of the Waterloo & City line transferred to London Underground. Shortly after the transfer of the line, unit numbers and NSE logos were removed, and LU roundels added together with Central line diagrams. The BR car numbers were retained, not having previously been used by London Underground; and some of the other BR markings were also retained on the inner ends of the "F" cars, but otherwise the trains remained in as-built condition until refurbishment in 2006.
Fleet details
Class
Operator
No. Built
Year Built
Cars per Set
Unit nos.
Notes
Class 482
Network SouthEast
10
1992–93
2
482501-482510
Transferred to London Underground 1994, now in service as London Underground 1992 Stock
Gallery
Class 482 in Network SouthEast livery at Bank station
Class 482 in Network SouthEast livery at Bank station
References
^ "Traction Products Reference List" (PDF). ABB. January 2005. p. 9. Retrieved 13 April 2023.
^ a b Hardy, Brian (2002) . London Underground Rolling Stock (15th ed.). Harrow Weald: Capital Transport. pp. 27–28. ISBN 1-85414-263-1.
^ Bruce, J. Graeme; Croome, Desmond F. (1996). The Twopenny Tube: The Story of the Central line. Harrow Weald: Capital Transport. p. 80. ISBN 1-85414-186-4.
External links
A film of Class 482 trains running on NSE livery on YouTube
Wikimedia Commons has media related to British Rail Class 482.
vteWaterloo & City lineStations
Bank
Waterloo
Rolling stock
1992 Stock
History
London and South Western Railway
Southern Railway
British Rail
Network SouthEast
W&CR electric stock
Class 482 stock
Class 487 stock
Depot
Waterloo Underground Depot
London Underground
Transport for London
London transport portal
vteElectric multiple units of Great BritainAC units(300–399)
300
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316 (I)
316 (II)
316 (III)
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
325
331 (I)1
331 (II)
332
333
334
341
342
345
350 (I)2
350 (II)
357
360
365
370
371
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
381
385
387
390
395
397
AC unitsDC units(700–899)
700
701
7053
707
710
711 (I)3
711 (II)4
717
720
730
745
7555
7565
7685
7695
777
7995
8005
801
8025
803 (I)6
803 (II)
8047
8055
807
8105
AC units(pre-TOPS)
AM1
AM2
AM3
AM4
AM5
AM6
AM7
AM8
AM9
AM10
AM11
LB&SCR CP
LB&SCR CW
LB&SCR SL
MR Lancaster units
DC units(400–599)
401
402
403
404
405
410
411
412
413
414
415
416
418
419
420
421
422
423
424
427
430
431
432
438
442
444
445
446
447
450
455
456
457
458
460
465
466
471
480
482 (I)
482 (II)
483
484
485
486
487
488
489
499 (I)
501
502
503
504
505
506
507
508
510
DC units(original TOPS)
411
412
413
414
421
422
423
424
431
432
441
442
451
452
453
461
462
491
492
DC units(pre-TOPS)
LMS electric units
LNER Tyneside units
LNWR electric units
LOR electric units
LYR electric units
Mersey Railway electric units
MSJ&AR electric units
NER electric units
W&CR electric units
Battery units
BEMU
2305
Hydrogen units
600
614
Southern Railwaydesignations
2-BIL
2-EPB
2-HAL
2-HAP
2-NOL
2-PAN
2-PEP
2-SAP
2-SL
2-TIS
2-WIM
3-CEP
3-CIG
3-COP
3-SUB
3-TC
3-TIS
4-BEP
4-BIG
4-BUF
4-CAP
4-CEP
4-CIG
4-COM
4-COR
4-DD
4-DES
4-EPB
4-GRI
4-JOP
4-LAV
4-PEP
4-PER
4-REP
4-RES
4-SUB
4-TC
4-TEP
4-VEC
4-VEG
4-VEP
4-VIP
4-VOP
5-BEL
5-DES
5-TCB
5-VEC
5-WES
6-CIT
6-PAN
6-PUL
6-REP
7-TC
8-DIG
8-GAT
8-MIG
8-VAB
GLV
MLV
TLV
Miscellaneous units
398
399
499 (II)
555
599
Families
1959 design
1972 design
Mark 2-derived
Mark 3-derived
A-Train
APT
Aventra
Citylink
Civity
D-Train
Desiro
Electrostar
FLIRT
Coradia Juniper
METRO
Networker
TGV
Tube8
Velaro
Notes
1: Renumbered as Class 332
2: Renumbered as Class 325
3: Renumbered as Class 701
4: Renumbered as Class 720/6
5: Bi- or tri-mode unit
6: Renumbered as Class 802/2
7: Renumbered as Class 810
8: Grouping of different rolling stock types built to loading gauge of London Underground deep tube lines
British electric multiple units
List of locomotives
List of diesel multiple units
List of electric multiple units
List of departmental multiple units
Rolling stock of Network SouthEast
|
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|
[]
| null |
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|
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roccat_GmbH
|
Roccat
|
["1 History","2 Products","3 Reception","4 External links","5 References"]
|
Defunct German computer accessories manufacturer
Roccat GmbHCompany typeGesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung (GmbH)IndustryPC accessoriesFounded2006FounderRenê KorteDefunct2024FateAcquired (2019) and merged (2024) by Turtle BeachHeadquartersHamburg, GermanyArea servedWorldwideProductsSee § ProductsNumber of employees110ParentTurtle Beach
Roccat GmbH was a German computer accessories manufacturer based in Hamburg. It was also the titular sponsor of former German professional esports organization Team ROCCAT.
In 2019, the assets of the Roccat brand were acquired by Turtle Beach Corporation. The brand was discontinued in 2024.
History
Roccat GmbH was founded in 2006 by former Razer Vice President of Europe Renê Korte in Hamburg, Germany. Roccat also had offices in Taipei, Taiwan, and Cerritos, Los Angeles, United States.
In 2019, the assets of the Roccat brand were acquired by Turtle Beach Corporation for 19.2 million US dollars. Roccat was used as Turtle Beach's PC brand. It had a turnover in the double-digit million range. Turtle Beach announced in April 2024 that the Roccat brand was being retired, with many of its product lines transitioning under the Turtle Beach brand.
Products
Roccat computer mouse Kova
Roccat keyboard Ryos MK-FX
Roccat was dedicated to gaming hardware and offers various products like mice, keyboards, headsets, mouse pads and other PC accessories. The Vulcan line is Roccat's flagship series of keyboards. For the series, Roccat developed their own switches called Titan Switch Optical in cooperation with TTC. A beam of light that hits an optical signal when a button is pressed and thereby records an input replaces the conventional physical contact within a button. According to the manufacturer, the response time of keystrokes should be registered 40 times faster and instead of 50 million clicks, up to 100 million clicks should be possible compared to conventional mechanical keyboards.
Several features and functions of Roccat products, such as RGB lighting, scroll speed, polling rate, DPI and key profiles, can be set using the Roccat Swarm software.
Reception
Roccat „ gehört zu den 10 meistverkauften Gaming-Peripheriemarken in Europa und ist laut jüngster Newzoo Verbraucherumfragen eine der vier führenden Marken in Bezug auf Bekanntheit, Kaufverhalten und Präferenz für Gaming-Tastaturen und -Mäuse im deutschen PC-Gaming-Markt“ ( belongs to the 10 best-selling gaming peripheral brands in Europe and, according to the latest Newzoo consumer surveys, is one of the four leading brands in terms of awareness, buying behavior and preference for gaming keyboards and mice in the German PC gaming market ".
According to German IT news online magazine Golem.de, Roccat „ gilt für den Käufer als hochwertig und renommiert“ (" is considered high quality and renowned for the buyer").
Roccat's Vulcan keyboard series „ hat sich eine Vielzahl redaktioneller Auszeichnungen und hohes Lob von den Spielern gesichert“ ( has garnered numerous editorial awards and high praise from gamers").
In 2016, Roccat was awarded the Deutscher Gründerpreis.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Roccat.
Official website (in German)
English website
References
^ a b c ""Ein Gamer will den Anschlag spüren"". stern.de (in German). Retrieved 12 December 2020.
^ a b "Golem.de: IT-News für Profis". www.golem.de. Retrieved 11 December 2020.
^ Gameswirtschaft (15 March 2019). "Roccat: Turtle Beach kauft Hamburger Zubehör-Hersteller". GamesWirtschaft.de (in German). Retrieved 11 December 2020.
^ "Turtle Beach kündigt Übernahme von Roccat an". PC Games Hardware (in German). 15 March 2019. Retrieved 11 December 2020.
^ a b c PresseBox (c) 2002–2020. "ROCCATS preisgekröntes Vulcan Keyboard jetzt mit Leistungsstarken optischen Schaltern und im kompakten Tenkeyless-Design, ROCCAT GmbH, Pressemitteilung – PresseBox". www.pressebox.de (in German). Retrieved 11 December 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^ Sawallisch, Noah (5 March 2018). "Roccat | News im Netz" (in German). Retrieved 12 December 2020.
^ "Das Ende einer Ära: Turtle Beach gibt Roccat-Marke auf". PC Games Hardware (in German). 18 April 2024. Retrieved 19 April 2024.
^ "Roccat ist Geschichte". www.golem.de. 19 April 2024. Retrieved 19 April 2024.
^ "Deutsche Hardware-Marke Roccat verschwindet". heise online (in German). 19 April 2024. Retrieved 19 April 2024.
^ "Roccat Vulcan 120 AIMO im Test: Ist Roccats neues Tastaturflaggschiff mit Titan-Tastern ein optimaler Spielpartner?". PC Games Hardware (in German). 17 December 2018. Retrieved 12 December 2020.
^ "Roccat Vulcan 120 AIMO Test – Besser spielen mit neuen Titan Switches?". www.gamestar.de (in German). 11 February 2019. Retrieved 12 December 2020.
^ a b "Roccat: Das sind die neuen Vulcan-Tastaturen". computerbild.de (in German). 24 September 2020. Retrieved 20 December 2020.
^ "Roccat Kone XP". PCMag UK. 24 March 2022. Retrieved 29 December 2023.
^ "ROCCAT Kone XP Air Review". www.techpowerup.com. 20 December 2022.
^ "Turtle Beach veröffentlicht Pläne, ROCCAT zu übernehmen – DEALERS ONLY" (in German). Retrieved 11 December 2020.
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hamburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamburg"},{"link_name":"esports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esports"},{"link_name":"Team ROCCAT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Team_ROCCAT"},{"link_name":"Turtle Beach Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turtle_Beach_Corporation"}],"text":"Roccat GmbH was a German computer accessories manufacturer based in Hamburg. It was also the titular sponsor of former German professional esports organization Team ROCCAT.In 2019, the assets of the Roccat brand were acquired by Turtle Beach Corporation. The brand was discontinued in 2024.","title":"Roccat"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Razer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Razer_Inc."},{"link_name":"Hamburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamburg"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-1"},{"link_name":"Taipei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei"},{"link_name":"Cerritos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerritos,_California"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-1"},{"link_name":"Turtle Beach Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turtle_Beach_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"Roccat GmbH was founded in 2006 by former Razer Vice President of Europe Renê Korte in Hamburg, Germany.[1] Roccat also had offices in Taipei, Taiwan, and Cerritos, Los Angeles, United States.[1]In 2019, the assets of the Roccat brand were acquired by Turtle Beach Corporation for 19.2 million US dollars.[2][3][4] Roccat was used as Turtle Beach's PC brand.[5] It had a turnover in the double-digit million range.[6] Turtle Beach announced in April 2024 that the Roccat brand was being retired, with many of its product lines transitioning under the Turtle Beach brand.[7][8][9]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2015_review_product_-_24100727311_(cropped).jpg"},{"link_name":"computer mouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_mouse"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ROCCAT_Ryos_MK-FX_DE_Top_equalizer_whiteBG.jpg"},{"link_name":"mice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_mouse"},{"link_name":"keyboards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_keyboard"},{"link_name":"mouse pads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mouse_pad"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"switches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switch"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-12"},{"link_name":"response time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Response_time_(technology)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-5"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-12"},{"link_name":"RGB lighting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RGB_lighting"},{"link_name":"polling rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polling_rate"},{"link_name":"DPI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mouse_DPI"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"Roccat computer mouse KovaRoccat keyboard Ryos MK-FXRoccat was dedicated to gaming hardware and offers various products like mice, keyboards, headsets, mouse pads and other PC accessories. The Vulcan line is Roccat's flagship series of keyboards.[10] For the series, Roccat developed their own switches called Titan Switch Optical in cooperation with TTC.[11] A beam of light that hits an optical signal when a button is pressed and thereby records an input replaces the conventional physical contact within a button.[12] According to the manufacturer, the response time of keystrokes should be registered 40 times faster and instead of 50 million clicks, up to 100 million clicks should be possible compared to conventional mechanical keyboards.[5][12]Several features and functions of Roccat products, such as RGB lighting, scroll speed, polling rate, DPI and key profiles, can be set using the Roccat Swarm software.[13][14]","title":"Products"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Golem.de","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golem.de"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-5"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-1"}],"text":"Roccat „[...] gehört zu den 10 meistverkauften Gaming-Peripheriemarken in Europa und ist laut jüngster Newzoo Verbraucherumfragen eine der vier führenden Marken in Bezug auf Bekanntheit, Kaufverhalten und Präferenz für Gaming-Tastaturen und -Mäuse im deutschen PC-Gaming-Markt“ ([...] belongs to the 10 best-selling gaming peripheral brands in Europe and, according to the latest Newzoo consumer surveys, is one of the four leading brands in terms of awareness, buying behavior and preference for gaming keyboards and mice in the German PC gaming market [...]\".[15]According to German IT news online magazine Golem.de, Roccat „[...] gilt für den Käufer als hochwertig und renommiert“ (\"[...] is considered high quality and renowned for the buyer\").[2]Roccat's Vulcan keyboard series „[...] hat sich [...] eine Vielzahl redaktioneller Auszeichnungen und hohes Lob von den Spielern gesichert“ ([...] has garnered numerous editorial awards and high praise from gamers\").[5]In 2016, Roccat was awarded the Deutscher Gründerpreis.[1]","title":"Reception"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Roccat computer mouse Kova","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/2015_review_product_-_24100727311_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-2015_review_product_-_24100727311_%28cropped%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Roccat keyboard Ryos MK-FX","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/ROCCAT_Ryos_MK-FX_DE_Top_equalizer_whiteBG.jpg/220px-ROCCAT_Ryos_MK-FX_DE_Top_equalizer_whiteBG.jpg"}]
| null |
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Retrieved 11 December 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gameswirtschaft.de/wirtschaft/turtle-beach-kauft-roccat/","url_text":"\"Roccat: Turtle Beach kauft Hamburger Zubehör-Hersteller\""}]},{"reference":"\"Turtle Beach kündigt Übernahme von Roccat an\". PC Games Hardware (in German). 15 March 2019. Retrieved 11 December 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pcgameshardware.de/Eingabegeraet-Hardware-154122/News/Turtle-Beach-kuendigt-Uebernahme-von-Roccat-an-1277535/","url_text":"\"Turtle Beach kündigt Übernahme von Roccat an\""}]},{"reference":"PresseBox (c) 2002–2020. \"ROCCATS preisgekröntes Vulcan Keyboard jetzt mit Leistungsstarken optischen Schaltern und im kompakten Tenkeyless-Design, ROCCAT GmbH, Pressemitteilung – PresseBox\". www.pressebox.de (in German). Retrieved 11 December 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pressebox.de/inaktiv/roccat-gmbh/ROCCATS-preisgekroentes-Vulcan-Keyboard-jetzt-mit-Leistungsstarken-optischen-Schaltern-und-im-kompakten-Tenkeyless-Design/boxid/1024097","url_text":"\"ROCCATS preisgekröntes Vulcan Keyboard jetzt mit Leistungsstarken optischen Schaltern und im kompakten Tenkeyless-Design, ROCCAT GmbH, Pressemitteilung – PresseBox\""}]},{"reference":"Sawallisch, Noah (5 March 2018). \"Roccat | News im Netz\" (in German). Retrieved 12 December 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://news-im-netz.de/roccat/","url_text":"\"Roccat | News im Netz\""}]},{"reference":"\"Das Ende einer Ära: Turtle Beach gibt Roccat-Marke auf\". PC Games Hardware (in German). 18 April 2024. Retrieved 19 April 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pcgameshardware.de/Eingabegeraet-Hardware-154122/News/Roccat-Marke-Aufgabe-Turtle-Beach-Uebernahme-1445635/","url_text":"\"Das Ende einer Ära: Turtle Beach gibt Roccat-Marke auf\""}]},{"reference":"\"Roccat ist Geschichte\". www.golem.de. 19 April 2024. Retrieved 19 April 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.golem.de/sonstiges/zustimmung/auswahl.html?from=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.golem.de%2Fnews%2Fdeutsche-gaming-marke-roccat-ist-geschichte-2404-184339.html","url_text":"\"Roccat ist Geschichte\""}]},{"reference":"\"Deutsche Hardware-Marke Roccat verschwindet\". heise online (in German). 19 April 2024. Retrieved 19 April 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.heise.de/news/Deutsche-Hardware-Marke-Roccat-verschwindet-9691160.html","url_text":"\"Deutsche Hardware-Marke Roccat verschwindet\""}]},{"reference":"\"Roccat Vulcan 120 AIMO im Test: Ist Roccats neues Tastaturflaggschiff mit Titan-Tastern ein optimaler Spielpartner?\". PC Games Hardware (in German). 17 December 2018. Retrieved 12 December 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pcgameshardware.de/Tastaturen-Hardware-255538/Tests/Roccat-Vulcan-120-AIMO-1271340/","url_text":"\"Roccat Vulcan 120 AIMO im Test: Ist Roccats neues Tastaturflaggschiff mit Titan-Tastern ein optimaler Spielpartner?\""}]},{"reference":"\"Roccat Vulcan 120 AIMO Test – Besser spielen mit neuen Titan Switches?\". www.gamestar.de (in German). 11 February 2019. Retrieved 12 December 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gamestar.de/artikel/roccat-vulcan-120-aimo-titanisch-gut-mechanische-tastatur-mit-schlichtem-design-im-test,3336191.html","url_text":"\"Roccat Vulcan 120 AIMO Test – Besser spielen mit neuen Titan Switches?\""}]},{"reference":"\"Roccat: Das sind die neuen Vulcan-Tastaturen\". computerbild.de (in German). 24 September 2020. Retrieved 20 December 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.computerbild.de/artikel/cb-News-PC-Hardware-ROCCAT-veroeffentlicht-neue-Vulcan-Tastaturen-27759820.html","url_text":"\"Roccat: Das sind die neuen Vulcan-Tastaturen\""}]},{"reference":"\"Roccat Kone XP\". PCMag UK. 24 March 2022. Retrieved 29 December 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://uk.pcmag.com/computer-mice/139391/roccat-kone-xp","url_text":"\"Roccat Kone XP\""}]},{"reference":"\"ROCCAT Kone XP Air Review\". www.techpowerup.com. 20 December 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.techpowerup.com/review/roccat-kone-xp-air/6.html","url_text":"\"ROCCAT Kone XP Air Review\""}]},{"reference":"\"Turtle Beach veröffentlicht Pläne, ROCCAT zu übernehmen – DEALERS ONLY\" (in German). Retrieved 11 December 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://dealers-only.de/turtle-beach-veroeffentlicht-plaene-roccat-zu-uebernehmen/","url_text":"\"Turtle Beach veröffentlicht Pläne, ROCCAT zu übernehmen – DEALERS ONLY\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Like_a_Rock_(song)
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Like a Rock (song)
|
["1 Background and writing","2 Reception","3 Personnel","4 Chart performance","5 In media","6 \"Livin' Inside My Heart\"","7 See also","8 References","9 External links"]
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1986 single by Bob Seger & the Silver Bullet Band"Like a Rock"Single by Bob Seger & the Silver Bullet Bandfrom the album Like a Rock B-side"Livin' Inside My Heart""Katmandu" (live version)ReleasedMay 1986GenreHeartland rock, country rockLength4:36 (DJ 45 version)5:56 (single and album version)LabelCapitolSongwriter(s)Bob SegerProducer(s)Punch Andrews, David N. Cole, Bob SegerBob Seger & the Silver Bullet Band singles chronology
"American Storm" (1986)
"Like a Rock" (1986)
"It's You" (1986)
Music video"Like a Rock" on YouTube
"Like a Rock" is a song written by American singer-songwriter Bob Seger. The single peaked at No. 1 on the US Album Rock Tracks chart.
Background and writing
Seger told the New York Times that the song "was inspired partly by the end of a relationship that had lasted for 11 years. You wonder where all that time went. But beyond that, it expresses my feeling that the best years of your life are in your late teens when you have no special commitments and no career. It's your last blast of fun before heading into the cruel world."
Reception
Cash Box called it an "emotional ballad of perseverence and commitment." Billboard called it a "slow-paced, rough-edged ballad mourns the certainties of youth."
Classic Rock History critic Janey Roberts rated it as Seger's 10th best song.
Personnel
Credits are adapted from the liner notes of Like a Rock.
Bob Seger – lead vocals
The Silver Bullet Band
Chris Campbell – bass
Craig Frost – organ
Additional musicians
Dawayne Bailey – acoustic guitar
Douglas Kibble – background vocals
Russ Kunkel – drums
Bill Payne – piano
Rick Vito – slide guitar
The Weather Girls (Izora Armstead and Martha Wash) – background vocals
Chart performance
Chart (1986)
Peakposition
Canadian RPM Top Singles
33
Canadian RPM Adult Contemporary Tracks
5
US Billboard Hot 100
12
US Billboard Adult Contemporary
21
US Billboard Album Rock Tracks
1
In media
This song's greatest exposure was in Chevrolet truck television advertisements from 1991 until 2004, for their massively successful "Like a Rock" campaign. Chevrolet originally wanted to use Bruce Springsteen's "Born in the U.S.A." for the ad campaign but when Springsteen declined "Like a Rock" was chosen.
"Livin' Inside My Heart"
The B-side of some versions of the "Like a Rock" single was "Livin' Inside My Heart". Seger said of the song:I wanted so bad to put "Living Inside My Heart" on my Greatest Hits, Volume 2 record and I fought and fought and fought. My manager said: “No, that’s a movie song.” I said: “No, I want it on there.” It’s beautiful. I was so bummed when they wouldn’t let me put it on there. I was actually working on my new album and let that one slide, and I wished I had worked harder on that Greatest Hits, Volume 2 package because there were other songs that I really wanted on there.
See also
List of number-one mainstream rock hits (United States)
References
^ a b c d "Bob Seger > Charts & Awards > Billboard Singles". Allmusic. Retrieved December 18, 2009.
^ The Pop Life – Bob Seger's view of life and loving
^ "Single Releases" (PDF). Cash Box. May 17, 1986. p. 13. Retrieved August 4, 2022.
^ "Reviews". Billboard. May 24, 1986. p. 77. Retrieved August 4, 2022.
^ a b c Roberts, Janey. "Top 20 Bob Seger songs". Classic Rock History. Retrieved January 22, 2023.
^ Like a Rock (CD). Bob Seger. Capitol Records. 1986. CDP 7 446195 2.{{cite AV media notes}}: CS1 maint: others in cite AV media (notes) (link)
^ "RPM Top 100 Singles - August 2, 1986" (PDF).
^ "RPM Top 30 AC Singles - August 9, 1986" (PDF).
^ Chevrolet "Like A Rock" From The Mid-90s
^ Sharp, Ken (September 10, 2018). "How Bob Seger changed the face of American Music". Classic Rock. Louder Sound. Retrieved June 29, 2022.
External links
vteBob Seger
Bob Seger
Craig Frost
Chris Campbell
Alto Reed
Drew Abbott
Charlie Allen Martin
David Teegarden
Rick Manasa
Robyn Robbins
Dawayne Bailey
The System albums
Ramblin' Gamblin' Man
Noah
Mongrel
Seger solo albums
Brand New Morning
Smokin' O.P.'s
Back in '72
Seven
Beautiful Loser
Face the Promise
Ride Out
I Knew You When
The Silver Bullet Band albums
Night Moves
Stranger in Town
Against the Wind
The Distance
Like a Rock
The Fire Inside
It's a Mystery
Live albums
Live Bullet
Nine Tonight
Compilation albums
The Bob Seger Collection
Greatest Hits
Greatest Hits 2
Early Seger Vol. 1
Ultimate Hits: Rock and Roll Never Forgets
Singles
"East Side Story"
"Heavy Music"
"2 + 2 = ?"
"Ramblin' Gamblin' Man"
"Lucifer"
"Lookin' Back"
"If I Were a Carpenter"
"Who Do You Love"
"Midnight Rider"
"Turn the Page"
"Beautiful Loser"
"Katmandu"
"Nutbush City Limits"
"Night Moves"
"Mainstreet"
"Rock and Roll Never Forgets"
"Still the Same"/"Feel Like a Number"
"Hollywood Nights"
"We've Got Tonite"
"Old Time Rock and Roll"
"Fire Lake"
"Against the Wind"
"You'll Accomp'ny Me"
"The Horizontal Bop"/"Her Strut"
"Tryin' to Live My Life Without You"
"Feel Like a Number"
"Shame on the Moon"
"Even Now"
"Roll Me Away"
"American Storm"/"Fortunate Son"
""Like a Rock"/"Livin' Inside My Heart"
"Shakedown"
"The Real Love"
"C'est La Vie"
"Landing in London"
"Downtown Train"
"Hey, Hey, Hey, Hey (Going Back to Birmingham)"
Related articles
Discography
Gibson/Miller Band
Punch Andrews
This 1980s rock song–related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bob Seger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Seger"},{"link_name":"Album Rock Tracks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Album_Rock_Tracks"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-allmusic-1"}],"text":"1986 single by Bob Seger & the Silver Bullet Band\"Like a Rock\" is a song written by American singer-songwriter Bob Seger. The single peaked at No. 1 on the US Album Rock Tracks chart.[1]","title":"Like a Rock (song)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Seger told the New York Times that the song \"was inspired partly by the end of a relationship that had lasted for 11 years. You wonder where all that time went. But beyond that, it expresses my feeling that the best years of your life are in your late teens when you have no special commitments and no career. It's your last blast of fun before heading into the cruel world.\"[2]","title":"Background and writing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cash Box","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cash_Box"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cb-3"},{"link_name":"Billboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billboard_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-crh-5"}],"text":"Cash Box called it an \"emotional ballad of perseverence and commitment.\"[3] Billboard called it a \"slow-paced, rough-edged ballad [that] mourns the certainties of youth.\"[4]Classic Rock History critic Janey Roberts rated it as Seger's 10th best song.[5]","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"liner notes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liner_notes"},{"link_name":"Like a Rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Like_a_Rock"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Bob Seger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Seger"},{"link_name":"Craig Frost","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craig_Frost"},{"link_name":"Dawayne Bailey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dawayne_Bailey"},{"link_name":"Russ Kunkel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russ_Kunkel"},{"link_name":"Bill Payne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Payne"},{"link_name":"Rick Vito","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rick_Vito"},{"link_name":"slide guitar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_guitar"},{"link_name":"The Weather Girls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Weather_Girls"},{"link_name":"Izora Armstead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Izora_Armstead"},{"link_name":"Martha Wash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martha_Wash"}],"text":"Credits are adapted from the liner notes of Like a Rock.[6]Bob Seger – lead vocalsThe Silver Bullet BandChris Campbell – bass\nCraig Frost – organAdditional musiciansDawayne Bailey – acoustic guitar\nDouglas Kibble – background vocals\nRuss Kunkel – drums\nBill Payne – piano\nRick Vito – slide guitar\nThe Weather Girls (Izora Armstead and Martha Wash) – background vocals","title":"Personnel"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Chart performance"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chevrolet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-crh-5"},{"link_name":"Bruce Springsteen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Springsteen"},{"link_name":"Born in the U.S.A.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born_in_the_U.S.A._(song)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-crh-5"}],"text":"This song's greatest exposure was in Chevrolet truck television advertisements from 1991 until 2004,[9] for their massively successful \"Like a Rock\" campaign.[5] Chevrolet originally wanted to use Bruce Springsteen's \"Born in the U.S.A.\" for the ad campaign but when Springsteen declined \"Like a Rock\" was chosen.[5]","title":"In media"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Greatest Hits, Volume 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greatest_Hits_2_(Bob_Seger_album)"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"The B-side of some versions of the \"Like a Rock\" single was \"Livin' Inside My Heart\". Seger said of the song:I wanted so bad to put \"Living Inside My Heart\" on my Greatest Hits, Volume 2 record and I fought and fought and fought. My manager said: “No, that’s a movie song.” I said: “No, I want it on there.” It’s beautiful. I was so bummed when they wouldn’t let me put it on there. I was actually working on my new album and let that one slide, and I wished I had worked harder on that Greatest Hits, Volume 2 package because there were other songs that I really wanted on there.[10]","title":"\"Livin' Inside My Heart\""}]
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[]
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[{"title":"List of number-one mainstream rock hits (United States)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_number-one_mainstream_rock_hits_(United_States)#1986"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Bob Seger > Charts & Awards > Billboard Singles\". Allmusic. Retrieved December 18, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.allmusic.com/artist/p123393/charts-awards/billboard-singles","url_text":"\"Bob Seger > Charts & Awards > Billboard Singles\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allmusic","url_text":"Allmusic"}]},{"reference":"\"Single Releases\" (PDF). Cash Box. May 17, 1986. p. 13. Retrieved August 4, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive-All-Music/Cash-Box/80s/1986/CB-1986-05-17.pdf","url_text":"\"Single Releases\""}]},{"reference":"\"Reviews\". Billboard. May 24, 1986. p. 77. Retrieved August 4, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=_yQEAAAAMBAJ","url_text":"\"Reviews\""}]},{"reference":"Roberts, Janey. \"Top 20 Bob Seger songs\". Classic Rock History. Retrieved January 22, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.classicrockhistory.com/best-bob-seger-songs/","url_text":"\"Top 20 Bob Seger songs\""}]},{"reference":"Like a Rock (CD). Bob Seger. Capitol Records. 1986. CDP 7 446195 2.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"RPM Top 100 Singles - August 2, 1986\" (PDF).","urls":[{"url":"http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/obj/028020/f2/nlc008388.0707.pdf","url_text":"\"RPM Top 100 Singles - August 2, 1986\""}]},{"reference":"\"RPM Top 30 AC Singles - August 9, 1986\" (PDF).","urls":[{"url":"http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/obj/028020/f2/nlc008388.0708.pdf","url_text":"\"RPM Top 30 AC Singles - August 9, 1986\""}]},{"reference":"Sharp, Ken (September 10, 2018). \"How Bob Seger changed the face of American Music\". Classic Rock. Louder Sound. Retrieved June 29, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.loudersound.com/features/bob-seger-making-all-the-right-moves","url_text":"\"How Bob Seger changed the face of American Music\""}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fMIJuuk1SFs","external_links_name":"\"Like a Rock\""},{"Link":"https://www.allmusic.com/artist/p123393/charts-awards/billboard-singles","external_links_name":"\"Bob Seger > Charts & Awards > Billboard Singles\""},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/1986/05/14/arts/the-pop-life-bob-seger-s-view-of-life-and-loving.html","external_links_name":"The Pop Life – Bob Seger's view of life and loving"},{"Link":"https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive-All-Music/Cash-Box/80s/1986/CB-1986-05-17.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Single Releases\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=_yQEAAAAMBAJ","external_links_name":"\"Reviews\""},{"Link":"https://www.classicrockhistory.com/best-bob-seger-songs/","external_links_name":"\"Top 20 Bob Seger songs\""},{"Link":"http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/obj/028020/f2/nlc008388.0707.pdf","external_links_name":"\"RPM Top 100 Singles - August 2, 1986\""},{"Link":"http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/obj/028020/f2/nlc008388.0708.pdf","external_links_name":"\"RPM Top 30 AC Singles - August 9, 1986\""},{"Link":"https://jalopnik.com/chevrolet-like-a-rock-from-the-mid-90s-5671905","external_links_name":"Chevrolet \"Like A Rock\" From The Mid-90s"},{"Link":"https://www.loudersound.com/features/bob-seger-making-all-the-right-moves","external_links_name":"\"How Bob Seger changed the face of American Music\""},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Like_a_Rock_(song)&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_O._Holland
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Ernest O. Holland
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["1 Early life and education","2 Career","3 References","4 External links"]
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American academic
Ernest Otto Holland (February 4, 1874 – May 30, 1950) was an American academic, the superintendent of public schools for Louisville, Kentucky, and the fourth and longest-serving president of Washington State University, leading the institution from 1915 until 1945.
Early life and education
Ernest Otto Holland was born February 4, 1874, in Bennington, Switzerland County, Indiana, the son of Philip Calphy Holland and Ann Atlanta Chittenden Holland. Philip and Ann had three sons and a daughter. In 1891, the Holland family moved from southeast Indiana to Bloomington, Indiana, where Philip practiced medicine.
Ernest attended rural and town schools as a young man, graduating in 1890 from high school in Vevay, the county seat of Switzerland County. He was a student at Indiana University during 1891–1895, and earned a B.A. degree in English from IU in 1895. He was a member of the Lambda chapter of Sigma Chi fraternity there and was elected to Phi Beta Kappa, the nation's oldest academic honor society. A Ph.D. would follow in 1912.
Career
Holland began his career in education as an English teacher in high schools at Rensselaer in Jasper County, Indiana and at Anderson in Madison County, Indiana during the period 1895–1900. He then served as head of the English department at the boys' high school in Louisville, Kentucky, 1900–1905. He took additional studies during summer schools at Cornell University and the University of Chicago, 1898-1900. During 1905–1908, he was an associate professor of education at IU, then a professor of secondary education there from 1908 until 1911.
He pursued graduate study at Teachers' College, Columbia University, during 1908–1910. He earned his Ph.D. from Columbia in 1912, the year his dissertation, "The Pennsylvania state normal schools and public school system", was published.
In 1911, Holland became superintendent of schools at Louisville, Kentucky, a position he held until 1915 when the Board of Regents selected him to be the fourth president of the State College of Washington, now called Washington State University. He succeeded Enoch A. Bryan who retired.
References
^ Convention, Association of Land-Grant Colleges and Universities (1948). Proceedings of the ... Annual Convention of the Association of Land-Grant Colleges and Universities. Metcalf Printing & Publishing Company.
^ Holland Manuscripts, Indiana University
^ a b c "E. O. Holland Vita," Pennsylvania State Normal Schools and Public School System, 1912, page 94
^ Registry of Graduates, Indiana University bulletin, Volume 15, Issue 5, The University, 1917
^ Sigma Chi Quarterly, 1916
^ The Pennsylvania state normal schools and public school system, Columbia University, 1912.
^ Journal of educational psychology, Volume 6, 1915, by American Psychological Association
External links
Ernest O. Holland Profile as Past President of Washington State University
vtePresidents of Washington State University
George W. Lilley (1891–1892)
John W. Heston (1892–1893)
Enoch Albert Bryan (1893–1915)
Ernest O. Holland (1916–1944)
Wilson Martindale Compton (1945–1951)
C. Clement French (1952–1966)
Glenn Terrell (1967–1985)
Samuel H. Smith (1985–2000)
V. Lane Rawlins (2000–2007)
Elson Floyd (2007–2015)
Daniel J. Bernardo # (2015–2016)
Kirk Schulz (2016– )
# denotes acting president
Authority control databases International
FAST
ISNI
VIAF
WorldCat
National
United States
Australia
People
Trove
Other
SNAC
IdRef
|
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[]
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[{"reference":"Convention, Association of Land-Grant Colleges and Universities (1948). Proceedings of the ... Annual Convention of the Association of Land-Grant Colleges and Universities. Metcalf Printing & Publishing Company.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=St9hAAAAIAAJ&q=%22Ernest+O.+Holland%22+Washington+1950","url_text":"Proceedings of the ... Annual Convention of the Association of Land-Grant Colleges and Universities"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JP-6
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Jet fuel
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["1 History","2 Standards","3 Types","3.1 Jet A/A-1","3.2 Differences between Jet A and Jet A-1","3.3 Typical physical properties for Jet A and Jet A-1","3.4 Jet B","3.5 TS-1","4 Additives","5 Water in jet fuel","6 Military jet fuels","7 Piston engine use","8 Synthetic jet fuel","8.1 USAF synthetic fuel trials","8.2 Jet biofuels","9 Worldwide consumption of jet fuel","10 Taxation","11 Health effects","12 See also","13 References","14 External links"]
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This article is about aviation turbine fuel. For the chain of European fuel stations, see Jet (brand).
Type of aviation fuel
Jet fuel
An Airbus A310-300 of Czech Airlines being fueled at Prague Václav Havel Airport
Identifiers
CAS Number
8008-20-6 (kerosene, also called fuel oil no. 1) Y64742-47-8 (Aviation Kerosene) Y
ChemSpider
None
UNII
1C89KKC04E Y
CompTox Dashboard (EPA)
DTXSID80109005
Properties
Appearance
Straw-colored liquid
Density
775-840 g/L
Melting point
−47 °C (−53 °F; 226 K)
Boiling point
176 °C (349 °F; 449 K)
Hazards
NFPA 704 (fire diamond)
2
2
0
Flash point
38 °C (100 °F; 311 K)
Autoignitiontemperature
210 °C (410 °F; 483 K)
Safety data sheet (SDS)
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C , 100 kPa).
Y verify (what is YN ?)
Infobox references
Chemical compound
Jet fuel or aviation turbine fuel (ATF, also abbreviated avtur) is a type of aviation fuel designed for use in aircraft powered by gas-turbine engines. It is colorless to straw-colored in appearance. The most commonly used fuels for commercial aviation are Jet A and Jet A-1, which are produced to a standardized international specification. The only other jet fuel commonly used in civilian turbine-engine powered aviation is Jet B, which is used for its enhanced cold-weather performance.
Jet fuel is a mixture of a variety of hydrocarbons. Because the exact composition of jet fuel varies widely based on petroleum source, it is impossible to define jet fuel as a ratio of specific hydrocarbons. Jet fuel is therefore defined as a performance specification rather than a chemical compound. Furthermore, the range of molecular mass between hydrocarbons (or different carbon numbers) is defined by the requirements for the product, such as the freezing point or smoke point. Kerosene-type jet fuel (including Jet A and Jet A-1, JP-5, and JP-8) has a carbon number distribution between about 8 and 16 (carbon atoms per molecule); wide-cut or naphtha-type jet fuel (including Jet B and JP-4), between about 5 and 15.
History
Fuel for piston-engine powered aircraft (usually a high-octane gasoline known as avgas) has a high volatility to improve its carburetion characteristics and high autoignition temperature to prevent preignition in high compression aircraft engines. Turbine engines (like diesel engines) can operate with a wide range of fuels because fuel is injected into the hot combustion chamber. Jet and gas turbine (turboprop, helicopter) aircraft engines typically use lower cost fuels with higher flash points, which are less flammable and therefore safer to transport and handle.
The first axial compressor jet engine in widespread production and combat service, the Junkers Jumo 004 used on the Messerschmitt Me 262A fighter and the Arado Ar 234B jet recon-bomber, burned either a special synthetic "J2" fuel or diesel fuel. Gasoline was a third option but unattractive due to high fuel consumption. Other fuels used were kerosene or kerosene and gasoline mixtures.
Standards
Most jet fuels in use since the end of World War II are kerosene-based. Both British and American standards for jet fuels were first established at the end of World War II. British standards derived from standards for kerosene use for lamps—known as paraffin in the UK—whereas American standards derived from aviation gasoline practices. Over the subsequent years, details of specifications were adjusted, such as minimum freezing point, to balance performance requirements and availability of fuels. Very low temperature freezing points reduce the availability of fuel. Higher flash point products required for use on aircraft carriers are more expensive to produce. In the United States, ASTM International produces standards for civilian fuel types, and the U.S. Department of Defense produces standards for military use. The British Ministry of Defence establishes standards for both civil and military jet fuels. For reasons of inter-operational ability, British and United States military standards are harmonized to a degree. In Russia and the CIS members, grades of jet fuels are covered by the State Standard (GOST) number, or a Technical Condition number, with the principal grade available being TS-1.
Types
Jet A/A-1
Shell Jet A-1 refueller truck on the ramp at Vancouver International Airport. Note the signs indicating UN1863 hazardous material and JET A-1.
A US Airways Boeing 757 being fueled at Fort Lauderdale–Hollywood International Airport
An Iberia Airbus A340 being fueled at La Aurora International Airport
Jet A specification fuel has been used in the United States since the 1950s and is usually not available outside the United States and a few Canadian airports such as Toronto and Vancouver, whereas Jet A-1 is the standard specification fuel used in the rest of the world (include Chinese RP-3 standard which is very similar to Jet A-1) other than Russia and the CIS members where TS-1 is the most common standard. Both Jet A and Jet A-1 have a flash point higher than 38 °C (100 °F), with an autoignition temperature of 210 °C (410 °F).
Differences between Jet A and Jet A-1
The primary difference is the lower freezing point of A-1:
Jet A's is −40 °C (−40 °F)
Jet A-1's is −47 °C (−53 °F)
The other difference is the mandatory addition of an anti-static additive to Jet A-1.
Jet A trucks, storage tanks, and plumbing that carry Jet A are marked with a black sticker with "Jet A" in white printed on it, adjacent to another black stripe.
Typical physical properties for Jet A and Jet A-1
Jet A-1 fuel must meet:
DEF STAN 91-91 (Jet A-1),
ASTM specification D1655 (Jet A-1), and
IATA Guidance Material (Kerosene Type), NATO Code F-35.
Jet A fuel must reach ASTM specification D1655 (Jet A).
Typical physical properties for Jet A / Jet A-1
Jet A-1
Jet A
Flash point
38 °C (100 °F)
Autoignition temperature
210 °C (410 °F)
Freezing point
−47 °C (−53 °F)
−40 °C (−40 °F)
Max adiabatic burn temperature
2,230 °C (4,050 °F) open air burn temperature: 1,030 °C (1,890 °F)
Density at 15 °C (59 °F)
0.804 kg/L (6.71 lb/US gal)
0.820 kg/L (6.84 lb/US gal)
Specific energy
43.15 MJ/kg (11.99 kWh/kg)
43.02 MJ/kg (11.95 kWh/kg)
Energy density
34.7 MJ/L (9.6 kWh/L)
35.3 MJ/L (9.8 kWh/L)
Jet B
Jet B is a naphtha-kerosene fuel that is used for its enhanced cold-weather performance. However, Jet B's lighter composition makes it more dangerous to handle. For this reason, it is rarely used, except in very cold climates. A blend of approximately 30% kerosene and 70% gasoline, it is known as wide-cut fuel. It has a very low freezing point of −60 °C (−76 °F), and a low flash point as well. It is primarily used in northern Canada and Alaska, where the extreme cold makes its low freezing point necessary, and which helps mitigate the danger of its lower flash point.
TS-1
TS-1 is a jet fuel made to Russian standard GOST 10227 for enhanced cold-weather performance. It has somewhat higher volatility than Jet A-1 (flash point is 28 °C (82 °F) minimum). It has a very low freezing point, below −50 °C (−58 °F).
Additives
The DEF STAN 91-091 (UK) and ASTM D1655 (international) specifications allow for certain additives to be added to jet fuel, including:
Antioxidants to prevent gumming, usually based on alkylated phenols, e.g., AO-30, AO-31, or AO-37;
Antistatic agents, to dissipate static electricity and prevent sparking; Stadis 450, with dinonylnaphthylsulfonic acid (DINNSA) as a component, is an example
Corrosion inhibitors, e.g., DCI-4A used for civilian and military fuels, and DCI-6A used for military fuels;
Fuel system icing inhibitor (FSII) agents, e.g., 2-(2-Methoxyethoxy)ethanol (Di-EGME); FSII is often mixed at the point-of-sale so that users with heated fuel lines do not have to pay the extra expense.
Biocides are to remediate microbial (i.e., bacterial and fungal) growth present in aircraft fuel systems. Two biocides were previously approved for use by most aircraft and turbine engine original equipment manufacturers (OEMs); Kathon FP1.5 Microbiocide and Biobor JF. Biobor JF is currently the only biocide available for aviation use. Kathon was discontinued by the manufacturer due to several airworthiness incidents. Kathon is now banned from use in aviation fuel.
Metal deactivator can be added to reduce the negative effects of trace metals on the thermal stability of the fuel. The one allowable additive is the chelating agent salpn (N,N′-bis(salicylidene)-1,2-propanediamine).
As the aviation industry's jet kerosene demands have increased to more than 5% of all refined products derived from crude,
it has been necessary for the refiner to optimize the yield of jet kerosene, a high-value product, by varying process techniques.
New processes have allowed flexibility in the choice of crudes, the use of coal tar sands as a source of molecules and the
manufacture of synthetic blend stocks. Due to the number and severity of the processes used, it is often necessary and
sometimes mandatory to use additives. These additives may, for example, prevent the formation of harmful chemical species
or improve a property of a fuel to prevent further engine wear.
Water in jet fuel
It is very important that jet fuel be free from water contamination. During flight, the temperature of the fuel in the tanks decreases, due to the low temperatures in the upper atmosphere. This causes precipitation of the dissolved water from the fuel. The separated water then drops to the bottom of the tank, because it is denser than the fuel. Since the water is no longer in solution, it can form droplets which can supercool to below 0 °C (32 °F). If these supercooled droplets collide with a surface they can freeze and may result in blocked fuel inlet pipes. This was the cause of the British Airways Flight 38 accident. Removing all water from fuel is impractical; therefore, fuel heaters are usually used on commercial aircraft to prevent water in fuel from freezing.
There are several methods for detecting water in jet fuel. A visual check may detect high concentrations of suspended water, as this will cause the fuel to become hazy in appearance. An industry standard chemical test for the detection of free water in jet fuel uses a water-sensitive filter pad that turns green if the fuel exceeds the specification limit of 30 ppm (parts per million) free water. A critical test to rate the ability of jet fuel to release emulsified water when passed through coalescing filters is ASTM standard D3948 Standard Test Method for Determining Water Separation Characteristics of Aviation Turbine Fuels by Portable Separometer.
Military jet fuels
"JP-1", "JP-2", and "JP-3" redirect here. For other uses, see JP1 (disambiguation) and JP2 (disambiguation). For the movie, see Jurassic Park III.
A sailor inspects a sample of JP-5 jet fuel aboard an amphibious transport dock ship
Military organizations around the world use a different classification system of JP (for "Jet Propellant") numbers. Some are almost identical to their civilian counterparts and differ only by the amounts of a few additives; Jet A-1 is similar to JP-8, Jet B is similar to JP-4. Other military fuels are highly specialized products and are developed for very specific applications.
JP-1
was an early jet fuel specified in 1944 by the United States government (AN-F-32). It was a pure kerosene fuel with high flash point (relative to aviation gasoline) and a freezing point of −60 °C (−76 °F). The low freezing point requirement limited availability of the fuel and it was soon superseded by other "wide cut" jet fuels which were kerosene-naphtha or kerosene-gasoline blends. It was also known as avtur.
JP-2
an obsolete type developed during World War II. JP-2 was intended to be easier to produce than JP-1 since it had a higher freezing point, but was never widely used.
JP-3
was an attempt to improve availability of the fuel compared to JP-1 by widening the cut and loosening tolerances on impurities to ensure ready supply. In his book Ignition! An Informal History of Liquid Rocket Propellants, John D. Clark described the specification as, "remarkably liberal, with a wide cut (range of distillation temperatures) and with such permissive limits on olefins and aromatics that any refinery above the level of a Kentucky moonshiner's pot still could convert at least half of any crude to jet fuel". It was even more volatile than JP-2 and had high evaporation loss in service.
JP-4
was a 50-50 kerosene-gasoline blend. It had lower flash point than JP-1, but was preferred because of its greater availability. It was the primary United States Air Force jet fuel between 1951 and 1995. Its NATO code is F-40. It is also known as avtag.
JP-5
is a yellow kerosene-based jet fuel developed in 1952 for use in aircraft stationed aboard aircraft carriers, where the risk from fire is particularly great. JP-5 is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons, containing alkanes, naphthenes, and aromatic hydrocarbons that weighs 6.8 pounds per U.S. gallon (0.81 kg/L) and has a high flash point (min. 60 °C or 140 °F). Because some US naval air stations, Marine Corps air stations and Coast Guard air stations host both sea and land based naval aircraft, these installations will also typically fuel their shore-based aircraft with JP-5, thus precluding the need to maintain separate fuel facilities for JP-5 and non-JP-5 fuel. Chinese also named their navy fuel as RP-5. Its freezing point is −46 °C (−51 °F). It does not contain antistatic agents. JP-5 is also known as NCI-C54784. JP-5's NATO code is F-44. It is also called AVCAT fuel for Aviation Carrier Turbine fuel.
The JP-4 and JP-5 fuels, covered by the MIL-DTL-5624 and meeting the British Specification DEF STAN 91-86 AVCAT/FSII (formerly DERD 2452), are intended for use in aircraft turbine engines. These fuels require unique additives that are necessary for military aircraft and engine fuel systems.
JP-6
was developed for the General Electric YJ93 afterburning turbojet engines used in the North American XB-70 Valkyrie for sustained flight at Mach 3. It was similar to JP-5 but with a lower freezing point and improved thermal oxidative stability. When the XB-70 program was cancelled, the JP-6 specification, MIL-J-25656, was also cancelled.
JP-7
was developed for the Pratt & Whitney J58 afterburning turbojet engines used in the Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird for sustained flight at Mach 3+. It had a high flash point required to prevent boiloff caused by aerodynamic heating. Its thermal stability was high enough to prevent coke and varnish deposits when used as a heat-sink for aircraft air conditioning and hydraulic systems and engine accessories.
JP-8
is a jet fuel, specified and used widely by the U.S. military. It is specified by MIL-DTL-83133 and British Defence Standard 91-87. JP-8 is a kerosene-based fuel, projected to remain in use at least until 2025. The United States military uses JP-8 as a "universal fuel" in both turbine-powered aircraft and diesel-powered ground vehicles. It was first introduced at NATO bases in 1978. Its NATO code is F-34.
JP-9
is a gas turbine fuel for missiles, specifically the Tomahawk cruise missile, containing the TH-dimer (tetrahydrodimethyldicyclopentadiene) produced by catalytic hydrogenation of methylpentadiene dimer.
JP-10
is a gas turbine fuel for missiles, specifically the AGM-86 ALCM cruise missile. It contains a mixture of (in decreasing order) endo-tetrahydrodicyclopentadiene, exo-tetrahydrodicyclopentadiene (a synthetic fuel), and adamantane. It is produced by catalytic hydrogenation of dicyclopentadiene. It superseded JP-9 fuel, achieving a lower low-temperature service limit of −65 °F (−54 °C). It is also used by the Tomahawk jet-powered subsonic cruise missile.
JPTS
was a combination of LF-1 charcoal lighter fluid and an additive to improve thermal oxidative stability officially known as "Thermally Stable Jet Fuel". It was developed in 1956 for the Pratt & Whitney J57 engine which powered the Lockheed U-2 spy plane.
Zip fuel
designates a series of experimental boron-containing "high energy fuels" intended for long range aircraft. The toxicity and undesirable residues of the fuel made it difficult to use. The development of the ballistic missile removed the principal application of zip fuel.
Syntroleum
has been working with the USAF to develop a synthetic jet fuel blend that will help them reduce their dependence on imported petroleum. The USAF, which is the United States military's largest user of fuel, began exploring alternative fuel sources in 1999. On December 15, 2006, a B-52 took off from Edwards Air Force Base for the first time powered solely by a 50–50 blend of JP-8 and Syntroleum's FT fuel. The seven-hour flight test was considered a success. The goal of the flight test program was to qualify the fuel blend for fleet use on the service's B-52s, and then flight test and qualification on other aircraft.
Piston engine use
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Jet fuel is very similar to diesel fuel, and in some cases, may be used in diesel engines. The possibility of environmental legislation banning the use of leaded avgas (fuel in spark-ignited internal combustion engine, which usually contains tetraethyllead (TEL), a toxic substance added to prevent engine knocking), and the lack of a replacement fuel with similar performance, has left aircraft designers and pilot's organizations searching for alternative engines for use in small aircraft. As a result, a few aircraft engine manufacturers, most notably Thielert and Austro Engine, have begun offering aircraft diesel engines which run on jet fuel which may simplify airport logistics by reducing the number of fuel types required. Jet fuel is available in most places in the world, whereas avgas is only widely available in a few countries which have a large number of general aviation aircraft. A diesel engine may be more fuel-efficient than an avgas engine. However, very few diesel aircraft engines have been certified by aviation authorities. Diesel aircraft engines are uncommon today, even though opposed-piston aviation diesel powerplants such as the Junkers Jumo 205 family had been used during the Second World War.
Jet fuel is often used in diesel-powered ground-support vehicles at airports. However, jet fuel tends to have poor lubricating ability in comparison to diesel, which increases wear in fuel injection equipment. An additive may be required to restore its lubricity. Jet fuel is more expensive than diesel fuel but the logistical advantages of using one fuel can offset the extra expense of its use in certain circumstances.
Jet fuel contains more sulfur, up to 1,000 ppm, which therefore means it has better lubricity and does not currently require a lubricity additive as all pipeline diesel fuels require. The introduction of Ultra Low Sulfur Diesel or ULSD brought with it the need for lubricity modifiers. Pipeline diesels before ULSD were able to contain up to 500 ppm of sulfur and were called Low Sulfur Diesel or LSD. In the United States LSD is now only available to the off-road construction, locomotive and marine markets. As more EPA regulations are introduced, more refineries are hydrotreating their jet fuel production, thus limiting the lubricating abilities of jet fuel, as determined by ASTM Standard D445.
JP-8, which is similar to Jet A-1, is used in NATO diesel vehicles as part of the single-fuel policy.
Synthetic jet fuel
Main article: Synthetic fuel
Fischer–Tropsch (FT) Synthesized Paraffinic Kerosene (SPK) synthetic fuels are certified for use in United States and international aviation fleets at up to 50% in a blend with conventional jet fuel. As of the end of 2017, four other pathways to SPK are certified, with their designations and maximum blend percentage in brackets: Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids (HEFA SPK, 50%); synthesized iso-paraffins from hydroprocessed fermented sugars (SIP, 10%); synthesized paraffinic kerosene plus aromatics (SPK/A, 50%); alcohol-to-jet SPK (ATJ-SPK, 30%). Both FT and HEFA based SPKs blended with JP-8 are specified in MIL-DTL-83133H.
Some synthetic jet fuels show a reduction in pollutants such as SOx, NOx, particulate matter, and sometimes carbon emissions. It is envisaged that usage of synthetic jet fuels will increase air quality around airports which will be particularly advantageous at inner city airports.
Qatar Airways became the first airline to operate a commercial flight on a 50:50 blend of synthetic Gas to Liquid (GTL) jet fuel and conventional jet fuel. The natural gas derived synthetic kerosene for the six-hour flight from London to Doha came from Shell's GTL plant in Bintulu, Malaysia. The world's first passenger aircraft flight to use only synthetic jet fuel was from Lanseria International Airport to Cape Town International Airport on September 22, 2010. The fuel was developed by Sasol.
Chemist Heather Willauer is leading a team of researchers at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory who are developing a process to make jet fuel from seawater. The technology requires an input of electrical energy to separate Oxygen (O2) and Hydrogen (H2) gas from seawater using an iron-based catalyst, followed by an oligomerization step wherein carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen are recombined into long-chain hydrocarbons, using zeolite as the catalyst. The technology is expected to be deployed in the 2020s by U.S. Navy warships, especially nuclear-powered aircraft carriers.
On February 8, 2021, the world's first scheduled passenger flight flew with some synthetic kerosene from a non-fossil fuel source. 500 liters of synthetic kerosene was mixed with regular jet fuel. Synthetic kerosene was produced by Shell and the flight was operated by KLM.
USAF synthetic fuel trials
On August 8, 2007, Air Force Secretary Michael Wynne certified the B-52H as fully approved to use the FT blend, marking the formal conclusion of the test program.
This program is part of the Department of Defense Assured Fuel Initiative, an effort to develop secure domestic sources for the military energy needs. The Pentagon hopes to reduce its use of crude oil from foreign producers and obtain about half of its aviation fuel from alternative sources by 2016. With the B-52 now approved to use the FT blend, the USAF will use the test protocols developed during the program to certify the Boeing C-17 Globemaster III and then the Rockwell B-1B Lancer to use the fuel. To test these two aircraft, the USAF has ordered 281,000 US gal (1,060,000 L) of FT fuel. The USAF intends to test and certify every airframe in its inventory to use the fuel by 2011. They will also supply over 9,000 US gal (34,000 L; 7,500 imp gal) to NASA for testing in various aircraft and engines.
The USAF has certified the B-1B, B-52H, C-17, Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules, McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom (as QF-4 target drones), McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle, Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor, and Northrop T-38 Talon to use the synthetic fuel blend.
The U.S. Air Force's C-17 Globemaster III, F-16 and F-15 are certified for use of hydrotreated renewable jet fuels. The USAF plans to certify over 40 models for fuels derived from waste oils and plants by 2013. The U.S. Army is considered one of the few customers of biofuels large enough to potentially bring biofuels up to the volume production needed to reduce costs. The U.S. Navy has also flown a Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet dubbed the "Green Hornet" at 1.7 times the speed of sound using a biofuel blend. The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) funded a $6.7 million project with Honeywell UOP to develop technologies to create jet fuels from biofeedstocks for use by the United States and NATO militaries.
In April 2011, four USAF F-15E Strike Eagles flew over the Philadelphia Phillies opening ceremony using a blend of traditional jet fuel and synthetic biofuels. This flyover made history as it was the first flyover to use biofuels in the Department of Defense.
Jet biofuels
Main article: Aviation biofuel
The air transport industry is responsible for 2–3 percent of man-made carbon dioxide emitted. Boeing estimates that biofuels could reduce flight-related greenhouse-gas emissions by 60 to 80 percent. One possible solution which has received more media coverage than others would be blending synthetic fuel derived from algae with existing jet fuel:
Green Flight International became the first airline to fly jet aircraft on 100% biofuel. The flight from Reno Stead Airport in Stead, Nevada was in an Aero L-29 Delfín piloted by Carol Sugars and Douglas Rodante.
Boeing and Air New Zealand are collaborating with Tecbio Aquaflow Bionomic and other jet biofuel developers around the world.
Virgin Atlantic successfully tested a biofuel blend consisting of 20 percent babassu nuts and coconut and 80 percent conventional jet fuel, which was fed to a single engine on a 747 flight from London Heathrow to Amsterdam Schiphol.
A consortium consisting of Boeing, NASA's Glenn Research Center, MTU Aero Engines (Germany), and the U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory is working on development of jet fuel blends containing a substantial percentage of biofuel.
British Airways and Velocys have entered into a partnership in the UK to design a series of plants that convert household waste into jet fuel.
24 commercial and military biofuel flights have taken place using Honeywell “Green Jet Fuel,” including a Navy F/A-18 Hornet.
In 2011, United Continental Holdings was the first United States airline to fly passengers on a commercial flight using a blend of sustainable, advanced biofuels and traditional petroleum-derived jet fuel. Solazyme developed the algae oil, which was refined utilizing Honeywell's UOP process technology, into jet fuel to power the commercial flight.
Solazyme produced the world's first 100 percent algae-derived jet fuel, Solajet, for both commercial and military applications.
Jet fuel vs oil prices
Oil prices increased about fivefold from 2003 to 2008, raising fears that world petroleum production is becoming unable to keep up with demand. The fact that there are few alternatives to petroleum for aviation fuel adds urgency to the search for alternatives. Twenty-five airlines were bankrupted or stopped operations in the first six months of 2008, largely due to fuel costs.
In 2015 ASTM approved a modification to Specification D1655 Standard Specification for Aviation Turbine Fuels to permit up to 50 ppm (50 mg/kg) of FAME (fatty acid methyl ester) in jet fuel to allow higher cross-contamination from biofuel production.
Worldwide consumption of jet fuel
Worldwide demand of jet fuel has been steadily increasing since 1980. Consumption more than tripled in 30 years from 1,837,000 barrels/day in 1980, to 5,220,000 in 2010. Around 30% of the worldwide consumption of jet fuel is in the US (1,398,130 barrels/day in 2012).
Taxation
See also: Aviation taxation and subsidies
Article 24 of the Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation of 7 December 1944 stipulates that when flying from one contracting state to another, the kerosene that is already on board aircraft may not be taxed by the state where the aircraft lands, nor by a state through whose airspace the aircraft has flown. This is to prevent double taxation. It is sometimes suggested that the Chicago Convention precludes the taxation of aviation fuel. However, this is not correct. The Chicago Convention does not preclude a kerosene tax on domestic flights or on refuelling before international flights.: 22
Article 15 of the Chicago Convention is also sometimes said to ban fuel taxes. Article 15 states: "No fees, dues or other charges shall be imposed by any contracting State in respect solely of the right of transit over or entry into or exit from its territory of any aircraft of a contracting State or persons or property thereon." However, ICAO distinguishes between charges and taxes, and Article 15 does not prohibit the levying of taxes without a service
provided.: 23
In the European Union, commercial aviation fuel is exempt from taxation, according to the 2003 Energy Taxation Directive. EU member states may tax jet fuel via bilateral agreements, however no such agreements exist.
In the United States, most states tax jet fuel.
Health effects
General health hazards associated with exposure to jet fuel vary according to its components, exposure duration (acute vs. long-term), route of administration (dermal vs. respiratory vs. oral), and exposure phase (vapor vs. aerosol vs. raw fuel). Kerosene-based hydrocarbon fuels are complex mixtures which may contain up to 260+ aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbon compounds including toxicants such as benzene, n-hexane, toluene, xylenes, trimethylpentane, methoxyethanol, naphthalenes. While time-weighted average hydrocarbon fuel exposures can often be below recommended exposure limits, peak exposure can occur, and the health impact of occupational exposures is not fully understood. Evidence of the health effects of jet fuels comes from reports on both temporary or persisting biological from acute, subchronic, or chronic exposure of humans or animals to kerosene-based hydrocarbon fuels, or the constituent chemicals of these fuels, or to fuel combustion products. The effects studied include: cancer, skin conditions, respiratory disorders, immune and hematological disorders, neurological effects, visual and hearing disorders, renal and hepatic diseases, cardiovascular conditions, gastrointestinal disorders, genotoxic and metabolic effects.
See also
Portal: Aviation
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^ a b c Jasper Faber and Aoife O'Leary (November 2018). "Taxing aviation fuels in the EU" (PDF). CE Delft. Transport and Environment. p. 16. Retrieved 20 June 2020. The Chicago Convention provides no obstacle to placing a tax on domestic or intra-EU aviation fuel. The Convention bans parties from imposing taxes on fuel already on board an aircraft when it lands in another country but it contains no prohibition on taxing the fuel sold to aircraft in a country. Further, the Chicago Convention is not applicable to domestic aviation. It is often suggested that the Chicago Convention exempts aviation fuel from taxation. However, the Chicago Convention only exempts fuels already on-board aircraft when landing, and retained on board when leaving, from taxation. Article 24 states: 'Fuel... on board an aircraft of a contracting State, on arrival in the territory of another contracting State and retained on board on leaving the territory of that State shall be exempt from customs duty, inspection fees or similar national or local duties and charges.' Therefore, Article 24 does not prohibit the taxing of fuel taken on board in a particular country but rather prohibits the taxation of fuel that was already on board the aircraft when it landed, i.e. Member States cannot tax aviation fuel purchased in another country that arrives on board the aircraft. The purpose of this Article is to prevent double taxation.
^ "Council Directive 2003/96/EC of 27 October 2003, restructuring the Community framework for the taxation of energy products and electricity". Official Journal of the European Union. Eur-Lex. 27 October 2002. Retrieved 20 June 2020. Member States shall exempt the following from taxation... energy products supplied for use as fuel for the purpose of air navigation other than in private pleasure-flying.
^ Mattie, David R.; Sterner, Teresa R. (2011-07-15). "Past, present and emerging toxicity issues for jet fuel". Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology. 254 (2): 127–132. doi:10.1016/j.taap.2010.04.022. ISSN 1096-0333. PMID 21296101.
^ a b c Ritchie, Glenn; Still, Kenneth; Rossi III, John; Bekkedal, Marni; Bobb, Andrew; Arfsten, Darryl (2003-01-01). "Biological And Health Effects Of Exposure To Kerosene-Based Jet Fuels And Performance Additives". Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part B. 6 (4): 357–451. Bibcode:2003JTEHB...6..357R. doi:10.1080/10937400306473. ISSN 1093-7404. PMID 12775519. S2CID 30595016.
^ Robledo, R. F.; Barber, D. S.; Witten, M. L. (1999). "Modulation of bronchial epithelial cell barrier function by in vitro jet propulsion fuel 8 exposure". Toxicological Sciences. 51 (1): 119–125. doi:10.1093/toxsci/51.1.119. ISSN 1096-6080. PMID 10496683.
^ Harris, D. T.; Sakiestewa, D.; Titone, D.; Robledo, R. F.; Young, R. S.; Witten, M. (2000). "Jet fuel-induced immunotoxicity". Toxicology and Industrial Health. 16 (7–8): 261–265. Bibcode:2000ToxIH..16..261H. doi:10.1177/074823370001600702. ISSN 0748-2337. PMID 11693943. S2CID 42673565.
^ Knave, B.; Persson, H. E.; Goldberg, J. M.; Westerholm, P. (1976). "Long-term exposure to jet fuel: an investigation on occupationally exposed workers with special reference to the nervous system". Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health. 2 (3): 152–164. doi:10.5271/sjweh.2809. ISSN 0355-3140. PMID 973128.
^ Morata, Thais C.; Hungerford, Michelle; Konrad-Martin, Dawn (2021-08-18). "Potential Risks to Hearing Functions of Service Members From Exposure to Jet Fuels". American Journal of Audiology. 30 (3S): 922–927. doi:10.1044/2021_AJA-20-00226. ISSN 1059-0889. PMID 34407375.
^ Kaufman, Laura R.; LeMasters, Grace K.; Olsen, Donna M.; Succop, Paul (2005). "Effects of concurrent noise and jet fuel exposure on hearing loss". Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 47 (3): 212–218. doi:10.1097/01.jom.0000155710.28289.0e. ISSN 1076-2752. PMID 15761316. S2CID 1195860.
^ Bendtsen, Katja M.; Bengtsen, Elizabeth; Saber, Anne T.; Vogel, Ulla (2021-02-06). "A review of health effects associated with exposure to jet engine emissions in and around airports". Environmental Health: A Global Access Science Source. 20 (1): 10. Bibcode:2021EnvHe..20...10B. doi:10.1186/s12940-020-00690-y. ISSN 1476-069X. PMC 7866671. PMID 33549096.
External links
History of Jet Fuel
MIL-DTL-5624U
MIL-DTL-83133H
Aviation Fuel Properties 1983 Archived 2012-07-22 at the Wayback Machine
vteJet engines and aircraft gas turbinesGas turbines and jet propulsionTypes
Air turborocket
Pulsejet/Gluhareff Pressure Jet
Pulse detonation engine
Propfan
Turbofan
Turbojet
Turboprop
Turboshaft
Ramjet
Rocket
Rotating detonation engine
Mechanical components
Accessory drive
Air intake
Afterburner (reheat)
Axial compressor
Centrifugal compressor
Combustor
Constant speed drive
Impeller
Propelling nozzle
Turbine blade
Principles
Aircraft engine starting
Bleed air
Brayton cycle
Bypass ratio
Compressor stall
Engine pressure ratio (EPR)
Flameout
Jet engine performance
Overall pressure ratio
Propulsive efficiency
Specific impulse
Thrust
Thrust lapse
Thrust specific fuel consumption
Thrust to weight ratio
Variable cycle engine
Windmill restart
PropellersComponents
Propeller governor
Propeller speed reduction unit
Principles
Autofeather
Blade pitch
Constant-speed
Contra-rotating
Counter-rotating
Proprotor
Scimitar
Variable-pitch
Engine instruments
Annunciator panel
Electronic centralised aircraft monitor (ECAM)
Electronic flight instrument system (EFIS)
Engine-indicating and crew-alerting system (EICAS)
Flight data recorder
Glass cockpit
Engine controls
Autothrottle
Full Authority Digital Engine/Electronics (FADEC)
Thrust lever
Thrust reversal
Fuel and induction systems
Flame holder
Jet fuel
Other systems
Air-start system
Auxiliary power unit (APU)
Bleed air system
Hydraulic system
Ice protection system
Authority control databases: National
Germany
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jet (brand)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_(brand)"},{"link_name":"aviation fuel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aviation_fuel"},{"link_name":"aircraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft"},{"link_name":"gas-turbine engines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_turbine"},{"link_name":"hydrocarbons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrocarbon"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Kerosene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerosene"},{"link_name":"carbon number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_number"},{"link_name":"naphtha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naphtha"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rand2010-3"}],"text":"This article is about aviation turbine fuel. For the chain of European fuel stations, see Jet (brand).Type of aviation fuelChemical compoundJet fuel or aviation turbine fuel (ATF, also abbreviated avtur) is a type of aviation fuel designed for use in aircraft powered by gas-turbine engines. It is colorless to straw-colored in appearance. The most commonly used fuels for commercial aviation are Jet A and Jet A-1, which are produced to a standardized international specification. The only other jet fuel commonly used in civilian turbine-engine powered aviation is Jet B, which is used for its enhanced cold-weather performance.Jet fuel is a mixture of a variety of hydrocarbons. Because the exact composition of jet fuel varies widely based on petroleum source, it is impossible to define jet fuel as a ratio of specific hydrocarbons. Jet fuel is therefore defined as a performance specification rather than a chemical compound.[1] Furthermore, the range of molecular mass between hydrocarbons (or different carbon numbers) is defined by the requirements for the product, such as the freezing point or smoke point. Kerosene-type jet fuel (including Jet A and Jet A-1, JP-5, and JP-8) has a carbon number distribution between about 8 and 16 (carbon atoms per molecule); wide-cut or naphtha-type jet fuel (including Jet B and JP-4), between about 5 and 15.[2][3]","title":"Jet fuel"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"piston-engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reciprocating_engine"},{"link_name":"octane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octane_rating"},{"link_name":"gasoline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasoline"},{"link_name":"avgas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avgas"},{"link_name":"volatility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatility_(chemistry)"},{"link_name":"carburetion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carburetor"},{"link_name":"autoignition temperature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autoignition_temperature"},{"link_name":"preignition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preignition"},{"link_name":"diesel engines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_engine"},{"link_name":"gas turbine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_Turbine"},{"link_name":"turboprop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turboprop"},{"link_name":"helicopter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicopter"},{"link_name":"flash points","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_point"},{"link_name":"axial compressor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axial_compressor"},{"link_name":"Junkers Jumo 004","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junkers_Jumo_004"},{"link_name":"Messerschmitt Me 262A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messerschmitt_Me_262"},{"link_name":"Arado Ar 234B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arado_Ar_234"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Fuel for piston-engine powered aircraft (usually a high-octane gasoline known as avgas) has a high volatility to improve its carburetion characteristics and high autoignition temperature to prevent preignition in high compression aircraft engines. Turbine engines (like diesel engines) can operate with a wide range of fuels because fuel is injected into the hot combustion chamber. Jet and gas turbine (turboprop, helicopter) aircraft engines typically use lower cost fuels with higher flash points, which are less flammable and therefore safer to transport and handle.The first axial compressor jet engine in widespread production and combat service, the Junkers Jumo 004 used on the Messerschmitt Me 262A fighter and the Arado Ar 234B jet recon-bomber, burned either a special synthetic \"J2\" fuel or diesel fuel. Gasoline was a third option but unattractive due to high fuel consumption.[4] Other fuels used were kerosene or kerosene and gasoline mixtures.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"freezing points","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melting_point"},{"link_name":"flash point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_point"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rand2010-3"},{"link_name":"ASTM International","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASTM_International"},{"link_name":"U.S. Department of Defense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense"},{"link_name":"British Ministry of Defence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Defence_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rand2010-3"},{"link_name":"CIS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States"},{"link_name":"GOST","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GOST"}],"text":"Most jet fuels in use since the end of World War II are kerosene-based. Both British and American standards for jet fuels were first established at the end of World War II. British standards derived from standards for kerosene use for lamps—known as paraffin in the UK—whereas American standards derived from aviation gasoline practices. Over the subsequent years, details of specifications were adjusted, such as minimum freezing point, to balance performance requirements and availability of fuels. Very low temperature freezing points reduce the availability of fuel. Higher flash point products required for use on aircraft carriers are more expensive to produce.[3] In the United States, ASTM International produces standards for civilian fuel types, and the U.S. Department of Defense produces standards for military use. The British Ministry of Defence establishes standards for both civil and military jet fuels.[3] For reasons of inter-operational ability, British and United States military standards are harmonized to a degree. In Russia and the CIS members, grades of jet fuels are covered by the State Standard (GOST) number, or a Technical Condition number, with the principal grade available being TS-1.","title":"Standards"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shell_Refueller.JPG"},{"link_name":"Shell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Dutch_Shell"},{"link_name":"Vancouver International Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vancouver_International_Airport"},{"link_name":"UN1863","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UN_number"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aircraft_being_fueled.jpg"},{"link_name":"US Airways","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Airways"},{"link_name":"Boeing 757","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_757"},{"link_name":"Fort Lauderdale–Hollywood International Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Lauderdale%E2%80%93Hollywood_International_Airport"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IBE-refueling-gua.jpg"},{"link_name":"Iberia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberia_(airline)"},{"link_name":"Airbus A340","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airbus_A340"},{"link_name":"La Aurora International Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Aurora_International_Airport"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-shelljet-5"},{"link_name":"Toronto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto_Pearson_International_Airport"},{"link_name":"Vancouver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vancouver_International_Airport"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"CIS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States"},{"link_name":"flash point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_point"},{"link_name":"autoignition temperature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autoignition_temperature"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-exxonmobil.com-9"}],"sub_title":"Jet A/A-1","text":"Shell Jet A-1 refueller truck on the ramp at Vancouver International Airport. Note the signs indicating UN1863 hazardous material and JET A-1.A US Airways Boeing 757 being fueled at Fort Lauderdale–Hollywood International AirportAn Iberia Airbus A340 being fueled at La Aurora International AirportJet A specification fuel has been used in the United States since the 1950s and is usually not available outside the United States[5] and a few Canadian airports such as Toronto and Vancouver,[6] whereas Jet A-1 is the standard specification fuel used in the rest of the world (include Chinese RP-3 standard which is very similar to Jet A-1[7][8]) other than Russia and the CIS members where TS-1 is the most common standard. Both Jet A and Jet A-1 have a flash point higher than 38 °C (100 °F), with an autoignition temperature of 210 °C (410 °F).[9]","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-shelljet-5"},{"link_name":"anti-static additive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antistatic_agent"}],"sub_title":"Differences between Jet A and Jet A-1","text":"The primary difference is the lower freezing point of A-1:[5]Jet A's is −40 °C (−40 °F)\nJet A-1's is −47 °C (−53 °F)The other difference is the mandatory addition of an anti-static additive to Jet A-1.Jet A trucks, storage tanks, and plumbing that carry Jet A are marked with a black sticker with \"Jet A\" in white printed on it, adjacent to another black stripe.","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Csgnetwork.com-10"}],"sub_title":"Typical physical properties for Jet A and Jet A-1","text":"Jet A-1 fuel must meet:DEF STAN 91-91 (Jet A-1),\nASTM specification D1655 (Jet A-1), and\nIATA Guidance Material (Kerosene Type), NATO Code F-35.Jet A fuel must reach ASTM specification D1655 (Jet A).[10]","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Csgnetwork.com-10"},{"link_name":"flash point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_point"},{"link_name":"Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada"},{"link_name":"Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska"}],"sub_title":"Jet B","text":"Jet B is a naphtha-kerosene fuel that is used for its enhanced cold-weather performance. However, Jet B's lighter composition makes it more dangerous to handle.[10] For this reason, it is rarely used, except in very cold climates. A blend of approximately 30% kerosene and 70% gasoline, it is known as wide-cut fuel. It has a very low freezing point of −60 °C (−76 °F), and a low flash point as well. It is primarily used in northern Canada and Alaska, where the extreme cold makes its low freezing point necessary, and which helps mitigate the danger of its lower flash point.","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"GOST 10227","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=GOST_10227&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"sub_title":"TS-1","text":"TS-1 is a jet fuel made to Russian standard GOST 10227 for enhanced cold-weather performance. It has somewhat higher volatility than Jet A-1 (flash point is 28 °C (82 °F) minimum). It has a very low freezing point, below −50 °C (−58 °F).[16]","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DEF_STAN_91-91-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ASTM_D1655-18"},{"link_name":"Antioxidants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antioxidant"},{"link_name":"alkylated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkylation"},{"link_name":"phenols","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenol"},{"link_name":"Antistatic agents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antistatic_agent"},{"link_name":"static electricity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Static_electricity"},{"link_name":"Stadis 450","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stadis_450&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"dinonylnaphthylsulfonic acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinonylnaphthylsulfonic_acid"},{"link_name":"Corrosion inhibitors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrosion_inhibitor"},{"link_name":"DCI-4A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=DCI-4A&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"DCI-6A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=DCI-6A&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Fuel system icing inhibitor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_system_icing_inhibitor"},{"link_name":"2-(2-Methoxyethoxy)ethanol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2-(2-Methoxyethoxy)ethanol"},{"link_name":"Biocides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biocide"},{"link_name":"original equipment manufacturers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Original_equipment_manufacturer"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lombardo-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Metal deactivator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal_deactivator"},{"link_name":"trace metals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trace_metal"},{"link_name":"salpn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salpn_ligand"}],"text":"The DEF STAN 91-091 (UK) and ASTM D1655 (international) specifications allow for certain additives to be added to jet fuel, including:[17][18]Antioxidants to prevent gumming, usually based on alkylated phenols, e.g., AO-30, AO-31, or AO-37;\nAntistatic agents, to dissipate static electricity and prevent sparking; Stadis 450, with dinonylnaphthylsulfonic acid (DINNSA) as a component, is an example\nCorrosion inhibitors, e.g., DCI-4A used for civilian and military fuels, and DCI-6A used for military fuels;\nFuel system icing inhibitor (FSII) agents, e.g., 2-(2-Methoxyethoxy)ethanol (Di-EGME); FSII is often mixed at the point-of-sale so that users with heated fuel lines do not have to pay the extra expense.\nBiocides are to remediate microbial (i.e., bacterial and fungal) growth present in aircraft fuel systems. Two biocides were previously approved for use by most aircraft and turbine engine original equipment manufacturers (OEMs); Kathon FP1.5 Microbiocide and Biobor JF.[19] Biobor JF is currently the only biocide available for aviation use. Kathon was discontinued by the manufacturer due to several airworthiness incidents. Kathon is now banned from use in aviation fuel.[20]\nMetal deactivator can be added to reduce the negative effects of trace metals on the thermal stability of the fuel. The one allowable additive is the chelating agent salpn (N,N′-bis(salicylidene)-1,2-propanediamine).As the aviation industry's jet kerosene demands have increased to more than 5% of all refined products derived from crude,\nit has been necessary for the refiner to optimize the yield of jet kerosene, a high-value product, by varying process techniques.New processes have allowed flexibility in the choice of crudes, the use of coal tar sands as a source of molecules and the\nmanufacture of synthetic blend stocks. Due to the number and severity of the processes used, it is often necessary and\nsometimes mandatory to use additives. These additives may, for example, prevent the formation of harmful chemical species\nor improve a property of a fuel to prevent further engine wear.","title":"Additives"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"contamination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contamination"},{"link_name":"atmosphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"British Airways Flight 38","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Airways_Flight_38"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"text":"It is very important that jet fuel be free from water contamination. During flight, the temperature of the fuel in the tanks decreases, due to the low temperatures in the upper atmosphere. This causes precipitation of the dissolved water from the fuel. The separated water then drops to the bottom of the tank, because it is denser than the fuel. Since the water is no longer in solution, it can form droplets which can supercool to below 0 °C (32 °F). If these supercooled droplets collide with a surface they can freeze and may result in blocked fuel inlet pipes.[21] This was the cause of the British Airways Flight 38 accident. Removing all water from fuel is impractical; therefore, fuel heaters are usually used on commercial aircraft to prevent water in fuel from freezing.There are several methods for detecting water in jet fuel. A visual check may detect high concentrations of suspended water, as this will cause the fuel to become hazy in appearance. An industry standard chemical test for the detection of free water in jet fuel uses a water-sensitive filter pad that turns green if the fuel exceeds the specification limit of 30 ppm (parts per million) free water.[22] A critical test to rate the ability of jet fuel to release emulsified water when passed through coalescing filters is ASTM standard D3948 Standard Test Method for Determining Water Separation Characteristics of Aviation Turbine Fuels by Portable Separometer.","title":"Water in jet fuel"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"JP1 (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JP1_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"JP2 (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JP2_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Jurassic Park III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurassic_Park_III"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Navy_101117-N-9706M-326_Machinist%27s_Mate_3rd_Class_Robert_Loughbom_inspects_a_sample_of_JP-5_jet_fuel_aboard_the_amphibious_transport_dock_ship.jpg"},{"link_name":"JP-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JP-8"},{"link_name":"JP-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JP-4_(fuel)"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-shell-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"flash point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_point"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Beyond_1994-25"},{"link_name":"John D. Clark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Drury_Clark"},{"link_name":"moonshine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moonshine"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Beyond_1994-25"},{"link_name":"JP-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JP-4"},{"link_name":"flash point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_point"},{"link_name":"United States Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"NATO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NATO"},{"link_name":"aircraft carriers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_carrier"},{"link_name":"alkanes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkane"},{"link_name":"naphthenes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycloalkane"},{"link_name":"aromatic hydrocarbons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aromatic_hydrocarbon"},{"link_name":"flash point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_point"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"naval air stations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_air_station"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"FSII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_system_icing_inhibitor"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"turbine engines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_turbine"},{"link_name":"General Electric YJ93","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Electric_YJ93"},{"link_name":"turbojet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbojet"},{"link_name":"North American XB-70 Valkyrie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_XB-70_Valkyrie"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"JP-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JP-7"},{"link_name":"Pratt & Whitney J58","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney_J58"},{"link_name":"turbojet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbojet"},{"link_name":"Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_SR-71_Blackbird"},{"link_name":"flash point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_point"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"JP-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JP-8"},{"link_name":"U.S. military","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces"},{"link_name":"JP-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=JP-9_(fuel)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Tomahawk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomahawk_(missile)"},{"link_name":"TH-dimer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TH-dimer"},{"link_name":"JP-10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JP-10_(fuel)"},{"link_name":"AGM-86 ALCM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AGM-86_ALCM"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CRC,_Aviation_Fuel_Properties,_JP-10-33"},{"link_name":"endo-tetrahydrodicyclopentadiene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endo-tetrahydrodicyclopentadiene"},{"link_name":"exo-tetrahydrodicyclopentadiene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exo-tetrahydrodicyclopentadiene"},{"link_name":"synthetic fuel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic_fuel"},{"link_name":"adamantane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adamantane"},{"link_name":"catalytic hydrogenation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic_hydrogenation"},{"link_name":"dicyclopentadiene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dicyclopentadiene"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CRC,_Aviation_Fuel_Properties,_JP-10-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"JPTS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JPTS"},{"link_name":"charcoal lighter fluid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charcoal_lighter_fluid"},{"link_name":"Pratt & Whitney J57","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney_J57"},{"link_name":"Lockheed U-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_U-2"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Zip fuel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zip_fuel"},{"link_name":"ballistic missile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballistic_missile"},{"link_name":"Syntroleum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntroleum"},{"link_name":"B-52","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_B-52_Stratofortress"},{"link_name":"Edwards Air Force Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwards_Air_Force_Base"}],"text":"\"JP-1\", \"JP-2\", and \"JP-3\" redirect here. For other uses, see JP1 (disambiguation) and JP2 (disambiguation). For the movie, see Jurassic Park III.A sailor inspects a sample of JP-5 jet fuel aboard an amphibious transport dock shipMilitary organizations around the world use a different classification system of JP (for \"Jet Propellant\") numbers. Some are almost identical to their civilian counterparts and differ only by the amounts of a few additives; Jet A-1 is similar to JP-8, Jet B is similar to JP-4.[23] Other military fuels are highly specialized products and are developed for very specific applications.JP-1\nwas an early jet fuel[24] specified in 1944 by the United States government (AN-F-32). It was a pure kerosene fuel with high flash point (relative to aviation gasoline) and a freezing point of −60 °C (−76 °F). The low freezing point requirement limited availability of the fuel and it was soon superseded by other \"wide cut\" jet fuels which were kerosene-naphtha or kerosene-gasoline blends. It was also known as avtur.JP-2\nan obsolete type developed during World War II. JP-2 was intended to be easier to produce than JP-1 since it had a higher freezing point, but was never widely used.[25]JP-3\nwas an attempt to improve availability of the fuel compared to JP-1 by widening the cut and loosening tolerances on impurities to ensure ready supply. In his book Ignition! An Informal History of Liquid Rocket Propellants, John D. Clark described the specification as, \"remarkably liberal, with a wide cut (range of distillation temperatures) and with such permissive limits on olefins and aromatics that any refinery above the level of a Kentucky moonshiner's pot still could convert at least half of any crude to jet fuel\".[26] It was even more volatile than JP-2 and had high evaporation loss in service.[25]JP-4\nwas a 50-50 kerosene-gasoline blend. It had lower flash point than JP-1, but was preferred because of its greater availability. It was the primary United States Air Force jet fuel between 1951 and 1995. Its NATO code is F-40. It is also known as avtag.JP-5\nis a yellow kerosene-based jet fuel developed in 1952 for use in aircraft stationed aboard aircraft carriers, where the risk from fire is particularly great. JP-5 is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons, containing alkanes, naphthenes, and aromatic hydrocarbons that weighs 6.8 pounds per U.S. gallon (0.81 kg/L) and has a high flash point (min. 60 °C or 140 °F).[27] Because some US naval air stations, Marine Corps air stations and Coast Guard air stations host both sea and land based naval aircraft, these installations will also typically fuel their shore-based aircraft with JP-5, thus precluding the need to maintain separate fuel facilities for JP-5 and non-JP-5 fuel. Chinese also named their navy fuel as RP-5.[28] Its freezing point is −46 °C (−51 °F). It does not contain antistatic agents. JP-5 is also known as NCI-C54784. JP-5's NATO code is F-44. It is also called AVCAT fuel for Aviation Carrier Turbine fuel.[29]The JP-4 and JP-5 fuels, covered by the MIL-DTL-5624 and meeting the British Specification DEF STAN 91-86 AVCAT/FSII (formerly DERD 2452),[30] are intended for use in aircraft turbine engines. These fuels require unique additives that are necessary for military aircraft and engine fuel systems.JP-6\nwas developed for the General Electric YJ93 afterburning turbojet engines used in the North American XB-70 Valkyrie for sustained flight at Mach 3. It was similar to JP-5 but with a lower freezing point and improved thermal oxidative stability. When the XB-70 program was cancelled, the JP-6 specification, MIL-J-25656, was also cancelled.[31]JP-7\nwas developed for the Pratt & Whitney J58 afterburning turbojet engines used in the Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird for sustained flight at Mach 3+. It had a high flash point required to prevent boiloff caused by aerodynamic heating. Its thermal stability was high enough to prevent coke and varnish deposits when used as a heat-sink for aircraft air conditioning and hydraulic systems and engine accessories.[32]JP-8\nis a jet fuel, specified and used widely by the U.S. military. It is specified by MIL-DTL-83133 and British Defence Standard 91-87. JP-8 is a kerosene-based fuel, projected to remain in use at least until 2025. The United States military uses JP-8 as a \"universal fuel\" in both turbine-powered aircraft and diesel-powered ground vehicles. It was first introduced at NATO bases in 1978. Its NATO code is F-34.JP-9\nis a gas turbine fuel for missiles, specifically the Tomahawk cruise missile, containing the TH-dimer (tetrahydrodimethyldicyclopentadiene) produced by catalytic hydrogenation of methylpentadiene dimer.JP-10\nis a gas turbine fuel for missiles, specifically the AGM-86 ALCM cruise missile.[33] It contains a mixture of (in decreasing order) endo-tetrahydrodicyclopentadiene, exo-tetrahydrodicyclopentadiene (a synthetic fuel), and adamantane. It is produced by catalytic hydrogenation of dicyclopentadiene. It superseded JP-9 fuel, achieving a lower low-temperature service limit of −65 °F (−54 °C).[33] It is also used by the Tomahawk jet-powered subsonic cruise missile.[34]JPTS\nwas a combination of LF-1 charcoal lighter fluid and an additive to improve thermal oxidative stability officially known as \"Thermally Stable Jet Fuel\". It was developed in 1956 for the Pratt & Whitney J57 engine which powered the Lockheed U-2 spy plane.[35]Zip fuel\ndesignates a series of experimental boron-containing \"high energy fuels\" intended for long range aircraft. The toxicity and undesirable residues of the fuel made it difficult to use. The development of the ballistic missile removed the principal application of zip fuel.Syntroleum\nhas been working with the USAF to develop a synthetic jet fuel blend that will help them reduce their dependence on imported petroleum. The USAF, which is the United States military's largest user of fuel, began exploring alternative fuel sources in 1999. On December 15, 2006, a B-52 took off from Edwards Air Force Base for the first time powered solely by a 50–50 blend of JP-8 and Syntroleum's FT fuel. The seven-hour flight test was considered a success. The goal of the flight test program was to qualify the fuel blend for fleet use on the service's B-52s, and then flight test and qualification on other aircraft.","title":"Military jet fuels"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"diesel fuel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_fuel"},{"link_name":"diesel engines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_engine"},{"link_name":"leaded","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetraethyllead"},{"link_name":"avgas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avgas"},{"link_name":"tetraethyllead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetraethyllead"},{"link_name":"engine knocking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine_knocking"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"Thielert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thielert"},{"link_name":"Austro Engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austro_Engine"},{"link_name":"aircraft diesel engines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_diesel_engine"},{"link_name":"general aviation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_aviation"},{"link_name":"Junkers Jumo 205","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junkers_Jumo_205"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"lubricity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lubricity"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"JP-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JP-8"},{"link_name":"NATO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NATO"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"}],"text":"Jet fuel is very similar to diesel fuel, and in some cases, may be used in diesel engines. The possibility of environmental legislation banning the use of leaded avgas (fuel in spark-ignited internal combustion engine, which usually contains tetraethyllead (TEL), a toxic substance added to prevent engine knocking), and the lack of a replacement fuel with similar performance, has left aircraft designers and pilot's organizations searching for alternative engines for use in small aircraft.[36] As a result, a few aircraft engine manufacturers, most notably Thielert and Austro Engine, have begun offering aircraft diesel engines which run on jet fuel which may simplify airport logistics by reducing the number of fuel types required. Jet fuel is available in most places in the world, whereas avgas is only widely available in a few countries which have a large number of general aviation aircraft. A diesel engine may be more fuel-efficient than an avgas engine. However, very few diesel aircraft engines have been certified by aviation authorities. Diesel aircraft engines are uncommon today, even though opposed-piston aviation diesel powerplants such as the Junkers Jumo 205 family had been used during the Second World War.Jet fuel is often used in diesel-powered ground-support vehicles at airports. However, jet fuel tends to have poor lubricating ability in comparison to diesel, which increases wear in fuel injection equipment.[citation needed] An additive may be required to restore its lubricity. Jet fuel is more expensive than diesel fuel but the logistical advantages of using one fuel can offset the extra expense of its use in certain circumstances.Jet fuel contains more sulfur, up to 1,000 ppm, which therefore means it has better lubricity and does not currently require a lubricity additive as all pipeline diesel fuels require.[citation needed] The introduction of Ultra Low Sulfur Diesel or ULSD brought with it the need for lubricity modifiers. Pipeline diesels before ULSD were able to contain up to 500 ppm of sulfur and were called Low Sulfur Diesel or LSD. In the United States LSD is now only available to the off-road construction, locomotive and marine markets. As more EPA regulations are introduced, more refineries are hydrotreating their jet fuel production, thus limiting the lubricating abilities of jet fuel, as determined by ASTM Standard D445.JP-8, which is similar to Jet A-1, is used in NATO diesel vehicles as part of the single-fuel policy.[37]","title":"Piston engine use"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fischer–Tropsch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fischer%E2%80%93Tropsch_process"},{"link_name":"Synthesized Paraffinic Kerosene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aviation_biofuel"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"Qatar Airways","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qatar_Airways"},{"link_name":"London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London"},{"link_name":"Doha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doha"},{"link_name":"Bintulu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bintulu"},{"link_name":"Malaysia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysia"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"Lanseria International Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lanseria_International_Airport"},{"link_name":"Cape Town International Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Town_International_Airport"},{"link_name":"Sasol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasol"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"Heather Willauer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heather_Willauer"},{"link_name":"U.S. Naval Research Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Naval_Research_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"Oxygen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen"},{"link_name":"oligomerization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oligomer"},{"link_name":"zeolite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeolite"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tozer2014-49"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shell-53"}],"text":"Fischer–Tropsch (FT) Synthesized Paraffinic Kerosene (SPK) synthetic fuels are certified for use in United States and international aviation fleets at up to 50% in a blend with conventional jet fuel.[38] As of the end of 2017, four other pathways to SPK are certified, with their designations and maximum blend percentage in brackets: Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids (HEFA SPK, 50%); synthesized iso-paraffins from hydroprocessed fermented sugars (SIP, 10%); synthesized paraffinic kerosene plus aromatics (SPK/A, 50%); alcohol-to-jet SPK (ATJ-SPK, 30%). Both FT and HEFA based SPKs blended with JP-8 are specified in MIL-DTL-83133H.Some synthetic jet fuels show a reduction in pollutants such as SOx, NOx, particulate matter, and sometimes carbon emissions.[39][40][41][42][43] It is envisaged that usage of synthetic jet fuels will increase air quality around airports which will be particularly advantageous at inner city airports.[44]Qatar Airways became the first airline to operate a commercial flight on a 50:50 blend of synthetic Gas to Liquid (GTL) jet fuel and conventional jet fuel. The natural gas derived synthetic kerosene for the six-hour flight from London to Doha came from Shell's GTL plant in Bintulu, Malaysia.[45] The world's first passenger aircraft flight to use only synthetic jet fuel was from Lanseria International Airport to Cape Town International Airport on September 22, 2010. The fuel was developed by Sasol.[46]Chemist Heather Willauer is leading a team of researchers at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory who are developing a process to make jet fuel from seawater. The technology requires an input of electrical energy to separate Oxygen (O2) and Hydrogen (H2) gas from seawater using an iron-based catalyst, followed by an oligomerization step wherein carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen are recombined into long-chain hydrocarbons, using zeolite as the catalyst. The technology is expected to be deployed in the 2020s by U.S. Navy warships, especially nuclear-powered aircraft carriers.[47][48][49][50][51][52]On February 8, 2021, the world's first scheduled passenger flight flew with some synthetic kerosene from a non-fossil fuel source. 500 liters of synthetic kerosene was mixed with regular jet fuel. Synthetic kerosene was produced by Shell and the flight was operated by KLM.[53]","title":"Synthetic jet fuel"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Air Force Secretary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"Michael Wynne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Wynne"},{"link_name":"Boeing C-17 Globemaster III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_C-17_Globemaster_III"},{"link_name":"Rockwell B-1B Lancer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockwell_B-1_Lancer"},{"link_name":"NASA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA"},{"link_name":"needs update","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items"},{"link_name":"Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_Martin_C-130J_Super_Hercules"},{"link_name":"McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_F-4_Phantom_II"},{"link_name":"target drones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Target_drone"},{"link_name":"McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_F-15_Eagle"},{"link_name":"Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_Martin_F-22_Raptor"},{"link_name":"Northrop T-38 Talon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northrop_T-38_Talon"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"F-16","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Dynamics_F-16_Fighting_Falcon"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-one-56"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-one-56"},{"link_name":"U.S. Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army"},{"link_name":"biofuels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-one-56"},{"link_name":"U.S. Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Navy"},{"link_name":"Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_F/A-18E/F_Super_Hornet"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-one-56"},{"link_name":"Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DARPA"},{"link_name":"Honeywell UOP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UOP_LLC"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"F-15E Strike Eagles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_F-15E_Strike_Eagle"},{"link_name":"Philadelphia Phillies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphia_Phillies"},{"link_name":"Department of Defense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"}],"sub_title":"USAF synthetic fuel trials","text":"On August 8, 2007, Air Force Secretary Michael Wynne certified the B-52H as fully approved to use the FT blend, marking the formal conclusion of the test program.\nThis program is part of the Department of Defense Assured Fuel Initiative, an effort to develop secure domestic sources for the military energy needs. The Pentagon hopes to reduce its use of crude oil from foreign producers and obtain about half of its aviation fuel from alternative sources by 2016. With the B-52 now approved to use the FT blend, the USAF will use the test protocols developed during the program to certify the Boeing C-17 Globemaster III and then the Rockwell B-1B Lancer to use the fuel. To test these two aircraft, the USAF has ordered 281,000 US gal (1,060,000 L) of FT fuel. The USAF intends to test and certify every airframe in its inventory to use the fuel by 2011. They will also supply over 9,000 US gal (34,000 L; 7,500 imp gal) to NASA for testing in various aircraft and engines.[needs update]The USAF has certified the B-1B, B-52H, C-17, Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules, McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom (as QF-4 target drones), McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle, Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor, and Northrop T-38 Talon to use the synthetic fuel blend.[54]The U.S. Air Force's C-17 Globemaster III, F-16 and F-15 are certified for use of hydrotreated renewable jet fuels.[55][56] The USAF plans to certify over 40 models for fuels derived from waste oils and plants by 2013.[56] The U.S. Army is considered one of the few customers of biofuels large enough to potentially bring biofuels up to the volume production needed to reduce costs.[56] The U.S. Navy has also flown a Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet dubbed the \"Green Hornet\" at 1.7 times the speed of sound using a biofuel blend.[56] The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) funded a $6.7 million project with Honeywell UOP to develop technologies to create jet fuels from biofeedstocks for use by the United States and NATO militaries.[57]In April 2011, four USAF F-15E Strike Eagles flew over the Philadelphia Phillies opening ceremony using a blend of traditional jet fuel and synthetic biofuels. This flyover made history as it was the first flyover to use biofuels in the Department of Defense.[58]","title":"Synthetic jet fuel"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"carbon dioxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"Boeing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing"},{"link_name":"greenhouse-gas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas"},{"link_name":"fuel derived from algae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algae_fuel"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"Reno Stead Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reno_Stead_Airport"},{"link_name":"Aero L-29 Delfín","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aero_L-29_Delf%C3%ADn"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"Air New Zealand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_New_Zealand"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"Virgin Atlantic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgin_Atlantic"},{"link_name":"babassu nuts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babassu_oil"},{"link_name":"747","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_747"},{"link_name":"London Heathrow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Heathrow_Airport"},{"link_name":"Amsterdam Schiphol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amsterdam_Airport_Schiphol"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"Glenn Research Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glenn_Research_Center"},{"link_name":"MTU Aero Engines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MTU_Aero_Engines"},{"link_name":"Air Force Research Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Force_Research_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"British Airways","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Airways"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"Honeywell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honeywell"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"United Continental Holdings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Continental_Holdings"},{"link_name":"Solazyme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solazyme"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"Solazyme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solazyme"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jet_fuel_vs_oil_prices.webp"},{"link_name":"Oil prices increased about fivefold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000s_energy_crisis"},{"link_name":"unable to keep up with demand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peak_oil"},{"link_name":"petroleum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum"},{"link_name":"search for alternatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_aviation#Alternative_fuels"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"fatty acid methyl ester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatty_acid_methyl_ester"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"}],"sub_title":"Jet biofuels","text":"The air transport industry is responsible for 2–3 percent of man-made carbon dioxide emitted.[59] Boeing estimates that biofuels could reduce flight-related greenhouse-gas emissions by 60 to 80 percent. One possible solution which has received more media coverage than others would be blending synthetic fuel derived from algae with existing jet fuel:[60]Green Flight International became the first airline to fly jet aircraft on 100% biofuel. The flight from Reno Stead Airport in Stead, Nevada was in an Aero L-29 Delfín piloted by Carol Sugars and Douglas Rodante.[61]\nBoeing and Air New Zealand are collaborating with Tecbio[62] Aquaflow Bionomic and other jet biofuel developers around the world.\nVirgin Atlantic successfully tested a biofuel blend consisting of 20 percent babassu nuts and coconut and 80 percent conventional jet fuel, which was fed to a single engine on a 747 flight from London Heathrow to Amsterdam Schiphol.[63]\nA consortium consisting of Boeing, NASA's Glenn Research Center, MTU Aero Engines (Germany), and the U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory is working on development of jet fuel blends containing a substantial percentage of biofuel.[64]\nBritish Airways and Velocys have entered into a partnership in the UK to design a series of plants that convert household waste into jet fuel.[65]\n24 commercial and military biofuel flights have taken place using Honeywell “Green Jet Fuel,” including a Navy F/A-18 Hornet.[66]\nIn 2011, United Continental Holdings was the first United States airline to fly passengers on a commercial flight using a blend of sustainable, advanced biofuels and traditional petroleum-derived jet fuel. Solazyme developed the algae oil, which was refined utilizing Honeywell's UOP process technology, into jet fuel to power the commercial flight.[67]Solazyme produced the world's first 100 percent algae-derived jet fuel, Solajet, for both commercial and military applications.[68]Jet fuel vs oil pricesOil prices increased about fivefold from 2003 to 2008, raising fears that world petroleum production is becoming unable to keep up with demand. The fact that there are few alternatives to petroleum for aviation fuel adds urgency to the search for alternatives. Twenty-five airlines were bankrupted or stopped operations in the first six months of 2008, largely due to fuel costs.[69]In 2015 ASTM approved a modification to Specification D1655 Standard Specification for Aviation Turbine Fuels to permit up to 50 ppm (50 mg/kg) of FAME (fatty acid methyl ester) in jet fuel to allow higher cross-contamination from biofuel production.[70]","title":"Synthetic jet fuel"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"}],"text":"Worldwide demand of jet fuel has been steadily increasing since 1980. Consumption more than tripled in 30 years from 1,837,000 barrels/day in 1980, to 5,220,000 in 2010.[71] Around 30% of the worldwide consumption of jet fuel is in the US (1,398,130 barrels/day in 2012).","title":"Worldwide consumption of jet fuel"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Aviation taxation and subsidies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aviation_taxation_and_subsidies"},{"link_name":"Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Convention_on_International_Civil_Aviation"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-faber2018-72"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-faber2018-72"},{"link_name":"is exempt from taxation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_fuel_taxation_in_the_European_Union"},{"link_name":"Energy Taxation Directive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_Taxation_Directive"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Energy_Taxation_Directive-73"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-faber2018-72"},{"link_name":"states tax jet fuel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_taxes_in_the_United_States#Aviation_fuel_taxes"}],"text":"See also: Aviation taxation and subsidiesArticle 24 of the Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation of 7 December 1944 stipulates that when flying from one contracting state to another, the kerosene that is already on board aircraft may not be taxed by the state where the aircraft lands, nor by a state through whose airspace the aircraft has flown. This is to prevent double taxation. It is sometimes suggested that the Chicago Convention precludes the taxation of aviation fuel. However, this is not correct. The Chicago Convention does not preclude a kerosene tax on domestic flights or on refuelling before international flights.[72]: 22Article 15 of the Chicago Convention is also sometimes said to ban fuel taxes. Article 15 states: \"No fees, dues or other charges shall be imposed by any contracting State in respect solely of the right of transit over or entry into or exit from its territory of any aircraft of a contracting State or persons or property thereon.\" However, ICAO distinguishes between charges and taxes, and Article 15 does not prohibit the levying of taxes without a service\nprovided.[72]: 23In the European Union, commercial aviation fuel is exempt from taxation, according to the 2003 Energy Taxation Directive.[73] EU member states may tax jet fuel via bilateral agreements, however no such agreements exist.[72]In the United States, most states tax jet fuel.","title":"Taxation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-75"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-75"},{"link_name":"cancer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancer"},{"link_name":"skin conditions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin_condition"},{"link_name":"respiratory disorders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respiratory_disease"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"immune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_disorder"},{"link_name":"hematological disorders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hematologic_disease"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"neurological effects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurological_disorder"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"visual","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_impairment"},{"link_name":"hearing disorders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ototoxicity"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"hepatic diseases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liver_disease"},{"link_name":"cardiovascular","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease"},{"link_name":"gastrointestinal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastrointestinal_disease"},{"link_name":"genotoxic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genotoxicity"},{"link_name":"metabolic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolic_disorder"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-75"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"}],"text":"General health hazards associated with exposure to jet fuel vary according to its components, exposure duration (acute vs. long-term), route of administration (dermal vs. respiratory vs. oral), and exposure phase (vapor vs. aerosol vs. raw fuel).[74][75] Kerosene-based hydrocarbon fuels are complex mixtures which may contain up to 260+ aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbon compounds including toxicants such as benzene, n-hexane, toluene, xylenes, trimethylpentane, methoxyethanol, naphthalenes.[75] While time-weighted average hydrocarbon fuel exposures can often be below recommended exposure limits, peak exposure can occur, and the health impact of occupational exposures is not fully understood. Evidence of the health effects of jet fuels comes from reports on both temporary or persisting biological from acute, subchronic, or chronic exposure of humans or animals to kerosene-based hydrocarbon fuels, or the constituent chemicals of these fuels, or to fuel combustion products. The effects studied include: cancer, skin conditions, respiratory disorders,[76] immune and hematological disorders,[77] neurological effects,[78] visual and hearing disorders,[79][80] renal and hepatic diseases, cardiovascular conditions, gastrointestinal disorders, genotoxic and metabolic effects.[75][81]","title":"Health effects"}]
|
[{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/NFPA_704.svg/80px-NFPA_704.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Shell Jet A-1 refueller truck on the ramp at Vancouver International Airport. Note the signs indicating UN1863 hazardous material and JET A-1.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Shell_Refueller.JPG/220px-Shell_Refueller.JPG"},{"image_text":"A US Airways Boeing 757 being fueled at Fort Lauderdale–Hollywood International Airport","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Aircraft_being_fueled.jpg/220px-Aircraft_being_fueled.jpg"},{"image_text":"An Iberia Airbus A340 being fueled at La Aurora International Airport","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/IBE-refueling-gua.jpg/220px-IBE-refueling-gua.jpg"},{"image_text":"A sailor inspects a sample of JP-5 jet fuel aboard an amphibious transport dock ship","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/US_Navy_101117-N-9706M-326_Machinist%27s_Mate_3rd_Class_Robert_Loughbom_inspects_a_sample_of_JP-5_jet_fuel_aboard_the_amphibious_transport_dock_ship.jpg/220px-US_Navy_101117-N-9706M-326_Machinist%27s_Mate_3rd_Class_Robert_Loughbom_inspects_a_sample_of_JP-5_jet_fuel_aboard_the_amphibious_transport_dock_ship.jpg"},{"image_text":"Jet fuel vs oil prices","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Jet_fuel_vs_oil_prices.webp/220px-Jet_fuel_vs_oil_prices.webp.png"}]
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[{"title":"Portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals"},{"title":"Aviation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Aviation"}]
|
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Retrieved 19 November 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.indexmundi.com/energy.aspx?product=jet-fuel","url_text":"\"Jet fuel consumption on Index Mundi\""}]},{"reference":"Jasper Faber and Aoife O'Leary (November 2018). \"Taxing aviation fuels in the EU\" (PDF). CE Delft. Transport and Environment. p. 16. Retrieved 20 June 2020. The Chicago Convention provides no obstacle to placing a tax on domestic or intra-EU aviation fuel. The Convention bans parties from imposing taxes on fuel already on board an aircraft when it lands in another country but it contains no prohibition on taxing the fuel sold to aircraft in a country. Further, the Chicago Convention is not applicable to domestic aviation. It is often suggested that the Chicago Convention exempts aviation fuel from taxation. However, the Chicago Convention only exempts fuels already on-board aircraft when landing, and retained on board when leaving, from taxation. Article 24 states: 'Fuel... on board an aircraft of a contracting State, on arrival in the territory of another contracting State and retained on board on leaving the territory of that State shall be exempt from customs duty, inspection fees or similar national or local duties and charges.' Therefore, Article 24 does not prohibit the taxing of fuel taken on board in a particular country but rather prohibits the taxation of fuel that was already on board the aircraft when it landed, i.e. Member States cannot tax aviation fuel purchased in another country that arrives on board the aircraft. The purpose of this Article is to prevent double taxation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.transportenvironment.org/sites/te/files/publications/2019_02_CE_Delft_Taxing_Aviation_Fuels_EU.pdf","url_text":"\"Taxing aviation fuels in the EU\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Federation_for_Transport_and_Environment","url_text":"Transport and Environment"}]},{"reference":"\"Council Directive 2003/96/EC of 27 October 2003, restructuring the Community framework for the taxation of energy products and electricity\". Official Journal of the European Union. Eur-Lex. 27 October 2002. Retrieved 20 June 2020. Member States shall exempt the following from taxation... energy products supplied for use as fuel for the purpose of air navigation other than in private pleasure-flying.","urls":[{"url":"https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32003L0096","url_text":"\"Council Directive 2003/96/EC of 27 October 2003, restructuring the Community framework for the taxation of energy products and electricity\""}]},{"reference":"Mattie, David R.; Sterner, Teresa R. (2011-07-15). \"Past, present and emerging toxicity issues for jet fuel\". Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology. 254 (2): 127–132. doi:10.1016/j.taap.2010.04.022. ISSN 1096-0333. 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loss\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1097%2F01.jom.0000155710.28289.0e","external_links_name":"10.1097/01.jom.0000155710.28289.0e"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1076-2752","external_links_name":"1076-2752"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15761316","external_links_name":"15761316"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1195860","external_links_name":"1195860"},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7866671","external_links_name":"\"A review of health effects associated with exposure to jet engine emissions in and around airports\""},{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021EnvHe..20...10B","external_links_name":"2021EnvHe..20...10B"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs12940-020-00690-y","external_links_name":"10.1186/s12940-020-00690-y"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1476-069X","external_links_name":"1476-069X"},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7866671","external_links_name":"7866671"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33549096","external_links_name":"33549096"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121018042938/http://www.bp.com/sectiongenericarticle.do?categoryId=4503664&contentId=57733","external_links_name":"History of Jet Fuel"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120913140458/http://www.wbdg.org/ccb/FEDMIL/dtl5624u.pdf","external_links_name":"MIL-DTL-5624U"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130319104805/http://www.wbdg.org/ccb/FEDMIL/dtl83133h.pdf","external_links_name":"MIL-DTL-83133H"},{"Link":"http://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a132106.pdf","external_links_name":"Aviation Fuel Properties 1983"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120722080544/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a132106.pdf","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/4163647-8","external_links_name":"Germany"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raytheon_Missiles_%26_Defense
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Raytheon Missiles & Defense
|
["1 History","2 Products","3 References","4 Further reading","5 External links"]
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Part of Raytheon TechnologiesThis article needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (February 2024)
Raytheon Missiles & DefenseCompany typeSubsidiaryIndustryAerospace and defensePredecessorHughes Missile Systems Co. and Raytheon Missile Systems Division (via merger)DefunctJuly 1, 2023 (2023-07-01)SuccessorRaytheonHeadquartersTucson, Arizona, United StatesKey peopleWes Kremer, PresidentNumber of employees30,000 (2020)ParentRTX CorporationWebsitewww.raytheonmissilesanddefense.com
Raytheon Missiles & Defense (RMD) was one of four business segments of RTX Corporation. Headquartered in Tucson, Arizona, its president was Wes Kremer. The business produced a broad portfolio of advanced technologies, including air and missile defense systems, precision weapons, radars, and command and control systems. Raytheon Intelligence & Space was merged with Raytheon Missiles & Defense in July 2023 to form the Raytheon business segment.
History
The business was a combination of two Raytheon Company legacy businesses, Raytheon Integrated Defense Systems (IDS) and Raytheon Missile Systems (RMS), which operated a plant formerly owned by the Hughes Aircraft Company.
Raytheon had been criticized for selling arms to Saudi Arabia that were used in the Yemen Civil War. These sales were blocked by the Obama administration in 2016 due to humanitarian concerns, a decision that was reversed by the Trump administration six months later.
Products
Key Raytheon Missiles & Defense capabilities combined key IDS and RMS capabilities.
Key IDS capabilities include:
Ground-based and sea-based radars for air and missile defense
Navy radar and sonar
Torpedoes and naval mine countermeasures
Key RMS capabilities include:
Missiles and precision-guided munitions
Drones and air-launched decoys
Counter-drone and non-lethal directed energy weapons
Ground vehicle sensors and weapons
Ground based operational surveillance system
The division's products included:
Active Denial System non-lethal millimeter wave weapon
AGM-65 Maverick air-to-surface missile
AGM-88 HARM air-to-surface missile
AGM-129 ACM air-to-surface missile
AGM-154 Joint Standoff Weapon air-to-surface glide bomb
AGM-176 Griffin air-to-surface missile
AIM-7 Sparrow air-to-air missile
RIM-7 Sea Sparrow naval surface-to-air missile
AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missile
AIM-54 Phoenix air-to-air missile
AIM-120 AMRAAM air-to-air missile
AN/SPY-6 Air and Missile Defense Radar (AMDR) for Navy ships
AN/TPY-2 radar for the THAAD missile defense system
AN/AQS20C Mine hunting sonar suite
AN/ASQ-235 Airborne Mine Neutralization System (AMNS)
BGM-71 TOW anti-tank missile
BGM-109 Tomahawk cruise missile
Coyote unmanned aerial system
David's Sling Medium to long range surface-to-air/anti-ballistic missile (partner with prime contractor Rafael Advanced Defense Systems)
Extended Range Guided Munition
Exoatmospheric Kill Vehicle anti-ICBM system
FGM-148 Javelin anti-tank missile
FIM-92 Stinger person-portable air defense system surface-to-air missile
M982 Excalibur guided artillery round
MIM-23 Hawk surface-to-air missile
MIM-104 Patriot surface-to-air missile
Paveway laser-guided bomb
Phalanx CIWS naval anti-missile defense system
RIM-116 Rolling Airframe Missile naval surface-to-air missile
RIM-162 Evolved Sea Sparrow Missile naval surface-to-air missile
Standard Missile family of naval missiles
RIM-66 Standard
RIM-67 Standard
RIM-161 Standard Missile 3
RIM-174 Standard ERAM
SAM-N-2 Lark
References
^ Raytheon Missiles & Defense. "Raytheon Missiles & Defense Website".
^ "Raytheon Technologies Business Overview".
^ Moore-Carrillo, Jaime (June 20, 2023). "Raytheon rebrands as RTX". DefenseNews.com. Defense News. Retrieved June 21, 2023.
^ "The Weekly | How the Promise of American Jobs Became Entangled in a Faraway War". The New York Times. 2020-03-20. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2020-04-24.
^ "Raytheon Company: Products & Services: ERGM". www.raytheon.com. Archived from the original on 25 August 2007. Retrieved 13 January 2022.
Further reading
Leighton, David (2015). The History of the Hughes Missile Plant in Tucson, 1947–1960. David Leighton. Retrieved February 29, 2024.
External links
Official website
vteRTX CorporationSubsidiaries
Collins Aerospace
Pratt & Whitney
Pratt & Whitney Canada
Raytheon
Former subsidiaries
Raytheon Intelligence & Space
Raytheon Missiles & Defense
Predecessors
Raytheon Company
United Technologies
United Aircraft and Transport Corporation
United Aircraft Corporation
vteRaytheon CompanySubsidiaries
A.C. Cossor
ELCAN Optical Technologies
Raytheon BBN
Raytheon Integrated Defense Systems
Raytheon Intelligence, Information and Services
HRB Systems
Raytheon Missile Systems
Raytheon Polar Services Company
Sarcos
ThalesRaytheonSystems
Products
AGM-65 Maverick
AGM-88 HARM
AGM-129 ACM
AGM-154 Joint Standoff Weapon
AGM-176 Griffin
AIM-9 Sidewinder
AIM-54 Phoenix
AIM-120 AMRAAM
ALE-50 towed decoy system
ALR-67 radar warning receiver
AN/ALE-47
AN/APG-63 radar family
AN/APG-65 radar family
AN/APG-79
AN/APQ-181
AN/AQS-20A
AN/ASQ-213
AN/ASQ-228 ATFLIR
AN/AWG-9
AN/MPQ-64 Sentinel
Raytheon AN/MSQ-18 Battalion Missile Operations System
AN/PAS-13
AN/SLQ-32 electronic warfare suite
AN/SPS-49
AN/SQQ-32 mine-hunting sonar
AN/TPQ-36 Firefinder radar
AN/TPQ-37 Firefinder radar
AN/TPQ-53 Quick Reaction Capability Radar
ASARS-2
Beechcraft AQM-37 Jayhawk
Tomahawk
Controlled Impact Rescue Tool
Counter rocket, artillery, and mortar
Coyote
FGM-148 Javelin
FIM-92 Stinger
FMRAAM
GBU-53/B
Ground-Based Midcourse Defense
JLENS
Lectron
Long-Range Engagement Weapon
Mark 48 torpedo
Mark 54 Lightweight Torpedo
MIM-23 Hawk
MIM-104 Patriot
Network Centric Airborne Defense Element
Paveway
Paveway IV
Phalanx CIWS
Pyros
RAYDAC
RIM-116 Rolling Airframe Missile
RIM-66 Standard
RIM-67 Standard
RIM-161 Standard Missile 3
Sea-based X-band Radar
Sentinel
SLAMRAAM
Space Fence
Vigilant Eagle
XM501 Non-Line-of-Sight Launch System
Related
RTX
Raytheon 9
Vannevar Bush
Authority control databases International
VIAF
National
United States
|
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Headquartered in Tucson, Arizona, its president was Wes Kremer.[1] The business produced a broad portfolio of advanced technologies, including air and missile defense systems, precision weapons, radars, and command and control systems.[2] Raytheon Intelligence & Space was merged with Raytheon Missiles & Defense in July 2023 to form the Raytheon business segment.[3]","title":"Raytheon Missiles & Defense"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hughes Aircraft Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hughes_Aircraft_Company"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Saudi Arabia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabia"},{"link_name":"Yemen Civil War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yemeni_Civil_War_(2015%E2%80%93present)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"The business was a combination of two Raytheon Company legacy businesses, Raytheon Integrated Defense Systems (IDS) and Raytheon Missile Systems (RMS), which operated a plant formerly owned by the Hughes Aircraft Company.[citation needed]Raytheon had been criticized for selling arms to Saudi Arabia that were used in the Yemen Civil War. These sales were blocked by the Obama administration in 2016 due to humanitarian concerns, a decision that was reversed by the Trump administration six months later.[4]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ground based operational surveillance system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground_based_operational_surveillance_system"},{"link_name":"Active Denial System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_Denial_System"},{"link_name":"AGM-65 Maverick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AGM-65_Maverick"},{"link_name":"AGM-88 HARM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AGM-88_HARM"},{"link_name":"AGM-129 ACM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AGM-129_ACM"},{"link_name":"AGM-154 Joint Standoff Weapon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AGM-154_Joint_Standoff_Weapon"},{"link_name":"AGM-176 Griffin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AGM-176_Griffin"},{"link_name":"AIM-7 Sparrow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIM-7_Sparrow"},{"link_name":"RIM-7 Sea Sparrow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RIM-7_Sea_Sparrow"},{"link_name":"AIM-9 Sidewinder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIM-9_Sidewinder"},{"link_name":"AIM-54 Phoenix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIM-54_Phoenix"},{"link_name":"AIM-120 AMRAAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIM-120_AMRAAM"},{"link_name":"AN/SPY-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AN/SPY-6"},{"link_name":"AN/TPY-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AN/TPY-2"},{"link_name":"THAAD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/THAAD"},{"link_name":"BGM-71 TOW","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BGM-71_TOW"},{"link_name":"BGM-109 Tomahawk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BGM-109_Tomahawk"},{"link_name":"Coyote","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raytheon_Coyote"},{"link_name":"David's Sling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%27s_Sling"},{"link_name":"surface-to-air","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface-to-air_missile"},{"link_name":"anti-ballistic missile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-ballistic_missile"},{"link_name":"Rafael Advanced Defense Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafael_Advanced_Defense_Systems"},{"link_name":"Extended Range Guided Munition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_Range_Guided_Munition"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Exoatmospheric Kill Vehicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exoatmospheric_Kill_Vehicle"},{"link_name":"FGM-148 Javelin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FGM-148_Javelin"},{"link_name":"FIM-92 Stinger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIM-92_Stinger"},{"link_name":"M982 Excalibur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M982_Excalibur"},{"link_name":"MIM-23 Hawk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIM-23_Hawk"},{"link_name":"MIM-104 Patriot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIM-104_Patriot"},{"link_name":"Paveway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paveway"},{"link_name":"Phalanx CIWS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phalanx_CIWS"},{"link_name":"RIM-116 Rolling Airframe Missile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RIM-116_Rolling_Airframe_Missile"},{"link_name":"RIM-162 Evolved Sea Sparrow Missile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RIM-162_ESSM"},{"link_name":"RIM-66 Standard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RIM-66_Standard"},{"link_name":"RIM-67 Standard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RIM-67_Standard"},{"link_name":"RIM-161 Standard Missile 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RIM-161_Standard_Missile_3"},{"link_name":"RIM-174 Standard ERAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RIM-174_Standard_ERAM"},{"link_name":"SAM-N-2 Lark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAM-N-2_Lark"}],"text":"Key Raytheon Missiles & Defense capabilities combined key IDS and RMS capabilities.\nKey IDS capabilities include:Ground-based and sea-based radars for air and missile defense\nNavy radar and sonar\nTorpedoes and naval mine countermeasuresKey RMS capabilities include:Missiles and precision-guided munitions\nDrones and air-launched decoys\nCounter-drone and non-lethal directed energy weapons\nGround vehicle sensors and weapons\nGround based operational surveillance systemThe division's products included:Active Denial System non-lethal millimeter wave weapon\nAGM-65 Maverick air-to-surface missile\nAGM-88 HARM air-to-surface missile\nAGM-129 ACM air-to-surface missile\nAGM-154 Joint Standoff Weapon air-to-surface glide bomb\nAGM-176 Griffin air-to-surface missile\nAIM-7 Sparrow air-to-air missile\nRIM-7 Sea Sparrow naval surface-to-air missile\nAIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missile\nAIM-54 Phoenix air-to-air missile\nAIM-120 AMRAAM air-to-air missile\nAN/SPY-6 Air and Missile Defense Radar (AMDR) for Navy ships\nAN/TPY-2 radar for the THAAD missile defense system\nAN/AQS20C Mine hunting sonar suite\nAN/ASQ-235 Airborne Mine Neutralization System (AMNS)\nBGM-71 TOW anti-tank missile\nBGM-109 Tomahawk cruise missile\nCoyote unmanned aerial system\nDavid's Sling Medium to long range surface-to-air/anti-ballistic missile (partner with prime contractor Rafael Advanced Defense Systems)\nExtended Range Guided Munition[5]\nExoatmospheric Kill Vehicle anti-ICBM system\nFGM-148 Javelin anti-tank missile\nFIM-92 Stinger person-portable air defense system surface-to-air missile\nM982 Excalibur guided artillery round\nMIM-23 Hawk surface-to-air missile\nMIM-104 Patriot surface-to-air missile\nPaveway laser-guided bomb\nPhalanx CIWS naval anti-missile defense system\nRIM-116 Rolling Airframe Missile naval surface-to-air missile\nRIM-162 Evolved Sea Sparrow Missile naval surface-to-air missile\nStandard Missile family of naval missiles\nRIM-66 Standard\nRIM-67 Standard\nRIM-161 Standard Missile 3\nRIM-174 Standard ERAM\nSAM-N-2 Lark","title":"Products"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The History of the Hughes Missile Plant in Tucson, 1947–1960","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=_BCxDAEACAAJ"}],"text":"Leighton, David (2015). The History of the Hughes Missile Plant in Tucson, 1947–1960. David Leighton. Retrieved February 29, 2024.","title":"Further reading"}]
|
[]
| null |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaguar_XF_(X260)
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Jaguar XF (X260)
|
["1 Overview","2 Chinese and Indian models","3 Engine specifications","4 Safety","5 References","6 External links"]
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Motor vehicle
Jaguar XF (X260)OverviewManufacturerJaguar Land RoverAlso calledJaguar XFL (China)Production2015–presentAssemblyCastle Bromwich Assembly, Birmingham, EnglandChangshu, China (Chery JLR)Pune, India (JLR India)DesignerIan CallumBody and chassisBody style4-door saloon5-door estate5 seaterLayoutFront-engine, rear-wheel-driveFront-engine, all-wheel-drivePlatformJLR D7aRelatedJaguar XE (X760)Jaguar F-PaceRange Rover VelarPowertrainEnginePetrol:2.0-litre Ingenium turbo I43.0-litre Supercharger Jaguar AJ126 V6Diesel:2.0-litre Ingenium Turbodiesel I43.0-litre AJD Turbodiesel V6Transmission8-speed ZF 8HP45/ZF 8HP70 automatic6-speed ZF 6S-45 manualDimensionsWheelbase2,960 mm (116.5 in)3,100 mm (122.0 in) (XFL)Length4,969 mm (195.6 in)5,130 mm (202.0 in) (XFL)Width1,880 mm (74.0 in)Height1,457 mm (57.4 in)1,491 mm (58.7 in) (XFL)Kerb weight1,545–1,855 kg (3,406–4,090 lb)ChronologyPredecessorJaguar XF (X250)
The Jaguar XF (X260) is an executive/mid-size luxury sports saloon manufactured and marketed by the Jaguar Cars brand of Jaguar Land Rover in sedan/saloon and station wagon/estate body styles. Following the first generation steel-bodied X250 XF introduced in 2007, the second-generation XF sedan/saloon debuted at the 2015 New York International Auto Show, noted for its aluminium bodywork.
In 2020, the XF received a facelift that mostly improved the XF's interior.
As of 2022, the XF Sportbrake has been downgraded to compete in the D-segment while retaining its E-segment exterior dimensions.
Overview
SaloonSportbrakeInterior
The XF is an evolution of the original J-Blade design pioneered in the X250 XF, with a largely similar silhouette. Effort was made to build a uniform design language across Jaguar's saloon range.
The X260 XF uses 83 percent all-new parts compared with the previous model. The car is 7 millimetres (0.3 inches) shorter than the predecessor. Bodywork uses aluminium as the primary component of the body structure and chassis; the XF's bodyside panel is a single aluminium pressing.
The chassis featured a fully independent suspension, including multiple "modes" in the S model providing either maximum comfort, maximum performance, or a setting in between. The standard model in the USA featured a P250 247 HP Ingenium engine. Optional power included the P300 296 HP turbo 4 and the P380 380 HP supercharged V6 for the performance-oriented S model. Diesel engines, while available in other markets, were not available to customers in North America.
The Sportbrake was introduced for sale in the USA in 2018 where it was positioned as a competitor for other high performance "station wagons." It was initially available only in S trim for North America, with the high performance F-Type 3.0L supercharged 380 HP engine and all wheel drive. The XF S in sportbrake trim was able to accelerate from 0-60 mph (97 km/h) in 4.9 seconds.
Chinese and Indian models
A long-wheelbase version debuted at the 2016 Beijing Motor Show, with 140 mm (5.5 in) added to the wheelbase giving rear passengers 157 mm (6.2 in) more legroom and 116 mm (4.6 in) more kneeroom. As the car is designed for chauffeur driven drivers in mind, therefore standard equipment includes folding tables, massaging seats, electric window blinds and eight-inch screens integrated in the back of the front-seat headrests.
It is the first aluminium-bodied car built in China with the debut of some new features, with Clear Exit Detection warning passengers of opening the doors into traffic approaching from behind. The XFL comes with a new cabin air ionisation technology to make the air inside the car more comfortable. For the driver, the InControl Touch Pro infotainment system with its 10.2-inch touchscreen works alongside a configurable 12.3-inch digital instrument cluster which works together with a 17-speaker, 825-watt Meridian Surround Sound System. Rear passengers have access to a wide array of buttons as well as to 2 HDMI ports, 2 USB 3.0 ports, and a 12V power socket.
The 2.0-litre I4 engine is offered in 197–236 hp (147–176 kW; 200–239 PS) power output configurations and a 335 hp (250 kW; 340 PS) 3.0-litre supercharged V6 engine is also offered as the ultimate engine option, with all versions coming with an automatic transmission. The long wheelbase models come with four-wheel-drive only. Due to the long wheelbase and added features, the XFL weighs 200 kg (441 lb) more than the standard XF.
On 22 September 2016, the Jaguar XF was launched in India for Rs. 4,750,000 onwards. The engines offered for the Indian market include the 2.0-litre Ingenium petrol and diesel I4 engines. The XF is assembled in India from complete knock-down kits alongside the XE and F-Pace.
Engine specifications
XF Prestige 20d's Ingenium 2.0 litre 4 cylinder turbocharged diesel engine
Manual transmission was introduced for the first time in the second generation of Jaguar XF. Previously there was only automatic transmission available.
E-Performance 163
20d 180
25d 240
30d 300
25t 250
30t 300
Engine specifications
Interne motorcode
JLR AJ20D Ingenium
JLR AJ-V6D
JLR AJ20P Ingenium
Motortype
I4 diesel
V6 diesel
I4 petrol
Fuel injection
Common-rail diesel injection
Direct fuel injection
Turbocharger
Single turbo
Twin turbo
Single turbo
Displacement
1,999 cc (1.999 L; 122.0 cu in)
2,993 cc (2.993 L; 182.6 cu in)
1,997 cc (1.997 L; 121.9 cu in)
Power
120 kW (163 PS; 161 hp) at 4,000 rpm
132 kW (179 PS; 177 hp) at 4,000 rpm
177 kW (241 PS; 237 hp) at 4,000 rpm
221 kW (300 PS; 296 hp) at 4,000 rpm
184 kW (250 PS; 247 hp) at 5,500 rpm
221 kW (300 PS; 296 hp) at 5,500 rpm
Torque
380 N⋅m (280 lbf⋅ft) at 1,750-2,500 rpm
430 N⋅m (317 lbf⋅ft) at 1,750-2,500 rpm
500 N⋅m (369 lbf⋅ft) at 1,500 rpm
700 N⋅m (516 lbf⋅ft) at 1,500-1,750 rpm
365 N⋅m (269 lbf⋅ft) at 1,300-4,500 rpm
400 N⋅m (295 lbf⋅ft) at 1,500-4,000 rpm
Drivetrain
Drive layout
Front-engine, rear-wheel-drive
Front-engine, rear-wheel-drive or all-wheel-drive
Front-engine, all-wheel-drive
Front-engine, rear-wheel-drive
Front-engine, all-wheel-drive
Transmission
6-speed manual transmission (ZF S6-45) or 8-speed automatic transmission (ZF 8HP45) (optional)
8-speed automatic transmission (ZF 8HP45)
8-speed automatic transmission (ZF 8HP70)
8-speed automatic transmission (ZF 8HP45)
Performance
Top speed
212 km/h (132 mph)
219 km/h (136 mph)
246 km/h (153 mph)
250 km/h (160 mph)
244 km/h (152 mph)
250 km/h (160 mph)
Acceleration 0–100 km/h (0-62 mph) (seconds)
9.8/9.1
9.2/8.4
6.9
6.4
6.7
5.9
Average fuel consumption per 100 km (WLTP)
4.9/5.3 L
5.0/5.2/5.6 L
5.9 L
5.9-6.1 L
7.3 L
7.5-7.7 L
EU emission standard
Euro 6d-TEMP
Figures in square brackets are the specifications of the Jaguar XF Sportbrake.
Safety
Euro NCAP test results
Jaguar XF Saloon (2015)
Test
Points
%
Overall:
Adult occupant:
35.0
92%
Child occupant:
41.2
84%
Pedestrian:
29.1
80%
Safety assist:
10.8
83%
References
^ "2017 Jaguar XFL LWB China". Topspeed.com. 27 April 2016. Retrieved 28 August 2018.
^ Tisshaw, Mark (19 April 2016). "JLR to launch Ingenium straight-six engines". Autocar. Retrieved 30 November 2018.
^ "2017 Jaguar XFL". topspeed.com. 27 April 2016. Retrieved 11 April 2021.
^ 2016 Jaguar XF launch. Ontario Jaguar Owners' Association
^ "Jaguar slashes XF price and revises exterior". Autocar. Retrieved 4 September 2023.
^ "Cash and carry: Jaguar XF Sportbrake vs rivals".
^ "Two of a kind: Jaguar XF review". www.deeptread.com. Deep Tread. Retrieved 19 September 2016.
^ Holloway, Hilton (17 August 2015). "2015 Jaguar XF revealed - best-in-class residual values claimed". www.autocar.co.uk. Archived from the original on 7 September 2021. Retrieved 25 February 2022.
^ Steve Fowler (1 April 2015). "New Jaguar XF makes New York debut". Auto Express. Retrieved 19 September 2015.
^ "All-New Jaguar XF Revealed in Dramatic 'High-Wire' Journey". Newsroom.jaguarlandrover.com. 24 March 2015. Retrieved 19 September 2015.
^ "2018 Jaguar XF Wagon First Test: America's One and Only Jag Wag". 14 March 2018.
^ Sheehan, Sam (25 April 2016). "Jaguar XFL: long-wheelbase XF targets Chinese market". Autocar. Retrieved 27 January 2020.
^ Padeanu, Adrian (25 April 2016). "Jaguar XFL is yet another China-only LWB model". Motor1. Retrieved 27 January 2020.
^ "Made-in-India Jaguar XF launched at Rs 47.50 lakh onwards". The Times of India. Retrieved 27 January 2020.
^ "Euro NCAP – Jaguar XF 2.0 D Prestige, RHD (2015)". euroncap.com. Retrieved 9 March 2017.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Jaguar XF (X260).
Official website
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Following the first generation steel-bodied X250 XF introduced in 2007, the second-generation XF sedan/saloon debuted at the 2015 New York International Auto Show,[4] noted for its aluminium bodywork.In 2020, the XF received a facelift that mostly improved the XF's interior.[5]As of 2022, the XF Sportbrake has been downgraded to compete in the D-segment while retaining its E-segment exterior dimensions.[6]","title":"Jaguar XF (X260)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2018_Jaguar_XF_V6_S_Diesel_Automatic_3.0_Rear.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2018_Jaguar_XF_Sportbrake_S,_rear_left_(ISWC_meet,_July_15,_2023).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jaguar_XF_-_wn%C4%99trze_(MSP16).jpg"},{"link_name":"X250 XF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaguar_XF_(X250)"},{"link_name":"saloon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedan_(automobile)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"SaloonSportbrakeInteriorThe XF is an evolution of the original J-Blade design pioneered in the X250 XF, with a largely similar silhouette. Effort was made to build a uniform design language across Jaguar's saloon range.[7]The X260 XF uses 83 percent all-new parts compared with the previous model.[8] The car is 7 millimetres (0.3 inches) shorter than the predecessor.[9][10] Bodywork uses aluminium as the primary component of the body structure and chassis; the XF's bodyside panel is a single aluminium pressing.The chassis featured a fully independent suspension, including multiple \"modes\" in the S model providing either maximum comfort, maximum performance, or a setting in between. The standard model in the USA featured a P250 247 HP Ingenium engine. Optional power included the P300 296 HP turbo 4 and the P380 380 HP supercharged V6 for the performance-oriented S model. Diesel engines, while available in other markets, were not available to customers in North America.The Sportbrake was introduced for sale in the USA in 2018 where it was positioned as a competitor for other high performance \"station wagons.\" It was initially available only in S trim for North America, with the high performance F-Type 3.0L supercharged 380 HP engine and all wheel drive. The XF S in sportbrake trim was able to accelerate from 0-60 mph (97 km/h) in 4.9 seconds.[11]","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"wheelbase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheelbase"},{"link_name":"Beijing Motor Show","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auto_China"},{"link_name":"infotainment system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In-car_entertainment"},{"link_name":"supercharged","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercharger"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Ingenium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingenium_engine_family"},{"link_name":"XE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaguar_XE"},{"link_name":"F-Pace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaguar_F-Pace"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"A long-wheelbase version debuted at the 2016 Beijing Motor Show, with 140 mm (5.5 in) added to the wheelbase giving rear passengers 157 mm (6.2 in) more legroom and 116 mm (4.6 in) more kneeroom. As the car is designed for chauffeur driven drivers in mind, therefore standard equipment includes folding tables, massaging seats, electric window blinds and eight-inch screens integrated in the back of the front-seat headrests.It is the first aluminium-bodied car built in China with the debut of some new features, with Clear Exit Detection warning passengers of opening the doors into traffic approaching from behind. The XFL comes with a new cabin air ionisation technology to make the air inside the car more comfortable. For the driver, the InControl Touch Pro infotainment system with its 10.2-inch touchscreen works alongside a configurable 12.3-inch digital instrument cluster which works together with a 17-speaker, 825-watt Meridian Surround Sound System. Rear passengers have access to a wide array of buttons as well as to 2 HDMI ports, 2 USB 3.0 ports, and a 12V power socket.The 2.0-litre I4 engine is offered in 197–236 hp (147–176 kW; 200–239 PS) power output configurations and a 335 hp (250 kW; 340 PS) 3.0-litre supercharged V6 engine is also offered as the ultimate engine option, with all versions coming with an automatic transmission. The long wheelbase models come with four-wheel-drive only. Due to the long wheelbase and added features, the XFL weighs 200 kg (441 lb) more than the standard XF.[12][13]On 22 September 2016, the Jaguar XF was launched in India for Rs. 4,750,000 onwards. The engines offered for the Indian market include the 2.0-litre Ingenium petrol and diesel I4 engines. The XF is assembled in India from complete knock-down kits alongside the XE and F-Pace.[14]","title":"Chinese and Indian models"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:WMC_P_JAIA17_Jaguar_XF_Prestige_20d_3.jpg"},{"link_name":"Ingenium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingenium_engine_family"},{"link_name":"Manual transmission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manual_transmission"}],"text":"XF Prestige 20d's Ingenium 2.0 litre 4 cylinder turbocharged diesel engineManual transmission was introduced for the first time in the second generation of Jaguar XF. Previously there was only automatic transmission available.Figures in square brackets are the specifications of the Jaguar XF Sportbrake.","title":"Engine specifications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Euro NCAP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euro_NCAP"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EuroNCAP2015-15"}],"text":"Euro NCAP test results\nJaguar XF Saloon (2015)[15] \n\n\nTest\n\nPoints\n\n%\n\n\nOverall:\n\n\n\n\nAdult occupant:\n\n35.0\n\n92%\n\n\nChild occupant:\n\n41.2\n\n84%\n\n\nPedestrian:\n\n29.1\n\n80%\n\n\nSafety assist:\n\n10.8\n\n83%","title":"Safety"}]
|
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[{"reference":"\"2017 Jaguar XFL LWB China\". Topspeed.com. 27 April 2016. Retrieved 28 August 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.topspeed.com/cars/jaguar/2017-jaguar-xfl-ar172979.html","url_text":"\"2017 Jaguar XFL LWB China\""}]},{"reference":"Tisshaw, Mark (19 April 2016). \"JLR to launch Ingenium straight-six engines\". Autocar. Retrieved 30 November 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/new-cars/jlr-launch-ingenium-straight-six-engines","url_text":"\"JLR to launch Ingenium straight-six engines\""}]},{"reference":"\"2017 Jaguar XFL\". topspeed.com. 27 April 2016. Retrieved 11 April 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.topspeed.com/cars/jaguar/2017-jaguar-xfl-ar172979.html","url_text":"\"2017 Jaguar XFL\""}]},{"reference":"\"Jaguar slashes XF price and revises exterior\". Autocar. Retrieved 4 September 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/new-cars/jaguar-slashes-xf-price-and-revises-exterior","url_text":"\"Jaguar slashes XF price and revises exterior\""}]},{"reference":"\"Cash and carry: Jaguar XF Sportbrake vs rivals\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/features/cash-and-carry-jaguar-xf-sportbrake-vs-rivals","url_text":"\"Cash and carry: Jaguar XF Sportbrake vs rivals\""}]},{"reference":"\"Two of a kind: Jaguar XF review\". www.deeptread.com. Deep Tread. Retrieved 19 September 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.deeptread.com/blog/2016/1/26/two-of-a-kind-jaguar-xf-review","url_text":"\"Two of a kind: Jaguar XF review\""}]},{"reference":"Holloway, Hilton (17 August 2015). \"2015 Jaguar XF revealed - best-in-class residual values claimed\". www.autocar.co.uk. Archived from the original on 7 September 2021. Retrieved 25 February 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/motor-shows-new-york-motor-show/2015-jaguar-xf-revealed-best-class-residual-values-claimed","url_text":"\"2015 Jaguar XF revealed - best-in-class residual values claimed\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210907214857/https://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/motor-shows-new-york-motor-show/2015-jaguar-xf-revealed-best-class-residual-values-claimed","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Steve Fowler (1 April 2015). \"New Jaguar XF makes New York debut\". Auto Express. Retrieved 19 September 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.autoexpress.co.uk/jaguar/xf/89397/new-jaguar-xf-2015-specs-teaser-pics-and-on-sale-date","url_text":"\"New Jaguar XF makes New York debut\""}]},{"reference":"\"All-New Jaguar XF Revealed in Dramatic 'High-Wire' Journey\". Newsroom.jaguarlandrover.com. 24 March 2015. Retrieved 19 September 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://newsroom.jaguarlandrover.com/en-in/jaguar/news/2015/03/jag_new_xf_release_240315/?f=TgVG:xf&ct=NewsArticles&locus=1","url_text":"\"All-New Jaguar XF Revealed in Dramatic 'High-Wire' Journey\""}]},{"reference":"\"2018 Jaguar XF Wagon First Test: America's One and Only Jag Wag\". 14 March 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.motortrend.com/cars/jaguar/xf/2018/2018-jaguar-xf-wagon-first-test-review/","url_text":"\"2018 Jaguar XF Wagon First Test: America's One and Only Jag Wag\""}]},{"reference":"Sheehan, Sam (25 April 2016). \"Jaguar XFL: long-wheelbase XF targets Chinese market\". Autocar. Retrieved 27 January 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/motor-shows-beijing-motor-show/jaguar-xfl-long-wheelbase-xf-targets-chinese-market","url_text":"\"Jaguar XFL: long-wheelbase XF targets Chinese market\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autocar_(magazine)","url_text":"Autocar"}]},{"reference":"Padeanu, Adrian (25 April 2016). \"Jaguar XFL is yet another China-only LWB model\". Motor1. Retrieved 27 January 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.motor1.com/news/62359/jaguar-xfl-is-yet-another-china-only-lwb-model/","url_text":"\"Jaguar XFL is yet another China-only LWB model\""}]},{"reference":"\"Made-in-India Jaguar XF launched at Rs 47.50 lakh onwards\". The Times of India. Retrieved 27 January 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/auto/launches/made-in-india-jaguar-xf-launched-at-rs-47-50-lakh-onwards/articleshow/57310728.cms","url_text":"\"Made-in-India Jaguar XF launched at Rs 47.50 lakh onwards\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Times_of_India","url_text":"The Times of India"}]},{"reference":"\"Euro NCAP – Jaguar XF 2.0 D Prestige, RHD (2015)\". euroncap.com. Retrieved 9 March 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.euroncap.com/en/results/jaguar/xf/22029","url_text":"\"Euro NCAP – Jaguar XF 2.0 D Prestige, RHD (2015)\""}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://www.topspeed.com/cars/jaguar/2017-jaguar-xfl-ar172979.html","external_links_name":"\"2017 Jaguar XFL LWB China\""},{"Link":"https://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/new-cars/jlr-launch-ingenium-straight-six-engines","external_links_name":"\"JLR to launch Ingenium straight-six engines\""},{"Link":"https://www.topspeed.com/cars/jaguar/2017-jaguar-xfl-ar172979.html","external_links_name":"\"2017 Jaguar XFL\""},{"Link":"http://www.ojoa.org/2015/2016%20XL%20launch.html","external_links_name":"2016 Jaguar XF launch"},{"Link":"https://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/new-cars/jaguar-slashes-xf-price-and-revises-exterior","external_links_name":"\"Jaguar slashes XF price and revises exterior\""},{"Link":"https://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/features/cash-and-carry-jaguar-xf-sportbrake-vs-rivals","external_links_name":"\"Cash and carry: Jaguar XF Sportbrake vs rivals\""},{"Link":"http://www.deeptread.com/blog/2016/1/26/two-of-a-kind-jaguar-xf-review","external_links_name":"\"Two of a kind: Jaguar XF review\""},{"Link":"https://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/motor-shows-new-york-motor-show/2015-jaguar-xf-revealed-best-class-residual-values-claimed","external_links_name":"\"2015 Jaguar XF revealed - best-in-class residual values claimed\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210907214857/https://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/motor-shows-new-york-motor-show/2015-jaguar-xf-revealed-best-class-residual-values-claimed","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.autoexpress.co.uk/jaguar/xf/89397/new-jaguar-xf-2015-specs-teaser-pics-and-on-sale-date","external_links_name":"\"New Jaguar XF makes New York debut\""},{"Link":"http://newsroom.jaguarlandrover.com/en-in/jaguar/news/2015/03/jag_new_xf_release_240315/?f=TgVG:xf&ct=NewsArticles&locus=1","external_links_name":"\"All-New Jaguar XF Revealed in Dramatic 'High-Wire' Journey\""},{"Link":"https://www.motortrend.com/cars/jaguar/xf/2018/2018-jaguar-xf-wagon-first-test-review/","external_links_name":"\"2018 Jaguar XF Wagon First Test: America's One and Only Jag Wag\""},{"Link":"https://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/motor-shows-beijing-motor-show/jaguar-xfl-long-wheelbase-xf-targets-chinese-market","external_links_name":"\"Jaguar XFL: long-wheelbase XF targets Chinese market\""},{"Link":"https://www.motor1.com/news/62359/jaguar-xfl-is-yet-another-china-only-lwb-model/","external_links_name":"\"Jaguar XFL is yet another China-only LWB model\""},{"Link":"https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/auto/launches/made-in-india-jaguar-xf-launched-at-rs-47-50-lakh-onwards/articleshow/57310728.cms","external_links_name":"\"Made-in-India Jaguar XF launched at Rs 47.50 lakh onwards\""},{"Link":"http://www.euroncap.com/en/results/jaguar/xf/22029","external_links_name":"\"Euro NCAP – Jaguar XF 2.0 D Prestige, RHD (2015)\""},{"Link":"http://www.jaguar.com/XF","external_links_name":"Official website"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Lodge
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Grand Lodge
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["1 In Freemasonry","1.1 Jurisdictions","1.2 Relation to other Masonic bodies","2 Other organizations","3 See also","4 References"]
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Governing body of a fraternal organization
A Grand Lodge, also called Grand Orient or by another similar title, is the overarching governing body of a fraternal or other similarly organized group in a given area, usually a city, state, or country.
In Freemasonry
See also: Freemasonry and Regular Masonic jurisdictions
A Grand Lodge or Grand Orient is the usual governing body of "Craft", "Blue Lodge", or "Symbolic" Freemasonry in a particular jurisdiction. The first Masonic Grand Lodge was established in England in 1717 as the Grand Lodge of London and Westminster, soon to call itself the Grand Lodge of England.
The head of a Grand Lodge is called the Grand Master, and the other officers of the Grand Lodge prefix "Grand" to the titles of Lodge officers. Many Grand Lodges have also established Provincial Grand Lodges as an organizational layer between themselves and member Lodges. In the United States, a Grand Lodge will often divide its area of control into "Districts" or "Regions."
There is no central body to oversee all of the Grand Lodges in the world (nor, indeed, all of Freemasonry), and therefore, individual Grand Lodge policies and practices can and do vary, however, they have a similar basic framework in common. The lack of a central authority means that Grand Lodges are held together simply by fellowship with one another.
Jurisdictions
Grand Lodge jurisdictions are typically based on areas of civil government, with a separate Grand Lodge governing Masonic lodges within a particular national or state boundary. Each Grand Lodge functions independently of any other Grand Lodge, setting its own rules and rituals, and determining which other Grand Lodges to recognize. When two Grand Lodges recognize each other they are said to be "in Amity". "Amity" means that the two Grand Lodges recognize each other as being legitimate, and may allow Masons under one Grand Lodge to visit lodges of the other. A Grand Lodge that is not "in amity with" (or recognised by) another Grand Lodge will not permit its members to visit Lodges in the second Grand Lodge's jurisdiction, or vice versa. The cause of a lack of amity is usually due to a perceived or actual violation of one of the Landmarks of Freemasonry.
Furthermore, with some exceptions, especially regarding US Grand Lodges' recognition of Grand Lodges in South America, any Grand Lodge not recognised by the United Grand Lodge of England (UGLE) is also not recognised by any Grand Lodge in amity with UGLE. The largest Grand Orient in the Continental Masonic form is the Grand Orient de France.
While the United Grand Lodge of England, the Grand Lodge of Ireland and the Grand Lodge of Scotland each govern Freemasonry within their respective countries and overseas provinces, Continental European countries typically have more than one Grand Lodge per country. Historically, the United States had recognised one Grand Lodge per state, independent of the Grand Lodge of any other state. Today, most have two: a "mainstream" Grand Lodge and a Prince Hall Grand Lodge. All of the "mainstream" Grand Lodges in the United States of America are recognised by each other, and most recognise each other's Prince Hall counterparts.
Prince Hall Masonry, which was formed while Masonry in the United States was effectively segregated on racial grounds, has a predominantly black membership. Various philosophical and technical reasons historically prevented US "mainstream" Grand Lodges from recognising or acknowledging Prince Hall Grand Lodges as regular bodies operating in accordance with the Landmarks of Freemasonry. Originally having one Grand Lodge for the whole United States, separate Prince Hall Grand Lodges now operate in most US states and jurisdictions. Many PHGLs also sponsor and govern Prince Hall Lodges abroad, principally on or near US military bases. Since the early 1990s onward, most, but not all, US Grand Lodges and Prince Hall Grand Lodges began to extend mutual recognition and promote visitations and fellowship between their members.
Relation to other Masonic bodies
Other organisations which only accept Master Masons, such as Scottish Rite and the Shriners, have their own governing bodies, not called Grand Lodges, which are not directly accountable to the Grand Lodge in the jurisdiction in which they operate. Other Masonically affiliated orders, such as the OES and DeMolay, are also independent. However, these organisations' governing bodies, as a rule, defer to their Grand Lodges as the essential authority over Masonry in their regions.
Other organizations
Part of a series onOdd Fellows
General articles
Odd Fellows
Grand lodge
Governing bodies
Independent Order of Odd Fellows
Independent Orderof Oddfellows Manchester Unity
Grand United Order of Oddfellows
Auxiliariesand appendant bodies
International Associationof Rebekah Assemblies
Household of Ruth
Ancient Mystic Order of Samaritans
Ladies of the Orient
People
John Wilkes
Sir George Savile, 8th Baronet
Thomas Wildey
Peter Ogden (founder)
Schuyler Colfax
James L. Ridgely
Financial services
Insignia Financial
Manchester Unity Credit Union
Buildings
List of Odd Fellows buildings
Category:Odd Fellows buildings
vte
The Oddfellows, Elks, and other similar fraternal groups also have Grand Lodges, as does the Orange Order, as many of them based their organizational model on that of Freemasonry.
See also
List of Masonic Grand Lodges, a list of bodies claiming to be a Masonic Grand Lodge, regardless of regularity or recognition issues
References
^ Albert G. Mackey. Mackey's Revised Encyclopedia, Vol. 2, p. 1003, "Symbolic Degrees", and p. 1004, "Symbolic Lodge", The Masonic History Company, Chicago: 1946.
^ Morris, S. Brent. Complete Idiot's Guide to Freemasonry. New York: Alpha, 2006. p. 9
^ Bundy, Harry W. "Determining Recognition" Phoenixmasonry.org. From Proceedings of the Seventh Rocky Mountain Masonic Conference, Rocky Mountain Consistory No. 2, Denver, Colorado on July 11, 1958.
vteFreemasonryFraternal organisations with origins in the United Kingdom in the 18th century, sorted by bodies, lodges, locations and ritesGeneral
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Category
Authority control databases: National
Germany
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"fraternal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraternal_organization"}],"text":"A Grand Lodge, also called Grand Orient or by another similar title, is the overarching governing body of a fraternal or other similarly organized group in a given area, usually a city, state, or country.","title":"Grand Lodge"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Freemasonry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freemasonry"},{"link_name":"Regular Masonic jurisdictions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regular_Masonic_jurisdictions"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Freemasonry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freemasonry"},{"link_name":"jurisdiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regular_Masonic_jurisdictions"},{"link_name":"England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England"},{"link_name":"Grand Lodge of London and Westminster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premier_Grand_Lodge_of_England"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Grand Master","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Master_(Masonic)"},{"link_name":"Lodge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masonic_Lodge"}],"text":"See also: Freemasonry and Regular Masonic jurisdictionsA Grand Lodge or Grand Orient is the usual governing body of \"Craft\", \"Blue Lodge\", or \"Symbolic\"[1] Freemasonry in a particular jurisdiction. The first Masonic Grand Lodge was established in England in 1717 as the Grand Lodge of London and Westminster, soon to call itself the Grand Lodge of England.[2] \nThe head of a Grand Lodge is called the Grand Master, and the other officers of the Grand Lodge prefix \"Grand\" to the titles of Lodge officers. Many Grand Lodges have also established Provincial Grand Lodges as an organizational layer between themselves and member Lodges. In the United States, a Grand Lodge will often divide its area of control into \"Districts\" or \"Regions.\"There is no central body to oversee all of the Grand Lodges in the world (nor, indeed, all of Freemasonry), and therefore, individual Grand Lodge policies and practices can and do vary, however, they have a similar basic framework in common. The lack of a central authority means that Grand Lodges are held together simply by fellowship with one another.","title":"In Freemasonry"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"United Grand Lodge of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Grand_Lodge_of_England"},{"link_name":"Grand Orient de France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Orient_de_France"},{"link_name":"Grand Lodge of Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Lodge_of_Ireland"},{"link_name":"Grand Lodge of Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Lodge_of_Scotland"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_of_America"},{"link_name":"Prince Hall Masonry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Hall_Freemasonry"},{"link_name":"regular bodies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regular_Masonic_jurisdictions"},{"link_name":"military bases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_bases"}],"sub_title":"Jurisdictions","text":"Grand Lodge jurisdictions are typically based on areas of civil government, with a separate Grand Lodge governing Masonic lodges within a particular national or state boundary. Each Grand Lodge functions independently of any other Grand Lodge, setting its own rules and rituals, and determining which other Grand Lodges to recognize. When two Grand Lodges recognize each other they are said to be \"in Amity\". \"Amity\" means that the two Grand Lodges recognize each other as being legitimate, and may allow Masons under one Grand Lodge to visit lodges of the other. A Grand Lodge that is not \"in amity with\" (or recognised by) another Grand Lodge will not permit its members to visit Lodges in the second Grand Lodge's jurisdiction, or vice versa. The cause of a lack of amity is usually due to a perceived or actual violation of one of the Landmarks of Freemasonry.[3]Furthermore, with some exceptions, especially regarding US Grand Lodges' recognition of Grand Lodges in South America, any Grand Lodge not recognised by the United Grand Lodge of England (UGLE) is also not recognised by any Grand Lodge in amity with UGLE. The largest Grand Orient in the Continental Masonic form is the Grand Orient de France.While the United Grand Lodge of England, the Grand Lodge of Ireland and the Grand Lodge of Scotland each govern Freemasonry within their respective countries and overseas provinces, Continental European countries typically have more than one Grand Lodge per country. Historically, the United States had recognised one Grand Lodge per state, independent of the Grand Lodge of any other state. Today, most have two: a \"mainstream\" Grand Lodge and a Prince Hall Grand Lodge. All of the \"mainstream\" Grand Lodges in the United States of America are recognised by each other, and most recognise each other's Prince Hall counterparts.Prince Hall Masonry, which was formed while Masonry in the United States was effectively segregated on racial grounds, has a predominantly black membership. Various philosophical and technical reasons historically prevented US \"mainstream\" Grand Lodges from recognising or acknowledging Prince Hall Grand Lodges as regular bodies operating in accordance with the Landmarks of Freemasonry. Originally having one Grand Lodge for the whole United States, separate Prince Hall Grand Lodges now operate in most US states and jurisdictions. Many PHGLs also sponsor and govern Prince Hall Lodges abroad, principally on or near US military bases. Since the early 1990s onward, most, but not all, US Grand Lodges and Prince Hall Grand Lodges began to extend mutual recognition and promote visitations and fellowship between their members.","title":"In Freemasonry"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Scottish Rite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Rite"},{"link_name":"Shriners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Arabic_Order_of_the_Nobles_of_the_Mystic_Shrine"},{"link_name":"OES","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_the_Eastern_Star"},{"link_name":"DeMolay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DeMolay_International"}],"sub_title":"Relation to other Masonic bodies","text":"Other organisations which only accept Master Masons, such as Scottish Rite and the Shriners, have their own governing bodies, not called Grand Lodges, which are not directly accountable to the Grand Lodge in the jurisdiction in which they operate. Other Masonically affiliated orders, such as the OES and DeMolay, are also independent. However, these organisations' governing bodies, as a rule, defer to their Grand Lodges as the essential authority over Masonry in their regions.","title":"In Freemasonry"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Oddfellows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oddfellows"},{"link_name":"Elks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elks"},{"link_name":"Orange Order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orange_Order"}],"text":"The Oddfellows, Elks, and other similar fraternal groups also have Grand Lodges, as does the Orange Order, as many of them based their organizational model on that of Freemasonry.","title":"Other organizations"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"List of Masonic Grand Lodges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Masonic_Grand_Lodges"}]
|
[]
|
[{"Link":"http://www.phoenixmasonry.org/determining_recognition.htm","external_links_name":"\"Determining Recognition\""},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/4487846-1","external_links_name":"Germany"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myelolipoma
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Myelolipoma
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["1 Signs and symptoms","2 Causes","3 Pathology","3.1 Macroscopic features","3.2 Microscopic features","4 Diagnosis","5 Treatment","6 Epidemiology","7 References","8 External links"]
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Medical conditionMyelolipomaOther namesmyolipomaAn adrenal myelolipomaSpecialtyOncology
Myelolipoma (myelo-, from the Ancient Greek μυελός 'marrow'; lipo, 'of, or pertaining to, fat'; -oma 'tumor or mass'; also myolipoma) is a benign tumor-like lesion composed of mature adipose (fat) tissue and haematopoietic (blood-forming) elements in various proportions.
Myelolipomas can present in the adrenal gland, or outside of the gland.
Signs and symptoms
The majority of myelolipomas are asymptomatic. Most do not produce any adrenal hormones. Most are only discovered as a result of investigation for another problem.
When myelolipomas do produce symptoms, it is usually because they have become large, and are pressing on other organs or tissues nearby. Symptoms include pain in the abdomen or flank, blood in the urine, a palpable lump or high blood pressure.
As they are benign tumors, myelolipomas do not spread to other body parts. Larger myelolipomas are at risk of localised tissue death and bleeding, which may cause a retroperitoneal haemorrhage.
Causes
Although several hypotheses have been proposed as to the cause of myelolipoma, the causative process is still not clearly understood. Recent experimental evidence suggests that both the myeloid and lipomatous elements have a monoclonal origin, which strongly supports the hypothesis that myelolipomas are neoplastic lesions.
Older theories proposing a non-neoplastic origin include the following:
Adrenal cortical cells, or other cells within the stroma of the adrenal cortex that are able to differentiate, may reversibly change into fat or blood-forming cells. This might occur because of the actions of adrenal cortex hormones, or of hormones released by the pituitary gland that act on the adrenal glands, such as adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH).
The blood-forming cells may arise by differentiation of cells within the capillaries of the adrenal gland.
Myelolipoma simply represents a site of normal blood formation outside the bone marrow.
Pathology
Macroscopic features
Myelolipomas are usually found to occur alone in one adrenal gland, but not both. They can vary widely in size, from as small as a few millimetres to as large as 34 centimeters in diameter. The cut surface has colours varying from yellow to red to mahogany brown, depending on the distribution of fat, blood, and blood-forming cells. The cut surface of larger myelolipomas may contain haemorrhage or infarction.
A macroscopic photograph of an adrenal myelolipoma. A remnant of the adrenal gland can be seen at the top
The cut surface shows colour variegation from yellow to red to brown depending on the distribution of fat, blood and myeloid elements
Microscopic features
The microscopic view of a myelolipoma shows the presence of normal adrenal cells, fat (adipose) cells, and the three lineages of the myeloid precursors
The typical microscopic features of myelolipomas are shown in the image. There is a mixture of normal adrenal tissue, fat, and a full trilineage maturation of the three major blood-forming elements: myeloid (white blood cell forming), erythroid (red blood cell forming), and megakaryocytic (platelet forming) lines.
Diagnosis
Myeloplipoma shown on a CT scan image
Most myelolipomas are unexpected findings on CT scans and MRI scans of the abdomen. They may sometimes be seen on a plain X-ray films.
Fine needle aspiration may be performed to obtain cells for microscopic diagnosis.
Treatment
Small myelolipomas generally do not produce symptoms, and do not require treatment. Ongoing surveillance of these lesions by a doctor is recommended. Surgical excision (removal) is recommended for large myelolipomas because of the risk of bleeding complications.
Epidemiology
Incidences and prognoses of adrenal tumors, with myelolipoma at right.
Myelolipomas are rare. They have been reported to be found unexpectedly at autopsy in 0.08% to 0.4% of cases (i.e.: somewhere between 8 per 10,000 and 4 per 1,000 autopsies). They most commonly occur in the adrenal gland, and comprise about 8% of all adrenal tumours. They may also occur in other sites, such as the mediastinum, the liver and the gastrointestinal tract.
There is no gender predilection, males and females are affected equally. The peak age range at diagnosis is between 40 and 79 years of age.
References
^ a b c d e f g h Thompson, LDR (2006). Endocrine Pathology. Foundations in Diagnostic Pathology. ISBN 978-0-443-06685-6.
^ Ong K, Tan KB, Putti TC (July 2007). "Myelolipoma within a non-functional adrenal cortical adenoma" (PDF). Singapore Med J. 48 (7): e200–2. PMID 17609815.
^ Zieker D, Königsrainer I, Miller S, et al. (2008). "Simultaneous adrenal and extra-adrenal myelolipoma — an uncommon incident: case report and review of the literature". World J Surg Oncol. 6: 72. doi:10.1186/1477-7819-6-72. PMC 2474838. PMID 18601731.
^ a b c d Ramchandani, P. Adrenal Myelolipoma Imaging at eMedicine
^ a b McNicol AM (Winter 2008). "A diagnostic approach to adrenal cortical lesions". Endocr Pathol. 19 (4): 241–251. doi:10.1007/s12022-008-9055-x. PMID 19089656.
^ a b Olobatuyi FA, Maclennan GT (September 2006). "Myelolipoma". J Urol. 176 (3): 1188. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2006.06.095. PMID 16890722.
^ Data and references for pie chart are located at file description page in Wikimedia Commons.
^ Mantero, Franco; Albiger, Nora (2004). "A comprehensive approach to adrenal incidentalomas". Arquivos Brasileiros de Endocrinologia & Metabologia. 48 (5): 583–591. doi:10.1590/S0004-27302004000500003. ISSN 0004-2730.
External links
ClassificationDICD-10: D17ICD-O: M8870/0MeSH: D018209External resourceseMedicine: radiology/genitourinary/376700
vteConnective/soft tissue tumors and sarcomasNot otherwise specified
Soft-tissue sarcoma
Desmoplastic small-round-cell tumor
Connective tissue neoplasmFibromatousFibroma/fibrosarcoma
Dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans
Desmoplastic fibroma
Fibroma/fibromatosis
Aggressive fibromatosis
Aggressive infantile fibromatosis
Aponeurotic fibroma
Collagenous fibroma
Diffuse infantile fibromatosis
Familial myxovascular fibromas
Fibroma of tendon sheath
Fibromatosis colli
Infantile digital fibromatosis
Juvenile hyaline fibromatosis
Plantar fibromatosis
Pleomorphic fibroma
Oral submucous fibrosis
Pachydermodactyly
Histiocytoma/histiocytic sarcoma
Benign fibrous histiocytoma
Malignant fibrous histiocytoma
Atypical fibroxanthoma
Solitary fibrous tumor
Myxomatous
Myxoma/myxosarcoma
Cutaneous myxoma
Superficial acral fibromyxoma
Angiomyxoma
Ossifying fibromyxoid tumour
Fibroepithelial
Brenner tumour
Fibroadenoma
Phyllodes tumor
Synovial-like
Synovial sarcoma
Clear-cell sarcoma
Lipomatous
Lipoma/liposarcoma
Myelolipoma
Myxoid liposarcoma
PEComa
Angiomyolipoma
Chondroid lipoma
Intradermal spindle cell lipoma
Pleomorphic lipoma
Lipoblastomatosis
Spindle cell lipoma
Hibernoma
MyomatousGeneral
Myoma/myosarcoma
Smooth muscle
Leiomyoma/leiomyosarcoma
Skeletal muscle
Rhabdomyoma/rhabdomyosarcoma: Embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma
Sarcoma botryoides
Alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma
Leiomyoma
Cutaneous
Angioleiomyoma
Angiolipoleiomyoma
Genital leiomyoma
Leiomyosarcoma
Multiple cutaneous and uterine leiomyomatosis syndrome
Multiple cutaneous leiomyoma
Neural fibrolipoma
Solitary cutaneous leiomyoma
STUMP
Complex mixed and stromal
Adenomyoma
Pleomorphic adenoma
Mixed Müllerian tumor
Mesoblastic nephroma
Wilms' tumor
Malignant rhabdoid tumour
Clear-cell sarcoma of the kidney
Hepatoblastoma
Pancreatoblastoma
Carcinosarcoma
Mesothelial
Mesothelioma
Adenomatoid tumor
vteTumours of endocrine glandsPancreas
Pancreatic cancer
Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumor
α: Glucagonoma
β: Insulinoma
δ: Somatostatinoma
G: Gastrinoma
VIPoma
Pituitary
Pituitary adenoma: Prolactinoma
ACTH-secreting pituitary adenoma
GH-secreting pituitary adenoma
Craniopharyngioma
Pituicytoma
Thyroid
Thyroid cancer (malignant): epithelial-cell carcinoma
Papillary
Follicular/Hurthle cell
Parafollicular cell
Medullary
Anaplastic
Lymphoma
Squamous-cell carcinoma
Benign
Thyroid adenoma
Struma ovarii
Adrenal tumor
Cortex
Adrenocortical adenoma
Adrenocortical carcinoma
Medulla
Pheochromocytoma
Neuroblastoma
Paraganglioma
Parathyroid
Parathyroid neoplasm
Adenoma
Carcinoma
Pineal gland
Pinealoma
Pinealoblastoma
Pineocytoma
MEN
1
2A
2B
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ancient Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek"},{"link_name":"tumor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumor"},{"link_name":"benign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benign"},{"link_name":"lesion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesion"},{"link_name":"adipose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adipose"},{"link_name":"haematopoietic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haematopoiesis"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thompson06-1"},{"link_name":"adrenal gland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenal_gland"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid17609815-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid18601731-3"}],"text":"Myelolipoma (myelo-, from the Ancient Greek μυελός 'marrow'; lipo, 'of, or pertaining to, fat'; -oma 'tumor or mass'; also myolipoma) is a benign tumor-like lesion composed of mature adipose (fat) tissue and haematopoietic (blood-forming) elements in various proportions.[1]Myelolipomas can present in the adrenal gland,[2] or outside of the gland.[3]","title":"Myelolipoma"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"asymptomatic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptomatic"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ramchandani,_P_2007-4"},{"link_name":"abdomen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_abdomen"},{"link_name":"flank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/flank#Noun"},{"link_name":"blood in the urine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haematuria"},{"link_name":"palpable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palpate"},{"link_name":"high blood pressure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypertension"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thompson06-1"},{"link_name":"spread to other body parts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metastasis"},{"link_name":"localised tissue death","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Necrosis"},{"link_name":"retroperitoneal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retroperitoneum"},{"link_name":"haemorrhage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haemorrhage"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thompson06-1"}],"text":"The majority of myelolipomas are asymptomatic. Most do not produce any adrenal hormones. Most are only discovered as a result of investigation for another problem.[4]When myelolipomas do produce symptoms, it is usually because they have become large, and are pressing on other organs or tissues nearby. Symptoms include pain in the abdomen or flank, blood in the urine, a palpable lump or high blood pressure.[1]As they are benign tumors, myelolipomas do not spread to other body parts. Larger myelolipomas are at risk of localised tissue death and bleeding, which may cause a retroperitoneal haemorrhage.[1]","title":"Signs and symptoms"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"hypotheses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothesis"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McNicol-5"},{"link_name":"monoclonal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoclonal"},{"link_name":"neoplastic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoplastic"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McNicol-5"},{"link_name":"Adrenal cortical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenal_cortex"},{"link_name":"stroma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroma_(animal_tissue)"},{"link_name":"differentiate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_differentiation"},{"link_name":"reversibly change","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaplasia"},{"link_name":"adrenal cortex hormones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenal_cortex#Production"},{"link_name":"pituitary gland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pituitary_gland"},{"link_name":"adrenocorticotropic hormone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenocorticotropic_hormone"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Olobatuyi06-6"},{"link_name":"capillaries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_vessels"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ramchandani,_P_2007-4"},{"link_name":"bone marrow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bone_marrow"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ramchandani,_P_2007-4"}],"text":"Although several hypotheses have been proposed as to the cause of myelolipoma, the causative process is still not clearly understood.[5] Recent experimental evidence suggests that both the myeloid and lipomatous elements have a monoclonal origin, which strongly supports the hypothesis that myelolipomas are neoplastic lesions.[5]Older theories proposing a non-neoplastic origin include the following:Adrenal cortical cells, or other cells within the stroma of the adrenal cortex that are able to differentiate, may reversibly change into fat or blood-forming cells. This might occur because of the actions of adrenal cortex hormones, or of hormones released by the pituitary gland that act on the adrenal glands, such as adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH).[6]\nThe blood-forming cells may arise by differentiation of cells within the capillaries of the adrenal gland.[4]\nMyelolipoma simply represents a site of normal blood formation outside the bone marrow.[4]","title":"Causes"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Pathology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"infarction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infarction"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thompson06-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Myelolipoma.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Myelolipoma_cut_surface.jpg"},{"link_name":"myeloid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myeloid"}],"sub_title":"Macroscopic features","text":"Myelolipomas are usually found to occur alone in one adrenal gland, but not both. They can vary widely in size, from as small as a few millimetres to as large as 34 centimeters in diameter. The cut surface has colours varying from yellow to red to mahogany brown, depending on the distribution of fat, blood, and blood-forming cells. The cut surface of larger myelolipomas may contain haemorrhage or infarction.[1]A macroscopic photograph of an adrenal myelolipoma. A remnant of the adrenal gland can be seen at the top\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe cut surface shows colour variegation from yellow to red to brown depending on the distribution of fat, blood and myeloid elements","title":"Pathology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Myelolipoma_histology_HE.jpg"},{"link_name":"blood-forming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haematopoiesis"},{"link_name":"myeloid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myeloid"},{"link_name":"erythroid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erythroid"},{"link_name":"megakaryocytic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megakaryocyte"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thompson06-1"}],"sub_title":"Microscopic features","text":"The microscopic view of a myelolipoma shows the presence of normal adrenal cells, fat (adipose) cells, and the three lineages of the myeloid precursorsThe typical microscopic features of myelolipomas are shown in the image. There is a mixture of normal adrenal tissue, fat, and a full trilineage maturation of the three major blood-forming elements: myeloid (white blood cell forming), erythroid (red blood cell forming), and megakaryocytic (platelet forming) lines.[1]","title":"Pathology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Myelolipom_der_Nebenniere_CT.jpg"},{"link_name":"CT scans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CT_scan"},{"link_name":"MRI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRI"},{"link_name":"X-ray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiography"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ramchandani,_P_2007-4"},{"link_name":"Fine needle aspiration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fine_needle_aspiration"},{"link_name":"microscopic diagnosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytopathology"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thompson06-1"}],"text":"Myeloplipoma shown on a CT scan imageMost myelolipomas are unexpected findings on CT scans and MRI scans of the abdomen. They may sometimes be seen on a plain X-ray films.[4]Fine needle aspiration may be performed to obtain cells for microscopic diagnosis.[1]","title":"Diagnosis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Olobatuyi06-6"}],"text":"Small myelolipomas generally do not produce symptoms, and do not require treatment. Ongoing surveillance of these lesions by a doctor is recommended. Surgical excision (removal) is recommended for large myelolipomas because of the risk of bleeding complications.[6]","title":"Treatment"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Incidences_and_prognoses_of_adrenal_tumors.png"},{"link_name":"adrenal tumors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenal_tumor"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"autopsy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autopsy"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ManteroAlbiger2004-8"},{"link_name":"mediastinum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediastinum"},{"link_name":"liver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liver"},{"link_name":"gastrointestinal tract","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastrointestinal_tract"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thompson06-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thompson06-1"}],"text":"Incidences and prognoses of adrenal tumors,[7] with myelolipoma at right.Myelolipomas are rare. They have been reported to be found unexpectedly at autopsy in 0.08% to 0.4% of cases (i.e.: somewhere between 8 per 10,000 and 4 per 1,000 autopsies). They most commonly occur in the adrenal gland, and comprise about 8% of all adrenal tumours.[8] They may also occur in other sites, such as the mediastinum, the liver and the gastrointestinal tract.[1]There is no gender predilection, males and females are affected equally. The peak age range at diagnosis is between 40 and 79 years of age.[1]","title":"Epidemiology"}]
|
[{"image_text":"The microscopic view of a myelolipoma shows the presence of normal adrenal cells, fat (adipose) cells, and the three lineages of the myeloid precursors","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Myelolipoma_histology_HE.jpg/220px-Myelolipoma_histology_HE.jpg"},{"image_text":"Myeloplipoma shown on a CT scan image","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Myelolipom_der_Nebenniere_CT.jpg/220px-Myelolipom_der_Nebenniere_CT.jpg"},{"image_text":"Incidences and prognoses of adrenal tumors,[7] with myelolipoma at right.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Incidences_and_prognoses_of_adrenal_tumors.png/240px-Incidences_and_prognoses_of_adrenal_tumors.png"}]
| null |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Foreign_Intelligence_Surveillance_Court_of_Review
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United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review
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["1 Notable cases","1.1 In re Sealed Case","1.2 In re Directives","1.3 In re Certification of Questions of Law","2 Composition","2.1 Current membership","2.2 Former members","3 Seat succession","4 References","5 Further reading","6 External links"]
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United States Article III court
United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review(F.I.S.C.R.)LocationWashington, D.C.Appeals toSupreme Court of the United StatesAppeals fromUnited States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance CourtEstablishedOctober 25, 1978AuthorityArticle III courtCreated byForeign Intelligence Surveillance Act50 U.S.C. § 1803Composition methodChief Justice appointmentJudges3Judge term length7 yearsPresiding JudgeStephen A. Higginsonwww.fisc.uscourts.gov/FISCR
The United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review (FISCR) is a U.S. federal court whose sole purpose is to review denials of applications for electronic surveillance warrants (called FISA warrants) by the United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court (or FISC). The FISCR was established by the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978 (known as FISA for short) and consists of a panel of three judges. Like the FISC, the FISCR is not an adversarial court; rather, the only party to the court is the federal government, although other parties may submit briefs as amici curiae if they are made aware of the proceedings. Papers are filed and proceedings are held in secret. Records of the proceedings are kept classified, though copies of the proceedings with sensitive information redacted are very occasionally made public. The government may appeal decisions of the FISCR to the Supreme Court of the United States, which hears appeals on a discretionary basis.
There is no provision for review or appeal of a grant of a warrant application, only of a denial. That is because in both the FISC and the FISCA, the government – the party who seeks a warrant to conduct surveillance – is the only party before the court, and it is unusual for anyone else to become aware of the warrant application in the first place.
The judges of the Court of Review are district or appellate federal judges, appointed by the Chief Justice of the United States for seven-year terms. Their terms are staggered so that there are at least two years between consecutive appointments. A judge may be appointed only once to either the FISCR or the FISC.
Notable cases
In re Sealed Case
Main article: In re: Sealed Case No. 02-001
The FISCR was called into session for the first time in 2002 in a case referred to as In re: Sealed Case No. 02-001. The FISC had granted a FISA warrant to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) but had placed restrictions on its use; specifically, the FBI was denied the ability to use evidence gathered under the warrant in criminal cases. FISCR allowed a coalition of civil liberties groups, including the American Civil Liberties Union and the Electronic Frontier Foundation, to file amicus briefs opposing the FBI's new surveillance programs. The FISCR held that the restrictions that the FISC had placed on the warrant violated both FISA and the USA PATRIOT Act and that there was no constitutional requirement for those restrictions.
In re Directives
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
In re Directives
In August 2008, the FISCR affirmed the constitutionality of the Protect America Act of 2007 in a heavily redacted opinion, In re Directives Pursuant to Section 105B of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act, released on January 15, 2009. In re Directives was only the second such public ruling since FISA's enactment.
In re Certification of Questions of Law
In May 2018, the FISCR affirmed an en banc order holding that three public interest groups had "standing to seek disclosure of the classified portions of the opinions at issue." The three groups were the American Civil Liberties Union Foundation, the American Civil Liberties Union of the Nation's Capital, and the Media Freedom and Information Access Clinic at Yale University. The government had argued that none of the groups had a legal right to compel disclosure of FISC opinions. The FISCR disagreed, holding: "The flaw in the government's position is that it attacks the merits of the movants' claim rather than whether the claim is judicially cognizable. In other words, the government confuses the question of whether the movants have a First Amendment right of access to FISC opinions with the question of whether they have a right merely to assert that claim. Courts have repeatedly pointed out that there is a distinction between whether the plaintiff has shown injury for purposes of standing and whether the plaintiff can succeed on the merits."
Composition
Note that the start dates of service for some judges conflict among sources.
Current membership
Name
Court
Start
End
Presiding Start
Presiding End
FISCR Appointer(Chief Justice)
Original Appointer(President)
Stephen Higginson
5th Cir.
February 25, 2021
May 18, 2027
August 16, 2023
present
John Roberts
Barack Obama
Timothy Tymkovich
10th Cir.
November 1, 2023
May 18, 2030
–
–
John Roberts
George W. Bush
Lisa Godbey Wood
S.D. Ga.
November 1, 2023
May 18, 2030
–
–
John Roberts
George W. Bush
Former members
Name
Court
Start
End
Presiding Start
Presiding End
FISCR Appointer(Chief Justice)
Original Appointer(President)
Morris Arnold
8th Cir.
May 19, 2008
August 31, 2013
September 10, 2012
August 31, 2013
John Roberts
George H. W. Bush
Bobby Baldock
10th Cir.
June 17, 1992
May 18, 1998
–
–
William Rehnquist
Ronald Reagan
James Barrett
10th Cir.
May 19, 1979
May 18, 1984
–
–
Warren Burger
Richard Nixon
William Bryson
Fed. Cir.
May 19, 2011
May 18, 2018
September 10, 2013
May 18, 2018
John Roberts
Bill Clinton
José Cabranes
2nd Cir.
August 9, 2013
May 18, 2020
May 19, 2018
May 18, 2020
John Roberts
Bill Clinton
John Field
4th Cir.
May 19, 1982
May 18, 1989
–
–
Warren Burger
Richard Nixon
Ralph Guy
6th Cir.
October 8, 1998
May 18, 2005
May 19, 2001
May 18, 2005
William Rehnquist
Ronald Reagan
Leon Higginbotham
3rd Cir.
May 19, 1979
May 18, 1986
May 19, 1979
May 18, 1986
Warren Burger
Jimmy Carter
Edward Leavy
9th Cir.
September 25, 2001
May 18, 2008
May 19, 2005
May 18, 2008
William Rehnquist
Ronald Reagan
George MacKinnon
D.C. Cir.
May 19, 1979
May 18, 1982
–
–
Warren Burger
Richard Nixon
Robert Miller
N.D. Ind.
July 8, 2020
September 15, 2023
–
–
John Roberts
Ronald Reagan
Edward Northrop
D. Md.
January 11, 1985
January 10, 1992
–
–
Warren Burger
John F. Kennedy
Paul Roney
11th Cir.
September 13, 1994
May 18, 2001
September 13, 1994
May 18, 2001
William Rehnquist
Richard Nixon
Collins Seitz
3rd Cir.
March 19, 1987
March 18, 1994
March 19, 1987
March 18, 1994
William Rehnquist
Lyndon Johnson
Bruce Selya
1st Cir.
October 8, 2005
May 18, 2012
May 19, 2008
May 18, 2012
John Roberts
Ronald Reagan
David Sentelle
D.C. Cir.
May 19, 2018
September 15, 2023
May 19, 2020
September 15, 2023
John Roberts
Ronald Reagan
Laurence Silberman
D.C. Cir.
June 18, 1996
May 18, 2003
–
–
William Rehnquist
Ronald Reagan
Richard Tallman
9th Cir.
January 27, 2014
January 26, 2021
–
–
John Roberts
Bill Clinton
Robert Warren
E.D. Wis.
October 30, 1989
May 18, 1996
–
–
William Rehnquist
Richard Nixon
Ralph Winter
2nd Cir.
November 14, 2003
May 18, 2010
–
–
John Roberts
Ronald Reagan
Seat succession
Presiding Judge
Higginbotham
1979–1986
Seitz
1987–1994
Roney
1994–2001
Guy
2001–2005
Leavy
2005–2008
Selya
2008–2012
Arnold
2012–2013
Bryson
2013–2018
Cabranes
2018–2020
Sentelle
2020–2023
Higginson
2023–present
Seat 1
Established on October 25, 1978by the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act
Barrett
1979–1984
Northrop
1984–1992
Baldock
1992–1998
Guy
1998–2005
Selya
2005–2012
Cabranes
2013–2020
Miller
2020–2023
Wood
2023–present
Seat 2
Established on October 25, 1978by the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act
Higginbotham
1979–1986
Seitz
1987–1994
Roney
1994–2001
Leavy
2001–2008
Arnold
2008–2013
Tallman
2014–2021
Higginson
2021–present
Seat 3
Established on October 25, 1978by the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act
MacKinnon
1979–1982
Field
1982–1989
Warren
1989–1996
Silberman
1996–2003
Winter
2003–2010
Bryson
2011–2018
Sentelle
2018–2023
Tymkovich
2023–present
References
^ In re Directives Pursuant to Section 105B of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act, no. 08-01 (Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review, Jan 15, 2009)
^ Risen, James; Lichtblau, Eric (January 16, 2009). "Court Affirms Wiretapping Without Warrants". New York Times, January 15, 2009. Retrieved January 16, 2009.
^ Perez, Evan (January 16, 2009). "Court Backs U.S. Wiretapping". Wall Street Journal, January 16, 2009. Retrieved January 16, 2009.
^ "Intelligence Court Releases Ruling in Favor of Warrantless Wiretapping". Washington Post, January 15, 2009. January 16, 2009. Retrieved January 16, 2009.
^ In re Certification of Questions of Law, no. 18-01 (Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review, Mar 16, 2018)
^ "Current Membership - Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review".
^
Savage, Charles (May 2013). "Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court – Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review: Current and Past Members". The New York Times. Archived from the original on July 31, 2013. Retrieved July 26, 2013.
Savage, Charlie (July 25, 2013). "Roberts's Picks Reshaping Secret Surveillance Court". The New York Times. Retrieved July 26, 2013.
^ "Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court 2013 Membership". irp.fas.org. Retrieved 2024-02-23.
^ "Policy Response to Intelligence Revelations Lags".
^ "FISC FISCR Judges Revised May 29 2020 200608" (PDF). www.fisc.uscourts.govF. Retrieved February 23, 2024.
^ "Judge Paul H. Roney". Eleventh Circuit. n.d. Archived from the original on September 23, 2006. Retrieved June 14, 2013.
^ "FISC FISCR Judges August 2020 200824" (PDF). www.fisc.uscourts.gov. Retrieved February 23, 2024.
Further reading
"Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court and Court of Review 2014 Membership". from the Federation of American Scientists. Retrieved February 7, 2014.
Risen, James; Lichtblau, Eric (January 16, 2009). "Court Affirms Wiretapping Without Warrants". New York Times, January 15, 2009. Retrieved January 16, 2009.
Perez, Evan (January 16, 2009). "Court Backs U.S. Wiretapping". Wall Street Journal, January 16, 2009. Retrieved January 16, 2009.
"Intelligence Court Releases Ruling in Favor of Warrantless Wiretapping". Washington Post, January 15, 2009. January 16, 2009. Retrieved January 16, 2009.
"Court ruling endorses Bush surveillance policy". Associated Press, January 15, 2009. Archived from the original on January 17, 2009. Retrieved January 16, 2009.
Pudlow, Jan (September 1, 2000). "Nixon era judges celebrate 30 years on the bench". The Florida Bar News, September 1, 2000. Retrieved September 30, 2012.
External links
Rules of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review, via Federation of American Scientists
The Department of Justice brief on Case No. 02-001, redacted version, via Federation of American Scientists
FISCOR Hearing transcript on 02-001, via Federation of American Scientists
The Court of Review's Decision on "In re: Sealed Case No. 02-001", from Findlaw
vteJudges of the United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of ReviewActive
Higginson
Wood
Tymkovich
Former
MacKinnon
Barrett
Higginbotham
Field
Northrop
Seitz
Warren
Baldock
Roney
Silberman
Guy
Leavy
Winter
Selya
Arnold
Bryson
Cabranes
Tallman
Sentelle
Miller
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"U.S. federal court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_federal_courts"},{"link_name":"United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Foreign_Intelligence_Surveillance_Court"},{"link_name":"Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_Intelligence_Surveillance_Act"},{"link_name":"adversarial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adversary_system"},{"link_name":"amici curiae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amicus_curiae"},{"link_name":"classified","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classified_information"},{"link_name":"Supreme Court of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"district","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_district_court"},{"link_name":"appellate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_courts_of_appeals"},{"link_name":"Chief Justice of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States"}],"text":"The United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review (FISCR) is a U.S. federal court whose sole purpose is to review denials of applications for electronic surveillance warrants (called FISA warrants) by the United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court (or FISC). The FISCR was established by the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978 (known as FISA for short) and consists of a panel of three judges. Like the FISC, the FISCR is not an adversarial court; rather, the only party to the court is the federal government, although other parties may submit briefs as amici curiae if they are made aware of the proceedings. Papers are filed and proceedings are held in secret. Records of the proceedings are kept classified, though copies of the proceedings with sensitive information redacted are very occasionally made public. The government may appeal decisions of the FISCR to the Supreme Court of the United States, which hears appeals on a discretionary basis.There is no provision for review or appeal of a grant of a warrant application, only of a denial. That is because in both the FISC and the FISCA, the government – the party who seeks a warrant to conduct surveillance – is the only party before the court, and it is unusual for anyone else to become aware of the warrant application in the first place.The judges of the Court of Review are district or appellate federal judges, appointed by the Chief Justice of the United States for seven-year terms. Their terms are staggered so that there are at least two years between consecutive appointments. A judge may be appointed only once to either the FISCR or the FISC.","title":"United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Notable cases"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"In re: Sealed Case No. 02-001","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_re:_Sealed_Case_No._02-001"},{"link_name":"Federal Bureau of Investigation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation"},{"link_name":"American Civil Liberties Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union"},{"link_name":"Electronic Frontier Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Frontier_Foundation"},{"link_name":"USA PATRIOT Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USA_PATRIOT_Act"}],"sub_title":"In re Sealed Case","text":"The FISCR was called into session for the first time in 2002 in a case referred to as In re: Sealed Case No. 02-001. The FISC had granted a FISA warrant to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) but had placed restrictions on its use; specifically, the FBI was denied the ability to use evidence gathered under the warrant in criminal cases. FISCR allowed a coalition of civil liberties groups, including the American Civil Liberties Union and the Electronic Frontier Foundation, to file amicus briefs opposing the FBI's new surveillance programs. The FISCR held that the restrictions that the FISC had placed on the warrant violated both FISA and the USA PATRIOT Act and that there was no constitutional requirement for those restrictions.","title":"Notable cases"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Wikisource","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikisource"},{"link_name":"In re Directives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/In_re_Directives"},{"link_name":"Protect America Act of 2007","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protect_America_Act_of_2007"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"sub_title":"In re Directives","text":"Wikisource has original text related to this article:\nIn re DirectivesIn August 2008, the FISCR affirmed the constitutionality of the Protect America Act of 2007 in a heavily redacted opinion, In re Directives [redacted text] Pursuant to Section 105B of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act, released on January 15, 2009.[1][2][3] In re Directives was only the second such public ruling since FISA's enactment.[4]","title":"Notable cases"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"en banc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/En_banc"},{"link_name":"American Civil Liberties Union Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union_Foundation"},{"link_name":"American Civil Liberties Union of the Nation's Capital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_Liberties_Union_of_the_Nation%27s_Capital&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Yale University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_University"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"sub_title":"In re Certification of Questions of Law","text":"In May 2018, the FISCR affirmed an en banc order holding that three public interest groups had \"standing to seek disclosure of the classified portions of the opinions at issue.\" The three groups were the American Civil Liberties Union Foundation, the American Civil Liberties Union of the Nation's Capital, and the Media Freedom and Information Access Clinic at Yale University. The government had argued that none of the groups had a legal right to compel disclosure of FISC opinions. The FISCR disagreed, holding: \"The flaw in the government's position is that it attacks the merits of the movants' claim rather than whether the claim is judicially cognizable. In other words, the government confuses the question of whether the movants have a First Amendment right of access to FISC opinions with the question of whether they have a right merely to assert that claim. Courts have repeatedly pointed out that there is a distinction between whether the plaintiff has shown injury for purposes of standing and whether the plaintiff can succeed on the merits.\"[5]","title":"Notable cases"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Current_Membership_-_Foreign_Intelligence_Surveillance_Court_of_Review-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT_May13-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-aftergood-response-lags-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"Note that the start dates of service for some judges conflict among sources.[6][7][8][9][10][11][12]","title":"Composition"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Current membership","title":"Composition"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Former members","title":"Composition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Higginbotham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._Leon_Higginbotham_Jr."},{"link_name":"Seitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collins_J._Seitz"},{"link_name":"Roney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Hitch_Roney"},{"link_name":"Guy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_B._Guy_Jr."},{"link_name":"Leavy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Leavy"},{"link_name":"Selya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_M._Selya"},{"link_name":"Arnold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morris_S._Arnold"},{"link_name":"Bryson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Curtis_Bryson"},{"link_name":"Cabranes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_A._Cabranes"},{"link_name":"Sentelle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_B._Sentelle"},{"link_name":"Higginson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_A._Higginson"},{"link_name":"Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_Intelligence_Surveillance_Act"},{"link_name":"Barrett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_E._Barrett"},{"link_name":"Northrop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Skottowe_Northrop"},{"link_name":"Baldock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobby_Baldock"},{"link_name":"Guy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_B._Guy_Jr."},{"link_name":"Selya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_M._Selya"},{"link_name":"Cabranes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_A._Cabranes"},{"link_name":"Miller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Lowell_Miller_Jr."},{"link_name":"Wood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisa_Godbey_Wood"},{"link_name":"Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_Intelligence_Surveillance_Act"},{"link_name":"Higginbotham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._Leon_Higginbotham_Jr."},{"link_name":"Seitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collins_J._Seitz"},{"link_name":"Roney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Hitch_Roney"},{"link_name":"Leavy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Leavy"},{"link_name":"Arnold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morris_S._Arnold"},{"link_name":"Tallman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_C._Tallman"},{"link_name":"Higginson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_A._Higginson"},{"link_name":"Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_Intelligence_Surveillance_Act"},{"link_name":"MacKinnon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_MacKinnon"},{"link_name":"Field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_A._Field_Jr."},{"link_name":"Warren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_W._Warren"},{"link_name":"Silberman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurence_Silberman"},{"link_name":"Winter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_K._Winter_Jr."},{"link_name":"Bryson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Curtis_Bryson"},{"link_name":"Sentelle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_B._Sentelle"},{"link_name":"Tymkovich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timothy_Tymkovich"}],"text":"Presiding Judge\n\n\nHigginbotham\n1979–1986\n\n\nSeitz\n1987–1994\n\n\nRoney\n1994–2001\n\n\nGuy\n2001–2005\n\n\nLeavy\n2005–2008\n\n\nSelya\n2008–2012\n\n\nArnold\n2012–2013\n\n\nBryson\n2013–2018\n\n\nCabranes\n2018–2020\n\n\nSentelle\n2020–2023\n\n\nHigginson\n2023–present\n\n\n\n\n\nSeat 1\n\n\nEstablished on October 25, 1978by the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act\n\n\nBarrett\n1979–1984\n\n\nNorthrop\n1984–1992\n\n\nBaldock\n1992–1998\n\n\nGuy\n1998–2005\n\n\nSelya\n2005–2012\n\n\nCabranes\n2013–2020\n\n\nMiller\n2020–2023\n\n\nWood\n2023–present\n\n\n\n\n\nSeat 2\n\n\nEstablished on October 25, 1978by the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act\n\n\nHigginbotham\n1979–1986\n\n\nSeitz\n1987–1994\n\n\nRoney\n1994–2001\n\n\nLeavy\n2001–2008\n\n\nArnold\n2008–2013\n\n\nTallman\n2014–2021\n\n\nHigginson\n2021–present\n\n\n\n\n\nSeat 3\n\n\nEstablished on October 25, 1978by the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act\n\n\nMacKinnon\n1979–1982\n\n\nField\n1982–1989\n\n\nWarren\n1989–1996\n\n\nSilberman\n1996–2003\n\n\nWinter\n2003–2010\n\n\nBryson\n2011–2018\n\n\nSentelle\n2018–2023\n\n\nTymkovich\n2023–present","title":"Seat succession"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court and Court of Review 2014 Membership\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fas.org/irp/agency/doj/fisa/court2014.html"},{"link_name":"\"Court Affirms Wiretapping Without Warrants\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.nytimes.com/2009/01/16/washington/16fisa.html?_r=1&hp"},{"link_name":"\"Court Backs U.S. Wiretapping\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wsj.com/articles/SB123206893587088395?mod=googlenews_wsj"},{"link_name":"\"Intelligence Court Releases Ruling in Favor of Warrantless Wiretapping\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/01/15/AR2009011502311.html?hpid=topnews"},{"link_name":"\"Court ruling endorses Bush surveillance policy\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20090117180553/http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5g9Q7M6scz4PEW8SuEo_bpOer6ZAQD95NRD1G0"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5g9Q7M6scz4PEW8SuEo_bpOer6ZAQD95NRD1G0"},{"link_name":"\"Nixon era judges celebrate 30 years on the bench\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.floridabar.org/DIVCOM/JN/JNNews01.nsf/Articles/634E37BCEF2D28B485256B11006BFF2E"}],"text":"\"Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court and Court of Review 2014 Membership\". from the Federation of American Scientists. Retrieved February 7, 2014.\nRisen, James; Lichtblau, Eric (January 16, 2009). \"Court Affirms Wiretapping Without Warrants\". New York Times, January 15, 2009. Retrieved January 16, 2009.\nPerez, Evan (January 16, 2009). \"Court Backs U.S. Wiretapping\". Wall Street Journal, January 16, 2009. Retrieved January 16, 2009.\n\"Intelligence Court Releases Ruling in Favor of Warrantless Wiretapping\". Washington Post, January 15, 2009. January 16, 2009. Retrieved January 16, 2009.\n\"Court ruling endorses Bush surveillance policy\". Associated Press, January 15, 2009. Archived from the original on January 17, 2009. Retrieved January 16, 2009.\nPudlow, Jan (September 1, 2000). \"Nixon era judges celebrate 30 years on the bench\". The Florida Bar News, September 1, 2000. Retrieved September 30, 2012.","title":"Further reading"}]
|
[]
| null |
[{"reference":"Risen, James; Lichtblau, Eric (January 16, 2009). \"Court Affirms Wiretapping Without Warrants\". New York Times, January 15, 2009. Retrieved January 16, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/16/washington/16fisa.html?_r=1&hp","url_text":"\"Court Affirms Wiretapping Without Warrants\""}]},{"reference":"Perez, Evan (January 16, 2009). \"Court Backs U.S. Wiretapping\". Wall Street Journal, January 16, 2009. Retrieved January 16, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB123206893587088395?mod=googlenews_wsj","url_text":"\"Court Backs U.S. Wiretapping\""}]},{"reference":"\"Intelligence Court Releases Ruling in Favor of Warrantless Wiretapping\". Washington Post, January 15, 2009. January 16, 2009. Retrieved January 16, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/01/15/AR2009011502311.html?hpid=topnews","url_text":"\"Intelligence Court Releases Ruling in Favor of Warrantless Wiretapping\""}]},{"reference":"\"Current Membership - Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.fisc.uscourts.gov/fiscr_membership","url_text":"\"Current Membership - Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review\""}]},{"reference":"Savage, Charles (May 2013). \"Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court – Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review: Current and Past Members\". The New York Times. Archived from the original on July 31, 2013. Retrieved July 26, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.documentcloud.org/documents/727664-fisc-fiscr-members-1978-2013.html","url_text":"\"Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court – Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review: Current and Past Members\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130731140111/http://www.documentcloud.org/documents/727664-fisc-fiscr-members-1978-2013.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Savage, Charlie (July 25, 2013). \"Roberts's Picks Reshaping Secret Surveillance Court\". The New York Times. Retrieved July 26, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/26/us/politics/robertss-picks-reshaping-secret-surveillance-court.html?hp","url_text":"\"Roberts's Picks Reshaping Secret Surveillance Court\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"}]},{"reference":"\"Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court 2013 Membership\". irp.fas.org. Retrieved 2024-02-23.","urls":[{"url":"https://irp.fas.org/agency/doj/fisa/court2013.html","url_text":"\"Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court 2013 Membership\""}]},{"reference":"\"Policy Response to Intelligence Revelations Lags\".","urls":[{"url":"https://fas.org/blogs/secrecy/2013/09/response-lags/","url_text":"\"Policy Response to Intelligence Revelations Lags\""}]},{"reference":"\"FISC FISCR Judges Revised May 29 2020 200608\" (PDF). www.fisc.uscourts.govF. Retrieved February 23, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.fisc.uscourts.gov/sites/default/files/FISC%20FISCR%20Judges%20Revised%20May%2029%202020%20200608.pdf","url_text":"\"FISC FISCR Judges Revised May 29 2020 200608\""}]},{"reference":"\"Judge Paul H. Roney\". Eleventh Circuit. n.d. Archived from the original on September 23, 2006. Retrieved June 14, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060923115648/http://www.ca11.uscourts.gov/about/judges/roney.php","url_text":"\"Judge Paul H. Roney\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Eleventh_Circuit","url_text":"Eleventh Circuit"},{"url":"http://www.ca11.uscourts.gov/about/judges/roney.php","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"FISC FISCR Judges August 2020 200824\" (PDF). www.fisc.uscourts.gov. Retrieved February 23, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.fisc.uscourts.gov/sites/default/files/FISC%20FISCR%20Judges%20August%202020%20200824.docx.pdf","url_text":"\"FISC FISCR Judges August 2020 200824\""}]},{"reference":"\"Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court and Court of Review 2014 Membership\". from the Federation of American Scientists. Retrieved February 7, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://fas.org/irp/agency/doj/fisa/court2014.html","url_text":"\"Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court and Court of Review 2014 Membership\""}]},{"reference":"Risen, James; Lichtblau, Eric (January 16, 2009). \"Court Affirms Wiretapping Without Warrants\". New York Times, January 15, 2009. Retrieved January 16, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/16/washington/16fisa.html?_r=1&hp","url_text":"\"Court Affirms Wiretapping Without Warrants\""}]},{"reference":"Perez, Evan (January 16, 2009). \"Court Backs U.S. Wiretapping\". Wall Street Journal, January 16, 2009. Retrieved January 16, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB123206893587088395?mod=googlenews_wsj","url_text":"\"Court Backs U.S. Wiretapping\""}]},{"reference":"\"Intelligence Court Releases Ruling in Favor of Warrantless Wiretapping\". Washington Post, January 15, 2009. January 16, 2009. Retrieved January 16, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/01/15/AR2009011502311.html?hpid=topnews","url_text":"\"Intelligence Court Releases Ruling in Favor of Warrantless Wiretapping\""}]},{"reference":"\"Court ruling endorses Bush surveillance policy\". Associated Press, January 15, 2009. Archived from the original on January 17, 2009. Retrieved January 16, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090117180553/http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5g9Q7M6scz4PEW8SuEo_bpOer6ZAQD95NRD1G0","url_text":"\"Court ruling endorses Bush surveillance policy\""},{"url":"https://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5g9Q7M6scz4PEW8SuEo_bpOer6ZAQD95NRD1G0","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Pudlow, Jan (September 1, 2000). \"Nixon era judges celebrate 30 years on the bench\". The Florida Bar News, September 1, 2000. Retrieved September 30, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.floridabar.org/DIVCOM/JN/JNNews01.nsf/Articles/634E37BCEF2D28B485256B11006BFF2E","url_text":"\"Nixon era judges celebrate 30 years on the bench\""}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/50/1803","external_links_name":"§ 1803"},{"Link":"http://www.fisc.uscourts.gov/FISCR","external_links_name":"www.fisc.uscourts.gov/FISCR"},{"Link":"https://fas.org/irp/agency/doj/fisa/fiscr082208.pdf","external_links_name":"In re Directives [redacted text] Pursuant to Section 105B of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act"},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/16/washington/16fisa.html?_r=1&hp","external_links_name":"\"Court Affirms Wiretapping Without Warrants\""},{"Link":"https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB123206893587088395?mod=googlenews_wsj","external_links_name":"\"Court Backs U.S. Wiretapping\""},{"Link":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/01/15/AR2009011502311.html?hpid=topnews","external_links_name":"\"Intelligence Court Releases Ruling in Favor of Warrantless Wiretapping\""},{"Link":"http://www.fisc.uscourts.gov/sites/default/files/FISCR%2018-01%20Opinion%20March%2016%202018.pdf","external_links_name":"In re Certification of Questions of Law"},{"Link":"https://www.fisc.uscourts.gov/fiscr_membership","external_links_name":"\"Current Membership - Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review\""},{"Link":"http://www.documentcloud.org/documents/727664-fisc-fiscr-members-1978-2013.html","external_links_name":"\"Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court – Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review: Current and Past Members\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130731140111/http://www.documentcloud.org/documents/727664-fisc-fiscr-members-1978-2013.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/26/us/politics/robertss-picks-reshaping-secret-surveillance-court.html?hp","external_links_name":"\"Roberts's Picks Reshaping Secret Surveillance Court\""},{"Link":"https://irp.fas.org/agency/doj/fisa/court2013.html","external_links_name":"\"Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court 2013 Membership\""},{"Link":"https://fas.org/blogs/secrecy/2013/09/response-lags/","external_links_name":"\"Policy Response to Intelligence Revelations Lags\""},{"Link":"https://www.fisc.uscourts.gov/sites/default/files/FISC%20FISCR%20Judges%20Revised%20May%2029%202020%20200608.pdf","external_links_name":"\"FISC FISCR Judges Revised May 29 2020 200608\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060923115648/http://www.ca11.uscourts.gov/about/judges/roney.php","external_links_name":"\"Judge Paul H. Roney\""},{"Link":"http://www.ca11.uscourts.gov/about/judges/roney.php","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.fisc.uscourts.gov/sites/default/files/FISC%20FISCR%20Judges%20August%202020%20200824.docx.pdf","external_links_name":"\"FISC FISCR Judges August 2020 200824\""},{"Link":"https://fas.org/irp/agency/doj/fisa/court2014.html","external_links_name":"\"Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court and Court of Review 2014 Membership\""},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/16/washington/16fisa.html?_r=1&hp","external_links_name":"\"Court Affirms Wiretapping Without Warrants\""},{"Link":"https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB123206893587088395?mod=googlenews_wsj","external_links_name":"\"Court Backs U.S. Wiretapping\""},{"Link":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/01/15/AR2009011502311.html?hpid=topnews","external_links_name":"\"Intelligence Court Releases Ruling in Favor of Warrantless Wiretapping\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090117180553/http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5g9Q7M6scz4PEW8SuEo_bpOer6ZAQD95NRD1G0","external_links_name":"\"Court ruling endorses Bush surveillance policy\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5g9Q7M6scz4PEW8SuEo_bpOer6ZAQD95NRD1G0","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.floridabar.org/DIVCOM/JN/JNNews01.nsf/Articles/634E37BCEF2D28B485256B11006BFF2E","external_links_name":"\"Nixon era judges celebrate 30 years on the bench\""},{"Link":"https://fas.org/irp/agency/doj/fisa/fiscr-rules.pdf","external_links_name":"Rules of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review, via Federation of American Scientists"},{"Link":"https://fas.org/irp/agency/doj/fisa/082102appeal.html","external_links_name":"The Department of Justice brief on Case No. 02-001, redacted version, via Federation of American Scientists"},{"Link":"https://fas.org/irp/agency/doj/fisa/hrng090902.htm","external_links_name":"FISCOR Hearing transcript on 02-001, via Federation of American Scientists"},{"Link":"http://news.findlaw.com/hdocs/docs/terrorism/fisa111802opn.pdf","external_links_name":"The Court of Review's Decision on \"In re: Sealed Case No. 02-001\", from Findlaw"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Bentivoglio
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Bentivoglio family
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["1 History","2 Rulers of Bologna","3 Other notable family members","4 Power base","5 References","6 Sources"]
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For the Italian comune, see Bentivoglio, Emilia-Romagna.
Bentivoglio familyPatrician noble familyArms of the House of BentivoglioParent familyHohenstaufen (claimed)Country Papal StatesFounded1401 (1401)FounderGiovanni I BentivoglioFinal rulerAnnibale II BentivoglioTitlesSignore of BolognaMottoNUNC MICHI(Ora è il mio momento; "Now is my time")Estate(s)Palazzo Bentivoglio, BolognaDeposition1512 (1512)
The Bentivoglio family (Latin: Bentivoius) was an Italian noble family that became the de facto rulers of Bologna and responsible for giving the city its political autonomy during the Renaissance, although their rule did not survive a century.
History
The presence in Bologna of the Bentivoglio family is first recorded in 1323. Originally from the castle of that name in the neighborhood of Bologna, the family claimed descent from Enzio, King of Sardinia, an illegitimate son of Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor.
During the fourteenth century, the family, belonging to one of the worker's guilds at Bologna, had gained power as pro-papist Guelph leaders in the fourteenth century. Amid the faction-conflicts of the commune, on 14 March 1401, Giovanni I Bentivoglio, with the help of Gian Galeazzo Visconti, declared himself signore and Gonfaloniere di Giustizia. The Visconti however soured on Giovanni, and he was defeated and killed on 26 June 1402 at the Battle of Casalecchio and was interred in the church of San Giacomo Maggiore.
During the next few decades, the city's political status -and the family's fortunes- remained unpredictable. The son of Giovanni I, Anton Galeazzo (or Antongaleazzo, c. 1385–1435), was a lecturer in civil law who briefly assumed power in Bologna in 1420, but was quickly overthrown. He became a condottiero, and was assassinated by papal officials on 23 December 1435 due to fears over his growing power (he had returned to Bologna in December). During his reign the Bentivoglio received the fief of Castel Bolognese.
In 1438 Annibale I, a putative son of Anton Galeazzo (his mother, Lina Canigiani, was said to be uncertain of the boy's paternity and the matter was decided by dice), led a city revolt against the Papacy. He tried to make peace with the Visconti of Milan and to convince the Pope not to place Bologna under papal dominion. In 1442, the Visconti condottiere Niccolò Piccinino imprisoned Annibale and his supporters at Varano, but Annibale was freed by Galeazzo Marescotti in 1442. When Annibale returned to Bologna, the powers of government were conferred to him, a sign that the city recognized the family's political importance. However, on 24 June 1445, with the support of Pope Eugene IV, Battista Canneschi, succeeded in assassinating his rival Annibale.
Annibale was succeeded by Sante I (1426–1463). Sante was also of dubious paternity and origin, but alleged to be a son of Ercole Bentivoglio, a cousin of Annibale I. Originally an apprentice of the wool guild of Florence, Sante ruled as signore of Bologna from 1442. Sponsored by Cosimo de' Medici, Sante Bentivoglio ushered in a brief period of political tranquility. Always technically under papal sovereignty, the city obtained some actual autonomy and recreated a regime of the feudal type, with a communal senate composed of the landowning nobility, the new rich, and the papal nobility. Bologna also strengthened its relations with Venice, Milan, and Florence.
Sante was succeeded by Giovanni II (1443–1508), the son of Annibale I, who ruled as virtual tyrant of Bologna. In 1506, the noble Bentivoglio family was brought to ruin by Pope Julius II when he expelled Giovanni II from Bologna.
A son of Giovanni II, Annibale II (1469–1540), married Lucrezia d'Este, an illegitimate daughter of Duke Ercole I of Ferrara, in 1487. He served as a condottiero. During a rebellion in 1511 against Julius II, Annibale II with the help of the French took control o Bologna, but he was able to rule for only a year. He was hated by other rival families, such as the Ghislieri and the Canetoli, and was subsequently assassinated. Annibale II was the last ruler of his line. In exile, the Bentivoglio family established themselves in Ferrara and produced several notable prelates.
Rulers of Bologna
Portrait
Signore
Tenure
Notes
Giovanni I Bentivoglio
1401
1402
First signore of Bologna. Killed in the Battle of Casalecchio.
1402–1403: integrated to Duchy of Milan.
1403–1416: Signoria of Cardinal Baldassarre Cossa.
Anton Galeazzo Bentivoglio
3 March 1416
23 December 1435
Restored signore after led a rebellion against Cardinal Cossa. Murdered by assassins hired by Bishop Daniele Scotto.
1435–1443: Signoria of Niccolò Piccinino.
Annibale I Bentivoglio
14 August 1443
24 June 1445
Overthrown pro-Milan signoria of Piccinino. Elected head of the 16 Reformers (Bologna's ruling body) in 1445. Murdered in the same year by seditious nobles.
Sante Bentivoglio
24 June 1445
1 October 1463
Grew up in Cosimo de' Medici's house. Cousin of Annibale I and regent for his nephew Giovanni II. Died of natural causes in 1463.
Giovanni II Bentivoglio
1 October 1463
2 November 1506
Son of Annibale I. He tried to maintain peace with ambitious neighbourhoods Medici, Sforza and the Holy See. Became a vassal of Cesare Borgia in 1501. After internal turmoils, he fled from Bologna in 1506, who was conquered by Pope Julius II. Died in Milan two years later.
Annibale II Bentivoglio
May 1511
May 1512
Son of Giovanni II. Restored by French forces during the League of Cambrai. Exiled again after French defeat. Came to agreement with Papacy in 1529, he obtained family's properties return and retired any claim over Bologna. Died in 1540 in Ferrara.
Other notable family members
Ercole Bentivoglio, the putative father of Sante I who lived in exile in Florence and Ferrara, wrote a long poem on dietetic, greatly extolling the medical properties of cheese. He also wrote satirical works.
The Bentivoglio Family, expelled from Bologna in 1506, established themselves in Ferrara, where they produced some important prelates, such as:
Cardinal Guido Bentivoglio (1579–1644), though a disciple of Galileo, was one of the Inquisitors-General who signed his condemnation. Papal diplomat and historian of the Flanders War in his work Della Guerra di Fiandra.
Cardinal Cornelio Bentivoglio (1668–1732).
The third son of Giovanni II, Alessandro Bentivoglio, who had married Ippolita Sforza, became a counselor of the last duke of Milan and later governor of the town (1525), giving origin to a lombard branch of the family.
A notable recent member of the family is Galeazzo Benti, originally Galeazzo Bentivoglio, 20th century actor.
Power base
The Church of San Giacomo Maggiore, originally built in the mid-13th century, was adopted in the 15th century by the Bentivoglio family as the center of their power base in the surrounding neighborhood, and they embellished the church accordingly. It included the tomb of Anton Galeazzo Bentivoglio by Jacopo della Quercia and the Bentivoglio family's own private chapel, the altar of which has some striking artwork by Lorenzo Costa depicting family victories over other Bolognese dynasties.
References
^ "Daga a cinquedea con stemma Bentivoglio". Musei Civici d'Arte Antica. Archived from the original on 2018-12-15. Retrieved 2018-12-12.
^ a b Weber, Nicholas Aloysius (1907). "Family of Bentivoglio" . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 2. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
^ Treccani (ed.). entivòglio, Giovanni I.
^ Treccani (ed.). Bentivòglio, Anton Galeazzo.
^ De Caro, Gaspare (1966). Treccani (ed.). BENTIVOGLIO, Annibale. Vol. 8. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
^ Benti, Ottavio (1966). Treccani (ed.). BENTIVOGLIO, Sante. Vol. 8. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
^ De Caro, Gaspare (1966). Treccani (ed.). BENTIVOGLIO, Giovanni. Vol. 8. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
^ Treccani (ed.). Bentivòglio, Annibale II.
Sources
Ady, C.M. (1937). The Bentivoglio of Bologna: A Study in Dispotism. Oxford.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
Rendina, Claudio (1998). I capitani di ventura. Rome: Newton Compton.
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Originally from the castle of that name in the neighborhood of Bologna, the family claimed descent from Enzio, King of Sardinia, an illegitimate son of Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor.[2]During the fourteenth century, the family, belonging to one of the worker's guilds at Bologna,[2] had gained power as pro-papist Guelph leaders in the fourteenth century. Amid the faction-conflicts of the commune, on 14 March 1401, Giovanni I Bentivoglio, with the help of Gian Galeazzo Visconti, declared himself signore and Gonfaloniere di Giustizia. The Visconti however soured on Giovanni, and he was defeated and killed on 26 June 1402 at the Battle of Casalecchio and was interred in the church of San Giacomo Maggiore.During the next few decades, the city's political status -and the family's fortunes- remained unpredictable. The son of Giovanni I, Anton Galeazzo (or Antongaleazzo, c. 1385–1435), was a lecturer in civil law who briefly assumed power in Bologna in 1420, but was quickly overthrown. He became a condottiero, and was assassinated by papal officials on 23 December 1435 due to fears over his growing power (he had returned to Bologna in December). During his reign the Bentivoglio received the fief of Castel Bolognese.In 1438 Annibale I, a putative son of Anton Galeazzo (his mother, Lina Canigiani, was said to be uncertain of the boy's paternity and the matter was decided by dice)[1], led a city revolt against the Papacy. He tried to make peace with the Visconti of Milan and to convince the Pope not to place Bologna under papal dominion. In 1442, the Visconti condottiere Niccolò Piccinino imprisoned Annibale and his supporters at Varano, but Annibale was freed by Galeazzo Marescotti in 1442. When Annibale returned to Bologna, the powers of government were conferred to him, a sign that the city recognized the family's political importance. However, on 24 June 1445, with the support of Pope Eugene IV, Battista Canneschi, succeeded in assassinating his rival Annibale.Annibale was succeeded by Sante I (1426–1463). Sante was also of dubious paternity and origin, but alleged to be a son of Ercole Bentivoglio, a cousin of Annibale I. Originally an apprentice of the wool guild of Florence, Sante ruled as signore of Bologna from 1442. Sponsored by Cosimo de' Medici, Sante Bentivoglio ushered in a brief period of political tranquility. Always technically under papal sovereignty, the city obtained some actual autonomy and recreated a regime of the feudal type, with a communal senate composed of the landowning nobility, the new rich, and the papal nobility. Bologna also strengthened its relations with Venice, Milan, and Florence.Sante was succeeded by Giovanni II (1443–1508), the son of Annibale I, who ruled as virtual tyrant of Bologna. In 1506, the noble Bentivoglio family was brought to ruin by Pope Julius II when he expelled Giovanni II from Bologna.A son of Giovanni II, Annibale II (1469–1540), married Lucrezia d'Este, an illegitimate daughter of Duke Ercole I of Ferrara, in 1487. He served as a condottiero. During a rebellion in 1511 against Julius II, Annibale II with the help of the French took control o Bologna, but he was able to rule for only a year. He was hated by other rival families, such as the Ghislieri and the Canetoli, and was subsequently assassinated. Annibale II was the last ruler of his line. In exile, the Bentivoglio family established themselves in Ferrara and produced several notable prelates.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Rulers of Bologna"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"dietetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dietetic"},{"link_name":"Ferrara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrara"},{"link_name":"Guido Bentivoglio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guido_Bentivoglio"},{"link_name":"Galileo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo"},{"link_name":"Flanders War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_Revolt"},{"link_name":"Cornelio Bentivoglio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornelio_Bentivoglio"},{"link_name":"Giovanni II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_II_Bentivoglio"},{"link_name":"Alessandro Bentivoglio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alessandro_Bentivoglio&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Ippolita Sforza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ippolita_Sforza"},{"link_name":"Galeazzo Benti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galeazzo_Benti"}],"text":"Ercole Bentivoglio, the putative father of Sante I who lived in exile in Florence and Ferrara, wrote a long poem on dietetic, greatly extolling the medical properties of cheese. He also wrote satirical works.The Bentivoglio Family, expelled from Bologna in 1506, established themselves in Ferrara, where they produced some important prelates, such as:Cardinal Guido Bentivoglio (1579–1644), though a disciple of Galileo, was one of the Inquisitors-General who signed his condemnation. Papal diplomat and historian of the Flanders War in his work Della Guerra di Fiandra.\nCardinal Cornelio Bentivoglio (1668–1732).The third son of Giovanni II, Alessandro Bentivoglio, who had married Ippolita Sforza, became a counselor of the last duke of Milan and later governor of the town (1525), giving origin to a lombard branch of the family.A notable recent member of the family is Galeazzo Benti, originally Galeazzo Bentivoglio, 20th century actor.","title":"Other notable family members"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"San Giacomo Maggiore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Giacomo_Maggiore"},{"link_name":"Jacopo della Quercia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacopo_della_Quercia"},{"link_name":"Lorenzo Costa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorenzo_Costa"}],"text":"The Church of San Giacomo Maggiore, originally built in the mid-13th century, was adopted in the 15th century by the Bentivoglio family as the center of their power base in the surrounding neighborhood, and they embellished the church accordingly. It included the tomb of Anton Galeazzo Bentivoglio by Jacopo della Quercia and the Bentivoglio family's own private chapel, the altar of which has some striking artwork by Lorenzo Costa depicting family victories over other Bolognese dynasties.","title":"Power base"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cite book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book"},{"link_name":"link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Royal_houses_of_Italy"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Royal_houses_of_Italy"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Royal_houses_of_Italy"},{"link_name":"Royal houses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynasty"},{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_Italy"},{"link_name":"Aleramici","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleramici"},{"link_name":"Anjou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capetian_House_of_Anjou"},{"link_name":"Antelminelli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Antelminelli"},{"link_name":"Appiani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appiani_family"},{"link_name":"Anscarids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anscarids"},{"link_name":"Barcelona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Barcelona"},{"link_name":"Bentivoglio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Bonaparte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Bonaparte"},{"link_name":"Borgia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Borgia"},{"link_name":"Bourbon-Parma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Bourbon-Parma"},{"link_name":"Bourbon-Two Sicilies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Bourbon-Two_Sicilies"},{"link_name":"Carolingian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolingian_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Della Rovere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Della_Rovere"},{"link_name":"Della Torre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Della_Torre"},{"link_name":"Doria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doria_(family)"},{"link_name":"Este","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Este"},{"link_name":"Farnese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Farnese"},{"link_name":"Fieschi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fieschi_family"},{"link_name":"Fregoso","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fregoso"},{"link_name":"Gonzaga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Gonzaga"},{"link_name":"Grimaldi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Grimaldi"},{"link_name":"Habsburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Habsburg"},{"link_name":"Habsburg-Lorraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Habsburg-Lorraine"},{"link_name":"Hauteville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hauteville_family"},{"link_name":"Hohenstaufen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hohenstaufen"},{"link_name":"Imperiali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperiali_family"},{"link_name":"Malatesta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Malatesta"},{"link_name":"Malaspina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaspina_family"},{"link_name":"Medici","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Medici"},{"link_name":"Montefeltro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Montefeltro"},{"link_name":"Murat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Murat"},{"link_name":"Ordelaffi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Ordelaffi"},{"link_name":"Palaiologos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palaiologos#Montferrat_cadet_branch"},{"link_name":"Pallavicini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pallavicini_family"},{"link_name":"Savoy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Savoy"},{"link_name":"Sforza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Sforza"},{"link_name":"Trastámara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Trast%C3%A1mara"},{"link_name":"Valois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Valois"},{"link_name":"Visconti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visconti_of_Milan"},{"link_name":"Authority control databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2365088#identifiers"},{"link_name":"VIAF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//viaf.org/viaf/40175649"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//d-nb.info/gnd/118850644"},{"link_name":"Italian People","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/bentivoglio_(Dizionario-Biografico)"}],"text":"Ady, C.M. (1937). The Bentivoglio of Bologna: A Study in Dispotism. Oxford.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)\nRendina, Claudio (1998). I capitani di ventura. Rome: Newton Compton.vteRoyal houses of Italy\nAleramici\nAnjou\nAntelminelli\nAppiani\nAnscarids\nBarcelona\nBentivoglio\nBonaparte\nBorgia\nBourbon-Parma\nBourbon-Two Sicilies\nCarolingian\nDella Rovere\nDella Torre\nDoria\nEste\nFarnese\nFieschi\nFregoso\nGonzaga\nGrimaldi\nHabsburg\nHabsburg-Lorraine\nHauteville\nHohenstaufen\nImperiali\nMalatesta\nMalaspina\nMedici\nMontefeltro\nMurat\nOrdelaffi\nPalaiologos\nPallavicini\nSavoy\nSforza\nTrastámara\nValois\nViscontiAuthority control databases International\nVIAF\nNational\nGermany\nPeople\nItalian People","title":"Sources"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harley_Street
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Harley Street
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["1 Overview","2 Land ownership","3 Notable occupants","4 Fictional references","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]
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Coordinates: 51°31′14″N 0°08′52″W / 51.5206°N 0.1477°W / 51.5206; -0.1477Street in Marylebone, London
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For the motorcycle, see Harley-Davidson Street. For the TV series, see Harley Street (TV series).
Harley Street sign
Harley Street from junction with Wigmore Street
Harley Street 2011
One of many doorbells at consulting rooms
Letter to an early Harley Street resident, 1771
Harley Street is a street in Marylebone, Central London, named after Edward Harley, 2nd Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer. Since the 19th century it has housed a large number of private specialists in medicine and surgery.
Overview
Since the 19th century, the number of doctors, hospitals, and medical organisations in and around Harley Street has greatly increased. Records show that there were around 20 doctors in 1860, 80 by 1900, and almost 200 by 1914. When the National Health Service was established in 1948, there were around 1,500. Today, there are more than 3,000 people employed in the Harley Street area, in clinics, medical and paramedical practices, and hospitals.
The nearest London Underground stations are Regent's Park, Great Portland Street and Oxford Circus.
Land ownership
Harley Street is part of the Howard de Walden Estate.
Notable occupants
Many famous people have lived or practised in Harley Street, including the Victorian Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone, the artist J. M. W. Turner, and the speech therapist Lionel Logue. Queen's College, founded in 1848 and one of the oldest girls' schools in England, is situated on Harley Street.
Sir William Beechey (Portrait painter) lived at No.13.
George Frederick Bodley (Greek Revival Architect) lived at No.109 from 1862 to 1873. Blue Plaque.
Mary Everest Boole, self-taught mathematician, and widow of George Boole, lived at No.68 in 1865 following the death of her husband.
Wilkie Collins, author of The Woman in White and The Moonstone, lived at No. 12 (later renumbered No. 26) with Caroline Graves from 1860 to 1864.
Sir Grantly Dick-Read (Obstetrician) lived and had his practice at No.25. Green Plaque.
Sir Stewart Duke-Elder (Ophthalmologist) lived & worked at No.63. Blue Plaque.
Sir James Galloway (1862–1922), dermatologist, practised at No. 54
Harriet Harman MP KC, Labour politician, born at 108 Harley Street.
William Henry Giles Kingston, Victorian author of boys' adventure novels, was born on Harley Street, 28 February 1814.
John Langdon Down moved in 1881 with his medical practice from 47 Welbeck Street to 81 Harley Street.
Lionel Logue (Speech therapist), from Australia, had his practice at No.146. He helped King George VI overcome his stammer with lessons here. There is a Green Plaque.
Sir Charles Lyell (lawyer, author and geologist). Lived at No.11 (which is now No.73).
Sir Morell Mackenzie, the 'Father of British Laryngology' lived in 19, Harley Street till his death. Involved in the great controversy while treating the German Crown Prince Fredrick III, the Son-in-law of Her Majesty Queen Victoria for his laryngeal disease, allegedly cancer of the left vocal cord which led to the demise of the Emperor in 1888.
Stafford Northcote, 1st Earl of Iddesleigh (British Politician, Conservative Chancellor of the Exchequer) lived at No.86.
Allan Ramsay (Portrait painter) lived at No.67.
Sir Harold Ridley (Pioneering Ophthalmologist). Lived at No.53.
John St. John Long, a famous quack, practised in Harley Street from 1827 to 1834.
J. M. W. Turner (Landscape painter) lived at No.64 from 1799 to 1805.
Sir Arthur Wellesley, the future Duke of Wellington , had his first London residence in Harley Street.
Charles Wilson, 1st Baron Moran, who was Winston Churchill's personal physician, had a private practice at No. 29 during the 1920s and 1930s.
Isabel Thorne member of the Edinburgh Seven lived at 148, Harley Street, London.
Mary Scharlieb, Dame and pioneer woman doctor had a medical practice and lived at 149 Harley Street, London.
Fictional references
In Jane Austen's Sense and Sensibility (1813), the Dashwood sisters, Lucy Steele, Mrs Jennings, Edward Ferrars, and others spend some of their free time there while in London.
In Elizabeth Gaskell's North and South (Gaskell novel) (1854-55), Margaret Hale lived with her aunt Mrs. Shaw and cousin Edith in a house on Harley Street for nine years, before she moved with her parents to the fictional northern town of Milton.
In Virginia Woolf's Mrs. Dalloway (1925), medical professional Sir William Bradshaw lives on Harley Street.
P.G. Wodehouse's Sir Roderick Glossop, the “nerve specialist", was said to maintain a practice on Harley Street.
Dr. Janet of Harley Street is a novel about a woman doctor published in 1894 by Dr. Arabella Kenealy.
In Agatha Christie’s The Secret of Chimneys (1925), Lord Caterham ruefully mentions that his doctor advised him to “avoid all worry. So easy for a man sitting in his consulting room in Harley Street to say that.” Earlier in the book, a surgeon in Harley Street is mentioned among names listed in a phone book. Agatha Christie's Death in the Clouds (1935), ‘’The Hollow’’ (1946), and And Then There Were None (1939) include characters who are Harley Street physicians. In Agatha Christie's Crooked House (1949), Edith de Haviland visits Harley Street.
In Henry James' "The Turn of the Screw" (1898), the wealthy uncle at the beginning of the work apparently has a house on Harley Street.
In the movie The Revenge of Frankenstein, Dr Victor Frankenstein aka Dr Franck after his brain transplant begins his medical practice on Harley Street W.
In John Banville's The Untouchable, Victor Maskell visits his doctor and is told "I should have thought you had died already, in a way." ... which is "not the kind of thing you expect to hear from a Harley Street consultant, is it."
In Eoin Colfer's novel Artemis Fowl and the Eternity Code, the title character rents a cryogenic pod from a facility off Harley Street.
In Downton Abbey (2011), a fictional obstetrician with a practice on Harley Street Sir Philip Tapsell is hired by Lord Grantham to deliver the baby of his daughter Lady Sybil. When another physician Dr. Clarkson notices signs of preeclampsia, Sir Tapsell and Lord Grantham ignore his warnings and suggestion to perform a Caesarean section. When Lady Sybil dies of eclampsia, Lady Grantham blames her husband for valuing Sir Philip Tapsell's reputation over Dr. Clarkson warnings stating, "And you believed him, when Dr. Clarkson knew Sybil's history and he did not. You believed Tapsell, because he's knighted and fashionable and has a practice in Harley Street. You let all that nonsense weight against saving our daughter's life!"
In Hilary Mantel's short story Harley Street (2014), from her bundle The Assassination of Margaret Thatcher, features the street and its many doctors offering services to rich clientele, to the backdrop of a vampire story. Each of the doctors have been given funny names to represent their expertise. "When the doctors scuffed in and out, I could hear their Lobbs scraping the carpets. I could hear Gland's wheezing and puffing; the snarls of her patients, and the sobs of the patients of Smear, as he pushed in with his cold speculum, while Mrs Bathurst stood by. I heard the whine and grind of Snapper's drill, and the chink of steel instruments against steel dishes."
In Richard Osman's The Bullet That Missed (2022): "Now the door opens, and Fiona Clemence pops her head around it. That auburn hair, so famous from the shampoo adverts, the full smile, so famous from the toothpaste adverts, and the cheekbones honed by genetics and Harley Street."
See also
List of eponymous roads in London
Macquarie Street, Sydney
Rodney Street, the Harley Street of the North, in Liverpool
Welbeck Street
Wimpole Street
Weymouth Street Hospital
References
^ "Harley Street" in Christopher Hibbert; Ben Weinreb; John Keay; Julia Keay. (2008). The London Encyclopaedia (3rd ed.). London: Macmillan. p. 384. ISBN 978-0-230-73878-2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ "Street stories - Harley Street". www.marylebonevillage.com. Archived from the original on 28 September 2017. Retrieved 27 September 2017.
^ a b Henry Benjamin Wheatley; Peter Cunningham (24 February 2011). London Past and Present: Its History, Associations, and Traditions. Cambridge University Press. pp. 192–. ISBN 978-1-108-02807-3.
^ Registry of Deeds, Dublin. Memorial: 1865-030-121. Registered: 20/10/1865. Memorial of a certain Deed of Assignment bearing date the Twenty first day of August one thousand eight hundred and sixty five and made between Mary Boole of 68 Harley Street, London, Widow and Executrix of the Last Will and Testament of George Boole late of Litchfield Cottage Blackrock in the County of Cork Esquire...
^ "Wilkie Collins in Harley Street". www.wilkie-collins.info. Retrieved 15 May 2021.
^ a b David J. Apple (2006). Sir Harold Ridley and His Fight for Sight: He Changed the World So that We May Better See it. SLACK Incorporated. pp. 50–. ISBN 978-1-55642-786-2.
^ Modern English Biography: Containing Many Thousand Concise Memoirs of Persons who Have Died Between the Years 1851-1900
^ "Historical plaques about Lionel Logue Open Plaques".
^ "Sir Charles Lyell Facts, information, pictures - Encyclopedia.com articles about Sir Charles Lyell".
^ G. Androustos. Illness and Death of the Kaizer Fredrick III (!832-1888), The tremendous impact on politics. Journal of BUON 7: 389-395, 2002
^ Christopher Hibbert; John Keay; Julia Keay (23 March 2010). The London Encyclopaedia. Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4050-4925-2.
^ "The Turner Society".
^ Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Volume 59. Oxford University Press. 2004. p. 503. ISBN 0-19-861409-8.
^ Banville, John (1997). The Untouchable (1st Vintage International ed.). Random House. p. 168. ISBN 0-679-76747-9.
External links
George Harley, doctor/3230 at Who Named It?
51°31′14″N 0°08′52″W / 51.5206°N 0.1477°W / 51.5206; -0.1477
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For the TV series, see Harley Street (TV series).Harley Street signHarley Street from junction with Wigmore StreetHarley Street 2011One of many doorbells at consulting roomsLetter to an early Harley Street resident, 1771Harley Street is a street in Marylebone, Central London, named after Edward Harley, 2nd Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer.[1] Since the 19th century it has housed a large number of private specialists in medicine and surgery.[2]","title":"Harley Street"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"National Health Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Health_Service"},{"link_name":"London Underground","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Underground"},{"link_name":"Regent's Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regent%27s_Park_tube_station"},{"link_name":"Great Portland Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Portland_Street_tube_station"},{"link_name":"Oxford Circus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_Circus_tube_station"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Since the 19th century, the number of doctors, hospitals, and medical organisations in and around Harley Street has greatly increased. Records show that there were around 20 doctors in 1860, 80 by 1900, and almost 200 by 1914. When the National Health Service was established in 1948, there were around 1,500. Today, there are more than 3,000 people employed in the Harley Street area, in clinics, medical and paramedical practices, and hospitals.The nearest London Underground stations are Regent's Park, Great Portland Street and Oxford Circus.[citation needed]","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Howard de Walden Estate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_de_Walden_Estate"}],"text":"Harley Street is part of the Howard de Walden Estate.","title":"Land ownership"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"William Ewart Gladstone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Ewart_Gladstone"},{"link_name":"J. M. W. Turner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._M._W._Turner"},{"link_name":"Lionel Logue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lionel_Logue"},{"link_name":"Queen's College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen%27s_College,_London"},{"link_name":"Sir William Beechey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Beechey"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WheatleyCunningham2011-3"},{"link_name":"George Frederick Bodley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Frederick_Bodley"},{"link_name":"Mary Everest Boole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Everest_Boole"},{"link_name":"George Boole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Boole"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Wilkie Collins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilkie_Collins"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Sir Grantly Dick-Read","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grantly_Dick-Read"},{"link_name":"Green Plaque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_plaque"},{"link_name":"Sir Stewart Duke-Elder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stewart_Duke-Elder"},{"link_name":"Blue Plaque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Plaque"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Apple2006-6"},{"link_name":"Sir James Galloway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Galloway_(physician)"},{"link_name":"Harriet Harman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harriet_Harman"},{"link_name":"William Henry Giles Kingston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Henry_Giles_Kingston"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"John Langdon Down","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Langdon_Down"},{"link_name":"Lionel Logue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lionel_Logue"},{"link_name":"King George VI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_George_VI"},{"link_name":"stammer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuttering"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Sir Charles Lyell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Lyell"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Sir Morell Mackenzie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morell_Mackenzie"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Stafford Northcote, 1st Earl of Iddesleigh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stafford_Northcote,_1st_Earl_of_Iddesleigh"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WheatleyCunningham2011-3"},{"link_name":"Allan Ramsay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allan_Ramsay_(artist)"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HibbertKeay2010-11"},{"link_name":"Sir Harold Ridley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Ridley_(ophthalmologist)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Apple2006-6"},{"link_name":"John St. John Long","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_St._John_Long"},{"link_name":"quack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quackery"},{"link_name":"J. M. W. Turner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._M._W._Turner"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Sir Arthur Wellesley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Wellesley,_1st_Duke_of_Wellington"},{"link_name":"Charles Wilson, 1st Baron Moran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Wilson,_1st_Baron_Moran"},{"link_name":"Winston Churchill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winston_Churchill"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-odnb-13"},{"link_name":"Isabel Thorne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isabel_Thorne"},{"link_name":"Edinburgh Seven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edinburgh_Seven"},{"link_name":"Mary Scharlieb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Scharlieb"}],"text":"Many famous people have lived or practised in Harley Street, including the Victorian Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone, the artist J. M. W. Turner, and the speech therapist Lionel Logue. Queen's College, founded in 1848 and one of the oldest girls' schools in England, is situated on Harley Street.Sir William Beechey (Portrait painter) lived at No.13.[3]\nGeorge Frederick Bodley (Greek Revival Architect) lived at No.109 from 1862 to 1873. Blue Plaque.\nMary Everest Boole, self-taught mathematician, and widow of George Boole, lived at No.68 in 1865 following the death of her husband.[4]\nWilkie Collins, author of The Woman in White and The Moonstone, lived at No. 12 (later renumbered No. 26) with Caroline Graves from 1860 to 1864.[5]\nSir Grantly Dick-Read (Obstetrician) lived and had his practice at No.25. Green Plaque.\nSir Stewart Duke-Elder (Ophthalmologist) lived & worked at No.63. Blue Plaque.[6]\nSir James Galloway (1862–1922), dermatologist, practised at No. 54\nHarriet Harman MP KC, Labour politician, born at 108 Harley Street.\nWilliam Henry Giles Kingston, Victorian author of boys' adventure novels, was born on Harley Street, 28 February 1814.[7]\nJohn Langdon Down moved in 1881 with his medical practice from 47 Welbeck Street to 81 Harley Street.\nLionel Logue (Speech therapist), from Australia, had his practice at No.146. He helped King George VI overcome his stammer with lessons here. There is a Green Plaque.[8]\nSir Charles Lyell (lawyer, author and geologist). Lived at No.11 (which is now No.73).[9]\nSir Morell Mackenzie, the 'Father of British Laryngology' lived in 19, Harley Street till his death. Involved in the great controversy while treating the German Crown Prince Fredrick III, the Son-in-law of Her Majesty Queen Victoria for his laryngeal disease, allegedly cancer of the left vocal cord which led to the demise of the Emperor in 1888.[10]\nStafford Northcote, 1st Earl of Iddesleigh (British Politician, Conservative Chancellor of the Exchequer) lived at No.86.[3]\nAllan Ramsay (Portrait painter) lived at No.67.[11]\nSir Harold Ridley (Pioneering Ophthalmologist). Lived at No.53.[6]\nJohn St. John Long, a famous quack, practised in Harley Street from 1827 to 1834.\nJ. M. W. Turner (Landscape painter) lived at No.64 from 1799 to 1805.[12]\nSir Arthur Wellesley, the future Duke of Wellington , had his first London residence in Harley Street.\nCharles Wilson, 1st Baron Moran, who was Winston Churchill's personal physician, had a private practice at No. 29 during the 1920s and 1930s.[13]\nIsabel Thorne member of the Edinburgh Seven lived at 148, Harley Street, London.\nMary Scharlieb, Dame and pioneer woman doctor had a medical practice and lived at 149 Harley Street, London.","title":"Notable occupants"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jane Austen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Austen"},{"link_name":"Sense and Sensibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense_and_Sensibility"},{"link_name":"Elizabeth Gaskell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Gaskell"},{"link_name":"North and South (Gaskell novel)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_and_South_(Gaskell_novel)"},{"link_name":"Virginia Woolf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia_Woolf"},{"link_name":"Mrs. Dalloway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mrs._Dalloway"},{"link_name":"P.G. Wodehouse's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P.G._Wodehouse"},{"link_name":"Arabella Kenealy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabella_Kenealy"},{"link_name":"Agatha Christie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agatha_Christie"},{"link_name":"The Secret of Chimneys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Secret_of_Chimneys"},{"link_name":"Death in the Clouds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_in_the_Clouds"},{"link_name":"The Hollow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hollow"},{"link_name":"And Then There Were None","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/And_Then_There_Were_None"},{"link_name":"Crooked House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crooked_House"},{"link_name":"The Turn of the Screw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Turn_of_the_Screw"},{"link_name":"The Revenge of Frankenstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Revenge_of_Frankenstein"},{"link_name":"John Banville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Banville"},{"link_name":"The Untouchable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Untouchable_(novel)"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Eoin Colfer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eoin_Colfer"},{"link_name":"Artemis Fowl and the Eternity Code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artemis_Fowl_and_the_Eternity_Code"},{"link_name":"Downton Abbey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downton_Abbey"},{"link_name":"Hilary Mantel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilary_Mantel"},{"link_name":"The Assassination of Margaret Thatcher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Assassination_of_Margaret_Thatcher"},{"link_name":"Richard Osman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Osman"},{"link_name":"The Bullet That Missed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bullet_That_Missed"}],"text":"In Jane Austen's Sense and Sensibility (1813), the Dashwood sisters, Lucy Steele, Mrs Jennings, Edward Ferrars, and others spend some of their free time there while in London.In Elizabeth Gaskell's North and South (Gaskell novel) (1854-55), Margaret Hale lived with her aunt Mrs. Shaw and cousin Edith in a house on Harley Street for nine years, before she moved with her parents to the fictional northern town of Milton.In Virginia Woolf's Mrs. Dalloway (1925), medical professional Sir William Bradshaw lives on Harley Street.P.G. Wodehouse's Sir Roderick Glossop, the “nerve specialist\", was said to maintain a practice on Harley Street.Dr. Janet of Harley Street is a novel about a woman doctor published in 1894 by Dr. Arabella Kenealy.In Agatha Christie’s The Secret of Chimneys (1925), Lord Caterham ruefully mentions that his doctor advised him to “avoid all worry. So easy for a man sitting in his consulting room in Harley Street to say that.” Earlier in the book, a surgeon in Harley Street is mentioned among names listed in a phone book. Agatha Christie's Death in the Clouds (1935), ‘’The Hollow’’ (1946), and And Then There Were None (1939) include characters who are Harley Street physicians. In Agatha Christie's Crooked House (1949), Edith de Haviland visits Harley Street.In Henry James' \"The Turn of the Screw\" (1898), the wealthy uncle at the beginning of the work apparently has a house on Harley Street.In the movie The Revenge of Frankenstein, Dr Victor Frankenstein aka Dr Franck after his brain transplant begins his medical practice on Harley Street W.In John Banville's The Untouchable,[14] Victor Maskell visits his doctor and is told \"I should have thought you had died already, in a way.\" ... which is \"not the kind of thing you expect to hear from a Harley Street consultant, is it.\"In Eoin Colfer's novel Artemis Fowl and the Eternity Code, the title character rents a cryogenic pod from a facility off Harley Street.In Downton Abbey (2011), a fictional obstetrician with a practice on Harley Street Sir Philip Tapsell is hired by Lord Grantham to deliver the baby of his daughter Lady Sybil. When another physician Dr. Clarkson notices signs of preeclampsia, Sir Tapsell and Lord Grantham ignore his warnings and suggestion to perform a Caesarean section. When Lady Sybil dies of eclampsia, Lady Grantham blames her husband for valuing Sir Philip Tapsell's reputation over Dr. Clarkson warnings stating, \"And you believed him, when Dr. Clarkson knew Sybil's history and he did not. You believed Tapsell, because he's knighted and fashionable and has a practice in Harley Street. You let all that nonsense weight against saving our daughter's life!\"In Hilary Mantel's short story Harley Street (2014), from her bundle The Assassination of Margaret Thatcher, features the street and its many doctors offering services to rich clientele, to the backdrop of a vampire story. Each of the doctors have been given funny names to represent their expertise. \"When the doctors scuffed in and out, I could hear their Lobbs scraping the carpets. I could hear Gland's wheezing and puffing; the snarls of her patients, and the sobs of the patients of Smear, as he pushed in with his cold speculum, while Mrs Bathurst stood by. I heard the whine and grind of Snapper's drill, and the chink of steel instruments against steel dishes.\"In Richard Osman's The Bullet That Missed (2022): \"Now the door opens, and Fiona Clemence pops her head around it. That auburn hair, so famous from the shampoo adverts, the full smile, so famous from the toothpaste adverts, and the cheekbones honed by genetics and Harley Street.\"","title":"Fictional references"}]
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[{"image_text":"Harley Street sign","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/HarleyStreetSign.JPG/220px-HarleyStreetSign.JPG"},{"image_text":"Harley Street from junction with Wigmore Street","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Harley_and_Wigmore_Street.jpg/220px-Harley_and_Wigmore_Street.jpg"},{"image_text":"Harley Street 2011","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Harley_Street_2011.jpg/220px-Harley_Street_2011.jpg"},{"image_text":"One of many doorbells at consulting rooms","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Patients_Visitors_Bell_Harley_St.jpg/220px-Patients_Visitors_Bell_Harley_St.jpg"},{"image_text":"Letter to an early Harley Street resident, 1771","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/LetterfromCharlesdeSalis.jpg/220px-LetterfromCharlesdeSalis.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"List of eponymous roads in London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_eponymous_roads_in_London"},{"title":"Macquarie Street, Sydney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macquarie_Street,_Sydney"},{"title":"Rodney Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodney_Street,_Liverpool"},{"title":"Liverpool","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liverpool"},{"title":"Welbeck Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welbeck_Street"},{"title":"Wimpole Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wimpole_Street"},{"title":"Weymouth Street Hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weymouth_Street_Hospital"}]
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[{"reference":"Christopher Hibbert; Ben Weinreb; John Keay; Julia Keay. (2008). The London Encyclopaedia (3rd ed.). London: Macmillan. p. 384. ISBN 978-0-230-73878-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Hibbert","url_text":"Christopher Hibbert"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Weinreb","url_text":"Ben Weinreb"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_London_Encyclopaedia","url_text":"The London Encyclopaedia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-73878-2","url_text":"978-0-230-73878-2"}]},{"reference":"\"Street stories - Harley Street\". www.marylebonevillage.com. Archived from the original on 28 September 2017. Retrieved 27 September 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170928060615/http://www.marylebonevillage.com/marylebone-journal/street-stories---harley-street","url_text":"\"Street stories - Harley Street\""},{"url":"http://www.marylebonevillage.com/marylebone-journal/street-stories---harley-street","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Henry Benjamin Wheatley; Peter Cunningham (24 February 2011). London Past and Present: Its History, Associations, and Traditions. Cambridge University Press. pp. 192–. ISBN 978-1-108-02807-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=iwOT78ZYXhAC&pg=PA192","url_text":"London Past and Present: Its History, Associations, and Traditions"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-02807-3","url_text":"978-1-108-02807-3"}]},{"reference":"\"Wilkie Collins in Harley Street\". www.wilkie-collins.info. Retrieved 15 May 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wilkie-collins.info/home_harley_st.htm","url_text":"\"Wilkie Collins in Harley Street\""}]},{"reference":"David J. Apple (2006). Sir Harold Ridley and His Fight for Sight: He Changed the World So that We May Better See it. SLACK Incorporated. pp. 50–. ISBN 978-1-55642-786-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=tMVSVumHzHUC&pg=PA50","url_text":"Sir Harold Ridley and His Fight for Sight: He Changed the World So that We May Better See it"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55642-786-2","url_text":"978-1-55642-786-2"}]},{"reference":"\"Historical plaques about Lionel Logue Open Plaques\".","urls":[{"url":"http://openplaques.org/people/4187","url_text":"\"Historical plaques about Lionel Logue Open Plaques\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sir Charles Lyell Facts, information, pictures - Encyclopedia.com articles about Sir Charles Lyell\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Sir_Charles_Lyell.aspx","url_text":"\"Sir Charles Lyell Facts, information, pictures - Encyclopedia.com articles about Sir Charles Lyell\""}]},{"reference":"Christopher Hibbert; John Keay; Julia Keay (23 March 2010). The London Encyclopaedia. Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4050-4925-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=sAA9olZqPSMC","url_text":"The London Encyclopaedia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4050-4925-2","url_text":"978-1-4050-4925-2"}]},{"reference":"\"The Turner Society\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.turnersociety.org.uk/","url_text":"\"The Turner Society\""}]},{"reference":"Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Volume 59. Oxford University Press. 2004. p. 503. ISBN 0-19-861409-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-861409-8","url_text":"0-19-861409-8"}]},{"reference":"Banville, John (1997). The Untouchable (1st Vintage International ed.). Random House. p. 168. ISBN 0-679-76747-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/untouchable00banv","url_text":"The Untouchable"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/untouchable00banv/page/168","url_text":"168"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-679-76747-9","url_text":"0-679-76747-9"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Philharmonic
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BBC Philharmonic
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["1 History","2 Performances","3 Principal conductors","4 References","5 External links"]
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BBC symphony orchestra based in Manchester
BBC PhilharmonicOrchestraThe BBC Philharmonic LogoFormer name2ZY Orchestra (1926)Northern Wireless Orchestra (1926)Northern Studio Orchestra (1930)BBC Northern Orchestra (1934)BBC Northern Symphony Orchestra (1967)Founded1922; 102 years ago (1922)LocationSalford, United KingdomConcert hallBridgewater Hall, ManchesterPrincipal conductorJohn StorgårdsWebsiteOfficial website
The BBC Philharmonic is a national British broadcasting symphony orchestra and is one of five radio orchestras maintained by the British Broadcasting Corporation. The Philharmonic is a department of the BBC North Group division based at MediaCityUK, Salford. The orchestra's primary concert venue is the Bridgewater Hall, Manchester.
History
The 2ZY Orchestra was formed in 1922 for a Manchester radio station of the same name. It gave the first broadcast performances of many famous English works, including Elgar's Dream of Gerontius and Enigma Variations and Holst's The Planets. The orchestra was part-funded by the British Broadcasting Company (precursor of the BBC), and renamed the Northern Wireless Orchestra in 1926.
When the BBC Symphony Orchestra was established in London in 1930, the new Corporation cut its regional orchestras' funding. The Northern Wireless Orchestra was downsized to just nine players, and renamed the Northern Studio Orchestra.
Three years later, however, the BBC reversed its decision and maintained a full orchestra again – from 1934 it was called the BBC Northern Orchestra. This was the beginning of the orchestra in its present form. It rehearsed and broadcast from the Milton Hall, Deansgate, Manchester.
The orchestra played at its first Prom in 1961, and enjoyed popularity with performances at the Free Trade Hall, a venue it shared with the Hallé.
On 21 January 1967, the name of the orchestra was changed to the BBC Northern Symphony Orchestra. Following a labour dispute in 1980, the orchestra received a vote of confidence from the BBC in 1982. The BBC expanded the orchestra and changed its name to the BBC Philharmonic Orchestra, or the BBC Philharmonic for short.
The BBC Philharmonic at the Quincena Musical de San Sebastián in 2017
Yan Pascal Tortelier was principal conductor of the orchestra from 1992 to 2002, and now holds the title of conductor laureate. Gianandrea Noseda became principal conductor of the orchestra in September 2002. In October 2006, the orchestra changed Noseda's title to chief conductor, in conjunction with his contract extension through 2010. Noseda concluded his tenure as chief conductor in 2011 and now has the title of conductor laureate along with Tortelier. In July 2010, the orchestra announced the appointment of Juanjo Mena as its next chief conductor, effective with the 2011–2012 season, with an initial contract of three years. Vassily Sinaisky, principal guest conductor of the orchestra from 1996 through January 2012, now has the title of conductor emeritus with the orchestra. In March 2011, the orchestra announced the appointment of John Storgårds as its next principal guest conductor, effective January 2012. In January 2017, the orchestra announced the appointment of Ben Gernon as its next principal guest conductor, as of the autumn of 2017. In parallel, Storgårds took the title of chief guest conductor of the orchestra. Mena concluded his tenure as principal conductor in the summer of 2018.
In March 2018, Omer Meir Wellber first guest-conducted the orchestra. On the basis of this appearance, in October 2018, the orchestra announced the appointment of Wellber as its next chief conductor, effective with the 2019-2020 season, with an initial contract of 4 years. Following his withdrawal from his two scheduled 2022 Proms appearances, Wellber was no longer listed as affiliated with the BBC Philharmonic as of the summer of 2022. Gernon likewise stood down as the orchestra's principal guest conductor in 2022. In November 2022, the orchestra named Storgårds its next chief conductor, with immediate effect.
Since September 2007, the orchestra has been in a major partnership with Salford City Council, enabling the Orchestra to build active links with Salford and its communities. In 2011, the BBC Philharmonic moved to their new dedicated 6,400 sq ft (590 m2) studio at dock10 studios in Media City, Salford Quays, along with a number of other BBC departments that made the move.
Performances
Like all BBC performing groups, the orchestra contributes to the schedule of BBC Radio 3. Since 1996, most of the orchestra's live performances have been at the city's Bridgewater Hall, although it frequently tours the UK and internationally.
Whilst not having a formal "composer in residence", since 1991, the orchestra has appointed major composers to collaborate in programs of contemporary music, including Peter Maxwell Davies, James MacMillan, and HK Gruber. In more recent years, the orchestra has collaborated with BBC Radio 1 in producing orchestral performance with modern artists, including symphonies with bands Nero, The xx and The 1975.
The BBC Philharmonic has made over 150 recordings, including series of British film music, the music of George Enescu, and Stokowski's Bach transcriptions have been featured, all on the Chandos label.
Principal conductors
Charles Groves (1944–1951)
John Hopkins (1952–1957)
George Hurst (1958–1968)
Bryden Thomson (1968–1973)
Raymond Leppard (1973–1980)
Edward Downes (1980–1991)
Yan Pascal Tortelier (1992–2002)
Gianandrea Noseda (2002–2011)
Juanjo Mena (2011–2018)
Omer Meir Wellber (2019–2022)
John Storgårds (2022–present)
References
^ Chris Woodstra, Gerald Brennan, and Allen Schrott (editors), All Music Guide to Classical Music: The Definitive Guide to Classical Music. Backbeat Books (San Francisco, California, USA), ISBN 978-087930-865-0, p. 98 (2005).
^ David Ward (11 October 2006). "Noseda becomes chief conductor of BBC Philharmonic". The Guardian. Retrieved 8 July 2010.
^ "Juanjo Mena set to succeed Gianandrea Noseda in 2011" (Press release). BBC Philharmonic. 5 July 2010. Retrieved 8 July 2010.
^ "New Principal Guest Conductor Announced: John Storgårds to succeed Vassily Sinaisky in 2012" (Press release). BBC Philharmonic. 2 March 2011. Retrieved 19 March 2011.
^ Maria Roberts (31 January 2017). "BBC Philharmonic announces new principal guest conductor". International Arts Manager. Archived from the original on 19 February 2018. Retrieved 9 July 2010.
^ "Omer Meir Wellber appointed new Chief Conductor of BBC Philharmonic" (Press release). BBC Media Centre. 4 October 2018. Retrieved 6 October 2018.
^ Curtis Rogers (18 July 2022). "Prom 5: BBC Philharmonic – Juanjo Mena conducts Bruckner & Bach – Lawrence Power plays MacMillan's Viola Concerto". Classical Source. Retrieved 12 September 2022.
^ Keith McDonnell (24 July 2022). "At the 'Full Fourths' Prom, Sir Andrew Davis and the BBC Phil make the case for a Tippett rarity". Seen and Heard International. Retrieved 12 September 2022.
^ "John Storgårds appointed Chief Conductor of the BBC Philharmonic" (Press release). KD Schmid. 29 November 2022. Retrieved 1 December 2022.
^ Andrew Clements (27 February 2010). "This week's music previews". The Guardian. Retrieved 19 March 2011.
^ "BBC Radio Mixes - Artist Icons Collection, The 1975, The 1975: Live with the BBC Philharmonic". 13 May 2023. Archived from the original on 13 May 2023. Retrieved 21 May 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to BBC Philharmonic.
BBC portal
Official website of the BBC Philharmonic
Discography at Chandos
Discography at Naxos Archived 12 March 2007 at the Wayback Machine
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Authority control databases International
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"symphony orchestra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchestra"},{"link_name":"radio orchestras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_orchestra"},{"link_name":"British Broadcasting Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC"},{"link_name":"BBC North Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_North"},{"link_name":"MediaCityUK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MediaCityUK"},{"link_name":"Bridgewater Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridgewater_Hall"}],"text":"The BBC Philharmonic is a national British broadcasting symphony orchestra and is one of five radio orchestras maintained by the British Broadcasting Corporation. The Philharmonic is a department of the BBC North Group division based at MediaCityUK, Salford. The orchestra's primary concert venue is the Bridgewater Hall, Manchester.","title":"BBC Philharmonic"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"radio station of the same name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2ZY"},{"link_name":"English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England"},{"link_name":"Elgar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elgar"},{"link_name":"Dream of Gerontius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dream_of_Gerontius"},{"link_name":"Enigma Variations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enigma_Variations"},{"link_name":"Holst","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustav_Holst"},{"link_name":"The Planets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Planets"},{"link_name":"British Broadcasting Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC"},{"link_name":"BBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC"},{"link_name":"BBC Symphony Orchestra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Symphony_Orchestra"},{"link_name":"London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London"},{"link_name":"downsized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Layoff"},{"link_name":"Prom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Proms"},{"link_name":"Free Trade Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Trade_Hall"},{"link_name":"Hallé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hall%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BBC-_Orfe%C3%B3n_Donostiarra18_(35983752330).jpg"},{"link_name":"Yan Pascal Tortelier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yan_Pascal_Tortelier"},{"link_name":"Gianandrea Noseda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gianandrea_Noseda"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Juanjo Mena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juanjo_Mena"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Vassily Sinaisky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vassily_Sinaisky"},{"link_name":"John Storgårds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Storg%C3%A5rds"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Omer Meir Wellber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omer_Meir_Wellber"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Salford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_Salford"},{"link_name":"dock10 studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dock10_(television_facility)"},{"link_name":"Media City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MediaCityUK"},{"link_name":"Salford Quays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salford_Quays"}],"text":"The 2ZY Orchestra was formed in 1922 for a Manchester radio station of the same name. It gave the first broadcast performances of many famous English works, including Elgar's Dream of Gerontius and Enigma Variations and Holst's The Planets. The orchestra was part-funded by the British Broadcasting Company (precursor of the BBC), and renamed the Northern Wireless Orchestra in 1926.When the BBC Symphony Orchestra was established in London in 1930, the new Corporation cut its regional orchestras' funding. The Northern Wireless Orchestra was downsized to just nine players, and renamed the Northern Studio Orchestra.Three years later, however, the BBC reversed its decision and maintained a full orchestra again – from 1934 it was called the BBC Northern Orchestra. This was the beginning of the orchestra in its present form. It rehearsed and broadcast from the Milton Hall, Deansgate, Manchester.The orchestra played at its first Prom in 1961, and enjoyed popularity with performances at the Free Trade Hall, a venue it shared with the Hallé.On 21 January 1967, the name of the orchestra was changed to the BBC Northern Symphony Orchestra. Following a labour dispute in 1980, the orchestra received a vote of confidence from the BBC in 1982. The BBC expanded the orchestra and changed its name to the BBC Philharmonic Orchestra, or the BBC Philharmonic for short.[1]The BBC Philharmonic at the Quincena Musical de San Sebastián in 2017Yan Pascal Tortelier was principal conductor of the orchestra from 1992 to 2002, and now holds the title of conductor laureate. Gianandrea Noseda became principal conductor of the orchestra in September 2002. In October 2006, the orchestra changed Noseda's title to chief conductor, in conjunction with his contract extension through 2010.[2] Noseda concluded his tenure as chief conductor in 2011 and now has the title of conductor laureate along with Tortelier. In July 2010, the orchestra announced the appointment of Juanjo Mena as its next chief conductor, effective with the 2011–2012 season, with an initial contract of three years.[3] Vassily Sinaisky, principal guest conductor of the orchestra from 1996 through January 2012, now has the title of conductor emeritus with the orchestra. In March 2011, the orchestra announced the appointment of John Storgårds as its next principal guest conductor, effective January 2012.[4] In January 2017, the orchestra announced the appointment of Ben Gernon as its next principal guest conductor, as of the autumn of 2017. In parallel, Storgårds took the title of chief guest conductor of the orchestra. Mena concluded his tenure as principal conductor in the summer of 2018.[5]In March 2018, Omer Meir Wellber first guest-conducted the orchestra. On the basis of this appearance, in October 2018, the orchestra announced the appointment of Wellber as its next chief conductor, effective with the 2019-2020 season, with an initial contract of 4 years.[6] Following his withdrawal from his two scheduled 2022 Proms appearances,[7][8] Wellber was no longer listed as affiliated with the BBC Philharmonic as of the summer of 2022. Gernon likewise stood down as the orchestra's principal guest conductor in 2022. In November 2022, the orchestra named Storgårds its next chief conductor, with immediate effect.[9]Since September 2007, the orchestra has been in a major partnership with Salford City Council, enabling the Orchestra to build active links with Salford and its communities. In 2011, the BBC Philharmonic moved to their new dedicated 6,400 sq ft (590 m2) studio at dock10 studios in Media City, Salford Quays, along with a number of other BBC departments that made the move.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"BBC Radio 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Radio_3"},{"link_name":"Bridgewater Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridgewater_Hall"},{"link_name":"UK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Peter Maxwell Davies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Maxwell_Davies"},{"link_name":"James MacMillan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_MacMillan"},{"link_name":"HK Gruber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinz_Karl_Gruber"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"BBC Radio 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Radio_1"},{"link_name":"Nero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nero_(band)"},{"link_name":"The xx","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_xx"},{"link_name":"The 1975","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_1975"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"film music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_score"},{"link_name":"George Enescu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Enescu"},{"link_name":"Stokowski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold_Stokowski"},{"link_name":"Bach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Sebastian_Bach"},{"link_name":"transcriptions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcription_(music)"},{"link_name":"Chandos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandos_Records"}],"text":"Like all BBC performing groups, the orchestra contributes to the schedule of BBC Radio 3. Since 1996, most of the orchestra's live performances have been at the city's Bridgewater Hall, although it frequently tours the UK and internationally.Whilst not having a formal \"composer in residence\", since 1991, the orchestra has appointed major composers to collaborate in programs of contemporary music, including Peter Maxwell Davies, James MacMillan, and HK Gruber.[10] In more recent years, the orchestra has collaborated with BBC Radio 1 in producing orchestral performance with modern artists, including symphonies with bands Nero, The xx and The 1975.[11]The BBC Philharmonic has made over 150 recordings, including series of British film music, the music of George Enescu, and Stokowski's Bach transcriptions have been featured, all on the Chandos label.","title":"Performances"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Charles Groves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Groves"},{"link_name":"John Hopkins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hopkins_(conductor)"},{"link_name":"George Hurst","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Hurst_(conductor)"},{"link_name":"Bryden Thomson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryden_Thomson"},{"link_name":"Raymond Leppard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond_Leppard"},{"link_name":"Edward Downes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Downes"},{"link_name":"Yan Pascal Tortelier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yan_Pascal_Tortelier"},{"link_name":"Gianandrea Noseda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gianandrea_Noseda"},{"link_name":"Juanjo Mena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juanjo_Mena"},{"link_name":"Omer Meir Wellber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omer_Meir_Wellber"},{"link_name":"John Storgårds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Storg%C3%A5rds"}],"text":"Charles Groves (1944–1951)\nJohn Hopkins (1952–1957)\nGeorge Hurst (1958–1968)\nBryden Thomson (1968–1973)\nRaymond Leppard (1973–1980)\nEdward Downes (1980–1991)\nYan Pascal Tortelier (1992–2002)\nGianandrea Noseda (2002–2011)\nJuanjo Mena (2011–2018)\nOmer Meir Wellber (2019–2022)\nJohn Storgårds (2022–present)","title":"Principal conductors"}]
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[{"image_text":"The BBC Philharmonic at the Quincena Musical de San Sebastián in 2017","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/BBC-_Orfe%C3%B3n_Donostiarra18_%2835983752330%29.jpg/220px-BBC-_Orfe%C3%B3n_Donostiarra18_%2835983752330%29.jpg"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Supervisory_Authority_of_Norway
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Financial Supervisory Authority of Norway
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["1 History","2 See also","3 References","4 External links"]
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Financial Supervisory Authority of NorwayFinanstilsynetAgency overviewFormed1986TypeGovernment agencyJurisdictionNorwayHeadquarters Oslo, NorwayAgency executiveMorten Baltzersen, DirectorParent agencyNorwegian Ministry of FinanceWebsitehttp://www.finanstilsynet.no
The Financial Supervisory Authority of Norway (Norwegian: Finanstilsynet) is a Norwegian government agency responsible for supervision of financial companies within Norway based on law and regulations from Storting, the Norwegian Ministry of Finance and international accounting standards. The agency is located in Oslo and is under the supervision of the Ministry of Finance.
History
It was established in 1986 through a merger of the Bank Inspection Agency, the Broker Control Agency and the Norwegian Insurance Council.
Primary companies supervised by the authority are banks, insurance companies, credit companies, financing companies, pension funds, security companies, stock exchanges, security registries, real estate agencies, debt collection agencies, accountants and auditors.
It was formerly named Kredittilsynet (lit. the Credit Supervisory Authority), but changed its name to Finanstilsynet in December 2009.
See also
Securities Commission
List of financial regulatory authorities by jurisdiction
References
^ a b "Kredittilsynet". Store norske leksikon (in Norwegian). Retrieved 24 December 2009.
External links
Official Website
Authority control databases
VIAF
This Norwegian government-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Norwegian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_language"},{"link_name":"Norwegian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norway"},{"link_name":"government agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etat"},{"link_name":"supervision of financial companies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_regulation"},{"link_name":"Storting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storting"},{"link_name":"Norwegian Ministry of Finance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_Ministry_of_Finance"},{"link_name":"Oslo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oslo"},{"link_name":"Ministry of Finance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_Ministry_of_Finance"}],"text":"The Financial Supervisory Authority of Norway (Norwegian: Finanstilsynet) is a Norwegian government agency responsible for supervision of financial companies within Norway based on law and regulations from Storting, the Norwegian Ministry of Finance and international accounting standards. The agency is located in Oslo and is under the supervision of the Ministry of Finance.","title":"Financial Supervisory Authority of Norway"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-snl-1"},{"link_name":"Norwegian Insurance Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_Insurance_Council"},{"link_name":"banks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank"},{"link_name":"insurance companies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insurance_company"},{"link_name":"pension funds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pension_fund"},{"link_name":"security companies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security_(finance)"},{"link_name":"stock exchanges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stock_exchange"},{"link_name":"real estate agencies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_estate_agent"},{"link_name":"debt collection agencies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debt_collection_agency"},{"link_name":"accountants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accountant"},{"link_name":"auditors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditing"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-snl-1"}],"text":"It was established in 1986 through a merger [1] of the Bank Inspection Agency, the Broker Control Agency and the Norwegian Insurance Council.Primary companies supervised by the authority are banks, insurance companies, credit companies, financing companies, pension funds, security companies, stock exchanges, security registries, real estate agencies, debt collection agencies, accountants and auditors.It was formerly named Kredittilsynet (lit. the Credit Supervisory Authority), but changed its name to Finanstilsynet in December 2009.[1]","title":"History"}]
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[{"title":"Securities Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Securities_Commission"},{"title":"List of financial regulatory authorities by jurisdiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_financial_regulatory_authorities_by_jurisdiction"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Kredittilsynet\". Store norske leksikon (in Norwegian). Retrieved 24 December 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.snl.no/Kredittilsynet","url_text":"\"Kredittilsynet\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Store_norske_leksikon","url_text":"Store norske leksikon"}]}]
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[{"Link":"http://www.finanstilsynet.no/","external_links_name":"http://www.finanstilsynet.no"},{"Link":"http://www.snl.no/Kredittilsynet","external_links_name":"\"Kredittilsynet\""},{"Link":"http://www.finanstilsynet.no/","external_links_name":"Official Website"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/4039149198257374940007","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Financial_Supervisory_Authority_of_Norway&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_African-American_astronauts
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List of African-American astronauts
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["1 African-American astronauts","1.1 Traveled into space","1.2 Never traveled into space","2 See also","3 References"]
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The first three African Americans to travel into space – Ron McNair, Guy Bluford and Fred Gregory
African-American astronauts are Americans of African descent who have been part of an astronaut program, whether or not they have traveled into space. African-Americans who have been passengers on space-tourist flights are also included in this article, although there is dispute over whether such passengers become "astronauts."
African-American astronauts
Traveled into space
#
Images
Names &Birth dates
Notes
Missions & launch dates
Sources
1
Guion BlufordNovember 22, 1942
First African-American astronaut in space
STS-8 (August 30, 1983)
STS-61-A (October 30, 1985)
STS-39 (April 28, 1991)
STS-53 (December 2, 1992)
2
Ronald McNairOctober 21, 1950†January 28, 1986
First Baháʼí in space; died in the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster
STS-41-B (February 3, 1984)
STS-51-L (January 28, 1986)
3
Frederick D. GregoryJanuary 7, 1941
First African American to pilot and command a Space Shuttle mission; acting Administrator of NASA, 2005
STS-51-B (April 29, 1985)
STS-33 (November 22, 1989)
STS-44 (November 24, 1991)
4
Charles BoldenAugust 19, 1946
Administrator of NASA, July 17, 2009 – January 20, 2017
STS-61-C (January 12, 1986)
STS-31 (April 24, 1990)
STS-45 (March 24, 1992)
STS-60 (February 3, 1994)
5
Mae JemisonOctober 17, 1956
First African-American woman in space
STS-47 (September 12, 1992)
6
Bernard A. Harris Jr.June 26, 1956
First African American to walk in space
STS-55 (April 26, 1993)
STS-63 (February 3, 1995)
7
Winston E. ScottAugust 6, 1950
Veteran of three spacewalks
STS-72 (January 11, 1996)
STS-87 (November 19, 1997)
8
Robert CurbeamMarch 5, 1962
Veteran of seven spacewalks
STS-85 (August 7, 1997)
STS-98 (February 7, 2001)
STS-116 (December 9, 2006)
9
Michael P. AndersonDecember 25, 1959†February 1, 2003
Died in the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster
STS-89 (January 22, 1998)
STS-107 (January 16, 2003)
10
Stephanie WilsonSeptember 27, 1966
STS-121 (July 4, 2006)
STS-120 (October 23, 2007)
STS-131 (April 5, 2010)
11
Joan HigginbothamAugust 3, 1964
STS-116 (December 9, 2006)
12
Alvin DrewNovember 5, 1962
Veteran of two spacewalks, February 28 and March 2, 2011
STS-118 (August 8, 2007)
STS-133 (February 24, 2011)
13
Leland D. MelvinFebruary 15, 1964
Associate Administrator for Education at NASA
STS-122 (February 7, 2008)
STS-129 (November 16, 2009)
14
Robert SatcherSeptember 22, 1965
EVA November 19 and November 23, 2009
STS-129 (November 16, 2009)
15
Victor J. GloverApril 30, 1976
Joined ISS Expedition 64 as first African-American on an ISS Expedition
SpaceX Crew-1 (November 15, 2020)
16
Sian ProctorMarch 28, 1970
First African American female Spacecraft Pilot, as part of Inspiration4. First African American commercial Astronaut.
Inspiration4 (September 16, 2021)
17
Jessica WatkinsMay 14, 1988
First African American woman to be an ISS expedition crew member
SpaceX Crew-4 (April 27, 2022)
18
Jaison RobinsonSeptember 25, 1980
Blue Origin NS-21 (June 4, 2022)
19
Jeanette J. EppsNovember 2, 1970
On August 4, 2023, NASA announced that Epps would join SpaceX Crew-8 that launched to space on March 4, 2024.
SpaceX Crew-8 (March 4, 2024)
20
Ed DwightSeptember 9, 1933
Considered as the first African-American astronaut candidate, Ed Dwight made it to the second round of an Air Force program from which NASA selected astronauts, but was not selected by NASA to be an astronaut. Resigned from the Air Force in 1966 due to racial politics. In May, 2024, Dwight flew on a Blue Origin space tourist launch that traveled more than 100 km above Earth's surface, becoming at age 90 the oldest person to have flown to space.
Blue Origin NS-25 (May 19, 2024)
Never traveled into space
Image
NameBirth date
Note
Sources
Robert Henry Lawrence Jr.October 2, 1935†December 8, 1967
First African-American astronaut; selected for astronaut training in 1967 for the MOL program; died in an aircraft accident
Livingston L. Holder Jr.September 29, 1956
USAF astronaut in the Manned Spaceflight Engineer Program
Michael E. BeltSeptember 9, 1957
Astronaut, payload specialist from TERRA SCOUT – US Army Project; retired January 12, 1991. Although he did not fly any shuttle missions during his time as an astronaut, he was the back-up payload specialist to Thomas J. Hennen for the STS-44 mission which deployed a military satellite, undergoing 9 months of astronaut training for the role He was selected as an astronaut through the US Army's Terra Scout program which was created specifically to support STS-44.
Yvonne CagleApril 24, 1959
In NASA management
See also
Lists portal
Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez, first person of African descent and first Afro-Latino to fly in space. A Cuban, he flew on a Soviet mission in 1980.
References
^ "ARE SPACE TOURISTS ASTRONAUTS?". International Law and Policy Brief. GWU Law. October 11, 2021. Retrieved May 20, 2024. the title of astronaut is more than just a distinction for those space travelers serving as envoys of mankind as they explore worlds beyond earth's atmosphere. It is a mark of someone granted special status under international law; a status that will be questioned as more space tourists and entrepreneurs take to the skies.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n "NASA's African-American Astronauts Fact Sheet" (PDF). National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 2018. Retrieved February 22, 2019.
^ "Victor J. Glover, Jr. (Commander, U.S. Navy) NASA Astronaut". NASA. August 13, 2018. Archived from the original on August 8, 2018. Retrieved March 11, 2019.
^ "SpaceX launches 2nd crew, regular station crew flights begin". November 15, 2020. Retrieved November 15, 2020.
^ "Space Station Assignments Out for NASA's SpaceX Crew-8 Mission - NASA".
^ a b c Phillips, Kerri (February 8, 2012). "Celebrating Black History Month: NASA's African-American Astronauts". AmericaSpace. Archived from the original on October 13, 2019. Retrieved March 11, 2019. Four other African-Americans were selected by NASA as astronauts that did not have the opportunity to fly in space: Livingston Holder, Michael E. Belt, Yvonne Cagle, and Jeanette J. Epps. Each of these dedicated people believed in the advancement of human knowledge and space exploration, and some made the ultimate sacrifice doing what they felt was worth the risk for this endeavor.
^ We Could Not Fail: The First African Americans in the Space Program, Chapter 5, University of Texas Press, Austin, TX, 2015, pp. 86-104
^ "Blue Origin launches six tourists to the edge of space after nearly two-year hiatus". CNN. May 19, 2024. Retrieved May 19, 2024. Dwight completed that challenge and reached the edge of space at the age of 90, making him the oldest person to venture to such heights, according to a spokesperson from Blue Origin.
^ Oberg, James H. (2005-02-23). "The Unsung Astronaut". MSNBC. Archived from the original on 2014-11-11. Retrieved 2011-01-27.
^ Hoffman, Sarah (March 7, 2019). "A Space Pioneer Charts A Course For Future Astronauts". CrossCut, KCTS9. Retrieved January 28, 2023. He became a satellite countdown controller, worked on classified missions and earned a position with the competitive Manned Spaceflight Engineer program. While training as an astronaut, he witnessed the faces of NASA's space shuttle program shift to include women and minorities, along with the white men who first inspired him.
^ Soldiers - Volume 47 - Page 20. Department of the Army. 1992.
^ "EXPERIMENT REPORT, UNITED STATES ARMY SPACE EXPERIMENT 601, Terra Scout" (PDF). Defense Technical Information Center. 1992-07-29. Archived (PDF) from the original on June 10, 2020. Retrieved 2020-06-10.
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[{"image_text":"The first three African Americans to travel into space – Ron McNair, Guy Bluford and Fred Gregory","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Ronald_McNair%2C_Guion_Bluford%2C_and_Fred_Gregory_%28S79-36529%2C_restoration%29.jpg/220px-Ronald_McNair%2C_Guion_Bluford%2C_and_Fred_Gregory_%28S79-36529%2C_restoration%29.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Lists portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Lists"},{"title":"Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnaldo_Tamayo_M%C3%A9ndez"},{"title":"Afro-Latino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afro-Latin_American"}]
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[{"reference":"\"ARE SPACE TOURISTS ASTRONAUTS?\". International Law and Policy Brief. GWU Law. October 11, 2021. Retrieved May 20, 2024. the title of astronaut is more than just a distinction for those space travelers serving as envoys of mankind as they explore worlds beyond earth's atmosphere. It is a mark of someone granted special status under international law; a status that will be questioned as more space tourists and entrepreneurs take to the skies.","urls":[{"url":"https://studentbriefs.law.gwu.edu/ilpb/2021/10/11/are-space-tourists-astronauts/","url_text":"\"ARE SPACE TOURISTS ASTRONAUTS?\""}]},{"reference":"\"NASA's African-American Astronauts Fact Sheet\" (PDF). National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 2018. Retrieved February 22, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/african_american_astronauts_fs.pdf","url_text":"\"NASA's African-American Astronauts Fact Sheet\""}]},{"reference":"\"Victor J. Glover, Jr. (Commander, U.S. Navy) NASA Astronaut\". NASA. August 13, 2018. Archived from the original on August 8, 2018. Retrieved March 11, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nasa.gov/astronauts/biographies/victor-j-glover","url_text":"\"Victor J. Glover, Jr. (Commander, U.S. Navy) NASA Astronaut\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180808193607/https://www.nasa.gov/astronauts/biographies/victor-j-glover/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"SpaceX launches 2nd crew, regular station crew flights begin\". November 15, 2020. Retrieved November 15, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://apnews.com/article/coronavirus-pandemic-elon-musk-weather-spacex-michael-pence-2c0fc4d264b46278aab40cff11178959","url_text":"\"SpaceX launches 2nd crew, regular station crew flights begin\""}]},{"reference":"\"Space Station Assignments Out for NASA's SpaceX Crew-8 Mission - NASA\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/space-station-assignments-out-for-nasa-s-spacex-crew-8-mission","url_text":"\"Space Station Assignments Out for NASA's SpaceX Crew-8 Mission - NASA\""}]},{"reference":"Phillips, Kerri (February 8, 2012). \"Celebrating Black History Month: NASA's African-American Astronauts\". AmericaSpace. Archived from the original on October 13, 2019. Retrieved March 11, 2019. Four other African-Americans were selected by NASA as astronauts that did not have the opportunity to fly in space: Livingston Holder, Michael E. Belt, Yvonne Cagle, and Jeanette J. Epps. Each of these dedicated people believed in the advancement of human knowledge and space exploration, and some made the ultimate sacrifice doing what they felt was worth the risk for this endeavor.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.americaspace.com/2012/02/08/celebrating-black-history-month-biographies-of-nasas-african-american-astronauts/","url_text":"\"Celebrating Black History Month: NASA's African-American Astronauts\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20191013091638/https://www.americaspace.com/2012/02/08/celebrating-black-history-month-biographies-of-nasas-african-american-astronauts/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Blue Origin launches six tourists to the edge of space after nearly two-year hiatus\". CNN. May 19, 2024. Retrieved May 19, 2024. Dwight completed that challenge and reached the edge of space at the age of 90, making him the oldest person to venture to such heights, according to a spokesperson from Blue Origin.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cnn.com/2024/05/19/world/blue-origin-rocket-ns-25-mission-scn/index.html","url_text":"\"Blue Origin launches six tourists to the edge of space after nearly two-year hiatus\""}]},{"reference":"Oberg, James H. (2005-02-23). \"The Unsung Astronaut\". MSNBC. Archived from the original on 2014-11-11. Retrieved 2011-01-27.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nbcnews.com/id/7018497","url_text":"\"The Unsung Astronaut\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141111013943/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/7018497","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Hoffman, Sarah (March 7, 2019). \"A Space Pioneer Charts A Course For Future Astronauts\". CrossCut, KCTS9. Retrieved January 28, 2023. He became a satellite countdown controller, worked on classified missions and earned a position with the competitive Manned Spaceflight Engineer program. While training as an astronaut, he witnessed the faces of NASA's space shuttle program shift to include women and minorities, along with the white men who first inspired him.","urls":[{"url":"https://crosscut.com/2019/03/space-pioneer-charts-course-future-astronauts","url_text":"\"A Space Pioneer Charts A Course For Future Astronauts\""}]},{"reference":"Soldiers - Volume 47 - Page 20. Department of the Army. 1992.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=JdMRdY4AZs8C","url_text":"Soldiers - Volume 47 - Page 20"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_of_the_Army","url_text":"Department of the Army"}]},{"reference":"\"EXPERIMENT REPORT, UNITED STATES ARMY SPACE EXPERIMENT 601, Terra Scout\" (PDF). Defense Technical Information Center. 1992-07-29. Archived (PDF) from the original on June 10, 2020. Retrieved 2020-06-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a261460.pdf","url_text":"\"EXPERIMENT REPORT, UNITED STATES ARMY SPACE EXPERIMENT 601, Terra Scout\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200610183058/https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a261460.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landing_on_Emirau
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Landing on Emirau
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["1 Background","1.1 Strategy","1.2 Geography","2 Preparations","3 Operations","4 Base development","5 Garrison","6 Notes","7 References"]
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Coordinates: 1°41′6″S 150°0′0″E / 1.68500°S 150.00000°E / -1.68500; 150.000001944 landing operation
Landing on EmirauPart of World War II, Pacific WarF4U Corsairs on Emirau Island in position along a taxiway to the new airport which was operational less than two months after the landingDate20–27 March 1944LocationEmirau Island, Territory of New Guinea1°41′6″S 150°0′0″E / 1.68500°S 150.00000°E / -1.68500; 150.00000Result
UnopposedBelligerents
United States
JapanCommanders and leaders
William Halsey, Jr. Lawrence F. Reifsnider Alfred H. Noble William L. McKittrickStrength
4,000Casualties and losses
1 injured
vte New Guinea campaign
1942
Battle of Rabaul
1st Lae-Salamaua
Coral Sea
Kokoda Track
Milne Bay
Goodenough Island
Buna–Gona
Lilliput
Merauke
1943
Wau
Bismarck Sea
I-Go
2nd Lae-Salamaua
Chronicle
Markham-Ramu-Finisterres
Wewak Raid
Huon Peninsula
New Britain
Bombing of Rabaul
1944–45
Neutralisation of Rabaul
Admiralties
Emirau
Take Ichi
Bombing of Hollandia
Western New Guinea
The Landing on Emirau was the last of the series of operations that made up Operation Cartwheel, General Douglas MacArthur's strategy for the encirclement of the major Japanese base at Rabaul. A force of nearly 4,000 United States Marines landed on the island of Emirau on 20 March 1944. The island was not occupied by the Japanese and there was no fighting. It was developed into an airbase which formed the final link in the chain of bases surrounding Rabaul. The isolation of Rabaul permitted MacArthur to turn his attention westward and commence his drive along the north coast of New Guinea toward the Philippines.
Background
Strategy
In February 1943, General MacArthur had presented the US Joint Chiefs of Staff with his Elkton Plan for an advance on the Japanese stronghold of Rabaul. In this "scheme of manoeuvre" the penultimate stage was the capture of Kavieng, an important staging post for aircraft moving from Truk to Rabaul. The Allied occupation of Kavieng would cut this route and isolate Rabaul. The Allied victory in the Admiralty Islands campaign in March 1944 prompted the Joint Chiefs of Staff to consider accelerating the tempo of operations in the Pacific. They solicited opinions on the matter from the theatre commanders. On 5 March 1944, armed with detailed information about Japanese deployments and intentions as a result of the capture of Japanese cryptographic materials in the Battle of Sio, MacArthur recommended omitting the proposed attack on Hansa Bay in favor of moving further up the coast of New Guinea to Hollandia. As this would be out of range of his land-based aircraft, he proposed that aircraft carriers of Admiral Chester W. Nimitz' United States Pacific Fleet, which were to cover the Manus and Kavieng operations could provide air cover until land-based aircraft could be established ashore. Admiral Nimitz, in Washington DC for consultation, objected to this proposal to retain forces in the South West Pacific theatre after the capture of Kavieng, as it would disrupt his plans for upcoming operations in the Pacific Ocean theatre. The Joint War Plans Committee discussed these alternatives, and recommended to the Joint Chiefs that Hollandia be seized on 15 April, but that the Kavieng operation be canceled.
MacArthur's Chief of Staff, Lieutenant General Richard K. Sutherland, representing his commander before the Joint Chiefs, strenuously objected to the omission of Kavieng, which he believed could be captured on 1 April without delaying other operations. There was debate over how much of a threat the Japanese base at Kavieng was. Nimitz felt that as a result of the Battle of Eniwetok, Truk itself would soon be under constant attack and the flow of aircraft to Rabaul would be cut off. On 12 March, orders went out to MacArthur and Nimitz canceling Operation FOREARM and ordering them to "complete the isolation of the Rabaul-Kavieng area with the minimum commitment of forces". In the opinion of the commander of the South Pacific Area, Admiral William Halsey, Jr., "the geography of the area begged for another bypass". On receipt of orders from MacArthur revoking plans for Kavieng and ordering him to occupy Emirau, Halsey ordered the commander of the III Amphibious Force, Rear Admiral Theodore S. Wilkinson, to occupy Emirau on 20 March.
Geography
Bismarck Archipelago
Emirau (or Emira) is an island in the Bismarck Archipelago in the south eastern portion of the St. Matthias Islands, located 25 miles (40 km) from Mussau Island, the other principal island in the St. Matthias group, and 90 miles (140 km) from Kavieng. Emirau is about 8 miles (13 km) long and 2 miles (3.2 km) wide, hilly, and heavily wooded. Inland is a 90-acre (36 ha) plateau. The climate is tropical, with high humidity and heavy rainfall. There is a small harbor, Hamburg Bay, on the north west coast. About 300 natives lived on the island; but all available intelligence indicated that the Japanese had not occupied the islands in any appreciable strength. Emirau was considered suitable for development as an airbase and base for PT boats. A photo reconnaissance mission on 16 March revealed no indication whatsoever of enemy activity or installations.
Preparations
Landing on Emirau
Halsey's message reached Wilkinson on Guadalcanal on 15 March, by which time ships were already loading for the Kavieng operation, which had originally been scheduled for 18 March. This operation was to have been carried out by Major General Roy S. Geiger's I Amphibious Corps, with the 40th Infantry Division and 3rd Marine Division, reinforced by the 4th Marines. For Emirau, Lieutenant Colonel Alan Shapley's 4th Marines would be sufficient, reinforced by Company C, 3rd Amphibian Tractor Battalion; Company A (Medium), 3rd Tank Battalion, equipped with M4 Sherman tanks; a company of pioneers from the 2nd Battalion, 19th Marines; signals, ordnance and motor transport detachments; and a composite anti-aircraft battery of the 14th Defense Battalion. This would be the first operation for the 4th Marines, which had been reformed on 1 February 1944 from four battalions of Marine Raiders, the original 4th Marines having been destroyed in the Battle of Corregidor. Commodore Lawrence F. Reifsnider was appointed to command the amphibious operation. Brigadier General Alfred H. Noble, the Assistant Division Commander of the 3d Marine Division would command the expeditionary troops. Noble, who was also slated to become island commander, was given a small staff created from I Amphibious Corps and 3rd Marine Division personnel. An air command was organized for Emirau under Colonel William L. McKittrick from the larger one intended for the Kavieng operation.
No opposition was expected on Emirau, but strong naval and air support was provided. A covering force under Rear Admiral Robert M. Griffin, consisting of the battleships New Mexico, Mississippi, Idaho and Tennessee, accompanied by the escort carriers Manila Bay and Natoma Bay, and 15 destroyers, carried out part of the original Kavieng plan—the bombardment of Kavieng and the surrounding area. In all, some 1,079 rounds of 14-inch and 12,281 rounds of 5-inch ammunition were fired. Unfortunately, the bombardment gave Rear Admiral Ryukichi Tamura the impression that the expected invasion by Allied forces was imminent and he gave the order to kill all the European prisoners in Kavieng. At least 25 of them were executed in the Kavieng Wharf Massacre, which later led to six of the perpetrators being sentenced for war crimes in 1947. Sentenced to death by hanging, Tamura was executed at Stanley Prison on 16 March 1948.
Operations
The assault force left in two echelons. The Marines of the two assault battalions, the 1st and 2nd Battalions, 4th Marines, traveled on nine high speed transports (APDs) while the remainder of the force were on the dock landing ships (LSDs) Epping Forest, Gunston Hall and Lindenwald, and the attack transport (APA) Callaway. One LSD carried the 66 LVTs for crossing Emirau's fringing reef, one carried three LCTs, two of them loaded with tanks, and the third carried three LCTs with radar sets and anti-aircraft guns.
Supplies and equipment being brought ashore from landing craft to support the US Marine landing force. LVTs ferrying supplies ashore in the distance while a chain of men stretches from a landing craft to the shore to manhandle supplies to the beach.
The attack group arrived in the transport area at 06:05 on 20 March. The LVTs were launched, and the assault troops transferred to the amphibious tractors using the APDs' boats, supplemented by those from Callaway while Vought F4U Corsairs of VMF-218 flew overhead to make a last-minute check of the island for any signs of the Japanese. The assault waves touched down on schedule. The reserve 3rd Battalion's boats grounded on the reef soon afterwards, and its marines waded ashore through knee deep water. The only problem encountered was with launching the LCTs carrying the tanks. The LSD's flooding mechanism failed and the LCTs had to be dragged out by a fleet tug. While the detachment sent to occupy Elomusao Island was approaching the beach, some supposed opposition caused the amphibious tractors and then a destroyer to open fire, and a man was wounded by a shell fragment. However, the natives informed the marines that the Japanese had left Emirau two months before and only a small detachment remained on Mussau Island. Supplies began landing at around 1100, first from the APDs and then from Callaway. Some 3,727 troops and 844 tons of cargo were ashore by nightfall when the ships sailed. Within a month, some 18,000 men and 44,000 tons of supplies had been landed.
Intelligence reports indicated that there were Japanese fuel and ration dumps on Mussau, and a radio station on a nearby island, so on 23 March these areas were shelled by destroyers. On the 27th, a destroyer intercepted a large canoe carrying Japanese troops about 40 miles (64 km) south of Mussau. The Japanese soldiers replied with their rifles and machine guns, and the destroyer returned fire, destroying the canoe and killing the occupants. Thus ended the only fighting in the St. Matthias Group.
Base development
Construction activities were taken in hand by the US Navy Seabees of the 18th Construction Regiment, which consisted of the 27th, 61st and 63rd Construction Battalions and the 17th Special Battalion, which arrived between 25 and 30 March, and the 77th Construction Battalion which arrived on 14 April. The 27th built a PT boat base, an LCT floating drydock and slipway, and roads. The 61st constructed housing, ammunition storage facilities, a runway, and some of the buildings at the PT boat base. It also handled sawmill operations. The 63rd assisted at the sawmill and worked on the roads, camps, harbor facilities, warehouses, magazines and avgas dumps. The 77th built taxiways, hardstands, aviation workshops and the avgas tank farm. The 88th worked on runways, roads, radar stations and a causeway at the eastern end of the island.
Two airfields were constructed, Inshore and North Cape. These were heavy bomber strips, 7,000 feet (2,100 m) long and 300 feet (91 m) wide. The former had parking for 210 fighters or light bombers; the latter for 84 heavy bombers. Both were fully equipped with towers, lighting, and a dispensary. The aviation tank farm consisted of three 10,000-barrel (~1,400 t) storage tanks and nineteen 1,000-barrel (~140 t) storage tanks, together with the appropriate filling and distribution points. A reserve of 40,000 barrels (~5,500 t) was stored in drums. Three hospitals were established, a 100-bed naval base hospital, the 160-bed 24th Army Field Hospital, and the 150-bed Acorn 7 Hospital. The anchorage at Hamburg Bay could accommodate up to five capital ships. Port facilities included eight cranes, 42,000 cubic feet (1,200 m3) of refrigerated space, and 400,000 square feet (37,000 m2) of covered storage. The port could handle 800 measurement tons (910 m3) of cargo per day. Connecting the various facilities was 40 miles (64 km) of coral-surfaced all-weather road. All this work was completed by August and Construction Battalion Maintenance Unit (CBMU) 502 assumed responsibility for maintenance work. All the construction battalions departed by December.
Garrison
The 4th Marines were relieved as the garrison of Emirau by the 147th Infantry on 11 April 1944. The next day, Noble was replaced as island commander by a marine aviator, Major General James T. Moore, the Commanding General of the 1st Marine Aircraft Wing. In turn, the 147th Infantry was relieved as garrison by the 369th Infantry in June. In August, General MacArthur directed that responsibility for garrisoning Emirau would be transferred to the Australian Army. The Australian 8th Infantry Battalion arrived to take over the garrison role on Emirau on 30 September. They were met by a small ANGAU detachment that had been on the island since May. Marine Aircraft Group 12 operated from Emirau until December, when it moved to Leyte; its place was taken by squadrons of the RNZAF. On 20 March 1945, General MacArthur authorized a reduction in the garrison size to one company of the 8th Infantry Battalion. In June 1945, it too was withdrawn. CBMU 502 departed for Manus that month. The RNZAF maintained a bomber-reconnaissance squadron at Emirau until July 1945, and a fighter squadron until August, when all forces were withdrawn from the island.
Notes
^ Hayes, History of the Joint Chiefs, pp. 312–313
^ Drea, MacArthur's ULTRA, pp. 104–105
^ Hayes, History of the Joint Chiefs, pp. 554–556
^ Hayes, History of the Joint Chiefs, pp. 558–559
^ Shaw and Kane, Isolation of Rabaul, p. 518
^ a b Miller, CARTWHEEL: The Reduction of Rabaul, p. 380
^ Building the Navy's Bases, p. 303
^ a b Shaw and Kane, Isolation of Rabaul, p. 521
^ Rottman, U.S. Marine Corps World War II Order of Battle, p. 318
^ Shaw and Kane, Isolation of Rabaul, p. 519
^ Morison, Breaking the Bismarcks Barrier, p. 423
^ Dunbar, The Kavieng Massacre
^ a b c Shaw and Kane, Isolation of Rabaul, p. 522
^ G-3 Journal, GHQ AFPAC 9 April 1944, "Emirau Operation — Operations of the Emirau Landing Force", NAA(Vic): B6121/3 99A
^ a b Building the Navy's bases, pp. 303–304
^ Shaw and Kane, Isolation of Rabaul, p. 523
^ Lee, The Employment of Negro Troops, p. 524
^ Long, The Final Campaigns, p. 93
^ War Diary, 23rd Infantry Brigade, 30 September 1944, AWM52 8/2/3
^ Powell, The Third Force, pp. 132–133
^ Shaw and Kane, Isolation of Rabaul, p. 533
^ Long, The Final Campaigns, p. 201
^ U.S. Navy, Building the Navy's Bases, p. 304
^ Ross, Operations from Emirau Archived 1 February 2023 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 18 January 2009
References
Drea, Edward J. (1992). MacArthur's Ultra: Codebreaking and the War Against Japan 1942–1945. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 0-7006-0504-5. OCLC 23651196.
Dunbar, Raden (2007). Kavieng Massacre: A War Crime Revealed. Binda, New South Wales: Sally Milner Publishing. ISBN 978-1-86351-368-5. OCLC 166356047.
Hayes, Grace P. (1982). The History of the Joint Chiefs of Staff in World War II: The War Against Japan. Annapolis, Maryland: United States Naval Institute. ISBN 0-87021-269-9. OCLC 7795125.
Lee, Ulysses (1966). The Employment of Negro Troops (PDF). Washington, DC: Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army. OCLC 22126862. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 December 2022. Retrieved 11 May 2023.
Long, Gavin (1963). The Final Campaigns. Canberra: Australian War Memorial. OCLC 1297619. Archived from the original on 9 July 2015. Retrieved 25 July 2016.
Miller, John Jr. (1959). Cartwheel: The Reduction of Rabaul. United States Army in World War II: The War in the Pacific. Washington, DC: Office of the Chief of Military History, U.S. Department of the Army. OCLC 1355535. Archived from the original on 4 February 2012. Retrieved 17 January 2009.
Morison, Samuel Eliot (1958). Breaking the Bismarcks Barrier. History of United States Naval Operations in World War II. Boston, Massachusetts: Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 0-78581-307-1. OCLC 10310299.
Powell, Alan (2003). The Third Force:ANGAU's New Guinea War. Australian Army History Series. South Melbourne, Victoria: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-551639-7. OCLC 53173145.
Ross, J. M. S. (2004). "Operations from Emirau". Royal New Zealand Air Force. Official history of New Zealand in the Second World War 1939–1945. Wellington, New Zealand: New Zealand Electronic Text Centre. OCLC 226971024. Archived from the original on 26 October 2012. Retrieved 22 April 2009.
Rottman, Gordon L. (2002). U.S. Marine Corps World War II Order of Battle: Ground and Air units in the Pacific War, 1939–1945. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0-313-31906-5. OCLC 45708111. Retrieved 19 April 2009.
Shaw, Henry I. Jr.; Kane, Douglas T. (1963). Isolation of Rabaul (PDF). History of U.S. Marine Corps Operations of World War II. Vol. II. Washington, D.C.: Historical Branch, U.S. Marine Corps. OCLC 8137576. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 March 2021. Retrieved 4 July 2021.
U.S. Navy Department (1947). Building the Navy's Bases in World War II, Volume II. History of the Bureau of Yards and Docks and the Civil Engineer Corps 1940–1946. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. OCLC 1023942.
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_New_Guinea"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_New_Guinea"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_New_Guinea"},{"link_name":"New Guinea campaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Guinea_campaign"},{"link_name":"Battle of Rabaul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Rabaul_(1942)"},{"link_name":"1st Lae-Salamaua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_Salamaua%E2%80%93Lae"},{"link_name":"Coral Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Coral_Sea"},{"link_name":"Kokoda Track","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kokoda_Track_campaign"},{"link_name":"Milne Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Milne_Bay"},{"link_name":"Goodenough Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Goodenough_Island"},{"link_name":"Buna–Gona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Buna%E2%80%93Gona"},{"link_name":"Lilliput","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Lilliput"},{"link_name":"Merauke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcement_of_Merauke"},{"link_name":"Wau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Wau"},{"link_name":"Bismarck Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bismarck_Sea"},{"link_name":"I-Go","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_I-Go"},{"link_name":"2nd Lae-Salamaua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salamaua%E2%80%93Lae_campaign"},{"link_name":"Chronicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Chronicle"},{"link_name":"Markham-Ramu-Finisterres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markham,_Ramu_and_Finisterre_campaigns"},{"link_name":"Wewak Raid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Wewak"},{"link_name":"Huon Peninsula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huon_Peninsula_campaign"},{"link_name":"New Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Britain_campaign"},{"link_name":"Bombing of Rabaul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Rabaul_(November_1943)"},{"link_name":"Neutralisation of Rabaul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutralisation_of_Rabaul"},{"link_name":"Admiralties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admiralty_Islands_campaign"},{"link_name":"Emirau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Take Ichi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Take_Ichi_convoy"},{"link_name":"Bombing of Hollandia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Hollandia"},{"link_name":"Western New Guinea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_New_Guinea_campaign"},{"link_name":"Operation Cartwheel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Cartwheel"},{"link_name":"General","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Douglas MacArthur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_MacArthur"},{"link_name":"Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"Rabaul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabaul"},{"link_name":"United States Marines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps"},{"link_name":"Emirau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirau"},{"link_name":"New Guinea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Guinea"},{"link_name":"Philippines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines"}],"text":"1944 landing operationvte New Guinea campaign \n1942\n\nBattle of Rabaul\n1st Lae-Salamaua\nCoral Sea\nKokoda Track\nMilne Bay\nGoodenough Island\nBuna–Gona\nLilliput\nMerauke\n1943\n\nWau\nBismarck Sea\nI-Go\n2nd Lae-Salamaua\nChronicle\nMarkham-Ramu-Finisterres\nWewak Raid\nHuon Peninsula\nNew Britain\nBombing of Rabaul\n1944–45\n\nNeutralisation of Rabaul\nAdmiralties\nEmirau\nTake Ichi\nBombing of Hollandia\nWestern New GuineaThe Landing on Emirau was the last of the series of operations that made up Operation Cartwheel, General Douglas MacArthur's strategy for the encirclement of the major Japanese base at Rabaul. A force of nearly 4,000 United States Marines landed on the island of Emirau on 20 March 1944. The island was not occupied by the Japanese and there was no fighting. It was developed into an airbase which formed the final link in the chain of bases surrounding Rabaul. The isolation of Rabaul permitted MacArthur to turn his attention westward and commence his drive along the north coast of New Guinea toward the Philippines.","title":"Landing on Emirau"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Joint Chiefs of Staff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff"},{"link_name":"Kavieng","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kavieng"},{"link_name":"Truk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuuk_Lagoon"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Admiralty Islands campaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admiralty_Islands_campaign"},{"link_name":"Joint Chiefs of Staff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff"},{"link_name":"Battle of Sio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Sio"},{"link_name":"Hansa Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hansa_Bay"},{"link_name":"New Guinea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Guinea"},{"link_name":"Hollandia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jayapura"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"aircraft carriers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_carrier"},{"link_name":"Admiral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admiral_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Chester W. Nimitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chester_W._Nimitz"},{"link_name":"United States Pacific Fleet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Pacific_Fleet"},{"link_name":"Manus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manus_Island"},{"link_name":"Washington DC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_DC"},{"link_name":"South West Pacific theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_West_Pacific_theatre_of_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Pacific Ocean theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ocean_theater_of_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Lieutenant General","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieutenant_General_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Richard K. Sutherland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_K._Sutherland"},{"link_name":"Battle of Eniwetok","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Eniwetok"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"South Pacific Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ocean_Areas_(command)"},{"link_name":"William Halsey, Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Halsey,_Jr."},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Emirau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirau"},{"link_name":"III Amphibious Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=III_Amphibious_Force&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Rear Admiral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rear_Admiral_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Theodore S. Wilkinson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_S._Wilkinson"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Miller_p380-6"}],"sub_title":"Strategy","text":"In February 1943, General MacArthur had presented the US Joint Chiefs of Staff with his Elkton Plan for an advance on the Japanese stronghold of Rabaul. In this \"scheme of manoeuvre\" the penultimate stage was the capture of Kavieng, an important staging post for aircraft moving from Truk to Rabaul. The Allied occupation of Kavieng would cut this route and isolate Rabaul.[1] The Allied victory in the Admiralty Islands campaign in March 1944 prompted the Joint Chiefs of Staff to consider accelerating the tempo of operations in the Pacific. They solicited opinions on the matter from the theatre commanders. On 5 March 1944, armed with detailed information about Japanese deployments and intentions as a result of the capture of Japanese cryptographic materials in the Battle of Sio, MacArthur recommended omitting the proposed attack on Hansa Bay in favor of moving further up the coast of New Guinea to Hollandia.[2] As this would be out of range of his land-based aircraft, he proposed that aircraft carriers of Admiral Chester W. Nimitz' United States Pacific Fleet, which were to cover the Manus and Kavieng operations could provide air cover until land-based aircraft could be established ashore. Admiral Nimitz, in Washington DC for consultation, objected to this proposal to retain forces in the South West Pacific theatre after the capture of Kavieng, as it would disrupt his plans for upcoming operations in the Pacific Ocean theatre. The Joint War Plans Committee discussed these alternatives, and recommended to the Joint Chiefs that Hollandia be seized on 15 April, but that the Kavieng operation be canceled.[3]MacArthur's Chief of Staff, Lieutenant General Richard K. Sutherland, representing his commander before the Joint Chiefs, strenuously objected to the omission of Kavieng, which he believed could be captured on 1 April without delaying other operations. There was debate over how much of a threat the Japanese base at Kavieng was. Nimitz felt that as a result of the Battle of Eniwetok, Truk itself would soon be under constant attack and the flow of aircraft to Rabaul would be cut off. On 12 March, orders went out to MacArthur and Nimitz canceling Operation FOREARM [Kavieng] and ordering them to \"complete the isolation of the Rabaul-Kavieng area with the minimum commitment of forces\".[4] In the opinion of the commander of the South Pacific Area, Admiral William Halsey, Jr., \"the geography of the area begged for another bypass\".[5] On receipt of orders from MacArthur revoking plans for Kavieng and ordering him to occupy Emirau, Halsey ordered the commander of the III Amphibious Force, Rear Admiral Theodore S. Wilkinson, to occupy Emirau on 20 March.[6]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Karta_PG_Bismarck_Archipelago.PNG"},{"link_name":"St. Matthias Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Matthias_Islands"},{"link_name":"Mussau Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mussau_Island"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"PT boats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PT_boat"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shaw_p521-8"}],"sub_title":"Geography","text":"Bismarck ArchipelagoEmirau (or Emira) is an island in the Bismarck Archipelago in the south eastern portion of the St. Matthias Islands, located 25 miles (40 km) from Mussau Island, the other principal island in the St. Matthias group, and 90 miles (140 km) from Kavieng. Emirau is about 8 miles (13 km) long and 2 miles (3.2 km) wide, hilly, and heavily wooded. Inland is a 90-acre (36 ha) plateau. The climate is tropical, with high humidity and heavy rainfall. There is a small harbor, Hamburg Bay, on the north west coast. About 300 natives lived on the island;[7] but all available intelligence indicated that the Japanese had not occupied the islands in any appreciable strength. Emirau was considered suitable for development as an airbase and base for PT boats. A photo reconnaissance mission on 16 March revealed no indication whatsoever of enemy activity or installations.[8]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Emirau_and_Kavieng.png"},{"link_name":"Guadalcanal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guadalcanal"},{"link_name":"Major General","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_general_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Roy S. Geiger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy_S._Geiger"},{"link_name":"I Amphibious Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Amphibious_Corps"},{"link_name":"40th Infantry Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/40th_Infantry_Division_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"3rd Marine Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3rd_Marine_Division_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"4th Marines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4th_Marines"},{"link_name":"Lieutenant Colonel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieutenant_colonel_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Alan Shapley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Shapley"},{"link_name":"3rd Amphibian Tractor Battalion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3rd_Assault_Amphibian_Battalion"},{"link_name":"3rd Tank Battalion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3rd_Tank_Battalion"},{"link_name":"M4 Sherman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M4_Sherman"},{"link_name":"pioneers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pioneer_(military)"},{"link_name":"2nd Battalion, 19th Marines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combat_Logistics_Regiment_3"},{"link_name":"14th Defense Battalion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/14th_Defense_Battalion"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Marine Raiders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_Raiders"},{"link_name":"Battle of Corregidor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Corregidor"},{"link_name":"Commodore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Lawrence F. Reifsnider","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_F._Reifsnider"},{"link_name":"Brigadier General","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brigadier_general_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Alfred H. Noble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_H._Noble"},{"link_name":"Colonel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonel_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"William L. McKittrick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_L._McKittrick"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shaw_and_Kane,_p._519-10"},{"link_name":"battleships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battleship"},{"link_name":"New Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_New_Mexico_(BB-40)"},{"link_name":"Mississippi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Mississippi_(BB-41)"},{"link_name":"Idaho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Idaho_(BB-42)"},{"link_name":"Tennessee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Tennessee_(BB-43)"},{"link_name":"escort carriers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escort_carrier"},{"link_name":"Manila Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Manila_Bay"},{"link_name":"Natoma Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Natoma_Bay"},{"link_name":"destroyers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destroyer"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Stanley Prison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Prison"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"Landing on EmirauHalsey's message reached Wilkinson on Guadalcanal on 15 March, by which time ships were already loading for the Kavieng operation, which had originally been scheduled for 18 March. This operation was to have been carried out by Major General Roy S. Geiger's I Amphibious Corps, with the 40th Infantry Division and 3rd Marine Division, reinforced by the 4th Marines. For Emirau, Lieutenant Colonel Alan Shapley's 4th Marines would be sufficient, reinforced by Company C, 3rd Amphibian Tractor Battalion; Company A (Medium), 3rd Tank Battalion, equipped with M4 Sherman tanks; a company of pioneers from the 2nd Battalion, 19th Marines; signals, ordnance and motor transport detachments; and a composite anti-aircraft battery of the 14th Defense Battalion.[9] This would be the first operation for the 4th Marines, which had been reformed on 1 February 1944 from four battalions of Marine Raiders, the original 4th Marines having been destroyed in the Battle of Corregidor. Commodore Lawrence F. Reifsnider was appointed to command the amphibious operation. Brigadier General Alfred H. Noble, the Assistant Division Commander of the 3d Marine Division would command the expeditionary troops. Noble, who was also slated to become island commander, was given a small staff created from I Amphibious Corps and 3rd Marine Division personnel. An air command was organized for Emirau under Colonel William L. McKittrick from the larger one intended for the Kavieng operation.[10]No opposition was expected on Emirau, but strong naval and air support was provided. A covering force under Rear Admiral Robert M. Griffin, consisting of the battleships New Mexico, Mississippi, Idaho and Tennessee, accompanied by the escort carriers Manila Bay and Natoma Bay, and 15 destroyers, carried out part of the original Kavieng plan—the bombardment of Kavieng and the surrounding area. In all, some 1,079 rounds of 14-inch and 12,281 rounds of 5-inch ammunition were fired.[11] Unfortunately, the bombardment gave Rear Admiral Ryukichi Tamura the impression that the expected invasion by Allied forces was imminent and he gave the order to kill all the European prisoners in Kavieng. At least 25 of them were executed in the Kavieng Wharf Massacre, which later led to six of the perpetrators being sentenced for war crimes in 1947. Sentenced to death by hanging, Tamura was executed at Stanley Prison on 16 March 1948.[12]","title":"Preparations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"1st","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st_Battalion_4th_Marines"},{"link_name":"2nd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2nd_Battalion_4th_Marines"},{"link_name":"dock landing ships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dock_landing_ship"},{"link_name":"Epping Forest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Epping_Forest"},{"link_name":"Gunston Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Gunston_Hall_(LSD-5)"},{"link_name":"Lindenwald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Lindenwald"},{"link_name":"attack transport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_transport"},{"link_name":"Callaway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Callaway"},{"link_name":"LVTs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landing_Vehicle_Tracked"},{"link_name":"LCTs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landing_craft_tank"},{"link_name":"radar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shaw_p521-8"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Landing_on_Emirau_AWM305252.jpeg"},{"link_name":"Vought F4U Corsairs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vought_F4U_Corsair"},{"link_name":"VMF-218","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VMF-218"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shaw_p522-13"},{"link_name":"Mussau Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mussau_Island"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shaw_p522-13"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Miller_p380-6"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shaw_p522-13"}],"text":"The assault force left in two echelons. The Marines of the two assault battalions, the 1st and 2nd Battalions, 4th Marines, traveled on nine high speed transports (APDs) while the remainder of the force were on the dock landing ships (LSDs) Epping Forest, Gunston Hall and Lindenwald, and the attack transport (APA) Callaway. One LSD carried the 66 LVTs for crossing Emirau's fringing reef, one carried three LCTs, two of them loaded with tanks, and the third carried three LCTs with radar sets and anti-aircraft guns.[8]Supplies and equipment being brought ashore from landing craft to support the US Marine landing force. LVTs ferrying supplies ashore in the distance while a chain of men stretches from a landing craft to the shore to manhandle supplies to the beach.The attack group arrived in the transport area at 06:05 on 20 March. The LVTs were launched, and the assault troops transferred to the amphibious tractors using the APDs' boats, supplemented by those from Callaway while Vought F4U Corsairs of VMF-218 flew overhead to make a last-minute check of the island for any signs of the Japanese. The assault waves touched down on schedule. The reserve 3rd Battalion's boats grounded on the reef soon afterwards, and its marines waded ashore through knee deep water. The only problem encountered was with launching the LCTs carrying the tanks. The LSD's flooding mechanism failed and the LCTs had to be dragged out by a fleet tug.[13] While the detachment sent to occupy Elomusao Island was approaching the beach, some supposed opposition caused the amphibious tractors and then a destroyer to open fire, and a man was wounded by a shell fragment. However, the natives informed the marines that the Japanese had left Emirau two months before and only a small detachment remained on Mussau Island.[14] Supplies began landing at around 1100, first from the APDs and then from Callaway. Some 3,727 troops and 844 tons of cargo were ashore by nightfall when the ships sailed.[13] Within a month, some 18,000 men and 44,000 tons of supplies had been landed.[6]Intelligence reports indicated that there were Japanese fuel and ration dumps on Mussau, and a radio station on a nearby island, so on 23 March these areas were shelled by destroyers. On the 27th, a destroyer intercepted a large canoe carrying Japanese troops about 40 miles (64 km) south of Mussau. The Japanese soldiers replied with their rifles and machine guns, and the destroyer returned fire, destroying the canoe and killing the occupants. Thus ended the only fighting in the St. Matthias Group.[13]","title":"Operations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Seabees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seabee_(US_Navy)"},{"link_name":"drydock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drydock"},{"link_name":"slipway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slipway"},{"link_name":"sawmill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sawmill"},{"link_name":"warehouses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warehouse"},{"link_name":"magazines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magazine_(artillery)"},{"link_name":"avgas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avgas"},{"link_name":"taxiways","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxiway"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BOYD-15"},{"link_name":"Two airfields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirau_Airport#World_War_II"},{"link_name":"barrel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrel_(unit)"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonne"},{"link_name":"measurement tons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measurement_ton"},{"link_name":"m3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_metre"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BOYD-15"}],"text":"Construction activities were taken in hand by the US Navy Seabees of the 18th Construction Regiment, which consisted of the 27th, 61st and 63rd Construction Battalions and the 17th Special Battalion, which arrived between 25 and 30 March, and the 77th Construction Battalion which arrived on 14 April. The 27th built a PT boat base, an LCT floating drydock and slipway, and roads. The 61st constructed housing, ammunition storage facilities, a runway, and some of the buildings at the PT boat base. It also handled sawmill operations. The 63rd assisted at the sawmill and worked on the roads, camps, harbor facilities, warehouses, magazines and avgas dumps. The 77th built taxiways, hardstands, aviation workshops and the avgas tank farm. The 88th worked on runways, roads, radar stations and a causeway at the eastern end of the island.[15]Two airfields were constructed, Inshore and North Cape. These were heavy bomber strips, 7,000 feet (2,100 m) long and 300 feet (91 m) wide. The former had parking for 210 fighters or light bombers; the latter for 84 heavy bombers. Both were fully equipped with towers, lighting, and a dispensary. The aviation tank farm consisted of three 10,000-barrel (~1,400 t) storage tanks and nineteen 1,000-barrel (~140 t) storage tanks, together with the appropriate filling and distribution points. A reserve of 40,000 barrels (~5,500 t) was stored in drums. Three hospitals were established, a 100-bed naval base hospital, the 160-bed 24th Army Field Hospital, and the 150-bed Acorn 7 Hospital. The anchorage at Hamburg Bay could accommodate up to five capital ships. Port facilities included eight cranes, 42,000 cubic feet (1,200 m3) of refrigerated space, and 400,000 square feet (37,000 m2) of covered storage. The port could handle 800 measurement tons (910 m3) of cargo per day. Connecting the various facilities was 40 miles (64 km) of coral-surfaced all-weather road. All this work was completed by August and Construction Battalion Maintenance Unit (CBMU) 502 assumed responsibility for maintenance work. All the construction battalions departed by December.[15]","title":"Base development"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"147th Infantry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/147th_Infantry_Regiment_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"James T. Moore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_T._Moore_(USMC)"},{"link_name":"1st Marine Aircraft Wing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st_Marine_Aircraft_Wing"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"369th Infantry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/369th_Infantry_Regiment_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"8th Infantry Battalion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8th_Battalion_(Australia)"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"ANGAU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ANGAU"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Marine Aircraft Group 12","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_Aircraft_Group_12"},{"link_name":"Leyte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leyte"},{"link_name":"RNZAF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNZAF"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BOYp202-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"text":"The 4th Marines were relieved as the garrison of Emirau by the 147th Infantry on 11 April 1944. The next day, Noble was replaced as island commander by a marine aviator, Major General James T. Moore, the Commanding General of the 1st Marine Aircraft Wing.[16] In turn, the 147th Infantry was relieved as garrison by the 369th Infantry in June.[17] In August, General MacArthur directed that responsibility for garrisoning Emirau would be transferred to the Australian Army.[18] The Australian 8th Infantry Battalion arrived to take over the garrison role on Emirau on 30 September.[19] They were met by a small ANGAU detachment that had been on the island since May.[20] Marine Aircraft Group 12 operated from Emirau until December, when it moved to Leyte; its place was taken by squadrons of the RNZAF.[21] On 20 March 1945, General MacArthur authorized a reduction in the garrison size to one company of the 8th Infantry Battalion. In June 1945, it too was withdrawn.[22] CBMU 502 departed for Manus that month.[23] The RNZAF maintained a bomber-reconnaissance squadron at Emirau until July 1945, and a fighter squadron until August, when all forces were withdrawn from the island.[24]","title":"Garrison"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Miller_p380_6-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Miller_p380_6-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Shaw_p521_8-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Shaw_p521_8-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Shaw_and_Kane,_p._519_10-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-12"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Shaw_p522_13-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Shaw_p522_13-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Shaw_p522_13-2"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-14"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-BOYD_15-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-BOYD_15-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-16"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-17"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-18"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-19"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-20"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-21"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-22"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-BOYp202_23-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-24"},{"link_name":"Operations from Emirau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2AirF-c19-8.html"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20230201085403/https://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2AirF-c19-8.html"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"}],"text":"^ Hayes, History of the Joint Chiefs, pp. 312–313\n\n^ Drea, MacArthur's ULTRA, pp. 104–105\n\n^ Hayes, History of the Joint Chiefs, pp. 554–556\n\n^ Hayes, History of the Joint Chiefs, pp. 558–559\n\n^ Shaw and Kane, Isolation of Rabaul, p. 518\n\n^ a b Miller, CARTWHEEL: The Reduction of Rabaul, p. 380\n\n^ Building the Navy's Bases, p. 303\n\n^ a b Shaw and Kane, Isolation of Rabaul, p. 521\n\n^ Rottman, U.S. Marine Corps World War II Order of Battle, p. 318\n\n^ Shaw and Kane, Isolation of Rabaul, p. 519\n\n^ Morison, Breaking the Bismarcks Barrier, p. 423\n\n^ Dunbar, The Kavieng Massacre\n\n^ a b c Shaw and Kane, Isolation of Rabaul, p. 522\n\n^ G-3 Journal, GHQ AFPAC 9 April 1944, \"Emirau Operation — Operations of the Emirau Landing Force\", NAA(Vic): B6121/3 99A\n\n^ a b Building the Navy's bases, pp. 303–304\n\n^ Shaw and Kane, Isolation of Rabaul, p. 523\n\n^ Lee, The Employment of Negro Troops, p. 524\n\n^ Long, The Final Campaigns, p. 93\n\n^ War Diary, 23rd Infantry Brigade, 30 September 1944, AWM52 8/2/3\n\n^ Powell, The Third Force, pp. 132–133\n\n^ Shaw and Kane, Isolation of Rabaul, p. 533\n\n^ Long, The Final Campaigns, p. 201\n\n^ U.S. Navy, Building the Navy's Bases, p. 304\n\n^ Ross, Operations from Emirau Archived 1 February 2023 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 18 January 2009","title":"Notes"}]
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[{"image_text":"Bismarck Archipelago","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Karta_PG_Bismarck_Archipelago.PNG/330px-Karta_PG_Bismarck_Archipelago.PNG"},{"image_text":"Landing on Emirau","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Emirau_and_Kavieng.png/290px-Emirau_and_Kavieng.png"},{"image_text":"Supplies and equipment being brought ashore from landing craft to support the US Marine landing force. LVTs ferrying supplies ashore in the distance while a chain of men stretches from a landing craft to the shore to manhandle supplies to the beach.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Landing_on_Emirau_AWM305252.jpeg/220px-Landing_on_Emirau_AWM305252.jpeg"}]
| null |
[{"reference":"Drea, Edward J. (1992). MacArthur's Ultra: Codebreaking and the War Against Japan 1942–1945. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 0-7006-0504-5. OCLC 23651196.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_J._Drea","url_text":"Drea, Edward J."},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/macarthursultra00drea","url_text":"MacArthur's Ultra: Codebreaking and the War Against Japan 1942–1945"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7006-0504-5","url_text":"0-7006-0504-5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/23651196","url_text":"23651196"}]},{"reference":"Dunbar, Raden (2007). Kavieng Massacre: A War Crime Revealed. Binda, New South Wales: Sally Milner Publishing. ISBN 978-1-86351-368-5. OCLC 166356047.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86351-368-5","url_text":"978-1-86351-368-5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/166356047","url_text":"166356047"}]},{"reference":"Hayes, Grace P. (1982). The History of the Joint Chiefs of Staff in World War II: The War Against Japan. Annapolis, Maryland: United States Naval Institute. ISBN 0-87021-269-9. OCLC 7795125.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87021-269-9","url_text":"0-87021-269-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/7795125","url_text":"7795125"}]},{"reference":"Lee, Ulysses (1966). The Employment of Negro Troops (PDF). Washington, DC: Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army. OCLC 22126862. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 December 2022. Retrieved 11 May 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulysses_Lee","url_text":"Lee, Ulysses"},{"url":"https://history.army.mil/html/books/011/11-4/CMH_Pub_11-4-1.pdf","url_text":"The Employment of Negro Troops"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/22126862","url_text":"22126862"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20221215192029/https://history.army.mil/html/books/011/11-4/CMH_Pub_11-4-1.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Long, Gavin (1963). The Final Campaigns. Canberra: Australian War Memorial. OCLC 1297619. Archived from the original on 9 July 2015. Retrieved 25 July 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gavin_Long","url_text":"Long, Gavin"},{"url":"https://www.awm.gov.au/collection/RCDIG1070206/","url_text":"The Final Campaigns"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1297619","url_text":"1297619"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150709074906/https://www.awm.gov.au/collection/RCDIG1070206/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Miller, John Jr. (1959). Cartwheel: The Reduction of Rabaul. United States Army in World War II: The War in the Pacific. Washington, DC: Office of the Chief of Military History, U.S. Department of the Army. OCLC 1355535. Archived from the original on 4 February 2012. Retrieved 17 January 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-P-Rabaul/index.html","url_text":"Cartwheel: The Reduction of Rabaul"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1355535","url_text":"1355535"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120204033846/http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-P-Rabaul/index.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Morison, Samuel Eliot (1958). Breaking the Bismarcks Barrier. History of United States Naval Operations in World War II. Boston, Massachusetts: Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 0-78581-307-1. OCLC 10310299.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Eliot_Morison","url_text":"Morison, Samuel Eliot"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780785813071","url_text":"Breaking the Bismarcks Barrier"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-78581-307-1","url_text":"0-78581-307-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/10310299","url_text":"10310299"}]},{"reference":"Powell, Alan (2003). The Third Force:ANGAU's New Guinea War. Australian Army History Series. South Melbourne, Victoria: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-551639-7. OCLC 53173145.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-551639-7","url_text":"0-19-551639-7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/53173145","url_text":"53173145"}]},{"reference":"Ross, J. M. S. (2004). \"Operations from Emirau\". Royal New Zealand Air Force. Official history of New Zealand in the Second World War 1939–1945. Wellington, New Zealand: New Zealand Electronic Text Centre. OCLC 226971024. Archived from the original on 26 October 2012. Retrieved 22 April 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2AirF-c19-8.html","url_text":"Royal New Zealand Air Force"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/226971024","url_text":"226971024"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121026111425/http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2AirF-c19-8.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Rottman, Gordon L. (2002). U.S. Marine Corps World War II Order of Battle: Ground and Air units in the Pacific War, 1939–1945. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0-313-31906-5. OCLC 45708111. Retrieved 19 April 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=y56Dut69s5UC","url_text":"U.S. Marine Corps World War II Order of Battle: Ground and Air units in the Pacific War, 1939–1945"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-31906-5","url_text":"0-313-31906-5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/45708111","url_text":"45708111"}]},{"reference":"Shaw, Henry I. Jr.; Kane, Douglas T. (1963). Isolation of Rabaul (PDF). History of U.S. Marine Corps Operations of World War II. Vol. II. Washington, D.C.: Historical Branch, U.S. Marine Corps. OCLC 8137576. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 March 2021. Retrieved 4 July 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.usmcu.edu/Portals/218/History_of_the_U.S._Marine_Corps_in_WWII_Vol_II_-_Isolation_on_Rabaul__PCN_19000262500.pdf?ver=2018-10-30-092046-867","url_text":"Isolation of Rabaul"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/8137576","url_text":"8137576"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210324163214/https://www.usmcu.edu/Portals/218/History_of_the_U.S._Marine_Corps_in_WWII_Vol_II_-_Isolation_on_Rabaul__PCN_19000262500.pdf?ver=2018-10-30-092046-867","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"U.S. Navy Department (1947). Building the Navy's Bases in World War II, Volume II. History of the Bureau of Yards and Docks and the Civil Engineer Corps 1940–1946. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. OCLC 1023942.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1023942","url_text":"1023942"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erasmus_metro_station
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Erasmus metro station
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["1 See also","2 External links"]
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Coordinates: 50°48′55″N 4°16′02″E / 50.81528°N 4.26722°E / 50.81528; 4.26722Metro station in Brussels, Belgium
Erasme/Erasmus metro stationGeneral informationLocationRoute de Lennik / Lennikse BaanB-1070 Anderlecht, Brussels-Capital Region, BelgiumCoordinates50°48′55″N 4°16′02″E / 50.81528°N 4.26722°E / 50.81528; 4.26722Owned bySTIB/MIVBPlatforms1 island platformTracks2ConstructionStructure typeAt gradeAccessibleYesHistoryOpened15 September 2003; 20 years ago (2003-09-15)Services
Preceding station
Brussels Metro
Following station
Terminus
Line 5
Eddy Merckxtowards Herrmann-Debroux
Erasme (French) or Erasmus (Dutch) metro station is the western terminus of line 5 on the Brussels Metro. It is located in the municipality of Anderlecht, in the western part of Brussels, Belgium. The station was designed by Philippe Samyn and Partners and is named after Erasmus Hospital, which it serves. It lies at grade and has a single island platform, which can be reached through tunnels under the tracks.
The metro station opened on 15 September 2003 as part of the extension of former east–west line 1B including the stations La Roue/Het Rad, CERIA/COOVI and Eddy Merckx. Then, following the reorganisation of the Brussels Metro on 4 April 2009, it is served by the extended east–west line 5.
The entrance is from a street that goes under the station
See also
Belgium portal
Transport in Brussels
History of Brussels
External links
Media related to Erasmus/Érasme metro station at Wikimedia Commons
vte Brussels MetroLine 1
Gare de l'Ouest/Weststation
Beekkant
Étangs Noirs/Zwarte Vijvers
Comte de Flandre/Graaf van Vlaanderen
Sainte-Catherine/Sint-Katelijne
De Brouckère
Gare Centrale/Centraal Station
Parc/Park
Arts-Loi/Kunst-Wet
Maelbeek/Maalbeek
Schuman
Merode
Montgomery
Joséphine-Charlotte
Gribaumont
Tomberg
Roodebeek
Vandervelde
Alma
Kraainem/Crainhem
Stockel/Stokkel
Line 2
Elisabeth
Ribaucourt
Yser/IJzer
Rogier
Botanique/Kruidtuin
Madou
Arts-Loi/Kunst-Wet
Trône/Troon
Porte de Namur/Naamsepoort
Louise/Louiza
Hôtel des Monnaies/Munthof
Porte de Hal/Hallepoort
Gare du Midi/Zuidstation
Clemenceau
Delacroix
Gare de l'Ouest/Weststation
Beekkant
Osseghem/Ossegem
Simonis
Line 3
Esplanade —— Rogier
De Brouckère
Bourse/Beurs
Anneessens
Lemonnier
Gare du Midi/Zuidstation
Porte de Hal/Hallepoort
Parvis de Saint-Gilles/Sint-Gillis Voorplein
Horta
Albert —— Churchill
Line 4
Gare du Nord/Noordstation
Rogier
De Brouckère
Bourse/Beurs
Anneessens
Lemonnier
Gare du Midi/Zuidstation
Porte de Hal/Hallepoort
Parvis de Saint-Gilles/Sint-Gillis Voorplein
Horta
Albert —— Stalle car park
Line 5
Erasme/Erasmus
Eddy Merckx
CERIA/COOVI
La Roue/Het Rad
Bizet
Veeweyde/Veeweide
Saint-Guidon/Sint-Guido
Aumale
Jacques Brel
Gare de l'Ouest/Weststation
Beekkant
Étangs Noirs/Zwarte Vijvers
Comte de Flandre/Graaf van Vlaanderen
Sainte-Catherine/Sint-Katelijne
De Brouckère
Gare Centrale/Centraal Station
Parc/Park
Arts-Loi/Kunst-Wet
Maelbeek/Maalbeek
Schuman
Merode
Thieffry
Pétillon
Hankar
Delta
Beaulieu
Demey
Herrmann-Debroux
Line 6
Roi Baudouin/Koning Boudewijn
Heysel/Heizel
Houba-Brugmann
Stuyvenbergh
Bockstael
Pannenhuis
Belgica
Simonis
Osseghem/Ossegem
Beekkant
Gare de l'Ouest/Weststation
Delacroix
Clemenceau
Gare du Midi/Zuidstation
Porte de Hal/Hallepoort
Hôtel des Monnaies/Munthof
Louise/Louiza
Porte de Namur/Naamsepoort
Trône/Troon
Arts-Loi/Kunst-Wet
Botanique/Kruidtuin
Rogier
Yser/IJzer
Ribaucourt
Elisabeth
Line 7
Heysel/Heizel —— Diamant
Georges Henri
Montgomery
Boileau —— Vanderkindere
Brussels buses
Brussels trams
List of stations
STIB/MIVB
This article about a Belgian railway station is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphical_perspective
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Perspective (graphical)
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["1 Overview","1.1 Examples of one-point perspective","1.2 Examples of two-point perspective","1.3 Examples of three-point perspective","1.4 Examples of curvilinear perspective","2 History","2.1 Early history","2.2 Renaissance","3 Limitations","4 See also","5 Notes","6 References","6.1 Sources","7 Further reading","8 External links"]
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Form of graphical projection where the projection lines converge to one or more points
"Perspective projection" redirects here. For a more mathematical treatment, see Perspective transform.
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Staircase in six-point perspective
External videos Linear Perspective: Brunelleschi's Experiment, Khan Academy How One-Point Linear Perspective Works, Smarthistory Empire of the Eye: The Magic of Illusion: The Trinity-Masaccio, Part 2, National Gallery of Art
Linear or point-projection perspective (from Latin perspicere 'to see through') is one of two types of graphical projection perspective in the graphic arts; the other is parallel projection. Linear perspective is an approximate representation, generally on a flat surface, of an image as it is seen by the eye. Perspective drawing is useful for representing a three-dimensional scene in a two-dimensional medium, like paper. It is based on the optical fact that for a person an object looks N times (linearly) smaller if it has been moved N times further from the eye than the original distance was.
The most characteristic features of linear perspective are that objects appear smaller as their distance from the observer increases, and that they are subject to foreshortening, meaning that an object's dimensions parallel to the line of sight appear shorter than its dimensions perpendicular to the line of sight. All objects will recede to points in the distance, usually along the horizon line, but also above and below the horizon line depending on the view used.
Italian Renaissance painters and architects including Filippo Brunelleschi, Leon Battista Alberti, Masaccio, Paolo Uccello, Piero della Francesca and Luca Pacioli studied linear perspective, wrote treatises on it, and incorporated it into their artworks.
Overview
Rays of light travel from the object, through the picture plane, and to the viewer's eye. This is the basis for graphical perspective.
Perspective works by representing the light that passes from a scene through an imaginary rectangle (the picture plane), to the viewer's eye, as if a viewer were looking through a window and painting what is seen directly onto the windowpane. If viewed from the same spot as the windowpane was painted, the painted image would be identical to what was seen through the unpainted window. Each painted object in the scene is thus a flat, scaled down version of the object on the other side of the window.
Examples of one-point perspective
A cube drawing using two-point perspective
Examples of two-point perspective
A cube in three-point perspective
Examples of three-point perspective
Examples of curvilinear perspective
Main article: Curvilinear perspective
Additionally, a central vanishing point can be used (just as with one-point perspective) to indicate frontal (foreshortened) depth.
History
Chauvet cave, spatially effective grading of a group of animals through overlap (c. 31.000 BC)
Fresco from an Egyptian grave, c. 1500 BC
Fresco from the Villa of Publius Fannius Synistor in Boscoreale near Pompeii, 1st ct. BC
A Song dynasty watercolor painting of a mill in an oblique projection, 12th century
The floor tiles in Lorenzetti's Annunciation (1344) strongly anticipate modern perspective
Early history
The earliest art paintings and drawings typically sized many objects and characters hierarchically according to their spiritual or thematic importance, not their distance from the viewer, and did not use foreshortening. The most important figures are often shown as the highest in a composition, also from hieratic motives, leading to the so-called "vertical perspective", common in the art of Ancient Egypt, where a group of "nearer" figures are shown below the larger figure or figures; simple overlapping was also employed to relate distance. Additionally, oblique foreshortening of round elements like shields and wheels is evident in Ancient Greek red-figure pottery.
Systematic attempts to evolve a system of perspective are usually considered to have begun around the fifth century BC in the art of ancient Greece, as part of a developing interest in illusionism allied to theatrical scenery. This was detailed within Aristotle's Poetics as skenographia: using flat panels on a stage to give the illusion of depth. The philosophers Anaxagoras and Democritus worked out geometric theories of perspective for use with skenographia. Alcibiades had paintings in his house designed using skenographia, so this art was not confined merely to the stage. Euclid in his Optics (c. 300 BC) argues correctly that the perceived size of an object is not related to its distance from the eye by a simple proportion. In the first-century BC frescoes of the Villa of P. Fannius Synistor, multiple vanishing points are used in a systematic but not fully consistent manner.
Chinese artists made use of oblique projection from the first or second century until the 18th century. It is not certain how they came to use the technique; Dubery and Willats (1983) speculate that the Chinese acquired the technique from India, which acquired it from Ancient Rome, while others credit it as an indigenous invention of Ancient China. Oblique projection is also seen in Japanese art, such as in the Ukiyo-e paintings of Torii Kiyonaga (1752–1815).
By the later periods of antiquity, artists, especially those in less popular traditions, were well aware that distant objects could be shown smaller than those close at hand for increased realism, but whether this convention was actually used in a work depended on many factors. Some of the paintings found in the ruins of Pompeii show a remarkable realism and perspective for their time. It has been claimed that comprehensive systems of perspective were evolved in antiquity, but most scholars do not accept this. Hardly any of the many works where such a system would have been used have survived. A passage in Philostratus suggests that classical artists and theorists thought in terms of "circles" at equal distance from the viewer, like a classical semi-circular theatre seen from the stage. The roof beams in rooms in the Vatican Virgil, from about 400 AD, are shown converging, more or less, on a common vanishing point, but this is not systematically related to the rest of the composition.
Medieval artists in Europe, like those in the Islamic world and China, were aware of the general principle of varying the relative size of elements according to distance, but even more than classical art were perfectly ready to override it for other reasons. Buildings were often shown obliquely according to a particular convention. The use and sophistication of attempts to convey distance increased steadily during the period, but without a basis in a systematic theory. Byzantine art was also aware of these principles, but also used the reverse perspective convention for the setting of principal figures. Ambrogio Lorenzetti painted a floor with convergent lines in his Presentation at the Temple (1342), though the rest of the painting lacks perspective elements.
Renaissance
Detail of Masolino da Panicale's St. Peter Healing a Cripple and the Raising of Tabitha (c. 1423), the earliest extant artwork known to use a consistent vanishing point
It is generally accepted that Filippo Brunelleschi conducted a series of experiments between 1415 and 1420, which included making drawings of various Florentine buildings in correct perspective. According to Vasari and Antonio Manetti, in about 1420, Brunelleschi demonstrated his discovery by having people look through a hole in the back of a painting he had made. Through it, they would see a building such as the Florence Baptistery. When Brunelleschi lifted a mirror in front of the viewer, it reflected his painting of the buildings which had been seen previously, so that the vanishing point was centered from the perspective of the participant. Brunelleschi applied the new system of perspective to his paintings around 1425.
This scenario is indicative, but faces several problems, that are still debated.
First of all, nothing can be said for certain about the correctness of his perspective construction of the Baptistery of San Giovanni, because Brunelleschi's panel is lost.
Second, no other perspective painting or drawing by Brunelleschi is known. (In fact, Brunelleschi was not known to have painted at all.)
Third, in the account written by Antonio Manetti in his Vita di Ser Brunellesco at the end of the 15th century on Brunelleschi's panel, there is not a single occurrence of the word "experiment".
Fourth, the conditions listed by Manetti are contradictory with each other. For example, the description of the eyepiece sets a visual field of 15°, much narrower than the visual field resulting from the urban landscape described.
Melozzo da Forlì's use of upward foreshortening in his frescoes, Basilica dei Santi Apostoli, Rome, c. 1480
Soon after Brunelleschi's demonstrations, nearly every interested artist in Florence and in Italy used geometrical perspective in their paintings and sculpture, notably Donatello, Masaccio,Lorenzo Ghiberti, Masolino da Panicale, Paolo Uccello, and Filippo Lippi. Not only was perspective a way of showing depth, it was also a new method of creating a composition. Visual art could now depict a single, unified scene, rather than a combination of several. Early examples include Masolino's St. Peter Healing a Cripple and the Raising of Tabitha (c. 1423), Donatello's The Feast of Herod (c. 1427), as well as Ghiberti's Jacob and Esau and other panels from the east doors of the Florence Baptistery. Masaccio (d. 1428) achieved an illusionistic effect by placing the vanishing point at the viewer's eye level in his Holy Trinity (c. 1427), and in The Tribute Money, it is placed behind the face of Jesus. In the late 15th century, Melozzo da Forlì first applied the technique of foreshortening (in Rome, Loreto, Forlì and others).
This overall story is based on qualitative judgments, and would need to be faced against the material evaluations that have been conducted on Renaissance perspective paintings.
Apart from the paintings of Piero della Francesca, which are a model of the genre, the majority of 15th century works show serious errors in their geometric construction. This is true of Masaccio's Trinity fresco and of many works, including those by renowned artists like Leonardo da Vinci.
As shown by the quick proliferation of accurate perspective paintings in Florence, Brunelleschi likely understood (with help from his friend the mathematician Toscanelli), but did not publish, the mathematics behind perspective. Decades later, his friend Leon Battista Alberti wrote De pictura (c. 1435), a treatise on proper methods of showing distance in painting. Alberti's primary breakthrough was not to show the mathematics in terms of conical projections, as it actually appears to the eye. Instead, he formulated the theory based on planar projections, or how the rays of light, passing from the viewer's eye to the landscape, would strike the picture plane (the painting). He was then able to calculate the apparent height of a distant object using two similar triangles. The mathematics behind similar triangles is relatively simple, having been long ago formulated by Euclid. Alberti was also trained in the science of optics through the school of Padua and under the influence of Biagio Pelacani da Parma who studied Alhazen's Book of Optics. This book, translated around 1200 into Latin, had laid the mathematical foundation for perspective in Europe.
Pietro Perugino's use of perspective in Delivery of the Keys (1482), a fresco at the Sistine Chapel
Piero della Francesca elaborated on De pictura in his De Prospectiva pingendi in the 1470s, making many references to Euclid. Alberti had limited himself to figures on the ground plane and giving an overall basis for perspective. Della Francesca fleshed it out, explicitly covering solids in any area of the picture plane. Della Francesca also started the now common practice of using illustrated figures to explain the mathematical concepts, making his treatise easier to understand than Alberti's. Della Francesca was also the first to accurately draw the Platonic solids as they would appear in perspective. Luca Pacioli's 1509 Divina proportione (Divine Proportion), illustrated by Leonardo da Vinci, summarizes the use of perspective in painting, including much of Della Francesca's treatise. Leonardo applied one-point perspective as well as shallow focus to some of his works.
Two-point perspective was demonstrated as early as 1525 by Albrecht Dürer, who studied perspective by reading Piero and Pacioli's works, in his Unterweisung der Messung ("Instruction of the Measurement").
Limitations
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Satire on False Perspective by William Hogarth, 1753
Example of a painting that combines various perspectives: The Frozen City (Museum of Art Aarau, Switzerland) by Matthias A. K. Zimmermann
Perspective images are created with reference to a particular center of vision for the picture plane. In order for the resulting image to appear identical to the original scene, a viewer must view the image from the exact vantage point used in the calculations relative to the image. When viewed from a different point, this cancels out what would appear to be distortions in the image. For example, a sphere drawn in perspective will be stretched into an ellipse. These apparent distortions are more pronounced away from the center of the image as the angle between a projected ray (from the scene to the eye) becomes more acute relative to the picture plane. Artists may choose to "correct" perspective distortions, for example by drawing all spheres as perfect circles, or by drawing figures as if centered on the direction of view. In practice, unless the viewer observes the image from an extreme angle, like standing far to the side of a painting, the perspective normally looks more or less correct. This is referred to as "Zeeman's Paradox".
See also
Anamorphosis
Camera angle
Cutaway drawing
Perspective control
Trompe-l'œil
Uki-e
Zograscope
Notes
^ In the 18th century, Chinese artists began to combine oblique perspective with regular diminution of size of people and objects with distance; no particular vantage point is chosen, but a convincing effect is achieved.
^ Near the end of the 15th century, Leonardo da Vinci placed the vanishing point in his Last Supper behind Christ's other cheek.
^ In viewing a wall, for instance, the first triangle has a vertex at the user's eye, and vertices at the top and bottom of the wall. The bottom of this triangle is the distance from the viewer to the wall. The second, similar triangle, has a point at the viewer's eye, and has a length equal to the viewer's eye from the painting. The height of the second triangle can then be determined through a simple ratio, as proven by Euclid.
References
^ "Linear Perspective: Brunelleschi's Experiment". Khan Academy. Retrieved 2 June 2024.
^ "How One-Point Linear Perspective Works". Smarthistory at Khan Academy. Archived from the original on 13 July 2013. Retrieved 12 May 2013.
^ "Empire of the Eye: The Magic of Illusion: The Trinity-Masaccio, Part 2". National Gallery of Art at ArtBabble. Archived from the original on 1 May 2013. Retrieved 12 May 2013.
^ D'Amelio, Joseph (2003). Perspective Drawing Handbook. Dover. p. 19. ISBN 9780486432083.
^ "The Beginner's Guide to Perspective Drawing". The Curiously Creative. Retrieved 17 August 2019.
^ a b Hurt, Carla (9 August 2013). "Romans paint better perspective than Renaissance artists". Found in Antiquity. Retrieved 4 October 2020.
^ Calvert, Amy. "Egyptian Art (article)". Khan Academy. Retrieved 14 May 2020.
^ Regoli, Gigetta Dalli; Gioseffi, Decio; Mellini, Gian Lorenzo; Salvini, Roberto (1968). Vatican Museums: Rome. Italy: Newsweek. p. 22.
^ "Skenographia in Fifth Century". CUNY. Archived from the original on 17 December 2007. Retrieved 27 December 2007.
^ Smith, A. Mark (1999). Ptolemy and the Foundations of Ancient Mathematical Optics: A Source Based Guided Study. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society. p. 57. ISBN 978-0-87169-893-3.
^ a b c Cucker, Felipe (2013). Manifold Mirrors: The Crossing Paths of the Arts and Mathematics. Cambridge University Press. pp. 269–278. ISBN 978-0-521-72876-8. Dubery and Willats (1983:33) write that 'Oblique projection seems to have arrived in China from Rome by way of India round about the first or second century AD.' Figure 10.9 shows an archetype of the classical use of oblique perspective in Chinese painting.
^ "Seeing History: Is perspective learned or natural?". Eclectic Light. 10 January 2018. Over the same period, the development of sophisticated and highly-detailed visual art in Asia arrived at a slightly different solution, now known as the oblique projection. Whereas Roman and subsequent European visual art effectively had multiple and incoherent vanishing points, Asian art usually lacked any vanishing point, but aligned recession in parallel. An important factor here is the use of long scrolls, which even now make fully coherent perspective projection unsuitable.
^ Martijn de Geus (9 March 2019). "China Projections". Arch Daily. Retrieved 8 July 2020.
^ Krikke, Jan (2 January 2018). "Why the world relies on a Chinese "perspective"". Medium.com. About 2000 years ago, the Chinese developed dengjiao toushi (等角透視), a graphic tool probably invented by Chinese architects. It came to be known in the West as axonometry. Axonometry was crucial in the development of the Chinese hand scroll painting, an art form that art historian George Rowley referred to as "the supreme creation of Chinese genius". Classic hand scroll paintings were up to ten meters in length. They are viewed by unrolling them from right to left in equal segments of about 50 cm. The painting takes the viewer through a visual story in space and time.
^ "Pompeii. House of the Vettii. Fauces and Priapus". SUNY Buffalo. Archived from the original on 24 December 2007. Retrieved 27 December 2007.
^ Panofsky, Erwin (1960). Renaissance and Renascences in Western Art. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell. p. 122, note 1. ISBN 0-06-430026-9.
^ Vatican Virgil image
^ Heidi J. Hornik and Mikeal Carl Parsons, Illuminating Luke: The infancy narrative in Italian Renaissance painting, p. 132
^ "Perspective: The Rise of Renaissance Perspective". WebExhibits. Retrieved 15 October 2020.
^ Gärtner, Peter (1998). Brunelleschi. Cologne: Könemann. p. 23. ISBN 978-3-8290-0701-6.
^ Edgerton 2009, pp. 44–46.
^ Edgerton 2009, p. 40.
^ Dominique Raynaud (1998). L'Hypothèse d'Oxford. Essai sur les origines de la perspective. Paris: Presses universitaires de France. pp. 132–141.
^ Raynaud, Dominique (2014). Optics and the Rise of Perspective. Oxford: Bardwell Press. pp. 1–2].
^ "...and these works (of perspective by Brunelleschi) were the means of arousing the minds of the other craftsmen, who afterwards devoted themselves to this with great zeal."Vasari's Lives of the Artists, chapter on Brunelleschi.
^ a b Hale, John R . (1981) . Great Ages of Man: Renaissance (rev. ed.). Time-Life. p. 98.
^ "The Gates of Paradise: Lorenzo Ghiberti's Renaissance Masterpiece". Art Institute of Chicago. 2007. Retrieved 20 September 2020.
^ Vasari, The Lives of the Artists, "Masaccio".
^ Adams, Laurie (2001). Italian Renaissance Art. Oxford: Westview Press. p. 98. ISBN 978-0-8133-4902-2.
^ White, Susan D. (2006). Draw Like Da Vinci. London: Cassell Illustrated, p. 132. ISBN 978-1-84403-444-4.
^ Harness, Brenda. "Melozzo da Forli: Master of Foreshortening". Fine Art Touch. Retrieved 15 October 2020.
^ Field, J. V.; Lunardi, R.; Settle, T. B. (1989). "The perspective scheme of Masaccio's Trinity fresco". Nuncius. 4 (2): 31–118. doi:10.1163/182539189X00680. INIST 11836604.
^ Dominique Raynaud (1998). L'Hypothèse d'Oxford. Paris: Presses universitaires de France. pp. 72–120.
^ Raynaud, Dominique (2016). "Fact and Fiction Regarding Masaccio's Trinity Fresco". Studies on Binocular Vision. Archimedes. Vol. 47. pp. 53–67. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-42721-8_4. ISBN 978-3-319-42720-1.
^ Raynaud, Dominique (2020). "Las fuentes ópticas de Leonardo". In Ramón-Laca, Luis (ed.). Leonardo da Vinci. Perspectiva y visión. Alcalá de Henares: UAH. pp. 61–62. ISBN 978-84-18254-89-5. OCLC 1243556932.
^ Vasari, Giorgio (1885). Stories of the Italian Artists. Scribner & Welford. p. 53. Messer Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli, having returned from his studies, invited Filippo with other friends to supper in a garden, and the discourse falling on mathematical subjects, Filippo formed a friendship with him and learned geometry from him.
^ El-Bizri, Nader (2010). "Classical Optics and the Perspectiva Traditions Leading to the Renaissance". In Hendrix, John Shannon; Carman, Charles H. (eds.). Renaissance Theories of Vision (Visual Culture in Early Modernity). Farnham, Surrey: Ashgate Publishing. pp. 11–30. ISBN 978-1-409400-24-0.
^ Hans, Belting (2011). Florence and Baghdad: Renaissance art and Arab science (1st English ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. pp. 90–92. ISBN 978-0-674-05004-4. OCLC 701493612.
^ Livio, Mario (2003). The Golden Ratio. New York: Broadway Books. p. 126. ISBN 0-7679-0816-3.
^ O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F. (July 1999). "Luca Pacioli". University of St Andrews. Archived from the original on 22 September 2015. Retrieved 23 September 2015.
^ Goldstein, Andrew M. (17 November 2011). "The Male "Mona Lisa"?: Art Historian Martin Kemp on Leonardo da Vinci's Mysterious "Salvator Mundi"". Blouin Artinfo.
^ MacKinnon, Nick (1993). "The Portrait of Fra Luca Pacioli". The Mathematical Gazette. 77 (479): 206. doi:10.2307/3619717. JSTOR 3619717. S2CID 195006163.
^ "Handprint : Perspective in the world". Archived from the original on 6 January 2007. Retrieved 25 December 2006. Retrieved on 25 December 2006
Sources
Edgerton, Samuel Y. (2009). The Mirror, the Window & the Telescope: How Renaissance Linear Perspective Changed Our Vision of the Universe. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-4758-7.
Further reading
Andersen, Kirsti (2007). The Geometry of an Art: The History of the Mathematical Theory of Perspective from Alberti to Monge. Springer.
Damisch, Hubert (1994). The Origin of Perspective, Translated by John Goodman. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
Gill, Robert W (1974). Perspective From Basic to Creative. Australia: Thames & Hudson.
Hyman, Isabelle, comp (1974). Brunelleschi in Perspective. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Kemp, Martin (1992). The Science of Art: Optical Themes in Western Art from Brunelleschi to Seurat. Yale University Press.
Pérez-Gómez, Alberto; Pelletier, Louise (1997). Architectural Representation and the Perspective Hinge. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
Raynaud, Dominique (2003). "Linear perspective in Masaccio's Trinity fresco: Demonstration or self-persuasion?". Nuncius. 18 (1): 331–344. doi:10.1163/182539103X00684.
Raynaud, Dominique (2014). Optics and the Rise of Perspective. A Study in Network Knowledge Diffusion. Oxford: Bardwell Press.
Raynaud, Dominique (2016). Studies on Binocular Vision. Archimedes. Vol. 47. Bibcode:2016sbvo.book.....R. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-42721-8. ISBN 978-3-319-42720-1. S2CID 151589160.
Vasari, Giorgio (1568). The Lives of the Artists. Florence, Italy.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Perspective drawings.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Evolution of Perspective.
Teaching Perspective in Art and Mathematics through Leonardo da Vinci's Work at Mathematical Association of America
Metaphysical Perspective in Ancient Roman-Wall Painting
How to Draw a Two Point Perspective Grid at Creating Comics
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vteCinematic techniquesLighting
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vteSpecial effectsPractical
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vteMathematics and artConcepts
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A Treatise on Painting
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The 'Life' of a Carpet
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|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Perspective transform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perspective_transform"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Staircase_perspective.jpg"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_language"},{"link_name":"perspicere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/perspicere#Latin"},{"link_name":"graphical projection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_projection"},{"link_name":"graphic arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphic_arts"},{"link_name":"parallel projection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_projection"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"the eye","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Station_point"},{"link_name":"three-dimensional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-dimensional_space"},{"link_name":"two-dimensional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plane_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"paper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper"},{"link_name":"parallel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"line of sight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_of_sight"},{"link_name":"perpendicular","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perpendicular"},{"link_name":"Italian Renaissance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Renaissance"},{"link_name":"Filippo Brunelleschi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filippo_Brunelleschi"},{"link_name":"Leon Battista Alberti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Battista_Alberti"},{"link_name":"Masaccio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masaccio"},{"link_name":"Paolo Uccello","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paolo_Uccello"},{"link_name":"Piero della Francesca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piero_della_Francesca"},{"link_name":"Luca Pacioli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luca_Pacioli"}],"text":"\"Perspective projection\" redirects here. For a more mathematical treatment, see Perspective transform.Staircase in six-point perspectiveLinear or point-projection perspective (from Latin perspicere 'to see through') is one of two types of graphical projection perspective in the graphic arts; the other is parallel projection.[citation needed] Linear perspective is an approximate representation, generally on a flat surface, of an image as it is seen by the eye. Perspective drawing is useful for representing a three-dimensional scene in a two-dimensional medium, like paper. It is based on the optical fact that for a person an object looks N times (linearly) smaller if it has been moved N times further from the eye than the original distance was.The most characteristic features of linear perspective are that objects appear smaller as their distance from the observer increases, and that they are subject to foreshortening, meaning that an object's dimensions parallel to the line of sight appear shorter than its dimensions perpendicular to the line of sight. All objects will recede to points in the distance, usually along the horizon line, but also above and below the horizon line depending on the view used.Italian Renaissance painters and architects including Filippo Brunelleschi, Leon Battista Alberti, Masaccio, Paolo Uccello, Piero della Francesca and Luca Pacioli studied linear perspective, wrote treatises on it, and incorporated it into their artworks.","title":"Perspective (graphical)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Perspectiva-2.svg"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Rays of light travel from the object, through the picture plane, and to the viewer's eye. This is the basis for graphical perspective.Perspective works by representing the light that passes from a scene through an imaginary rectangle (the picture plane), to the viewer's eye, as if a viewer were looking through a window and painting what is seen directly onto the windowpane. If viewed from the same spot as the windowpane was painted, the painted image would be identical to what was seen through the unpainted window. Each painted object in the scene is thus a flat, scaled down version of the object on the other side of the window.[4]","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Perspective1.jpg"}],"sub_title":"Examples of one-point perspective","text":"A cube drawing using two-point perspective","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Perspective-3point.svg"}],"sub_title":"Examples of two-point perspective","text":"A cube in three-point perspective","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:South_tower_of_the_Notre_Dame.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Canary_wharf_looking_up.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Whitaker,_Rawtenstall,_formerly_Rossendale_Museum,_Lancashire,_England_2008.jpg"}],"sub_title":"Examples of three-point perspective","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cmglee_Judge_Business_School_rear.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boston,_Boylston_Street.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:194_-_Buenos_Aires_-_Casa_Rosada_-_Janvier_2010.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Regensburg_Uferpanorama_08_2006.jpg"}],"sub_title":"Examples of curvilinear perspective","text":"Additionally, a central vanishing point can be used (just as with one-point perspective) to indicate frontal (foreshortened) depth.[5]","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Paintings_from_the_Chauvet_cave_(museum_replica).jpg"},{"link_name":"Chauvet cave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chauvet_cave"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%C3%84gyptischer_Maler_um_1500_v._Chr._001.jpg"},{"link_name":"Fresco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fresco"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cubiculum_(bedroom)_from_the_Villa_of_P._Fannius_Synistor_at_Boscoreale_MET_DP170950.jpg"},{"link_name":"Villa of Publius Fannius Synistor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villa_Boscoreale"},{"link_name":"Boscoreale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boscoreale"},{"link_name":"Pompeii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeii"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FoundInAntiquity-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Song_Dynasty_Hydraulic_Mill_for_Grain.JPG"},{"link_name":"Song dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song_dynasty"},{"link_name":"oblique projection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oblique_projection"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lorenzetti_Ambrogio_annunciation-_1344..jpg"},{"link_name":"Lorenzetti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambrogio_Lorenzetti"}],"text":"Chauvet cave, spatially effective grading of a group of animals through overlap (c. 31.000 BC)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tFresco from an Egyptian grave, c. 1500 BC\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tFresco from the Villa of Publius Fannius Synistor in Boscoreale near Pompeii, 1st ct. BC[6]\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tA Song dynasty watercolor painting of a mill in an oblique projection, 12th century\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe floor tiles in Lorenzetti's Annunciation (1344) strongly anticipate modern perspective","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"composition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composition_(visual_arts)"},{"link_name":"hieratic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hieratic"},{"link_name":"art of Ancient Egypt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_of_Ancient_Egypt"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Ancient Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek"},{"link_name":"red-figure pottery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red-figure_pottery"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"art of ancient Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_of_ancient_Greece"},{"link_name":"illusionism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusionism"},{"link_name":"Aristotle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle"},{"link_name":"Poetics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Anaxagoras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaxagoras"},{"link_name":"Democritus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democritus"},{"link_name":"Alcibiades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcibiades"},{"link_name":"Euclid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclid"},{"link_name":"Optics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclid%27s_Optics"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"frescoes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fresco"},{"link_name":"Villa of P. Fannius Synistor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villa_of_P._Fannius_Synistor"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FoundInAntiquity-6"},{"link_name":"oblique projection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oblique_projection"},{"link_name":"Willats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Willats"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cucker269-11"},{"link_name":"Ancient China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_China"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Ukiyo-e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukiyo-e"},{"link_name":"Torii Kiyonaga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torii_Kiyonaga"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cucker269-11"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"ruins of Pompeii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_the_Vettii"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Philostratus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philostratus_III"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Vatican Virgil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vergilius_Vaticanus"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Byzantine art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_art"},{"link_name":"reverse perspective","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_perspective"},{"link_name":"Ambrogio Lorenzetti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambrogio_Lorenzetti"},{"link_name":"Presentation at the Temple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presentation_at_the_Temple_(Ambrogio_Lorenzetti)"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"sub_title":"Early history","text":"The earliest art paintings and drawings typically sized many objects and characters hierarchically according to their spiritual or thematic importance, not their distance from the viewer, and did not use foreshortening. The most important figures are often shown as the highest in a composition, also from hieratic motives, leading to the so-called \"vertical perspective\", common in the art of Ancient Egypt, where a group of \"nearer\" figures are shown below the larger figure or figures; simple overlapping was also employed to relate distance.[7] Additionally, oblique foreshortening of round elements like shields and wheels is evident in Ancient Greek red-figure pottery.[8]Systematic attempts to evolve a system of perspective are usually considered to have begun around the fifth century BC in the art of ancient Greece, as part of a developing interest in illusionism allied to theatrical scenery. This was detailed within Aristotle's Poetics as skenographia: using flat panels on a stage to give the illusion of depth.[9] The philosophers Anaxagoras and Democritus worked out geometric theories of perspective for use with skenographia. Alcibiades had paintings in his house designed using skenographia, so this art was not confined merely to the stage. Euclid in his Optics (c. 300 BC) argues correctly that the perceived size of an object is not related to its distance from the eye by a simple proportion.[10] In the first-century BC frescoes of the Villa of P. Fannius Synistor, multiple vanishing points are used in a systematic but not fully consistent manner.[6]Chinese artists made use of oblique projection from the first or second century until the 18th century. It is not certain how they came to use the technique; Dubery and Willats (1983) speculate that the Chinese acquired the technique from India, which acquired it from Ancient Rome,[11] while others credit it as an indigenous invention of Ancient China.[12][13][14] Oblique projection is also seen in Japanese art, such as in the Ukiyo-e paintings of Torii Kiyonaga (1752–1815).[11][a]By the later periods of antiquity, artists, especially those in less popular traditions, were well aware that distant objects could be shown smaller than those close at hand for increased realism, but whether this convention was actually used in a work depended on many factors. Some of the paintings found in the ruins of Pompeii show a remarkable realism and perspective for their time.[15] It has been claimed that comprehensive systems of perspective were evolved in antiquity, but most scholars do not accept this. Hardly any of the many works where such a system would have been used have survived. A passage in Philostratus suggests that classical artists and theorists thought in terms of \"circles\" at equal distance from the viewer, like a classical semi-circular theatre seen from the stage.[16] The roof beams in rooms in the Vatican Virgil, from about 400 AD, are shown converging, more or less, on a common vanishing point, but this is not systematically related to the rest of the composition.[17]Medieval artists in Europe, like those in the Islamic world and China, were aware of the general principle of varying the relative size of elements according to distance, but even more than classical art were perfectly ready to override it for other reasons. Buildings were often shown obliquely according to a particular convention. The use and sophistication of attempts to convey distance increased steadily during the period, but without a basis in a systematic theory. Byzantine art was also aware of these principles, but also used the reverse perspective convention for the setting of principal figures. Ambrogio Lorenzetti painted a floor with convergent lines in his Presentation at the Temple (1342), though the rest of the painting lacks perspective elements.[18]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cappella_brancacci,_Guarigione_dello_storpio_e_resurrezione_di_Tabita_(restaurato),_Masolino.jpg"},{"link_name":"Masolino da Panicale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masolino_da_Panicale"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Filippo Brunelleschi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filippo_Brunelleschi"},{"link_name":"a series of experiments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filippo_Brunelleschi#Linear_perspective"},{"link_name":"Florentine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florence"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Vasari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasari"},{"link_name":"Antonio Manetti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Manetti"},{"link_name":"Florence Baptistery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florence_Baptistery"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdgerton200944%E2%80%9346-22"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdgerton200940-23"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Melozzo_da_forl%C3%AC,_apostolo,_1480_ca.,_da_ss._apostoli,_02.JPG"},{"link_name":"Melozzo da Forlì","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melozzo_da_Forl%C3%AC"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Donatello","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donatello"},{"link_name":"Masaccio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masaccio"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-great-27"},{"link_name":"Lorenzo Ghiberti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorenzo_Ghiberti"},{"link_name":"Masolino da Panicale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masolino_da_Panicale"},{"link_name":"Paolo Uccello","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paolo_Uccello"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-great-27"},{"link_name":"Filippo Lippi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filippo_Lippi"},{"link_name":"The Feast of Herod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Feast_of_Herod_(Donatello)"},{"link_name":"Jacob and Esau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Firenze,_Porta_del_Pradiso,_detail.jpg"},{"link_name":"east doors of the Florence Baptistery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florence_Baptistery#Lorenzo_Ghiberti"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Holy Trinity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Trinity_(Masaccio)"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"The Tribute Money","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tribute_Money_(Masaccio)"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Melozzo da Forlì","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melozzo_da_Forl%C3%AC"},{"link_name":"Loreto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loreto_(AN)"},{"link_name":"Forlì","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forl%C3%AC"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Piero della Francesca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piero_della_Francesca"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"Toscanelli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toscanelli"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Leon Battista Alberti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Battista_Alberti"},{"link_name":"De pictura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_pictura"},{"link_name":"[c]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Biagio Pelacani da Parma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biagio_Pelacani_da_Parma"},{"link_name":"Alhazen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alhazen"},{"link_name":"Book of Optics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Optics"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Entrega_de_las_llaves_a_San_Pedro_(Perugino).jpg"},{"link_name":"Pietro Perugino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pietro_Perugino"},{"link_name":"Delivery of the Keys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delivery_of_the_Keys_(Perugino)"},{"link_name":"Sistine Chapel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistine_Chapel"},{"link_name":"De Prospectiva pingendi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Prospectiva_pingendi"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"Platonic solids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platonic_solids"},{"link_name":"Luca Pacioli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luca_Pacioli"},{"link_name":"Divina proportione","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divina_proportione"},{"link_name":"Leonardo da Vinci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"shallow focus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shallow_focus"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"Albrecht Dürer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrecht_D%C3%BCrer"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"}],"sub_title":"Renaissance","text":"Detail of Masolino da Panicale's St. Peter Healing a Cripple and the Raising of Tabitha (c. 1423), the earliest extant artwork known to use a consistent vanishing point[19]It is generally accepted that Filippo Brunelleschi conducted a series of experiments between 1415 and 1420, which included making drawings of various Florentine buildings in correct perspective.[20] According to Vasari and Antonio Manetti, in about 1420, Brunelleschi demonstrated his discovery by having people look through a hole in the back of a painting he had made. Through it, they would see a building such as the Florence Baptistery. When Brunelleschi lifted a mirror in front of the viewer, it reflected his painting of the buildings which had been seen previously, so that the vanishing point was centered from the perspective of the participant.[21] Brunelleschi applied the new system of perspective to his paintings around 1425.[22]This scenario is indicative, but faces several problems, that are still debated.\nFirst of all, nothing can be said for certain about the correctness of his perspective construction of the Baptistery of San Giovanni, because Brunelleschi's panel is lost. \nSecond, no other perspective painting or drawing by Brunelleschi is known. (In fact, Brunelleschi was not known to have painted at all.)\nThird, in the account written by Antonio Manetti in his Vita di Ser Brunellesco at the end of the 15th century on Brunelleschi's panel, there is not a single occurrence of the word \"experiment\".\nFourth, the conditions listed by Manetti are contradictory with each other. For example, the description of the eyepiece sets a visual field of 15°, much narrower than the visual field resulting from the urban landscape described.[23][24]Melozzo da Forlì's use of upward foreshortening in his frescoes, Basilica dei Santi Apostoli, Rome, c. 1480Soon after Brunelleschi's demonstrations, nearly every interested artist in Florence and in Italy used geometrical perspective in their paintings and sculpture,[25] notably Donatello, Masaccio,[26]Lorenzo Ghiberti, Masolino da Panicale, Paolo Uccello,[26] and Filippo Lippi. Not only was perspective a way of showing depth, it was also a new method of creating a composition. Visual art could now depict a single, unified scene, rather than a combination of several. Early examples include Masolino's St. Peter Healing a Cripple and the Raising of Tabitha (c. 1423), Donatello's The Feast of Herod (c. 1427), as well as Ghiberti's Jacob and Esau and other panels from the east doors of the Florence Baptistery.[27] Masaccio (d. 1428) achieved an illusionistic effect by placing the vanishing point at the viewer's eye level in his Holy Trinity (c. 1427),[28] and in The Tribute Money, it is placed behind the face of Jesus.[29][b] In the late 15th century, Melozzo da Forlì first applied the technique of foreshortening (in Rome, Loreto, Forlì and others).[31]This overall story is based on qualitative judgments, and would need to be faced against the material evaluations that have been conducted on Renaissance perspective paintings.\nApart from the paintings of Piero della Francesca, which are a model of the genre, the majority of 15th century works show serious errors in their geometric construction. This is true of Masaccio's Trinity fresco[32][33] and of many works, including those by renowned artists like Leonardo da Vinci.[34][35]As shown by the quick proliferation of accurate perspective paintings in Florence, Brunelleschi likely understood (with help from his friend the mathematician Toscanelli),[36] but did not publish, the mathematics behind perspective. Decades later, his friend Leon Battista Alberti wrote De pictura (c. 1435), a treatise on proper methods of showing distance in painting. Alberti's primary breakthrough was not to show the mathematics in terms of conical projections, as it actually appears to the eye. Instead, he formulated the theory based on planar projections, or how the rays of light, passing from the viewer's eye to the landscape, would strike the picture plane (the painting). He was then able to calculate the apparent height of a distant object using two similar triangles. The mathematics behind similar triangles is relatively simple, having been long ago formulated by Euclid.[c] Alberti was also trained in the science of optics through the school of Padua and under the influence of Biagio Pelacani da Parma who studied Alhazen's Book of Optics.[37] This book, translated around 1200 into Latin, had laid the mathematical foundation for perspective in Europe.[38]Pietro Perugino's use of perspective in Delivery of the Keys (1482), a fresco at the Sistine ChapelPiero della Francesca elaborated on De pictura in his De Prospectiva pingendi in the 1470s, making many references to Euclid.[39] Alberti had limited himself to figures on the ground plane and giving an overall basis for perspective. Della Francesca fleshed it out, explicitly covering solids in any area of the picture plane. Della Francesca also started the now common practice of using illustrated figures to explain the mathematical concepts, making his treatise easier to understand than Alberti's. Della Francesca was also the first to accurately draw the Platonic solids as they would appear in perspective. Luca Pacioli's 1509 Divina proportione (Divine Proportion), illustrated by Leonardo da Vinci, summarizes the use of perspective in painting, including much of Della Francesca's treatise.[40] Leonardo applied one-point perspective as well as shallow focus to some of his works.[41]Two-point perspective was demonstrated as early as 1525 by Albrecht Dürer, who studied perspective by reading Piero and Pacioli's works, in his Unterweisung der Messung (\"Instruction of the Measurement\").[42]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:William_Hogarth_-_Absurd_perspectives.png"},{"link_name":"Satire on False Perspective","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satire_on_False_Perspective"},{"link_name":"William Hogarth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hogarth"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Die_gefrorene_Stadt.jpg"},{"link_name":"Matthias A. K. Zimmermann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthias_A._K._Zimmermann"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"}],"text":"Satire on False Perspective by William Hogarth, 1753Example of a painting that combines various perspectives: The Frozen City (Museum of Art Aarau, Switzerland) by Matthias A. K. ZimmermannPerspective images are created with reference to a particular center of vision for the picture plane. In order for the resulting image to appear identical to the original scene, a viewer must view the image from the exact vantage point used in the calculations relative to the image. When viewed from a different point, this cancels out what would appear to be distortions in the image. For example, a sphere drawn in perspective will be stretched into an ellipse. These apparent distortions are more pronounced away from the center of the image as the angle between a projected ray (from the scene to the eye) becomes more acute relative to the picture plane. Artists may choose to \"correct\" perspective distortions, for example by drawing all spheres as perfect circles, or by drawing figures as if centered on the direction of view. In practice, unless the viewer observes the image from an extreme angle, like standing far to the side of a painting, the perspective normally looks more or less correct. This is referred to as \"Zeeman's Paradox\".[43]","title":"Limitations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-15"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cucker269-11"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-32"},{"link_name":"Leonardo da Vinci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci"},{"link_name":"Last Supper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Last_Supper_(Leonardo)"},{"link_name":"other cheek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turning_the_other_cheek"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-39"},{"link_name":"vertex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertex_(geometry)"}],"text":"^ In the 18th century, Chinese artists began to combine oblique perspective with regular diminution of size of people and objects with distance; no particular vantage point is chosen, but a convincing effect is achieved.[11]\n\n^ Near the end of the 15th century, Leonardo da Vinci placed the vanishing point in his Last Supper behind Christ's other cheek.[30]\n\n^ In viewing a wall, for instance, the first triangle has a vertex at the user's eye, and vertices at the top and bottom of the wall. The bottom of this triangle is the distance from the viewer to the wall. The second, similar triangle, has a point at the viewer's eye, and has a length equal to the viewer's eye from the painting. The height of the second triangle can then be determined through a simple ratio, as proven by Euclid.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Andersen, Kirsti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirsti_Andersen"},{"link_name":"The Geometry of an Art: The History of the Mathematical Theory of Perspective from Alberti to Monge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Geometry_of_an_Art"},{"link_name":"MIT Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Press"},{"link_name":"Prentice-Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prentice-Hall"},{"link_name":"cite book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book"},{"link_name":"link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list"},{"link_name":"Yale University Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_University_Press"},{"link_name":"\"Linear perspective in Masaccio's Trinity fresco: Demonstration or self-persuasion?\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//shs.hal.science/halshs-00005538"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1163/182539103X00684","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1163%2F182539103X00684"},{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2016sbvo.book.....R","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016sbvo.book.....R"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1007/978-3-319-42721-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-42721-8"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-319-42720-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-42720-1"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"151589160","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:151589160"},{"link_name":"Vasari, Giorgio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giorgio_Vasari"},{"link_name":"The Lives of the Artists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/LivesOfTheArtists"}],"text":"Andersen, Kirsti (2007). The Geometry of an Art: The History of the Mathematical Theory of Perspective from Alberti to Monge. Springer.\nDamisch, Hubert (1994). The Origin of Perspective, Translated by John Goodman. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.\nGill, Robert W (1974). Perspective From Basic to Creative. Australia: Thames & Hudson.\nHyman, Isabelle, comp (1974). Brunelleschi in Perspective. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)\nKemp, Martin (1992). The Science of Art: Optical Themes in Western Art from Brunelleschi to Seurat. Yale University Press.\nPérez-Gómez, Alberto; Pelletier, Louise (1997). Architectural Representation and the Perspective Hinge. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.\nRaynaud, Dominique (2003). \"Linear perspective in Masaccio's Trinity fresco: Demonstration or self-persuasion?\". Nuncius. 18 (1): 331–344. doi:10.1163/182539103X00684.\nRaynaud, Dominique (2014). Optics and the Rise of Perspective. A Study in Network Knowledge Diffusion. Oxford: Bardwell Press.\nRaynaud, Dominique (2016). Studies on Binocular Vision. Archimedes. Vol. 47. Bibcode:2016sbvo.book.....R. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-42721-8. ISBN 978-3-319-42720-1. S2CID 151589160.\nVasari, Giorgio (1568). The Lives of the Artists. Florence, Italy.","title":"Further reading"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Staircase in six-point perspective","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Staircase_perspective.jpg/290px-Staircase_perspective.jpg"},{"image_text":"Rays of light travel from the object, through the picture plane, and to the viewer's eye. This is the basis for graphical perspective.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/d2/Perspectiva-2.svg/220px-Perspectiva-2.svg.png"},{"image_text":"A cube drawing using two-point perspective","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Perspective1.jpg/220px-Perspective1.jpg"},{"image_text":"A cube in three-point perspective","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Perspective-3point.svg/170px-Perspective-3point.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Detail of Masolino da Panicale's St. Peter Healing a Cripple and the Raising of Tabitha (c. 1423), the earliest extant artwork known to use a consistent vanishing point[19]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Cappella_brancacci%2C_Guarigione_dello_storpio_e_resurrezione_di_Tabita_%28restaurato%29%2C_Masolino.jpg/330px-Cappella_brancacci%2C_Guarigione_dello_storpio_e_resurrezione_di_Tabita_%28restaurato%29%2C_Masolino.jpg"},{"image_text":"Melozzo da Forlì's use of upward foreshortening in his frescoes, Basilica dei Santi Apostoli, Rome, c. 1480","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Melozzo_da_forl%C3%AC%2C_apostolo%2C_1480_ca.%2C_da_ss._apostoli%2C_02.JPG/220px-Melozzo_da_forl%C3%AC%2C_apostolo%2C_1480_ca.%2C_da_ss._apostoli%2C_02.JPG"},{"image_text":"Pietro Perugino's use of perspective in Delivery of the Keys (1482), a fresco at the Sistine Chapel","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Entrega_de_las_llaves_a_San_Pedro_%28Perugino%29.jpg/370px-Entrega_de_las_llaves_a_San_Pedro_%28Perugino%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Satire on False Perspective by William Hogarth, 1753","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/William_Hogarth_-_Absurd_perspectives.png/220px-William_Hogarth_-_Absurd_perspectives.png"},{"image_text":"Example of a painting that combines various perspectives: The Frozen City (Museum of Art Aarau, Switzerland) by Matthias A. K. Zimmermann","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Die_gefrorene_Stadt.jpg/220px-Die_gefrorene_Stadt.jpg"}]
|
[{"title":"Anamorphosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anamorphosis"},{"title":"Camera angle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_angle"},{"title":"Cutaway drawing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutaway_drawing"},{"title":"Perspective control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perspective_control"},{"title":"Trompe-l'œil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trompe-l%27%C5%93il"},{"title":"Uki-e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uki-e"},{"title":"Zograscope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zograscope"}]
|
[{"reference":"\"Linear Perspective: Brunelleschi's Experiment\". Khan Academy. Retrieved 2 June 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/renaissance-reformation/early-renaissance1/beginners-renaissance-florence/v/linear-perspective-brunelleschi-s-experiement","url_text":"\"Linear Perspective: Brunelleschi's Experiment\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khan_Academy","url_text":"Khan Academy"}]},{"reference":"\"How One-Point Linear Perspective Works\". Smarthistory at Khan Academy. Archived from the original on 13 July 2013. Retrieved 12 May 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://smarthistory.khanacademy.org/how-one-point-linear-perspective-works.html","url_text":"\"How One-Point Linear Perspective Works\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smarthistory","url_text":"Smarthistory"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khan_Academy","url_text":"Khan Academy"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130713003623/http://smarthistory.khanacademy.org/how-one-point-linear-perspective-works.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Empire of the Eye: The Magic of Illusion: The Trinity-Masaccio, Part 2\". National Gallery of Art at ArtBabble. Archived from the original on 1 May 2013. Retrieved 12 May 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130501114331/http://www.artbabble.org/video/ngadc/empire-eye-magic-illusion-trinity-masaccio-part-2","url_text":"\"Empire of the Eye: The Magic of Illusion: The Trinity-Masaccio, Part 2\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Gallery_of_Art","url_text":"National Gallery of Art"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArtBabble","url_text":"ArtBabble"},{"url":"http://www.artbabble.org/video/ngadc/empire-eye-magic-illusion-trinity-masaccio-part-2","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"D'Amelio, Joseph (2003). Perspective Drawing Handbook. Dover. p. 19. ISBN 9780486432083.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/perspectivedrawi00dame","url_text":"Perspective Drawing Handbook"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/perspectivedrawi00dame/page/n18","url_text":"19"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780486432083","url_text":"9780486432083"}]},{"reference":"\"The Beginner's Guide to Perspective Drawing\". The Curiously Creative. Retrieved 17 August 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thecuriouslycreative.com/topics/beginners-guide-drawing/perspective-drawing/","url_text":"\"The Beginner's Guide to Perspective Drawing\""}]},{"reference":"Hurt, Carla (9 August 2013). \"Romans paint better perspective than Renaissance artists\". Found in Antiquity. Retrieved 4 October 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://foundinantiquity.com/2013/08/09/pompeiian-fresco-painters-used-perspective-better-than-renaissance-artists/","url_text":"\"Romans paint better perspective than Renaissance artists\""}]},{"reference":"Calvert, Amy. \"Egyptian Art (article)\". Khan Academy. Retrieved 14 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ap-art-history/ancient-mediterranean-ap/ancient-egypt-ap/a/egyptian-art","url_text":"\"Egyptian Art (article)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khan_Academy","url_text":"Khan Academy"}]},{"reference":"Regoli, Gigetta Dalli; Gioseffi, Decio; Mellini, Gian Lorenzo; Salvini, Roberto (1968). Vatican Museums: Rome. Italy: Newsweek. p. 22.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/vaticanmuseumsro00dall","url_text":"Vatican Museums: Rome"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/vaticanmuseumsro00dall/page/22","url_text":"22"}]},{"reference":"\"Skenographia in Fifth Century\". CUNY. Archived from the original on 17 December 2007. Retrieved 27 December 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071217025816/http://depthome.brooklyn.cuny.edu/classics/dunkle/tragedy/intr15.htm","url_text":"\"Skenographia in Fifth Century\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CUNY","url_text":"CUNY"},{"url":"http://depthome.brooklyn.cuny.edu/classics/dunkle/tragedy/intr15.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Smith, A. Mark (1999). Ptolemy and the Foundations of Ancient Mathematical Optics: A Source Based Guided Study. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society. p. 57. ISBN 978-0-87169-893-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ASILAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA57","url_text":"Ptolemy and the Foundations of Ancient Mathematical Optics: A Source Based Guided Study"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society","url_text":"American Philosophical Society"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87169-893-3","url_text":"978-0-87169-893-3"}]},{"reference":"Cucker, Felipe (2013). Manifold Mirrors: The Crossing Paths of the Arts and Mathematics. Cambridge University Press. pp. 269–278. ISBN 978-0-521-72876-8. Dubery and Willats (1983:33) write that 'Oblique projection seems to have arrived in China from Rome by way of India round about the first or second century AD.'","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felipe_Cucker","url_text":"Cucker, Felipe"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-72876-8","url_text":"978-0-521-72876-8"}]},{"reference":"\"Seeing History: Is perspective learned or natural?\". Eclectic Light. 10 January 2018. Over the same period, the development of sophisticated and highly-detailed visual art in Asia arrived at a slightly different solution, now known as the oblique projection. Whereas Roman and subsequent European visual art effectively had multiple and incoherent vanishing points, Asian art usually lacked any vanishing point, but aligned recession in parallel. An important factor here is the use of long scrolls, which even now make fully coherent perspective projection unsuitable.","urls":[{"url":"https://eclecticlight.co/2018/01/10/seeing-history-is-perspective-learned-or-natural/","url_text":"\"Seeing History: Is perspective learned or natural?\""}]},{"reference":"Martijn de Geus (9 March 2019). \"China Projections\". Arch Daily. Retrieved 8 July 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.archdaily.com/912723/china-projections","url_text":"\"China Projections\""}]},{"reference":"Krikke, Jan (2 January 2018). \"Why the world relies on a Chinese \"perspective\"\". Medium.com. About 2000 years ago, the Chinese developed dengjiao toushi (等角透視), a graphic tool probably invented by Chinese architects. It came to be known in the West as axonometry. Axonometry was crucial in the development of the Chinese hand scroll painting, an art form that art historian George Rowley referred to as \"the supreme creation of Chinese genius\". Classic hand scroll paintings were up to ten meters in length. They are viewed by unrolling them from right to left in equal segments of about 50 cm. The painting takes the viewer through a visual story in space and time.","urls":[{"url":"https://medium.com/@jankrikkeChina/why-the-world-relies-on-a-chinese-perspective-cf3122caf67f","url_text":"\"Why the world relies on a Chinese \"perspective\"\""}]},{"reference":"\"Pompeii. House of the Vettii. Fauces and Priapus\". SUNY Buffalo. Archived from the original on 24 December 2007. Retrieved 27 December 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071224161931/http://wings.buffalo.edu/AandL/Maecenas/italy_except_rome_and_sicily/pompeii/ac880907.html","url_text":"\"Pompeii. House of the Vettii. Fauces and Priapus\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_at_Buffalo,_The_State_University_of_New_York","url_text":"SUNY Buffalo"},{"url":"http://wings.buffalo.edu/AandL/Maecenas/italy_except_rome_and_sicily/pompeii/ac880907.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Panofsky, Erwin (1960). Renaissance and Renascences in Western Art. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell. p. 122, note 1. ISBN 0-06-430026-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/renaissancerenas00erwi/page/122","url_text":"Renaissance and Renascences in Western Art"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/renaissancerenas00erwi/page/122","url_text":"122, note 1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-430026-9","url_text":"0-06-430026-9"}]},{"reference":"\"Perspective: The Rise of Renaissance Perspective\". WebExhibits. 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Stories of the Italian Artists. Scribner & Welford. p. 53. Messer Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli, having returned from his studies, invited Filippo with other friends to supper in a garden, and the discourse falling on mathematical subjects, Filippo formed a friendship with him and learned geometry from him.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=jmBJAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA53","url_text":"Stories of the Italian Artists"}]},{"reference":"El-Bizri, Nader (2010). \"Classical Optics and the Perspectiva Traditions Leading to the Renaissance\". In Hendrix, John Shannon; Carman, Charles H. (eds.). Renaissance Theories of Vision (Visual Culture in Early Modernity). Farnham, Surrey: Ashgate Publishing. pp. 11–30. ISBN 978-1-409400-24-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nader_El-Bizri","url_text":"El-Bizri, Nader"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Shannon_Hendrix","url_text":"Hendrix, John Shannon"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/renaissancetheor00hend","url_text":"Renaissance Theories of Vision (Visual Culture in Early Modernity)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashgate_Publishing","url_text":"Ashgate Publishing"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/renaissancetheor00hend/page/n23","url_text":"11"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-409400-24-0","url_text":"978-1-409400-24-0"}]},{"reference":"Hans, Belting (2011). Florence and Baghdad: Renaissance art and Arab science (1st English ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. pp. 90–92. ISBN 978-0-674-05004-4. 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University of St Andrews. Archived from the original on 22 September 2015. Retrieved 23 September 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Biographies/Pacioli.html","url_text":"\"Luca Pacioli\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_St_Andrews","url_text":"University of St Andrews"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150922124003/http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Biographies/Pacioli.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Goldstein, Andrew M. (17 November 2011). \"The Male \"Mona Lisa\"?: Art Historian Martin Kemp on Leonardo da Vinci's Mysterious \"Salvator Mundi\"\". Blouin Artinfo.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.blouinartinfo.com/news/story/750715/the-male-mona-lisa-art-historian-martin-kemp-on-leonardo-da","url_text":"\"The Male \"Mona Lisa\"?: Art Historian Martin Kemp on Leonardo da Vinci's Mysterious \"Salvator Mundi\"\""}]},{"reference":"MacKinnon, Nick (1993). \"The Portrait of Fra Luca Pacioli\". The Mathematical Gazette. 77 (479): 206. doi:10.2307/3619717. JSTOR 3619717. S2CID 195006163.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mathematical_Gazette","url_text":"The Mathematical Gazette"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3619717","url_text":"10.2307/3619717"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/3619717","url_text":"3619717"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:195006163","url_text":"195006163"}]},{"reference":"\"Handprint : Perspective in the world\". Archived from the original on 6 January 2007. Retrieved 25 December 2006.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.handprint.com/HP/WCL/perspect1.html","url_text":"\"Handprint : Perspective in the world\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070106023144/http://www.handprint.com/HP/WCL/perspect1.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Edgerton, Samuel Y. (2009). The Mirror, the Window & the Telescope: How Renaissance Linear Perspective Changed Our Vision of the Universe. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-4758-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=dsIdqi0HA-sC","url_text":"The Mirror, the Window & the Telescope: How Renaissance Linear Perspective Changed Our Vision of the Universe"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-4758-7","url_text":"978-0-8014-4758-7"}]},{"reference":"Andersen, Kirsti (2007). The Geometry of an Art: The History of the Mathematical Theory of Perspective from Alberti to Monge. Springer.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirsti_Andersen","url_text":"Andersen, Kirsti"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Geometry_of_an_Art","url_text":"The Geometry of an Art: The History of the Mathematical Theory of Perspective from Alberti to Monge"}]},{"reference":"Damisch, Hubert (1994). The Origin of Perspective, Translated by John Goodman. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Press","url_text":"MIT Press"}]},{"reference":"Gill, Robert W (1974). Perspective From Basic to Creative. Australia: Thames & Hudson.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Hyman, Isabelle, comp (1974). Brunelleschi in Perspective. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prentice-Hall","url_text":"Prentice-Hall"}]},{"reference":"Kemp, Martin (1992). The Science of Art: Optical Themes in Western Art from Brunelleschi to Seurat. Yale University Press.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_University_Press","url_text":"Yale University Press"}]},{"reference":"Pérez-Gómez, Alberto; Pelletier, Louise (1997). Architectural Representation and the Perspective Hinge. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Raynaud, Dominique (2003). \"Linear perspective in Masaccio's Trinity fresco: Demonstration or self-persuasion?\". Nuncius. 18 (1): 331–344. doi:10.1163/182539103X00684.","urls":[{"url":"https://shs.hal.science/halshs-00005538","url_text":"\"Linear perspective in Masaccio's Trinity fresco: Demonstration or self-persuasion?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1163%2F182539103X00684","url_text":"10.1163/182539103X00684"}]},{"reference":"Raynaud, Dominique (2014). Optics and the Rise of Perspective. A Study in Network Knowledge Diffusion. Oxford: Bardwell Press.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Raynaud, Dominique (2016). Studies on Binocular Vision. Archimedes. Vol. 47. Bibcode:2016sbvo.book.....R. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-42721-8. ISBN 978-3-319-42720-1. S2CID 151589160.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016sbvo.book.....R","url_text":"2016sbvo.book.....R"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-42721-8","url_text":"10.1007/978-3-319-42721-8"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-42720-1","url_text":"978-3-319-42720-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:151589160","url_text":"151589160"}]},{"reference":"Vasari, Giorgio (1568). The Lives of the Artists. Florence, Italy.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giorgio_Vasari","url_text":"Vasari, Giorgio"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/LivesOfTheArtists","url_text":"The Lives of the Artists"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Owen_Graduate_School_of_Management
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Owen Graduate School of Management
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["1 History","2 Programs","3 Rankings and recognition","4 Centers","5 Alumni","5.1 Academia","5.2 Business","5.3 Government","6 See also","7 References"]
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Owen Graduate School of ManagementTypePrivateEstablished1969Endowment$277 million (April 30, 2013)DeanM. Eric JohnsonAcademic staff49 (May '13)Postgraduates577 (May '13)LocationNashville, Tennessee, USCampusUrban, 330 acresWebsitebusiness.vanderbilt.edu
The Vanderbilt University Owen Graduate School of Management is the graduate business school of Vanderbilt University in Nashville, Tennessee, United States. Founded in 1969, Owen offers six degrees: a standard 2-year Master of Business Administration (MBA), an Executive MBA, Master of Finance, Master of Accountancy, Master of Accountancy-Valuation, and Master of Management in Health Care, as well as a variety of joint professional and MBA degree programs. Owen also offers non-degree programs for undergraduates and professionals.
The student to faculty ratio is about 9 to 1, with 577 students and 49 full-time faculty members.
The school is named for Ralph “Peck” Owen and his wife, Lulu Hampton Owen. Ralph Owen, a Vanderbilt alumnus (’28), was a founder of Equitable Securities Corporation in Nashville, and he became the chairman of the American Express Company.
History
In 1881, Vanderbilt's Board of Trust submitted its first proposal for a business education program, calling it the Commercial College Department. However, it wasn't until the mid-1950s that a business administration program was offered in the Department of Economics.
Exterior of Owen Graduate School
Interior of Owen Graduate School
The Board of Trust passed the school's founding resolution on May 5, 1967, and operations as the Graduate School of Management began in September 1969 with twelve faculty members and six students. Classes met in a renovated funeral home, a gift from Mr. and Mrs. David K. Wilson. The building was named Alexander Hall in honor of Henry Clay Alexander, a Vanderbilt alum and president of J.P. Morgan.
It was under Dean Samuel B. Richmond, that the school was named for Ralph and Lulu Owen. Following the deaths of both Mr. and Mrs. Owen, their estates gave $33.5 million to The Owen School, said to be the largest gift to a U.S. business school at that time. That sum raised the total of their gifts to more than $62 million.
The Owen School moved from Alexander Hall to Management Hall in 1982. Management Hall is connected to Mechanical Engineering Hall, which is home to the Executive MBA program. Management Hall also houses the Walker Library collection of more than 50,000 volumes, more than 900 periodical titles, reference works, and electronic databases. The library was named in honor of Anne Marie and Thomas B. Walker, Jr.
At present, about 25% of the student body are international students, and 33% are women. Finance was the most popular area for Vanderbilt MBA students in 2007–8; 43 percent accepted jobs in that field. Eight percent of faculty members have owned a business.
In July 2023, Thomas Steenburgh became the Ralph Owen Dean and Professor of Marketing. He began his academic career at Harvard Business School.
Programs
The Owen Graduate School of Management is accredited by the AACSB International (The Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business) and is a full member of the Executive MBA Council (EMBAC).
The Owen Graduate School's programs are organized by students' career progression and interest. The classifications are: Young Professional Programs, Early Career Programs, Executive Programs, and Health Care Programs.
MS Finance
MAcc with possible specialization in two fields- Assurance and Valuation
Master of Marketing, a degree which requires the completion of 32 credit hours. Twelve credit hours are required for a marketing concentration; twenty credit hours are required for brand management specialization.
Accelerator Summer Business Institute, a four-week program where students in teams take classes and serve as consultants for real businesses.
MBA The Owen School's MBA degree program takes two years to complete and requires a minimum of 62 credit hours.
Executive MBA (EMBA) Most students who pursue the Executive MBA have prior work experience. The program requires 24 months. In 2009, incoming students began following an alternating Saturday schedule and two summer sessions. The first EMBA class graduated in the spring of 1980.
Americas MBA for Executives (AMBA) was designed with a more global focus. The second year of the program consists of four 10-day residencies in Brazil, Canada, Mexico, and the United States. Upon completion of the program, students earn both the Vanderbilt MBA and the Americas MBA Alliance Certificate.
Executive Development Institute The Owen School offers several programs for working professionals that cover topics such as: management fundamentals, leadership, health care, and banking Courses are typically 2-3 days and completing several may earn a certificate.
The Health Care MBA began in 2005, and may include on-site experience. Focus areas include finance, accounting, general management, human and organizational performance, information technology, marketing, operations, or strategy.
Master of Management in Health Care is a one-year degree aimed at healthcare workers; all candidates must have at least five years of work experience in their fields.
Rankings and recognition
In 2023, Owen was ranked #25 in U.S. News & World Report's rankings. Bloomberg Businessweek ranked the full-time MBA program #34 in 2015 and the Executive MBA #35 in 2014 In 2017 the Financial Times (US) ranked the MBA as #40 and the Executive MBA at #15. Most recently, the Economist "Which MBA?" ranked the MBA program at #26.
The Owen School was one of two winners of the 2008 TeamMBA Award, which was presented by the Graduate Management Admission Council (GMAC).
Bruce Cooil, Dean Samuel B. and Evelyn R. Richmond Professor of Management, was awarded the 2007 Marketing Science Institute/H. Paul Root Award. Michael A. Lapré, E. Bronson Ingram Professor in Operations Management, has received the Shingo Research Prize. Professor Nancy Hyer and Urban Wemmerlov's book Reorganizing the Factory: Competing through Cellular Manufacturing, won the 2003 Shingo Prize for Research in Manufacturing
Centers
Financial Markets Research Center (FMRC): Directed by Professor Hans Stoll, the FMRC was founded in 1987 to research financial markets and institutions. It hosts an annual conference; speakers in the spring of 2009 included Paul Volcker, Stephen Axilrod, and William Dudley). Co-director of the FMRC is Robert E. Whaley.
Turner Family Center for Social Ventures: funded by a nearly $1.2 donation, Mario Avila, MBA'12, became the director of the center in July 2015.
Owen Entrepreneurship Center: The Nashville Capital Network's director is Germain Böer, Professor of Management.
Cal Turner Program for Moral Leadership in the Professions: this program focuses on moral leadership among professionals. It is named for the late CEO of Dollar General Cal Turner. Bart Victor is the executive director.
Vanderbilt Center for Environmental Management Studies: a joint initiative by the School of Engineering, the Owen Graduate School of Management, and the Law School. Its activities focus on environmental business, management, and technologies.
Center for Healthcare Markets Innovation: it was launched in 2016.
Alumni
Academia
Marjorie K. Eastman, MBA'12 – author of The Frontline Generation
Eric L. Harry, MBA'83 – American author best known for his novels Arc Light and Invasion
C. Turney Stevens, Jr., MBA'81 – Dean of the College of Business at Lipscomb University
Craig Fleisher, MBA – scholar and author in the fields ofpublic affairs, competitive intelligence and analysis
Millicent Lownes-Jackson, MBA – founder, The World Institute for Sustainable Education and Research (The WISER Group)
Business
Anu Aiyengar, MBA'99 – Head of Mergers and Acquisitions at JPMorgan Chase & Co
Jim Beavers, MBA '96 – Director of Marketing for Capitol Records
David Farr, MBA'81 – Chairman and CEO of Emerson Electric
Adena Friedman, MBA'93 – President and CEO of NASDAQ
Mahni Ghorashi, MBA '12 – co-founder of Clear Labs
David Bronson Ingram, MBA'89 – Chairman and CEO of Ingram Entertainment
John R. Ingram, MBA'86 – Chairman of Ingram Content Group and Ingram Industries
Prashant Khemka, MBA'98 – CIO of Global Emerging Markets equity at Goldman Sachs, founder of White Oak Capital Management
Doug Parker, MBA'86 – Chairman and CEO of American Airlines Group
Betty Thayer, MBA'82 – CEO of Exec-appointments.com
James C. Tsai, MBA'98 – President, New York Eye and Ear Infirmary of Mount Sinai
Philip C. Wolf, MBA '80 – founder and CEO of PhoCusWright
Government
Megan Barry, MBA'93 – Mayor of Nashville
Jim Bryson, MBA'85 – member of the Tennessee State Senate
John Cooper, MBA '85 – Mayor of Nashville; former Global Head of Technology Investment Banking at Lehman Brothers
Steven Reed, MBA'04 – first African-American Mayor of Montgomery, Alabama
Tom Tait, MBA'85 – Mayor of Anaheim, California
Bruce Heyman, MBA'80 – 30th United States Ambassador to Canada, former Vice President of Goldman Sachs
Francis Guess, MBM'74 – member of the Tennessee Commission on Civil Rights
Jonathan Jordan MBA '92 – member of the North Carolina House of Representatives
Paul C. Ney Jr., JD, MBA'84 – General Counsel of the Department of Defense of the United States, appointed by President Trump
Ihor Petrashko, MBA '01 – Minister of Economic Development and Trade of Ukraine
See also
List of United States business school rankings
List of business schools in the United States
References
^ Dunbar, Bill. "Vanderbilt Alumni". Vanderbilt Owen Graduate School of Management. Archived from the original on 2013-06-30. Retrieved 28 May 2013.
^ a b c Vanderbilt University Facts Page. "Vanderbilt University Facts". Vanderbilt University. Retrieved 2013-05-21.
^ Owen Graduate School of Management. "Health Care MBA". Vanderbilt University. Archived from the original on 2007-05-29. Retrieved 2007-05-30.
^ a b c "Full-time MBA Profiles". BusinessWeek. 2008-11-13. Archived from the original on November 7, 2007. Retrieved 2009-04-17.
^ "Obituary". New York Times. 1983-11-07. Retrieved 2009-04-21.
^ a b c Madison Smartt Bell, History of the Owen School: From Its Early Origins to 1984 (Nashville: Vanderbilt University, 1985)
^ Paul Conkin, Gone with the Ivy: A Biography of Vanderbilt University (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1985)
^ Robert A. McGaw, The Vanderbilt Campus: A Pictorial History (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 1978)
^ Editorial, Nashville Banner. 1983-11-7.
^ Julie Bell, “$33.5 Million Given VU for Owen School,” Tennessean. 1996-1-25.
^ Vanderbilt University. http://www.vanderbilt.edu/map/owen.html Archived 2002-03-30 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Walker Management Library. http://www2.owen.vanderbilt.edu/walker/about/index.php Archived 2009-09-03 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2009-4-23.
^ Owen School. http://www.owen.vanderbilt.eduvanderbilt/Programsexec-ed/index.cfm .
^ MBA Employment Report, Classes of 2007 and 2008. Owen School. http://www.owen.vanderbilt.edu/vanderbilt/Community/recruiters/how-to-recruit/employment-report/upload/2007_Employment_Report.pdf .
^ "Faculty Profile". Retrieved 2023-08-08.
^ "Master of Marketing Curriculum | MM Program at Vanderbilt University | Vanderbilt Owen Graduate School of Management". www.owen.vanderbilt.edu. Retrieved 2015-12-01.
^ Owen School. http://www.owen.vanderbilt.edu/vanderbilt/programs/program-comparisons/for-college-students-and-recent-graduates.cfm Archived 2013-07-26 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Owen School. http://www.owen.vanderbilt.edu/vanderbilt/Programs/mba/mba-curriculum/core.cfm Archived 2009-05-07 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Full-time Profiles. BusinessWeek. 2008-11-13. http://www.businessweek.com/bschools/rankings/full_time_mba_profiles/vanderbilt.html. Retrieved 2009-4-17.
^ Owen School. http://www.owen.vanderbilt.edu/vanderbilt/Programs/emba/emba-faq/index.cfm Archived 2009-11-19 at the Wayback Machine.
^ "Vanderbilt Americas MBA Program". Owen Graduate School of Management website. Archived from the original on 2013-05-03. Retrieved 23 May 2013.
^ Owen School. http://www.owen.vanderbilt.edu/vanderbilt/Programs/exec-ed/index.cfm Archived 2009-03-26 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Alina Dizik. “A Business School Specializes.” Wall Street Journal. 2009-4-15. https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB12397490235518481 . Retrieved 2009-4-23.
^ Reporter. Vanderbilt Medical Center. http://www.mc.vanderbilt.edu/reporter/index.html?ID=425.
^ Owen School. http://www.owen.vanderbilt.edu/vanderbilt/Programs/healthcaremba/careers.cfm Archived 2009-10-11 at the Wayback Machine.
^ “Do MBAs Benefit Faculty Physicians?” MedCenter Today.com. http://medcentertoday.com/article.php?chapter_id=4&id=58 Archived 2009-10-16 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2009-4-23.
^ "Vanderbilt University (Owen) Business School Overview". U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved 20 March 2016.
^ Rodkin, Jonathan; Levyfrom, Francesca. "Best Business Schools 2015". Bloomberg.com. Bloomberg Businessweek. Retrieved 1 December 2015.
^ "Top Business Schools Rankings: EMBA". Bloomberg Businessweek. Archived from the original on May 29, 2004. Retrieved 28 May 2013.
^ "Business School rankings, by country". Financial Times. Retrieved 23 November 2017.
^ "Business School rankings, by country". Financial Times. Retrieved 1 December 2015.
^ "Vanderbilt University – Owen Graduate School of Management". The Economist. Retrieved 2017-11-23.
^ Team MBA. http://www.gmac.com/teammba/TeamMBAAward/2008AwardRecipients.htm Archived 2009-09-26 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2009-4-25.
^ Ipsos News Center. 2007-12-20. http://www.ipsos-na.com/news/pressrelease.cfm?id=3762 Archived 2010-01-03 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2009-4-24.
^ Owen School. http://owen.vanderbilt.edu/vanderbilt/About/faculty-research/f_profile.cfm?id=109 Archived 2009-11-07 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Owen School. http://www2.owen.vanderbilt.edu/fmrc/Conference/conferences.html Archived 2009-04-23 at the Wayback Machine.
^ "New Turner Family Center Established". Vanderbilt University. Retrieved 2015-12-01.
^ "Expanding Good". Vanderbilt Business. Retrieved 2015-12-01.
^ Owen School. http://www2.owen.vanderbilt.edu/oec Archived 2009-08-07 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Owen School. http://www.vanderbilt.edu/moral_leadership/Home.html Archived 2009-05-01 at the Wayback Machine.
^ "Environmental Engineering, Management, & Policy". Vanderbilt School of Engineering. Retrieved 23 May 2013.
^ About Author. Skylight Paths Publishing. Retrieved 2013-05-18.
^ (Amazon.com, 2008; JCIM, 2003 volume 1)
^ Lownes-Jackson, Millicent; Guy, Retta. The Economic Empowerment of Women: A Global Perspective. Informing Science. ISBN 9781932886603.
^ Melissa Mittelman (24 October 2016). "JPMorgan Heralds M&A Bonanza as Companies Seek New Ways to Grow". Bloomberg L.P. Retrieved 24 October 2016.
^ Stark, Phyllis (2001-03-24). 'Genre-Less' Combutions Blasts Off with Texan Faulkner, Two Soundtracks. Billboard Magazine. Retrieved 12 October 2011.
^ "David Farr | Emerson Chairman & Chief Executive Officer | Emerson US". Archived from the original on 2021-03-08. Retrieved 2020-11-01.
^ "Adena T. Friedman". Retrieved 2023-08-02.
^ "Clear Labs closes $21M funding round to advance food safety solutions". Food Dive. Retrieved 2020-10-30.
^ "Bio non Faculty DB Page".
^ "Board of Trust".
^ "Ex-Goldmans star Khemka launches no-charge India trust".
^ "Doug Parker – Customer service – American Airlines".
^ "James C. Tsai Named President of New York Eye and Ear Infirmary of Mount Sinai". Retrieved September 25, 2017.
^ "Mount Sinai Launches Eye Research Institute". Retrieved 25 September 2017.
^ "Philip Wolf". "Forbes".
^ "Alumni Success Stories".
^ Macleans: "Chicago investment banker Bruce Heyman will be next U.S. ambassador to Canada - Heyman has been managing director of private wealth management at Goldman Sachs since 1999" September 19, 2013
^ Garrison, Joey (2015-07-24). "Nashville business leader Francis Guess dies at 69". The Tennessean. Retrieved 2015-08-22.
^ The White House. "President Donald J. Trump Announces Intent to Nominate Paul C. Ney Jr. of Tennessee to be the General Counsel of the Department of Defense". whitehouse.gov. Retrieved February 7, 2018 – via National Archives.
^ "Agricultural Executive Takes Over As Ukraine's New Economy Minister". rferl.org. March 18, 2020. Retrieved April 15, 2020.
vteVanderbilt UniversityLocated in Nashville, TennesseeSchools and colleges
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Founded in 1969, Owen offers six degrees: a standard 2-year Master of Business Administration (MBA), an Executive MBA, Master of Finance, Master of Accountancy, Master of Accountancy-Valuation, and Master of Management in Health Care, as well as a variety of joint professional and MBA degree programs.[3] Owen also offers non-degree programs for undergraduates and professionals.The student to faculty ratio is about 9 to 1, with 577 students and 49 full-time faculty members.[2][4]The school is named for Ralph “Peck” Owen and his wife, Lulu Hampton Owen. Ralph Owen, a Vanderbilt alumnus (’28), was a founder of Equitable Securities Corporation in Nashville, and he became the chairman of the American Express Company.[5]","title":"Owen Graduate School of Management"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ogsmhist-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Owen_exterior.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Owen_interior.JPG"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ogsmhist-6"},{"link_name":"David K. Wilson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_K._Wilson"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"J.P. Morgan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.P._Morgan"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Ralph and Lulu Owen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Owen"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mbaprofs-4"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Finance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finance"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mbaprofs-4"},{"link_name":"Harvard Business School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Business_School"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"In 1881, Vanderbilt's Board of Trust submitted its first proposal for a business education program, calling it the Commercial College Department. However, it wasn't until the mid-1950s that a business administration program was offered in the Department of Economics.[6]Exterior of Owen Graduate SchoolInterior of Owen Graduate SchoolThe Board of Trust passed the school's founding resolution on May 5, 1967, and operations as the Graduate School of Management began in September 1969 with twelve faculty members and six students.[6] Classes met in a renovated funeral home, a gift from Mr. and Mrs. David K. Wilson.[7] The building was named Alexander Hall in honor of Henry Clay Alexander, a Vanderbilt alum and president of J.P. Morgan.[8]It was under Dean Samuel B. Richmond, that the school was named for Ralph and Lulu Owen.[9] Following the deaths of both Mr. and Mrs. Owen, their estates gave $33.5 million to The Owen School, said to be the largest gift to a U.S. business school at that time. That sum raised the total of their gifts to more than $62 million.[10]The Owen School moved from Alexander Hall to Management Hall in 1982. Management Hall is connected to Mechanical Engineering Hall, which is home to the Executive MBA program.[11] Management Hall also houses the Walker Library collection of more than 50,000 volumes, more than 900 periodical titles, reference works, and electronic databases.[12] The library was named in honor of Anne Marie and Thomas B. Walker, Jr.At present, about 25% of the student body are international students, and 33% are women.[4][13] Finance was the most popular area for Vanderbilt MBA students in 2007–8; 43 percent accepted jobs in that field.[14] Eight percent of faculty members have owned a business.[4]In July 2023, Thomas Steenburgh became the Ralph Owen Dean and Professor of Marketing. He began his academic career at Harvard Business School.[15]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Executive MBA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_MBA"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ogsmhist-6"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"leadership","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadership"},{"link_name":"health care","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_care"},{"link_name":"banking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banking"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"finance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finance"},{"link_name":"accounting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accounting"},{"link_name":"general management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_management"},{"link_name":"information technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technology"},{"link_name":"marketing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marketing"},{"link_name":"operations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_operations"},{"link_name":"strategy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategy"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"text":"The Owen Graduate School of Management is accredited by the AACSB International (The Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business) and is a full member of the Executive MBA Council (EMBAC).The Owen Graduate School's programs are organized by students' career progression and interest. The classifications are: Young Professional Programs, Early Career Programs, Executive Programs, and Health Care Programs.MS FinanceMAcc with possible specialization in two fields- Assurance and ValuationMaster of Marketing, a degree which requires the completion of 32 credit hours.[16] Twelve credit hours are required for a marketing concentration; twenty credit hours are required for brand management specialization.Accelerator Summer Business Institute, a four-week program where students in teams take classes and serve as consultants for real businesses.[17]MBA The Owen School's MBA degree program takes two years to complete and requires a minimum of 62 credit hours.[18][19]Executive MBA (EMBA) Most students who pursue the Executive MBA have prior work experience. The program requires 24 months. In 2009, incoming students began following an alternating Saturday schedule and two summer sessions.[20] The first EMBA class graduated in the spring of 1980.[6]Americas MBA for Executives (AMBA) was designed with a more global focus. The second year of the program consists of four 10-day residencies in Brazil, Canada, Mexico, and the United States. Upon completion of the program, students earn both the Vanderbilt MBA and the Americas MBA Alliance Certificate.[21]Executive Development Institute The Owen School offers several programs for working professionals that cover topics such as: management fundamentals, leadership, health care, and banking[22] Courses are typically 2-3 days and completing several may earn a certificate.[23]The Health Care MBA began in 2005, and may include on-site experience.[24] Focus areas include finance, accounting, general management, human and organizational performance, information technology, marketing, operations, or strategy.[25]Master of Management in Health Care is a one-year degree aimed at healthcare workers; all candidates must have at least five years of work experience in their fields.[26]","title":"Programs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"U.S. News & World Report","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._News_%26_World_Report"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Bloomberg Businessweek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloomberg_Businessweek"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Financial Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Times"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Graduate Management Admission Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graduate_Management_Admission_Council"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Bruce Cooil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Cooil"},{"link_name":"Marketing Science Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marketing_Science_Institute"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"}],"text":"In 2023, Owen was ranked #25 in U.S. News & World Report's rankings.[27] Bloomberg Businessweek ranked the full-time MBA program #34 in 2015 and the Executive MBA #35 in 2014[28][29] In 2017 the Financial Times (US) ranked the MBA as #40 and the Executive MBA at #15.[30][31] Most recently, the Economist \"Which MBA?\" ranked the MBA program at #26.[32]The Owen School was one of two winners of the 2008 TeamMBA Award, which was presented by the Graduate Management Admission Council (GMAC).[33]Bruce Cooil, Dean Samuel B. and Evelyn R. Richmond Professor of Management, was awarded the 2007 Marketing Science Institute/H. Paul Root Award.[34] Michael A. Lapré, E. Bronson Ingram Professor in Operations Management, has received the Shingo Research Prize. Professor Nancy Hyer and Urban Wemmerlov's book Reorganizing the Factory: Competing through Cellular Manufacturing, won the 2003 Shingo Prize for Research in Manufacturing[35]","title":"Rankings and recognition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Paul Volcker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Volcker"},{"link_name":"William Dudley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_C._Dudley"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Dollar General","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dollar_General"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Financial Markets Research Center (FMRC): Directed by Professor Hans Stoll, the FMRC was founded in 1987 to research financial markets and institutions. It hosts an annual conference; speakers in the spring of 2009 included Paul Volcker, Stephen Axilrod, and William Dudley).[36] Co-director of the FMRC is Robert E. Whaley.Turner Family Center for Social Ventures: funded by a nearly $1.2 donation, Mario Avila, MBA'12, became the director of the center in July 2015.[37] [38]Owen Entrepreneurship Center: The Nashville Capital Network's director is Germain Böer, Professor of Management.[39]Cal Turner Program for Moral Leadership in the Professions: this program focuses on moral leadership among professionals. It is named for the late CEO of Dollar General Cal Turner. Bart Victor is the executive director.[40]Vanderbilt Center for Environmental Management Studies: a joint initiative by the School of Engineering, the Owen Graduate School of Management, and the Law School. Its activities focus on environmental business, management, and technologies.[41]Center for Healthcare Markets Innovation: it was launched in 2016.[citation needed]","title":"Centers"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Alumni"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Marjorie K. Eastman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marjorie_K._Eastman"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"Eric L. Harry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_L._Harry"},{"link_name":"Arc Light","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc_Light_(novel)"},{"link_name":"Invasion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_(Harry_novel)"},{"link_name":"C. Turney Stevens, Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turney_Stevens"},{"link_name":"Lipscomb University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipscomb_University"},{"link_name":"Craig Fleisher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craig_Fleisher"},{"link_name":"analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competitor_analysis"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"Millicent Lownes-Jackson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millicent_Lownes-Jackson"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"}],"sub_title":"Academia","text":"Marjorie K. Eastman, MBA'12 – author of The Frontline Generation[42]\nEric L. Harry, MBA'83 – American author best known for his novels Arc Light and Invasion\nC. Turney Stevens, Jr., MBA'81 – Dean of the College of Business at Lipscomb University\nCraig Fleisher, MBA – scholar and author in the fields ofpublic affairs, competitive intelligence and analysis[43]\nMillicent Lownes-Jackson, MBA – founder, The World Institute for Sustainable Education and Research (The WISER Group)[44]","title":"Alumni"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Anu Aiyengar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anu_Aiyengar"},{"link_name":"Mergers and Acquisitions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mergers_and_Acquisitions"},{"link_name":"JPMorgan Chase & Co","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JPMorgan_Chase_%26_Co"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"Jim Beavers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Beavers"},{"link_name":"Capitol Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitol_Records"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"David Farr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Farr_(businessman)"},{"link_name":"Emerson Electric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emerson_Electric"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"Adena Friedman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adena_Friedman"},{"link_name":"NASDAQ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASDAQ"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"Mahni Ghorashi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahni_Ghorashi"},{"link_name":"Clear Labs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clear_Labs"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"David Bronson Ingram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Bronson_Ingram"},{"link_name":"Ingram Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingram_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"John R. Ingram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_R._Ingram_(businessman)"},{"link_name":"Ingram Content Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingram_Content_Group"},{"link_name":"Ingram Industries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingram_Industries"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"Prashant Khemka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prashant_Khemka"},{"link_name":"Goldman Sachs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldman_Sachs"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"Doug Parker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doug_Parker"},{"link_name":"American Airlines Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Airlines_Group"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"Betty Thayer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betty_Thayer"},{"link_name":"James C. Tsai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_C._Tsai"},{"link_name":"New York Eye and Ear Infirmary of Mount Sinai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Eye_and_Ear_Infirmary"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MSH-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"Philip C. Wolf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_C._Wolf"},{"link_name":"PhoCusWright","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northstar_Travel_Group"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"}],"sub_title":"Business","text":"Anu Aiyengar, MBA'99 – Head of Mergers and Acquisitions at JPMorgan Chase & Co[45]\nJim Beavers, MBA '96 – Director of Marketing for Capitol Records[46]\nDavid Farr, MBA'81 – Chairman and CEO of Emerson Electric[47]\nAdena Friedman, MBA'93 – President and CEO of NASDAQ[48]\nMahni Ghorashi, MBA '12 – co-founder of Clear Labs[49]\nDavid Bronson Ingram, MBA'89 – Chairman and CEO of Ingram Entertainment[50]\nJohn R. Ingram, MBA'86 – Chairman of Ingram Content Group and Ingram Industries[51]\nPrashant Khemka, MBA'98 – CIO of Global Emerging Markets equity at Goldman Sachs, founder of White Oak Capital Management[52]\nDoug Parker, MBA'86 – Chairman and CEO of American Airlines Group[53]\nBetty Thayer, MBA'82 – CEO of Exec-appointments.com\nJames C. Tsai, MBA'98 – President, New York Eye and Ear Infirmary of Mount Sinai[54][55]\nPhilip C. Wolf, MBA '80 – founder and CEO of PhoCusWright[56]","title":"Alumni"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Megan Barry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megan_Barry"},{"link_name":"Mayor of Nashville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayor_of_Nashville"},{"link_name":"Jim Bryson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Bryson_(politician)"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"John Cooper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Cooper_(Tennessee_politician)"},{"link_name":"Mayor of Nashville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayor_of_Nashville"},{"link_name":"Lehman Brothers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehman_Brothers"},{"link_name":"Steven Reed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Reed_(mayor)"},{"link_name":"Mayor of Montgomery, Alabama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayor_of_Montgomery,_Alabama"},{"link_name":"Tom Tait","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Tait"},{"link_name":"Anaheim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaheim"},{"link_name":"California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California"},{"link_name":"Bruce Heyman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Heyman"},{"link_name":"United States Ambassador to Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Ambassador_to_Canada"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MacLeansHeyman-58"},{"link_name":"Francis Guess","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Guess"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tennessean-59"},{"link_name":"Jonathan Jordan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Jordan"},{"link_name":"North Carolina House of Representatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Carolina_House_of_Representatives"},{"link_name":"Paul C. Ney Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_C._Ney_Jr."},{"link_name":"General Counsel of the Department of Defense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Counsel_of_the_Department_of_Defense"},{"link_name":"President","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Trump","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Trump"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"Ihor Petrashko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ihor_Petrashko"},{"link_name":"Minister of Economic Development and Trade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Economic_Development_and_Trade_(Ukraine)"},{"link_name":"Ukraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukraine"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"}],"sub_title":"Government","text":"Megan Barry, MBA'93 – Mayor of Nashville\nJim Bryson, MBA'85 – member of the Tennessee State Senate[57]\nJohn Cooper, MBA '85 – Mayor of Nashville; former Global Head of Technology Investment Banking at Lehman Brothers\nSteven Reed, MBA'04 – first African-American Mayor of Montgomery, Alabama\nTom Tait, MBA'85 – Mayor of Anaheim, California\nBruce Heyman, MBA'80 – 30th United States Ambassador to Canada, former Vice President of Goldman Sachs[58]\nFrancis Guess, MBM'74 – member of the Tennessee Commission on Civil Rights[59]\nJonathan Jordan MBA '92 – member of the North Carolina House of Representatives\nPaul C. Ney Jr., JD, MBA'84 – General Counsel of the Department of Defense of the United States, appointed by President Trump[60]\nIhor Petrashko, MBA '01 – Minister of Economic Development and Trade of Ukraine[61]","title":"Alumni"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Exterior of Owen Graduate School","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Owen_exterior.JPG/220px-Owen_exterior.JPG"},{"image_text":"Interior of Owen Graduate School","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Owen_interior.JPG/220px-Owen_interior.JPG"}]
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[{"title":"List of United States business school rankings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_business_school_rankings"},{"title":"List of business schools in the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_business_schools_in_the_United_States"}]
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[{"reference":"Dunbar, Bill. \"Vanderbilt Alumni\". Vanderbilt Owen Graduate School of Management. Archived from the original on 2013-06-30. Retrieved 28 May 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130630043912/http://www.owen.vanderbilt.edu/vanderbilt/alumni/meet-the-team.cfm","url_text":"\"Vanderbilt Alumni\""},{"url":"http://www.owen.vanderbilt.edu/vanderbilt/alumni/meet-the-team.cfm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Vanderbilt University Facts Page. \"Vanderbilt University Facts\". Vanderbilt University. Retrieved 2013-05-21.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.vanderbilt.edu/info/facts/","url_text":"\"Vanderbilt University Facts\""}]},{"reference":"Owen Graduate School of Management. \"Health Care MBA\". Vanderbilt University. Archived from the original on 2007-05-29. Retrieved 2007-05-30.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070529091354/http://www.owen.vanderbilt.edu/vanderbilt/Programs/healthcaremba/index.cfm","url_text":"\"Health Care MBA\""},{"url":"http://www.owen.vanderbilt.edu/vanderbilt/Programs/healthcaremba/index.cfm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Full-time MBA Profiles\". BusinessWeek. 2008-11-13. Archived from the original on November 7, 2007. Retrieved 2009-04-17.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.businessweek.com/bschools/rankings/full_time_mba_profiles/vanderbilt.html","url_text":"\"Full-time MBA Profiles\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071107054607/http://www.businessweek.com/bschools/rankings/full_time_mba_profiles/vanderbilt.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Obituary\". New York Times. 1983-11-07. Retrieved 2009-04-21.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1983/11/07/obituaries/ralph-owen-78-dies-led-american-express.html.","url_text":"\"Obituary\""}]},{"reference":"\"Faculty Profile\". Retrieved 2023-08-08.","urls":[{"url":"https://business.vanderbilt.edu/bio/thomasj-steenburgh/","url_text":"\"Faculty Profile\""}]},{"reference":"\"Master of Marketing Curriculum | MM Program at Vanderbilt University | Vanderbilt Owen Graduate School of Management\". www.owen.vanderbilt.edu. Retrieved 2015-12-01.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.owen.vanderbilt.edu/programs/master-of-marketing/curriculum.cfm","url_text":"\"Master of Marketing Curriculum | MM Program at Vanderbilt University | Vanderbilt Owen Graduate School of Management\""}]},{"reference":"\"Vanderbilt Americas MBA Program\". Owen Graduate School of Management website. Archived from the original on 2013-05-03. Retrieved 23 May 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130503032138/http://www.owen.vanderbilt.edu/vanderbilt/programs/americas-mba-for-executives/index.cfm","url_text":"\"Vanderbilt Americas MBA Program\""},{"url":"http://www.owen.vanderbilt.edu/vanderbilt/programs/americas-mba-for-executives/index.cfm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Vanderbilt University (Owen) Business School Overview\". U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved 20 March 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://grad-schools.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-graduate-schools/top-business-schools/vanderbilt-university-owen-01208","url_text":"\"Vanderbilt University (Owen) Business School Overview\""}]},{"reference":"Rodkin, Jonathan; Levyfrom, Francesca. \"Best Business Schools 2015\". Bloomberg.com. Bloomberg Businessweek. Retrieved 1 December 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bloomberg.com/features/2015-best-business-schools/","url_text":"\"Best Business Schools 2015\""}]},{"reference":"\"Top Business Schools Rankings: EMBA\". Bloomberg Businessweek. Archived from the original on May 29, 2004. Retrieved 28 May 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20040529042023/http://www.businessweek.com/bschools/rankings/#2","url_text":"\"Top Business Schools Rankings: EMBA\""},{"url":"http://www.businessweek.com/bschools/rankings/#2","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Business School rankings, by country\". Financial Times. Retrieved 23 November 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://rankings.ft.com/businessschoolrankings/global-mba-ranking-2017","url_text":"\"Business School rankings, by country\""}]},{"reference":"\"Business School rankings, by country\". Financial Times. Retrieved 1 December 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://rankings.ft.com/businessschoolrankings/executive-mba-ranking-2015","url_text":"\"Business School rankings, by country\""}]},{"reference":"\"Vanderbilt University – Owen Graduate School of Management\". The Economist. Retrieved 2017-11-23.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.economist.com/whichmba/vanderbilt-university-owen-graduate-school-management/2017","url_text":"\"Vanderbilt University – Owen Graduate School of Management\""}]},{"reference":"\"New Turner Family Center Established\". Vanderbilt University. Retrieved 2015-12-01.","urls":[{"url":"http://news.vanderbilt.edu/vanderbiltmagazine/new-turner-family-center-established/","url_text":"\"New Turner Family Center Established\""}]},{"reference":"\"Expanding Good\". Vanderbilt Business. Retrieved 2015-12-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://magazine.owen.vanderbilt.edu/expanding-good/","url_text":"\"Expanding Good\""}]},{"reference":"\"Environmental Engineering, Management, & Policy\". Vanderbilt School of Engineering. Retrieved 23 May 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://engineering.vanderbilt.edu/cee/GraduateStudy/EnvironmentalEngineering/env-mgmt-policy/index.php","url_text":"\"Environmental Engineering, Management, & Policy\""}]},{"reference":"About Author. Skylight Paths Publishing. Retrieved 2013-05-18.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.skylightpaths.com/page/category/thomas_huynh","url_text":"About Author"}]},{"reference":"Lownes-Jackson, Millicent; Guy, Retta. The Economic Empowerment of Women: A Global Perspective. Informing Science. ISBN 9781932886603.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=7UD0NYxdMiYC&q=the+wiser+group+lownes+jackson","url_text":"The Economic Empowerment of Women: A Global Perspective"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781932886603","url_text":"9781932886603"}]},{"reference":"Melissa Mittelman (24 October 2016). \"JPMorgan Heralds M&A Bonanza as Companies Seek New Ways to Grow\". Bloomberg L.P. Retrieved 24 October 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-10-24/jpmorgan-heralds-m-a-bonanza-as-companies-seek-new-ways-to-grow","url_text":"\"JPMorgan Heralds M&A Bonanza as Companies Seek New Ways to Grow\""}]},{"reference":"Stark, Phyllis (2001-03-24). 'Genre-Less' Combutions Blasts Off with Texan Faulkner, Two Soundtracks. Billboard Magazine. Retrieved 12 October 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=WxQEAAAAMBAJ&q=jim+beavers+director+of+marketing+capitol+nashville+records&pg=PA34","url_text":"'Genre-Less' Combutions Blasts Off with Texan Faulkner, Two Soundtracks"}]},{"reference":"\"David Farr | Emerson Chairman & Chief Executive Officer | Emerson US\". Archived from the original on 2021-03-08. Retrieved 2020-11-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210308145602/https://www.emerson.com/en-us/about-us/leadership/dave-farr","url_text":"\"David Farr | Emerson Chairman & Chief Executive Officer | Emerson US\""},{"url":"https://www.emerson.com/en-us/about-us/leadership/dave-farr","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Adena T. Friedman\". Retrieved 2023-08-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Owen_Graduate_School_of_Management&action=edit§ion=7","url_text":"\"Adena T. Friedman\""}]},{"reference":"\"Clear Labs closes $21M funding round to advance food safety solutions\". Food Dive. Retrieved 2020-10-30.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.fooddive.com/news/clear-labs-closes-21m-funding-round-to-advance-food-safety-solutions/540878/","url_text":"\"Clear Labs closes $21M funding round to advance food safety solutions\""}]},{"reference":"\"Bio non Faculty DB Page\".","urls":[{"url":"https://business.vanderbilt.edu/board-bio/david-ingram/","url_text":"\"Bio non Faculty DB Page\""}]},{"reference":"\"Board of Trust\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.vanderbilt.edu/boardoftrust/bio/john-ingram","url_text":"\"Board of Trust\""}]},{"reference":"\"Ex-Goldmans star Khemka launches no-charge India trust\".","urls":[{"url":"https://citywire.co.uk/investment-trust-insider/news/ex-goldmans-star-khemka-launches-no-charge-india-trust/a1129217","url_text":"\"Ex-Goldmans star Khemka launches no-charge India trust\""}]},{"reference":"\"Doug Parker – Customer service – American Airlines\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.aa.com/i18n/customer-service/about-us/leadership-bios/doug-parker.jsp","url_text":"\"Doug Parker – Customer service – American Airlines\""}]},{"reference":"\"James C. Tsai Named President of New York Eye and Ear Infirmary of Mount Sinai\". Retrieved September 25, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.mountsinai.org/about-us/newsroom/press-releases/james-c-tsai-named-president-of-new-york-eye-and-ear-infirmary-of-mount-sinai-and-chair-of-ophthalmology-for-the-mount-sinai-health-system","url_text":"\"James C. Tsai Named President of New York Eye and Ear Infirmary of Mount Sinai\""}]},{"reference":"\"Mount Sinai Launches Eye Research Institute\". Retrieved 25 September 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ny1.com/nyc/all-boroughs/news/2017/01/10/mount-sinai-launches-eye-research-institute.html","url_text":"\"Mount Sinai Launches Eye Research Institute\""}]},{"reference":"\"Alumni Success Stories\".","urls":[{"url":"https://business.vanderbilt.edu/our-school/our-stories/alumni-success/","url_text":"\"Alumni Success Stories\""}]},{"reference":"Garrison, Joey (2015-07-24). \"Nashville business leader Francis Guess dies at 69\". The Tennessean. Retrieved 2015-08-22.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.tennessean.com/story/news/local/davidson%20/2015/07/24/nashville-business-leader-francs-guess-dies-69/30614697/","url_text":"\"Nashville business leader Francis Guess dies at 69\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tennessean","url_text":"The Tennessean"}]},{"reference":"The White House. \"President Donald J. Trump Announces Intent to Nominate Paul C. Ney Jr. of Tennessee to be the General Counsel of the Department of Defense\". whitehouse.gov. Retrieved February 7, 2018 – via National Archives.","urls":[{"url":"https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/presidential-actions/president-donald-j-trump-announces-intent-nominate-paul-c-ney-jr-tennessee-general-counsel-department-defense/","url_text":"\"President Donald J. Trump Announces Intent to Nominate Paul C. Ney Jr. of Tennessee to be the General Counsel of the Department of Defense\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitehouse.gov","url_text":"whitehouse.gov"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NARA","url_text":"National Archives"}]},{"reference":"\"Agricultural Executive Takes Over As Ukraine's New Economy Minister\". rferl.org. March 18, 2020. Retrieved April 15, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rferl.org/a/untested-agricultural-executive-takes-over-as-ukraine-s-new-economy-minister/30494213.html","url_text":"\"Agricultural Executive Takes Over As Ukraine's New Economy Minister\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rferl.org","url_text":"rferl.org"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piri_Reis
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Piri Reis
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["1 Biography","2 Kitab-ı Bahriye","2.1 Sources","2.2 Contents","2.3 Manuscripts","3 In popular culture","4 See also","5 References","6 Bibliography","7 Further reading","8 External links"]
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Turkish admiral and cartographer
Piri ReisStatue of Piri ReisBornAhmed Muhiddin Piric. 1465Gallipoli, Rumelia Eyalet, Ottoman EmpireDied1553 (aged 87–88)Cairo, Egypt Eyalet, Ottoman EmpireNationalityTurkishKnown forDrawing the Piri Reis mapRelativesKemal Reis (uncle)
Bust of Piri Reis in Gallipoli
Ahmed Muhiddin Piri (c. 1465 – 1553), better known as Piri Reis (Turkish: Pîrî Reis or Hacı Ahmet Muhittin Pîrî Bey), was an Ottoman navigator, geographer and cartographer. He is primarily known today for his maps and charts collected in his Kitab-ı Bahriye (Book of Navigation), a book that contains detailed information on early navigational techniques as well as relatively accurate charts for their time, describing the important ports and cities of the Mediterranean Sea.
He gained fame as a cartographer when a small part of his first world map, prepared in 1513, was discovered in 1929 at the Topkapı Palace in Istanbul. His world map is the oldest known Turkish atlas showing the New World, and one of the oldest maps of America still existing anywhere (the oldest known surviving map of America is the map drawn by Juan de la Cosa in 1500). Piri Reis's map is centered on the Sahara at the latitude of the Tropic of Cancer.
In 1528, Piri Reis drew a second world map, of which a small fragment (showing Greenland and North America from Labrador and Newfoundland in the north to Florida, Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica and parts of Central America in the south) still survives. According to his imprinting text, he had drawn his maps using about 20 foreign charts and mappae mundi (Arab, Spanish, Portuguese, Chinese, Indian and Greek) including one by Christopher Columbus. He was executed in 1553 in Cairo, having been found guilty of lifting the siege of Hormuz Island and abandoning the fleet, even though his reason for doing so was the lack of maintenance of his ships.
Biography
Surviving fragment of the first World Map of Piri Reis (1513)
Very little background information is known about Piri Reis. Unconfirmed tradition holds that he was born around 1470 in Gallipoli on the Dardanelles which was at the time an important Ottoman naval base. His father was Hacı Mehmed, originally from the Anatolian province of Karaman. His ancestry is disputed; some sources claim that he was born into a Turkish family, while other sources indicate that he was born into a Greek family which converted from Christianity to Islam. His full name was Hacı Ahmed Muhiddin Piri. Reis was a military rank equivalent to captain, so the name Piri Reis translates as Captain Piri. The honorary and informal Islamic title Hadji (Turkish: Hacı) in Piri's and his father's names indicate that they both had completed the Hajj (Islamic pilgrimage) by going to Mecca during the dedicated annual period.
Piri began engaging in government-supported privateering (a common practice in the Mediterranean Sea among both the Muslim and Christian states of the 15th and 16th centuries) when he was young, following his uncle Kemal Reis, a well-known corsair and seafarer of the time, who later became a famous admiral of the Ottoman Navy. During this period, together with his uncle, he took part in many naval wars of the Ottoman Empire against Spain, the Republic of Genoa and the Republic of Venice, including the First Battle of Lepanto (Battle of Zonchio) in 1499 and the Second Battle of Lepanto (Battle of Modon) in 1500. When his uncle Kemal Reis died in 1511 (his ship was wrecked by a storm in the Mediterranean Sea, while he was heading to Egypt), Piri returned to Gelibolu, where he started working on his studies about navigation.
By 1516, he was again at sea as a ship captain in the Ottoman fleet. He took part in the 1516–17 Ottoman conquest of Egypt. In 1522 he participated in the Siege of Rhodes against the Knights of St. John, which ended with the island's surrender to the Ottomans on 25 December 1522 and the permanent departure of the Knights from Rhodes on 1 January 1523 (the Knights relocated briefly to Sicily and later permanently to Malta). In 1524 he captained the ship that took the Ottoman Grand Vizier Pargalı İbrahim Pasha to Egypt.
Surviving fragment of the second World Map of Piri Reis (1528)
In 1547, Piri had risen to the rank of Reis (admiral) as the Commander of the Ottoman Fleet in the Indian Ocean and Admiral of the Fleet in Egypt, headquartered in Suez. On 26 February 1548 he recaptured Aden from the Portuguese, followed in 1552 by the sack of Muscat, which Portugal had occupied since 1507, and the strategically important island of Kish. Turning further east, Piri Reis attempted to capture the island of Hormuz in the Strait of Hormuz, at the entrance of the Persian Gulf, unsuccessfully, the Ottomans managed to capture the city but not the fortress. He then sacked the nearby island of Qeshm and sailed with his booty to Basra. When the Portuguese turned their attention to the Persian Gulf, Piri Reis occupied the Qatar peninsula to deprive the Portuguese of suitable bases on the Arabian coast.
He then returned to Egypt, an old man approaching the age of 90. When he refused to support the Ottoman Vali (Governor) of Basra, Kubad Pasha, in another campaign against the Portuguese in the northern Persian Gulf, Piri Reis was beheaded in 1553.
Several warships and submarines of the Turkish Navy have been named after Piri Reis.
Kitab-ı Bahriye
Bust of Piri Reis in the Istanbul Naval Museum
See also: Piri Reis map
Piri Reis is the author of the Kitāb-ı Baḥrīye, or "Book of the Sea", one of the most famous cartographical works of the period. The book gives seafarers information on the Mediterranean coast, islands, crossings, straits, and gulfs; where to take refuge in the event of a storm, how to approach the ports, and precise routes to the ports.
The work was first published in 1521, and it was revised in 1524–1525 with additional information and better-crafted charts in order to be presented as a gift to Sultan Suleiman I. The revised edition had a total of 434 pages containing 290 maps.
Sources
Although he was not an explorer and never sailed to the Atlantic, he compiled over twenty maps of Arab, Spanish, Portuguese, Chinese, Indian and older Greek origins into a comprehensive representation of the known world of his era. This work included the recently explored shores of both the African and American continents; on his first World Map of 1513, he imprinted the description "these lands and islands are drawn from the map of Columbus."
In his text, he also wrote that he used the "maps drawn in the time of Alexander the Great" as a source, but most likely he had mistakenly confused the 2nd-century Greek geographer Ptolemy with Alexander's general of the same name (of four and a half centuries before), since his map is similar with the Jan of Stobnica famous reproduction map of Ptolemy, printed in 1512.
Ptolemy's Geographia had been translated in Turkish after a personal order of Mehmed II some decades before.
It can be seen that the Atlantic part of the map originates with Columbus because of the errors it contains (such as Columbus's belief that Cuba was a continental peninsula) since at the time the manuscript was produced, the Spaniards had already been in Mexico for two years.
Contents
A late 16th century copy of the map of Europe from Kitab-ı Bahriye
Map of Alanya by Piri Reis
Apart from the maps, the book also contained detailed information on the major ports, bays, gulfs, capes, peninsulas, islands, straits and ideal shelters of the Mediterranean Sea, as well as techniques of navigation and navigation-related information on astronomy, together with information about the local people of each country and city and the curious aspects of their culture. There are thirty legends around the world map, twenty-nine in Turkish and one in Arabic; the latter gives the date as the month Muharrem of AH 919 AH (i.e. the spring of 1513) but most studies have identified the more probable date of completion as 1521.
The Kitab-ı Bahriye has two main sections, with the first section dedicated to information about the types of storms; techniques of using a compass; portolan charts with detailed information on ports and coastlines; methods of finding direction using the stars; and characteristics of the major oceans and the lands around them. Special emphasis is given to the discoveries in the New World by Christopher Columbus and those of Vasco da Gama and the other Portuguese seamen on their way to India and the rest of Asia.
The second section is entirely composed of portolan charts and cruise guides. Each topic contains the map of an island or coastline. In the first book (1521), this section has a total of 132 portolan charts, while the second book (1525) has a total of 210 portolan charts. The second section starts with the description of the Dardanelles Strait and continues with the islands and coastlines of the Aegean Sea, Ionian Sea, Adriatic Sea, Tyrrhenian Sea, Ligurian Sea, the French Riviera, the Balearic Islands, the coasts of Spain, the Strait of Gibraltar, the Canary Islands, the coasts of North Africa, Egypt and the River Nile, the Levant and the coastline of Anatolia. This section also includes descriptions and drawings of the famous monuments and buildings in every city, as well as biographic information about Piri Reis who also explains the reasons why he preferred to collect these charts in a book instead of drawing a single map, which would not be able to contain so much information and detail.
A century after Piri's death and during the second half of the 17th century, a third version of his book was produced, which left the text of the second version unaffected while enriching the cartographical part of the manuscript.
It included additional new large-scale maps, mostly copies of the Italian (from Battista Agnese and Jacopo Gastaldi) and Dutch (Abraham Ortelius) works of the previous century.
These maps were much more accurate and depict the Black Sea, which was not included in the original.
Manuscripts
Copies of the Kitab-ı Bahriye are found in various libraries in Istanbul and in some of the major libraries in Europe, besides one copy known to be held privately in the USA (Walters Art Museum).
Copies of the first edition (1521):
Istanbul, Topkapı Palace, ms Bagdad 337
Istanbul, Nuruosmaniye Library, ms 2990
Istanbul, Süleymaniye Library, ms Aya Sofya 2605
Bologna University Library, ms. Marsili 3609.
Bologna University Library, ms. Marsili 3612.
Vienna, Austrian National Library, Cod. H.O. 192.
Dresden, Staatbibliothek, ms. Eb 389.
Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, suppl.turc 220.
London, British Museum, ms. Oriental 4131.
Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS. D'Orville 543
Baltimore, Walters Art Museum, W.658.
Copies of the second edition (1525):
Istanbul, Topkapı Palace, ms. Hazine 642.
Istanbul, Köprülü Library, ms. 171.
Istanbul, Süleymaniye Library, ms Aya Sofya 3161.
Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, suppl. Turc 956.
In popular culture
Piri Reis is mentioned in the 2010 video game Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood, and appears as a character in its 2011 sequel Assassin's Creed: Revelations. In Brotherhood, a group of Italian Assassins sent from Rome to Constantinople by Ezio Auditore da Firenze infiltrates Piri Reis's shop to steal some of his maps detailing the New World, in order to match the Templars' expansion into the new lands. By Revelations, despite his earlier conflict with the Assassins, Piri joins the Ottoman Assassin Brotherhood in 1506 to serve as a scholar and technician, and even eventually progresses to the rank of Master Assassin.
In the 2021 Turkish TV series Barbaros: Sword of the Mediterranean, he is portrayed by actor Emir Benderlioğlu.
See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Piri Reis.
Geography and cartography in medieval Islam
Indian Ocean campaigns
Ottoman Navy
References
^ PÎRÎ REİS. TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi.
^ Arikan, Muzaffer; Toledo, Paulino. "VENEDİK'TEKİ PAPALIK SEFARETİ BELGELERİNE GÖRE TÜRKLER" (PDF). Ankara University (in Turkish).
^ Soucek 1992.
^ a b Brotton 1998, p. 108.
^ Çal, İsmail (21 October 2010). "Piri Reis neden idam edildi?". Dünya Bülteni. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 22 November 2015.
^ Soucek 1992, p. 266.
^ Soucek 1992, p. 267.
^ Grinevetsky, Sergei R.; Zonn, Igor S.; Zhiltsov, Sergei S.; Kosarev, Aleksey N.; Kostianoy, Andrey G. (2014-09-30). The Black Sea Encyclopedia. Springer. p. 610. ISBN 978-3-642-55227-4. Piri Reis – the real name of Haci Ahmed Muhiddin Piri (between 1465 to 1470—c. 1553). The Turkish Fleet commander, geographer... He is thought to be of the Greek origin.
^ Ülkekul, Cevat (2007). XVI. yüzyılın denizci bir bilim adamı yaşamı ve yapıtarıyla Piri Reis (in Turkish). Deniz Basımevi. p. 23. ISBN 978-975-409-442-8. PİRİ MUJYI'L - DİN REIS, Osmanlı denizcisi (navigatör) ve kartograf, muhtemelen Hıristiyan (Yunan) kökenli idi.
^ Ιωάννου 'Αμαντος, Κωνσταντίνος (1955). Σχέσεις Ελλήνων & Τούρκων: από του ενδεκάτου αιώνος μέχρι του 1821. οι πόλεμοι των τούρκων προς κατάληψιν των Ελληνικών χωρών 1071-1571 (in Greek). Οργανισμός Εκδόσεως Σχολικών Βιβλίων. p. 167. Ὑπὸ τὸν Βαρβαρόσσα ὑπηρέτησε καὶ ὁ ἑλληνικῆς πιθανῶς καταγωγῆς ναύαρχος Piri Reis...
^ Brotton 1998, p. 193.
^ Khair 2006, p. 127: "Muhuddin Piri Reis was born at the naval base of Gelibolu (later known to "Westerners" as Gallipoli during the First World War) as a nephew of Kemal Reis, the most famous Turkish admiral and privateer or "corsair" of the period. He seems to have joined his uncle's ship at the age of 11 or 12...".
^ The Persian Gulf: A Political and Economic History of Five Port Cities, 1500-1730. Willem M. Floor. Mage Publishers
^ Osman's Dream. Caroline Finkel. Hachette UK
^ "Explore Istanbul: The Piri Reis Map". Archived from the original on 2011-07-10. Retrieved 2010-10-27.
^ Soucek 1996, p. 73.
^ Tekeli 1986.
^ Brotton 1998, p. 110.
^ Robinson 1998, p. 70.
^ Irzik & Güzeldere 2005, p. 286.
^ Loupis 2004.
^ Ritman, Alex (14 November 2011). "Assassin's Creed: Revelations is historically impressive". The National. Retrieved 29 April 2018.
Bibliography
Brotton, Jerry (1998). Trading Territories : Mapping the early modern world. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-3499-8.
Bostan, Idris (2007). "PÎRÎ REİS". TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 34 (Osmanpazari – Resuldar) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation, Centre for Islamic Studies. pp. 283–285. ISBN 978-975-389-456-2.
Carboni, Stefano (2007). Venice and the Islamic world, 828-1797. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 9780300124309.
Hapgood, Charles H. (1966). Maps of the ancient sea kings: evidence of advanced civilization in the ice age. Philadelphia: Chilton. OCLC 819363004.
Irzik, Gürol; Güzeldere, Güven, eds. (2005). Turkish studies in the history and philosophy of science. Springer. ISBN 9781402033322.
Khair, Tabish, ed. (2006). "Piri Reis: The Voyages of a 'Corsair' (c. 1526)". Other routes: 1500 years of African and Asian travel writing. Oxford: Signal. pp. 127–131. ISBN 9781904955122. OCLC 61177562.
Loupis, Dimitris (2004). "Piri Reis' Book on Navigation (Kitab-i Bahriyye) as a Geography Handbook". Eastern Mediterranean cartographies. Athens, Greece: National Hellenic Research Foundation. p. 39. OCLC 892160459.
Robinson, Francis (1998). The Cambridge illustrated history of the Islamic world. London: Cambridge University Press.
Soucek, Svat (1992). "Islamic Charting in the Mediterranean" (PDF). In Harley, J. B.; Woodward, D. (eds.). Cartography in the Traditional Islamic and South Asian Societies. Vol. 2. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 263–272.
Soucek, Svatopluk (1996) . Piri Reis and Turkish Mapmaking After Columbus: The Khalili Portolan Atlas. Studies in the Khalili Collection. Vol. 2. London: The Nour Foundation.
Tekeli, Sevim (1986). The Map of America by Pîrî Reis. Ankara: Atatürk Kültür Merkezi Yayını. OCLC 41917181.
Further reading
Editions of Kitab-ı Bahriye
Kahle, Paul, ed. (1926). Piri Re'îs. Bahrîje. Das türkische Segelhandbuch für das Mittelländische Meer vom Jahre 1521 (in German). Berlin.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
Kordoglu, Fevzi; Alpagot, Haydar; Pekol, Fehmi, eds. (1935). Piri Reis Kitabi Bahriye: eser ve yazean hakkinda bir onsozle bir endeks katilmistir (in Turkish). Vol. 2. Istanbul: Turk Tarihi Arastirma Korumu.
Oktel, Ertugrul Zekai, ed. (1988). Piri Reis. Kitab-i bahriye. Istanbul: The Historical research foundation.
Arī, Bülent, ed. (2002). Piri Reis. Kitab-i bahriye (in Turkish and English). Translated by Demir, Ahmet; Özden, Ercüment. Ankara: Republic of Turkey, Prime Ministry, Undersecretaryship of Navigation. ISBN 9755070966. OCLC 978146815.
1513 map:
McIntosh, Gregory C. (2000). The Piri Reis Map of 1513. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press.
İnan, Afet (1954). The Oldest Map of America. pp. 28–34 – via sacred-texts.com.
Reprinted as Life and works of Pirî Reis: the oldest map of America. Ankara. 1975.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
Kahle, Paul (1933). Die verschollene Kolumbuskarte von 1498 in einer türkischen Weltkarte von 1513 (in German). Berlin: Leipzig.
Mesenburg, Peter (2001). "Kartometrische Untersuchung und Rekonstruktion der Weltkarte des Piri Re'is (1513)". Cartographica Helvetica (in German) (24): 3–7.
External links
Steven Dutch. "The Piri Reis map". Archived from the original on 2013-08-13.
Lunde, Paul (1992). "A Muslim History Of The New World". Saudi Aramco World.
"Piri Reis: A Genius 16th-Century Ottoman Cartographer and Navigator". MuslimHeritage.com. Archived from the original on 2013-09-17. Retrieved 2012-08-15.
"The Maps of Piri Reis". The Public Domain Review.
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He is primarily known today for his maps and charts collected in his Kitab-ı Bahriye [tr] (Book of Navigation), a book that contains detailed information on early navigational techniques as well as relatively accurate charts for their time, describing the important ports and cities of the Mediterranean Sea.He gained fame as a cartographer when a small part of his first world map, prepared in 1513, was discovered in 1929 at the Topkapı Palace in Istanbul. His world map is the oldest known Turkish atlas showing the New World, and one of the oldest maps of America still existing anywhere (the oldest known surviving map of America is the map drawn by Juan de la Cosa in 1500). Piri Reis's map is centered on the Sahara at the latitude of the Tropic of Cancer.[3]In 1528, Piri Reis drew a second world map, of which a small fragment (showing Greenland and North America from Labrador and Newfoundland in the north to Florida, Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica and parts of Central America in the south) still survives. According to his imprinting text, he had drawn his maps using about 20 foreign charts and mappae mundi (Arab, Spanish, Portuguese, Chinese, Indian and Greek) including one by Christopher Columbus.[4] He was executed in 1553 in Cairo, having been found guilty of lifting the siege of Hormuz Island and abandoning the fleet, even though his reason for doing so was the lack of maintenance of his ships.[5]","title":"Piri Reis"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Piri_reis_world_map_01.jpg"},{"link_name":"first World 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needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"privateering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privateer"},{"link_name":"Kemal Reis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemal_Reis"},{"link_name":"corsair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privateer"},{"link_name":"admiral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admiral"},{"link_name":"Ottoman Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Navy"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TK_127-12"},{"link_name":"Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain"},{"link_name":"Republic of Genoa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa"},{"link_name":"Republic of Venice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Venice"},{"link_name":"First Battle of Lepanto (Battle of Zonchio)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Zonchio"},{"link_name":"Second Battle of Lepanto (Battle of 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Pasha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pargal%C4%B1_%C4%B0brahim_Pasha"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Second_World_Map_of_Piri_Reis.jpg"},{"link_name":"Reis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reis_(military_rank)"},{"link_name":"Indian Ocean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Ocean"},{"link_name":"Suez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suez"},{"link_name":"recaptured Aden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capture_of_Aden_(1548)"},{"link_name":"Portuguese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugal"},{"link_name":"sack of Muscat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capture_of_Muscat_(1552)"},{"link_name":"Kish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kish,_Iran"},{"link_name":"Hormuz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hormuz_Island"},{"link_name":"Strait of Hormuz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strait_of_Hormuz"},{"link_name":"Persian Gulf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Gulf"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Qeshm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qeshm"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Qatar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qatar"},{"link_name":"Arabian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabian_peninsula"},{"link_name":"Vali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C4%81li"},{"link_name":"Basra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basra"},{"link_name":"Turkish Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_Navy"}],"text":"Surviving fragment of the first World Map of Piri Reis (1513)Very little background information is known about Piri Reis. Unconfirmed tradition holds that he was born around 1470 in Gallipoli on the Dardanelles which was at the time an important Ottoman naval base.[6] His father was Hacı Mehmed, originally from the Anatolian province of Karaman. His ancestry is disputed; some sources claim that he was born into a Turkish family,[7] while other sources indicate that he was born into a Greek family which converted from Christianity to Islam.[8][9][10] His full name was Hacı Ahmed Muhiddin Piri. Reis was a military rank equivalent to captain, so the name Piri Reis translates as Captain Piri.[11] The honorary and informal Islamic title Hadji (Turkish: Hacı) in Piri's and his father's names indicate that they both had completed the Hajj (Islamic pilgrimage) by going to Mecca during the dedicated annual period.[citation needed]Piri began engaging in government-supported privateering (a common practice in the Mediterranean Sea among both the Muslim and Christian states of the 15th and 16th centuries) when he was young, following his uncle Kemal Reis, a well-known corsair and seafarer of the time, who later became a famous admiral of the Ottoman Navy.[12] During this period, together with his uncle, he took part in many naval wars of the Ottoman Empire against Spain, the Republic of Genoa and the Republic of Venice, including the First Battle of Lepanto (Battle of Zonchio) in 1499 and the Second Battle of Lepanto (Battle of Modon) in 1500. When his uncle Kemal Reis died in 1511 (his ship was wrecked by a storm in the Mediterranean Sea, while he was heading to Egypt), Piri returned to Gelibolu, where he started working on his studies about navigation.By 1516, he was again at sea as a ship captain in the Ottoman fleet. He took part in the 1516–17 Ottoman conquest of Egypt. In 1522 he participated in the Siege of Rhodes against the Knights of St. John, which ended with the island's surrender to the Ottomans on 25 December 1522 and the permanent departure of the Knights from Rhodes on 1 January 1523 (the Knights relocated briefly to Sicily and later permanently to Malta). In 1524 he captained the ship that took the Ottoman Grand Vizier Pargalı İbrahim Pasha to Egypt.Surviving fragment of the second World Map of Piri Reis (1528)In 1547, Piri had risen to the rank of Reis (admiral) as the Commander of the Ottoman Fleet in the Indian Ocean and Admiral of the Fleet in Egypt, headquartered in Suez. On 26 February 1548 he recaptured Aden from the Portuguese, followed in 1552 by the sack of Muscat, which Portugal had occupied since 1507, and the strategically important island of Kish. Turning further east, Piri Reis attempted to capture the island of Hormuz in the Strait of Hormuz, at the entrance of the Persian Gulf, unsuccessfully, the Ottomans managed to capture the city but not the fortress.[13] He then sacked the nearby island of Qeshm and sailed with his booty to Basra.[14] When the Portuguese turned their attention to the Persian Gulf, Piri Reis occupied the Qatar peninsula to deprive the Portuguese of suitable bases on the Arabian coast.He then returned to Egypt, an old man approaching the age of 90. When he refused to support the Ottoman Vali (Governor) of Basra, Kubad Pasha, in another campaign against the Portuguese in the northern Persian Gulf, Piri Reis was beheaded in 1553.Several warships and submarines of the Turkish Navy have been named after Piri Reis.","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PiriReis_IstanbulNavalMuseum.JPG"},{"link_name":"Istanbul Naval Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istanbul_Naval_Museum"},{"link_name":"Piri Reis map","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piri_Reis_map"},{"link_name":"Mediterranean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean"},{"link_name":"1521","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1521"},{"link_name":"Sultan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultan"},{"link_name":"Suleiman I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent"}],"text":"Bust of Piri Reis in the Istanbul Naval MuseumSee also: Piri Reis mapPiri Reis is the author of the Kitāb-ı Baḥrīye, or \"Book of the Sea\", one of the most famous cartographical works of the period. The book gives seafarers information on the Mediterranean coast, islands, crossings, straits, and gulfs; where to take refuge in the event of a storm, how to approach the ports, and precise routes to the ports.The work was first published in 1521, and it was revised in 1524–1525 with additional information and better-crafted charts in order to be presented as a gift to Sultan Suleiman I. The revised edition had a total of 434 pages containing 290 maps.","title":"Kitab-ı Bahriye"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrotton1998108-4"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Ptolemy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy"},{"link_name":"Alexander's general","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter"},{"link_name":"Jan of Stobnica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_of_Stobnica"},{"link_name":"Mehmed II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehmed_II"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESoucek199673-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTETekeli1986-17"},{"link_name":"the Spaniards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire"}],"sub_title":"Sources","text":"Although he was not an explorer and never sailed to the Atlantic, he compiled over twenty maps of Arab, Spanish, Portuguese, Chinese, Indian and older Greek origins into a comprehensive representation of the known world of his era.[4] This work included the recently explored shores of both the African and American continents; on his first World Map of 1513, he imprinted the description \"these lands and islands are drawn from the map of Columbus.\"[15] \nIn his text, he also wrote that he used the \"maps drawn in the time of Alexander the Great\" as a source, but most likely he had mistakenly confused the 2nd-century Greek geographer Ptolemy with Alexander's general of the same name (of four and a half centuries before), since his map is similar with the Jan of Stobnica famous reproduction map of Ptolemy, printed in 1512.\nPtolemy's Geographia had been translated in Turkish after a personal order of Mehmed II some decades before.[16]\nIt can be seen that the Atlantic part of the map originates with Columbus because of the errors it contains (such as Columbus's belief that Cuba was a continental peninsula)[17] since at the time the manuscript was produced, the Spaniards had already been in Mexico for two years.","title":"Kitab-ı Bahriye"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Piri_Reis_map_of_Europe_and_the_Mediterranean_Sea.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Alanya_by_Piri_Reis_color.jpg"},{"link_name":"Alanya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alanya"},{"link_name":"Mediterranean Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea"},{"link_name":"legends","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legend_(map)"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrotton1998110-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson199870-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIrzikG%C3%BCzeldere2005286-20"},{"link_name":"portolan charts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portolan_chart"},{"link_name":"New World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_World"},{"link_name":"Christopher Columbus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Columbus"},{"link_name":"Vasco da Gama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasco_da_Gama"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia"},{"link_name":"Dardanelles Strait","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dardanelles_Strait"},{"link_name":"Aegean Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegean_Sea"},{"link_name":"Ionian Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionian_Sea"},{"link_name":"Adriatic Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adriatic_Sea"},{"link_name":"Tyrrhenian Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyrrhenian_Sea"},{"link_name":"Ligurian Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligurian_Sea"},{"link_name":"French Riviera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Riviera"},{"link_name":"Balearic Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balearic_Islands"},{"link_name":"Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain"},{"link_name":"Strait of Gibraltar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strait_of_Gibraltar"},{"link_name":"Canary Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canary_Islands"},{"link_name":"North Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Africa"},{"link_name":"Egypt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt"},{"link_name":"River Nile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Nile"},{"link_name":"Levant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levant"},{"link_name":"Anatolia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatolia"},{"link_name":"Battista Agnese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battista_Agnese"},{"link_name":"Abraham Ortelius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Ortelius"},{"link_name":"Black Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Sea"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoupis2004-21"}],"sub_title":"Contents","text":"A late 16th century copy of the map of Europe from Kitab-ı BahriyeMap of Alanya by Piri ReisApart from the maps, the book also contained detailed information on the major ports, bays, gulfs, capes, peninsulas, islands, straits and ideal shelters of the Mediterranean Sea, as well as techniques of navigation and navigation-related information on astronomy, together with information about the local people of each country and city and the curious aspects of their culture. There are thirty legends around the world map, twenty-nine in Turkish and one in Arabic; the latter gives the date as the month Muharrem of AH 919 AH (i.e. the spring of 1513) but most studies have identified the more probable date of completion as 1521.[18] [19][20]The Kitab-ı Bahriye has two main sections, with the first section dedicated to information about the types of storms; techniques of using a compass; portolan charts with detailed information on ports and coastlines; methods of finding direction using the stars; and characteristics of the major oceans and the lands around them. Special emphasis is given to the discoveries in the New World by Christopher Columbus and those of Vasco da Gama and the other Portuguese seamen on their way to India and the rest of Asia.The second section is entirely composed of portolan charts and cruise guides. Each topic contains the map of an island or coastline. In the first book (1521), this section has a total of 132 portolan charts, while the second book (1525) has a total of 210 portolan charts. The second section starts with the description of the Dardanelles Strait and continues with the islands and coastlines of the Aegean Sea, Ionian Sea, Adriatic Sea, Tyrrhenian Sea, Ligurian Sea, the French Riviera, the Balearic Islands, the coasts of Spain, the Strait of Gibraltar, the Canary Islands, the coasts of North Africa, Egypt and the River Nile, the Levant and the coastline of Anatolia. This section also includes descriptions and drawings of the famous monuments and buildings in every city, as well as biographic information about Piri Reis who also explains the reasons why he preferred to collect these charts in a book instead of drawing a single map, which would not be able to contain so much information and detail.A century after Piri's death and during the second half of the 17th century, a third version of his book was produced, which left the text of the second version unaffected while enriching the cartographical part of the manuscript. \nIt included additional new large-scale maps, mostly copies of the Italian (from Battista Agnese and Jacopo Gastaldi) and Dutch (Abraham Ortelius) works of the previous century. \nThese maps were much more accurate and depict the Black Sea, which was not included in the original.[21]","title":"Kitab-ı Bahriye"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Walters Art Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walters_Art_Museum"},{"link_name":"Topkapı Palace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topkap%C4%B1_Palace"},{"link_name":"Nuruosmaniye Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_libraries_in_Istanbul"},{"link_name":"Süleymaniye","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BCleymaniye"},{"link_name":"Bologna University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bologna_University"},{"link_name":"Austrian National Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austrian_National_Library"},{"link_name":"Cod. H.O.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuscripts_of_the_Austrian_National_Library"},{"link_name":"Bibliothèque nationale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_nationale"},{"link_name":"British Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Museum"},{"link_name":"Bodleian Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodleian_Library"},{"link_name":"Walters Art Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walters_Art_Museum"},{"link_name":"Köprülü Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6pr%C3%BCl%C3%BC_Library"}],"sub_title":"Manuscripts","text":"Copies of the Kitab-ı Bahriye are found in various libraries in Istanbul and in some of the major libraries in Europe, besides one copy known to be held privately in the USA (Walters Art Museum).Copies of the first edition (1521):Istanbul, Topkapı Palace, ms Bagdad 337\nIstanbul, Nuruosmaniye Library, ms 2990\nIstanbul, Süleymaniye Library, ms Aya Sofya 2605\nBologna University Library, ms. Marsili 3609.\nBologna University Library, ms. Marsili 3612.\nVienna, Austrian National Library, Cod. H.O. 192.\nDresden, Staatbibliothek, ms. Eb 389.\nParis, Bibliothèque nationale, suppl.turc 220.\nLondon, British Museum, ms. Oriental 4131.\nOxford, Bodleian Library, MS. D'Orville 543\nBaltimore, Walters Art Museum, W.658.Copies of the second edition (1525):Istanbul, Topkapı Palace, ms. Hazine 642.\nIstanbul, Köprülü Library, ms. 171.\nIstanbul, Süleymaniye Library, ms Aya Sofya 3161.\nParis, Bibliothèque nationale, suppl. Turc 956.","title":"Kitab-ı Bahriye"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassin%27s_Creed:_Brotherhood"},{"link_name":"Assassin's Creed: Revelations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassin%27s_Creed:_Revelations"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Assassins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination"},{"link_name":"Ezio Auditore da Firenze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ezio_Auditore_da_Firenze"},{"link_name":"Templars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Templars"},{"link_name":"Barbaros: Sword of the Mediterranean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbaros:_Sword_of_the_Mediterranean"}],"text":"Piri Reis is mentioned in the 2010 video game Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood, and appears as a character in its 2011 sequel Assassin's Creed: Revelations.[22] In Brotherhood, a group of Italian Assassins sent from Rome to Constantinople by Ezio Auditore da Firenze infiltrates Piri Reis's shop to steal some of his maps detailing the New World, in order to match the Templars' expansion into the new lands. By Revelations, despite his earlier conflict with the Assassins, Piri joins the Ottoman Assassin Brotherhood in 1506 to serve as a scholar and technician, and even eventually progresses to the rank of Master Assassin.In the 2021 Turkish TV series Barbaros: Sword of the Mediterranean, he is portrayed by actor Emir Benderlioğlu.","title":"In popular culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Trading Territories : Mapping the early modern world","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/tradingterritori0000brot"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-8014-3499-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8014-3499-8"},{"link_name":"\"PÎRÎ REİS\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/piri-reis"},{"link_name":"Turkiye Diyanet Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directorate_of_Religious_Affairs"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-975-389-456-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-975-389-456-2"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780300124309","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780300124309"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"819363004","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/819363004"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9781402033322","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781402033322"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9781904955122","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781904955122"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"61177562","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/61177562"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"892160459","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/892160459"},{"link_name":"\"Islamic Charting in the Mediterranean\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.press.uchicago.edu/books/HOC/HOC_V2_B1/HOC_VOLUME2_Book1_chapter14.pdf"},{"link_name":"Harley, J. B.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Brian_Harley"},{"link_name":"Woodward, D.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Woodward_(cartographer)"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"41917181","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/41917181"}],"text":"Brotton, Jerry (1998). Trading Territories : Mapping the early modern world. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-3499-8.\nBostan, Idris (2007). \"PÎRÎ REİS\". TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 34 (Osmanpazari – Resuldar) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation, Centre for Islamic Studies. pp. 283–285. ISBN 978-975-389-456-2.\nCarboni, Stefano (2007). Venice and the Islamic world, 828-1797. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 9780300124309.\nHapgood, Charles H. (1966). Maps of the ancient sea kings: evidence of advanced civilization in the ice age. Philadelphia: Chilton. OCLC 819363004.\nIrzik, Gürol; Güzeldere, Güven, eds. (2005). Turkish studies in the history and philosophy of science. Springer. ISBN 9781402033322.\nKhair, Tabish, ed. (2006). \"Piri Reis: The Voyages of a 'Corsair' (c. 1526)\". Other routes: 1500 years of African and Asian travel writing. Oxford: Signal. pp. 127–131. ISBN 9781904955122. OCLC 61177562.\nLoupis, Dimitris (2004). \"Piri Reis' Book on Navigation (Kitab-i Bahriyye) as a Geography Handbook\". Eastern Mediterranean cartographies. Athens, Greece: National Hellenic Research Foundation. p. 39. OCLC 892160459.\nRobinson, Francis (1998). The Cambridge illustrated history of the Islamic world. London: Cambridge University Press.\nSoucek, Svat (1992). \"Islamic Charting in the Mediterranean\" (PDF). In Harley, J. B.; Woodward, D. (eds.). Cartography in the Traditional Islamic and South Asian Societies. Vol. 2. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 263–272.\nSoucek, Svatopluk (1996) [1992]. Piri Reis and Turkish Mapmaking After Columbus: The Khalili Portolan Atlas. Studies in the Khalili Collection. Vol. 2. London: The Nour Foundation.\nTekeli, Sevim (1986). The Map of America by Pîrî Reis. Ankara: Atatürk Kültür Merkezi Yayını. OCLC 41917181.","title":"Bibliography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cite book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book"},{"link_name":"link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9755070966","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9755070966"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978146815","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/978146815"},{"link_name":"The Piri Reis Map of 1513","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/gregory-c.-mc-intosh-the-piri-reis-map-of-1513"},{"link_name":"The Oldest Map of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.sacred-texts.com/piri/pirikey.htm"},{"link_name":"cite book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book"},{"link_name":"link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher"}],"text":"Editions of Kitab-ı BahriyeKahle, Paul, ed. (1926). Piri Re'îs. Bahrîje. Das türkische Segelhandbuch für das Mittelländische Meer vom Jahre 1521 (in German). Berlin.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)\nKordoglu, Fevzi; Alpagot, Haydar; Pekol, Fehmi, eds. (1935). Piri Reis Kitabi Bahriye: eser ve yazean hakkinda bir onsozle bir endeks katilmistir [Piri Reis Kitabi Bahriye: with added foreword and index] (in Turkish). Vol. 2. Istanbul: Turk Tarihi Arastirma Korumu.\nOktel, Ertugrul Zekai, ed. (1988). Piri Reis. Kitab-i bahriye. Istanbul: The Historical research foundation.\nArī, Bülent, ed. (2002). Piri Reis. Kitab-i bahriye (in Turkish and English). Translated by Demir, Ahmet; Özden, Ercüment. Ankara: Republic of Turkey, Prime Ministry, Undersecretaryship of Navigation. ISBN 9755070966. OCLC 978146815.1513 map:McIntosh, Gregory C. (2000). The Piri Reis Map of 1513. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press.\nİnan, Afet (1954). The Oldest Map of America. pp. 28–34 – via sacred-texts.com.\nReprinted as Life and works of Pirî Reis: the oldest map of America. Ankara. 1975.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)\nKahle, Paul (1933). Die verschollene Kolumbuskarte von 1498 in einer türkischen Weltkarte von 1513 (in German). Berlin: Leipzig.\nMesenburg, Peter (2001). \"Kartometrische Untersuchung und Rekonstruktion der Weltkarte des Piri Re'is (1513)\". Cartographica Helvetica (in German) (24): 3–7.","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"Bust of Piri Reis in Gallipoli","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Piri_Reis-Gelibolu001.jpg/220px-Piri_Reis-Gelibolu001.jpg"},{"image_text":"Surviving fragment of the first World Map of Piri Reis (1513)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Piri_reis_world_map_01.jpg/200px-Piri_reis_world_map_01.jpg"},{"image_text":"Surviving fragment of the second World Map of Piri Reis (1528)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Second_World_Map_of_Piri_Reis.jpg/200px-Second_World_Map_of_Piri_Reis.jpg"},{"image_text":"Bust of Piri Reis in the Istanbul Naval Museum","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/PiriReis_IstanbulNavalMuseum.JPG/220px-PiriReis_IstanbulNavalMuseum.JPG"},{"image_text":"A late 16th century copy of the map of Europe from Kitab-ı Bahriye","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Piri_Reis_map_of_Europe_and_the_Mediterranean_Sea.jpg/220px-Piri_Reis_map_of_Europe_and_the_Mediterranean_Sea.jpg"},{"image_text":"Map of Alanya by Piri Reis","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Alanya_by_Piri_Reis_color.jpg/220px-Alanya_by_Piri_Reis_color.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Piri Reis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Piri_Reis"},{"title":"Geography and cartography in medieval Islam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_and_cartography_in_medieval_Islam"},{"title":"Indian Ocean campaigns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_naval_expeditions_in_the_Indian_Ocean"},{"title":"Ottoman Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Navy"}]
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[{"reference":"PÎRÎ REİS. TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi.","urls":[{"url":"https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/piri-reis","url_text":"PÎRÎ REİS"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TDV_%C4%B0sl%C3%A2m_Ansiklopedisi","url_text":"TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi"}]},{"reference":"Arikan, Muzaffer; Toledo, Paulino. \"VENEDİK'TEKİ PAPALIK SEFARETİ BELGELERİNE GÖRE TÜRKLER\" (PDF). Ankara University (in Turkish).","urls":[{"url":"http://dergiler.ankara.edu.tr/dergiler/19/821/10412.pdf","url_text":"\"VENEDİK'TEKİ PAPALIK SEFARETİ BELGELERİNE GÖRE TÜRKLER\""}]},{"reference":"Çal, İsmail (21 October 2010). \"Piri Reis neden idam edildi?\". Dünya Bülteni. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 22 November 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160305030553/http://www.dunyabulteni.net/?aType=haber&ArticleID=133432","url_text":"\"Piri Reis neden idam edildi?\""},{"url":"http://www.dunyabulteni.net/?aType=haber&ArticleID=133432","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Grinevetsky, Sergei R.; Zonn, Igor S.; Zhiltsov, Sergei S.; Kosarev, Aleksey N.; Kostianoy, Andrey G. (2014-09-30). The Black Sea Encyclopedia. Springer. p. 610. ISBN 978-3-642-55227-4. Piri Reis – the real name of Haci Ahmed Muhiddin Piri (between 1465 to 1470—c. 1553). The Turkish Fleet commander, geographer... He is thought to be of the Greek origin.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=KFCqBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA610","url_text":"The Black Sea Encyclopedia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-55227-4","url_text":"978-3-642-55227-4"}]},{"reference":"Ülkekul, Cevat (2007). XVI. yüzyılın denizci bir bilim adamı yaşamı ve yapıtarıyla Piri Reis (in Turkish). Deniz Basımevi. p. 23. ISBN 978-975-409-442-8. PİRİ MUJYI'L - DİN REIS, Osmanlı denizcisi (navigatör) ve kartograf, muhtemelen Hıristiyan (Yunan) kökenli idi.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=82-AAAAAMAAJ","url_text":"XVI. yüzyılın denizci bir bilim adamı yaşamı ve yapıtarıyla Piri Reis"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-975-409-442-8","url_text":"978-975-409-442-8"}]},{"reference":"Ιωάννου 'Αμαντος, Κωνσταντίνος (1955). Σχέσεις Ελλήνων & Τούρκων: από του ενδεκάτου αιώνος μέχρι του 1821. οι πόλεμοι των τούρκων προς κατάληψιν των Ελληνικών χωρών 1071-1571 (in Greek). Οργανισμός Εκδόσεως Σχολικών Βιβλίων. p. 167. Ὑπὸ τὸν Βαρβαρόσσα ὑπηρέτησε καὶ ὁ ἑλληνικῆς πιθανῶς καταγωγῆς ναύαρχος Piri Reis...","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=4xA7AAAAMAAJ","url_text":"Σχέσεις Ελλήνων & Τούρκων: από του ενδεκάτου αιώνος μέχρι του 1821. οι πόλεμοι των τούρκων προς κατάληψιν των Ελληνικών χωρών 1071-1571"}]},{"reference":"\"Explore Istanbul: The Piri Reis Map\". Archived from the original on 2011-07-10. Retrieved 2010-10-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110710212119/http://www.exploreistanbul.com/category.aspx?CategoryID=31&ArticleID=65","url_text":"\"Explore Istanbul: The Piri Reis Map\""},{"url":"http://www.exploreistanbul.com/category.aspx?CategoryID=31&ArticleID=65","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Ritman, Alex (14 November 2011). \"Assassin's Creed: Revelations is historically impressive\". The National. Retrieved 29 April 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thenational.ae/arts-culture/assassin-s-creed-revelations-is-historically-impressive-1.444681","url_text":"\"Assassin's Creed: Revelations is historically impressive\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_National_(Abu_Dhabi)","url_text":"The National"}]},{"reference":"Brotton, Jerry (1998). Trading Territories : Mapping the early modern world. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-3499-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/tradingterritori0000brot","url_text":"Trading Territories : Mapping the early modern world"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8014-3499-8","url_text":"0-8014-3499-8"}]},{"reference":"Bostan, Idris (2007). \"PÎRÎ REİS\". TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 34 (Osmanpazari – Resuldar) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation, Centre for Islamic Studies. pp. 283–285. ISBN 978-975-389-456-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/piri-reis","url_text":"\"PÎRÎ REİS\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directorate_of_Religious_Affairs","url_text":"Turkiye Diyanet Foundation"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-975-389-456-2","url_text":"978-975-389-456-2"}]},{"reference":"Carboni, Stefano (2007). Venice and the Islamic world, 828-1797. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 9780300124309.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780300124309","url_text":"9780300124309"}]},{"reference":"Hapgood, Charles H. (1966). Maps of the ancient sea kings: evidence of advanced civilization in the ice age. Philadelphia: Chilton. OCLC 819363004.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/819363004","url_text":"819363004"}]},{"reference":"Irzik, Gürol; Güzeldere, Güven, eds. (2005). Turkish studies in the history and philosophy of science. Springer. ISBN 9781402033322.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781402033322","url_text":"9781402033322"}]},{"reference":"Khair, Tabish, ed. (2006). \"Piri Reis: The Voyages of a 'Corsair' (c. 1526)\". Other routes: 1500 years of African and Asian travel writing. Oxford: Signal. pp. 127–131. ISBN 9781904955122. OCLC 61177562.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781904955122","url_text":"9781904955122"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/61177562","url_text":"61177562"}]},{"reference":"Loupis, Dimitris (2004). \"Piri Reis' Book on Navigation (Kitab-i Bahriyye) as a Geography Handbook\". Eastern Mediterranean cartographies. Athens, Greece: National Hellenic Research Foundation. p. 39. OCLC 892160459.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/892160459","url_text":"892160459"}]},{"reference":"Robinson, Francis (1998). The Cambridge illustrated history of the Islamic world. London: Cambridge University Press.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Soucek, Svat (1992). \"Islamic Charting in the Mediterranean\" (PDF). In Harley, J. B.; Woodward, D. (eds.). Cartography in the Traditional Islamic and South Asian Societies. Vol. 2. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 263–272.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.press.uchicago.edu/books/HOC/HOC_V2_B1/HOC_VOLUME2_Book1_chapter14.pdf","url_text":"\"Islamic Charting in the Mediterranean\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Brian_Harley","url_text":"Harley, J. B."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Woodward_(cartographer)","url_text":"Woodward, D."}]},{"reference":"Soucek, Svatopluk (1996) [1992]. Piri Reis and Turkish Mapmaking After Columbus: The Khalili Portolan Atlas. Studies in the Khalili Collection. Vol. 2. London: The Nour Foundation.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Tekeli, Sevim (1986). The Map of America by Pîrî Reis. Ankara: Atatürk Kültür Merkezi Yayını. OCLC 41917181.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/41917181","url_text":"41917181"}]},{"reference":"Kahle, Paul, ed. (1926). Piri Re'îs. Bahrîje. Das türkische Segelhandbuch für das Mittelländische Meer vom Jahre 1521 (in German). Berlin.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Kordoglu, Fevzi; Alpagot, Haydar; Pekol, Fehmi, eds. (1935). Piri Reis Kitabi Bahriye: eser ve yazean hakkinda bir onsozle bir endeks katilmistir [Piri Reis Kitabi Bahriye: with added foreword and index] (in Turkish). Vol. 2. Istanbul: Turk Tarihi Arastirma Korumu.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Oktel, Ertugrul Zekai, ed. (1988). Piri Reis. Kitab-i bahriye. Istanbul: The Historical research foundation.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Arī, Bülent, ed. (2002). Piri Reis. Kitab-i bahriye (in Turkish and English). Translated by Demir, Ahmet; Özden, Ercüment. Ankara: Republic of Turkey, Prime Ministry, Undersecretaryship of Navigation. ISBN 9755070966. OCLC 978146815.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9755070966","url_text":"9755070966"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/978146815","url_text":"978146815"}]},{"reference":"McIntosh, Gregory C. (2000). The Piri Reis Map of 1513. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/gregory-c.-mc-intosh-the-piri-reis-map-of-1513","url_text":"The Piri Reis Map of 1513"}]},{"reference":"İnan, Afet (1954). The Oldest Map of America. pp. 28–34 – via sacred-texts.com.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.sacred-texts.com/piri/pirikey.htm","url_text":"The Oldest Map of America"}]},{"reference":"Life and works of Pirî Reis: the oldest map of America. Ankara. 1975.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Kahle, Paul (1933). Die verschollene Kolumbuskarte von 1498 in einer türkischen Weltkarte von 1513 (in German). Berlin: Leipzig.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Mesenburg, Peter (2001). \"Kartometrische Untersuchung und Rekonstruktion der Weltkarte des Piri Re'is (1513)\". Cartographica Helvetica (in German) (24): 3–7.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Steven Dutch. \"The Piri Reis map\". Archived from the original on 2013-08-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130813090645/http://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/PSEUDOSC/PiriRies.HTM","url_text":"\"The Piri Reis map\""},{"url":"http://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/PSEUDOSC/PiriRies.HTM","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Lunde, Paul (1992). \"A Muslim History Of The New World\". Saudi Aramco World.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.aramcoworld.com/issue/199203/a.muslim.history.of.the.new.world.htm","url_text":"\"A Muslim History Of The New World\""}]},{"reference":"\"Piri Reis: A Genius 16th-Century Ottoman Cartographer and Navigator\". MuslimHeritage.com. Archived from the original on 2013-09-17. Retrieved 2012-08-15.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130917040844/http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=1183","url_text":"\"Piri Reis: A Genius 16th-Century Ottoman Cartographer and Navigator\""},{"url":"http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=1183","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"The Maps of Piri Reis\". The Public Domain Review.","urls":[{"url":"http://publicdomainreview.org/collections/the-maps-of-piri-reis/","url_text":"\"The Maps of Piri Reis\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Public_Domain_Review","url_text":"The Public Domain Review"}]}]
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_DJ
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Rock DJ
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["1 Chart performance","2 Music videos","3 Track listings","4 Credits and personnel","5 Charts","5.1 Weekly charts","5.2 Year-end charts","5.3 Decade-end charts","6 Certifications","7 Release history","8 Notes","9 References","10 External links"]
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2000 single by Robbie Williams
This article is about the song. For the style disc jockeying, see Disc jockey.
"Rock DJ"Single by Robbie Williamsfrom the album Sing When You're Winning B-side"Talk to Me"Released31 July 2000 (2000-07-31)Studio
Master Rock (North London, England)
Sarm Hook End (Reading, England)
GenrePopLength4:15LabelChrysalisCapitolSongwriter(s)Robbie WilliamsGuy ChambersKelvin AndrewsNelson PigfordEkundayo ParisProducer(s)Guy ChambersSteve PowerRobbie Williams singles chronology
"Win Some Lose Some" (1999)
"Rock DJ" (2000)
"Kids" (2000)
"Rock DJ" is a song by English singer and songwriter Robbie Williams, featured on his third studio album, Sing When You're Winning (2000). The song was released on 31 July 2000 as the lead single from the album. It samples Barry White's song "It's Ecstasy When You Lay Down Next to Me", "Can I Kick It?" by A Tribe Called Quest and has a quote from "La Di Da Di" by Slick Rick and Doug E. Fresh.
"Rock DJ" reached number one in Costa Rica, Iceland, Ireland, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom whilst reaching the top 10 in Australia, Austria, Germany, Italy, Norway, Spain, and Switzerland. It was the fourth-best-selling song of 2000 in the UK. The music video features Williams trying to impress a female DJ by stripping naked and eventually resorting to removing his skin and muscles, ending up as a skeleton. The song won British Single of the Year, and the video won British Video of the Year at the 2001 Brit Awards.
Chart performance
The song became Robbie Williams' third number-one solo single in the United Kingdom, going on to sell over 600,000 copies and being certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI). The song also became a hit around Europe, charting inside the top 10 in several countries and becoming his first number-one single in New Zealand. The song also became a top-five hit in Australia, where it went on to sell over 70,000 copies, being certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA). In the United States, the track reached number 24 on the Billboard Dance Club Play chart. "Rock DJ" was named the Best Song of 2000 at the MTV Europe Music Awards and Best Single and Best Video at the Brit Awards 2001.
Music videos
The accompanying music video for "Rock DJ" was directed by Vaughan Arnell. It was released on 6 July 2000. It begins with Williams dancing on a roller disco with women skating around him. He wants to get the attention of the female DJ (played by Lauren Gold) standing above the stage, so he begins taking off his clothes. She ignores him at first, but after she finally notices he is completely naked, he proceeds with stripping off his skin, muscles and organs, until the only thing left of him are his bones, which is performed by special effects. In the end, the DJ dances with his skeleton. The video ends with the note, "No Robbies were Harmed During the Making of this Video", a jocular take on the "No animals were harmed" note. The skinless Robbie also appears on the single's cover art, as well as on the cover of the DVD release of In and Out of Consciousness: Greatest Hits 1990–2010 in 2010.
The video's ending (beginning with Williams taking off his skin) was cut by most music channels around Europe, including VIVA, MCM, The Box and VH1 Europe. However, in the recent years, some of the music channels in Europe (including MTV Classic and VH1 Europe) airs the "studio recording" version of the music video, even on late night, which made the edited version of the music video fall into obscurity. Examples of TV stations that still play the full video are Bulgarian channel MM, former German located channel B.TV (often in daytime) and Canadian channel MusiquePlus, some channels ran the edited video during the day and the unedited one overnight, while The Hits played a version which cut from Williams dancing in his underwear to dancing as a skeleton, filling the gap by repeating previous footage. This is the version that is currently played on channels owned by The Box Plus Network. In 2001, "Rock DJ" won the MTV Video Music Award for Best Special Effects. In 2006, it was voted by viewers as the seventh Most Groundbreaking Video Ever on MTV and in 2007 it was ranked at number 48 on MuchMusic's 50 Most Controversial Videos. The video was banned in Dominican Republic due to allegations of Satanism.
The video has been shown numerous times on Fuse's Pants-Off Dance-Off, despite its gory content. Toward the end of the dancer's dancing/stripping to it when the video is shown in the background like any other, they only show Williams, briefly, ripping and throwing his skin, and dancing in muscle form before cutting to the hostess of the show. The video appears as an instance of the re-use of the motif of "dancing with the dead" in a book about medieval images of death and dying in art and literature.
A second video shows Williams in a studio while recording the song.
Track listings
UK CD and cassette single, Australian CD single
"Rock DJ" – 4:15
"Talk to Me" – 3:28
"Rock DJ" (Player One remix) – 5:34
UK DVD single
"Rock DJ" (full length video)
"Rock DJ" (a short documentary feature)
European CD single
"Rock DJ" – 4:15
"Talk to Me" – 3:28
European maxi-CD single
"Rock DJ" – 4:15
"Talk to Me" – 3:28
"Rock DJ" (Player One remix) – 5:34
"Rock DJ" (video)
Credits and personnel
Credits are taken from the Sing When You're Winning album booklet.
Studios
Recorded at Master Rock Studios (North London, England) and Sarm Hook End (Reading, England)
Mixed at Battery Studios (London, England)
Mastered at Metropolis Mastering (London, England)
Personnel
Robbie Williams – writing, lead vocals
Guy Chambers – writing, all keyboards, production, arrangement
Kelvin Andrews – writing
Nelson Pigford – writing
Ekundayo Paris – writing
Andy Caine – backing vocals
Derek Green – backing vocals
Katie Kissoon – backing vocals
Sylvia Mason-James – backing vocals
Tessa Niles – backing vocals
Paul "Tubbs" Williams – backing vocals
Steve Power – vocoder, production, mixing
Neil Taylor – electric guitar
Winston Blissett – bass guitar
Andy Duncan – drum programming
Dave Bishop – brass
Neil Sidwell – brass
Steve Sidwell – brass
London Session Orchestra – orchestra
Gavyn Wright – concertmaster
Nick Ingman – orchestration
Isobel Griffiths – orchestral contractor
Steve Price – orchestral engineering
Richard Flack – Pro Tools
Tony Cousins – mastering
Charts
Weekly charts
Chart (2000–2001)
Peakposition
Australia (ARIA)
4
Austria (Ö3 Austria Top 40)
7
Belgium (Ultratop 50 Flanders)
18
Belgium (Ultratop 50 Wallonia)
16
Canada Top Singles (RPM)
25
Canada Adult Contemporary (RPM)
47
Costa Rica (El Siglo de Torreón)
1
Czech Republic (IFPI)
3
Denmark (IFPI)
7
El Salvador (El Siglo de Torreón)
3
Europe (Eurochart Hot 100)
5
Finland (Suomen virallinen lista)
15
France (SNEP)
40
Germany (Official German Charts)
9
Guatemala (El Siglo de Torreón)
4
Hungary (Mahasz)
6
Iceland (Íslenski Listinn Topp 40)
1
Ireland (IRMA)
1
Italy (FIMI)
3
Netherlands (Dutch Top 40)
6
Netherlands (Single Top 100)
11
New Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)
1
Norway (VG-lista)
8
Poland (Music & Media)
18
Poland (Polish Airplay Charts)
7
Portugal (AFP)
6
Scotland (OCC)
1
Spain (PROMUSICAE)
3
Sweden (Sverigetopplistan)
18
Switzerland (Schweizer Hitparade)
9
UK Singles (OCC)
1
Uruguay (El Siglo de Torreón)
3
US Dance Club Songs (Billboard)
24
Year-end charts
Chart (2000)
Position
Australia (ARIA)
21
Belgium (Ultratop 50 Flanders)
94
Belgium (Ultratop 50 Wallonia)
76
Brazil (Crowley)
27
Europe (Eurochart Hot 100)
38
Germany (Official German Charts)
78
Iceland (Íslenski Listinn Topp 40)
12
Ireland (IRMA)
6
Netherlands (Dutch Top 40)
34
Netherlands (Single Top 100)
70
New Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)
21
Switzerland (Schweizer Hitparade)
59
UK Singles (OCC)
5
Decade-end charts
Chart (2000–2009)
Position
UK Singles (OCC)
41
Certifications
Region
Certification
Certified units/sales
Australia (ARIA)
Platinum
70,000^
New Zealand (RMNZ)
Gold
5,000*
United Kingdom (BPI)
2× Platinum
1,200,000‡
* Sales figures based on certification alone.^ Shipments figures based on certification alone.‡ Sales+streaming figures based on certification alone.
Release history
Region
Date
Format(s)
Label(s)
Ref(s).
Australia
31 July 2000
CD
Chrysalis
United Kingdom
CDcassette
United States
22 August 2000
Contemporary hit radio
Capitol
25 September 2000
Hot adult contemporarymodern adult contemporary radio
17 October 2000
Rhythmic contemporary radio
Notes
^ "Rock DJ" reached number 25 when RPM ceased publication in November 2000.
^ "Rock DJ" reached number 47 when RPM ceased publication in November 2000.
References
^ Allmusic review
^ a b "British single certifications – Robbie Williams – Rock DJ". British Phonographic Industry. Retrieved 24 September 2023.
^ a b "ARIA Charts – Accreditations – 2000 Singles" (PDF). Australian Recording Industry Association. Retrieved 5 July 2018.
^ "Robbie video banned for 'Satanism'". BBC News. 19 October 2000. Retrieved 1 April 2014.
^ Kinch, Ashby (2013). Imago Mortis: Mediating Images of Death in Late Medieval Culture. Brill. pp. 278–279. ISBN 978-90-04-24581-5.
^ "ROCK DJ: MUSIC VIDEO". RobbieWilliams.com. Retrieved 4 June 2015. The video's ending was cut by most music channels around Europe, including VIVA, MCM and MTV with VH1 Europe decided to use its own video for the song, created from studio footage.
^ Rock DJ (UK & Australian CD single liner notes). Robbie Williams. Chrysalis Records. 2000. CDCHS5118, 7243 889136 2 1.{{cite AV media notes}}: CS1 maint: others in cite AV media (notes) (link)
^ Rock DJ (UK cassette single sleeve). Robbie Williams. Chrysalis Records. 2000. TCCHS5118, 7243 889120 4 4.{{cite AV media notes}}: CS1 maint: others in cite AV media (notes) (link)
^ Rock DJ (UK DVD single liner notes). Robbie Williams. Chrysalis Records. 2000. 7243 4 92427 9 1.{{cite AV media notes}}: CS1 maint: others in cite AV media (notes) (link)
^ Rock DJ (European CD single liner notes). Robbie Williams. Chrysalis Records. 2000. 7243 8 89233 2 3.{{cite AV media notes}}: CS1 maint: others in cite AV media (notes) (link)
^ Rock DJ (European maxi-CD single liner notes). Robbie Williams. Chrysalis Records. 2000. 7243 8 89232 0 0.{{cite AV media notes}}: CS1 maint: others in cite AV media (notes) (link)
^ Sing When You're Winning (UK CD album booklet). Robbie Williams. Chrysalis Records. 2000. 7243 5 28125 2 3.{{cite AV media notes}}: CS1 maint: others in cite AV media (notes) (link)
^ "Robbie Williams – Rock DJ". ARIA Top 50 Singles. Retrieved 26 December 2018.
^ "Robbie Williams – Rock DJ" (in German). Ö3 Austria Top 40. Retrieved 26 December 2018.
^ "Robbie Williams – Rock DJ" (in Dutch). Ultratop 50. Retrieved 26 December 2018.
^ "Robbie Williams – Rock DJ" (in French). Ultratop 50. Retrieved 26 December 2018.
^ "Top RPM Singles: Issue 3992." RPM. Library and Archives Canada. Retrieved 26 December 2018.
^ "Top RPM Adult Contemporary: Issue 4895." RPM. Library and Archives Canada. Retrieved 26 December 2018.
^ "Backstreet Boys acaparan listas de popularidad". El Siglo de Torreón (in Spanish). 1 November 2000. p. 39. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 10 August 2021.
^ "Hitparada radia - 39/2000" (in Czech). IFPI CR. Archived from the original on 2 October 2000. Retrieved 6 February 2021.
^ "Top National Sellers" (PDF). Music & Media. Vol. 17, no. 35. 26 August 2000. p. 9. Retrieved 16 April 2020.
^ a b c "Los más vendidos en Iberoamerica y EU". El Siglo de Torreón. 11 December 2000. Retrieved 30 September 2022.
^ "Eurochart Hot 100 Singles" (PDF). Music & Media. Vol. 17, no. 36. 2 September 2000. p. 11. Retrieved 8 February 2020.
^ "Robbie Williams: Rock DJ" (in Finnish). Musiikkituottajat. Retrieved 26 December 2018.
^ "Robbie Williams – Rock DJ" (in French). Les classement single. Retrieved 26 December 2018.
^ "Robbie Williams – Rock DJ" (in German). GfK Entertainment charts. Retrieved 26 December 2018.
^ "Top National Sellers" (PDF). Music & Media. Vol. 17, no. 42. 14 October 2000. p. 12. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
^ "Íslenski Listinn Topp 40 (Vikuna 16.9. – 23.9. 2000 37. Vika)". Dagblaðið Vísir (in Icelandic). 15 September 2000. p. 12. Retrieved 15 July 2018.
^ "The Irish Charts – Search Results – Rock DJ". Irish Singles Chart. Retrieved 26 December 2018.
^ "Robbie Williams – Rock DJ". Top Digital Download. Retrieved 26 December 2018.
^ "Nederlandse Top 40 – week 33, 2000" (in Dutch). Dutch Top 40. Retrieved 26 December 2018.
^ "Robbie Williams – Rock Dj" (in Dutch). Single Top 100. Retrieved 26 December 2018.
^ "Robbie Williams – Rock DJ". Top 40 Singles. Retrieved 26 December 2018.
^ "Robbie Williams – Rock DJ". VG-lista. Retrieved 26 December 2018.
^ "Major Market Airplay – Week 37/2000" (PDF). Music & Media. Vol. 17, no. 37. 9 September 2000. p. 19. Retrieved 16 February 2023.
^ "Polish Airplay Charts - Lista krajowa 35/2000". PiF PaF Production. Archived from the original on 4 March 2001. Retrieved 29 January 2021.
^ "Top National Sellers" (PDF). Music & Media. Vol. 17, no. 39. 23 September 2000. p. 17. Retrieved 16 April 2020.
^ "Official Scottish Singles Sales Chart Top 100". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 26 December 2018.
^ "Robbie Williams – Rock DJ" Canciones Top 50. Retrieved 26 December 2018.
^ "Robbie Williams – Rock DJ". Singles Top 100. Retrieved 26 December 2018.
^ "Robbie Williams – Rock DJ". Swiss Singles Chart. Retrieved 26 December 2018.
^ "Official Singles Chart Top 100". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 26 December 2018.
^ "Robbie Williams Chart History (Dance Club Songs)". Billboard. Retrieved 26 December 2018.
^ "ARIA Top 100 Singles for 2000". ARIA. Retrieved 1 January 2021.
^ "Jaaroverzichten 2000" (in Dutch). Ultratop. Retrieved 1 February 2020.
^ "Rapports Annuels 2000" (in French). Ultratop. Retrieved 1 February 2020.
^ "Brazilian Top 100 Year-End 2000". Crowley Broadcast Analysis. 3 April 2018. Retrieved 30 January 2022.
^ "Year in Focus – Eurochart Hot 100 Singles 2000" (PDF). Music & Media. Vol. 17, no. 52. 23 December 2000. p. 9. Retrieved 8 February 2020.
^ "Top 100 Single–Jahrescharts 2000" (in German). GfK Entertainment. Archived from the original on 9 May 2015. Retrieved 5 December 2015.
^ "Íslenski Listinn Topp 100". Dagblaðið Vísir (in Icelandic). 5 January 2001. p. 10. Retrieved 8 February 2020.
^ "Top 100 of 2000". Raidió Teilifís Éireann. Archived from the original on 2 June 2004. Retrieved 16 March 2022.
^ "Top 100–Jaaroverzicht van 2000". Dutch Top 40. Retrieved 1 February 2020.
^ "Jaaroverzichten – Single 2000" (in Dutch). MegaCharts. Retrieved 1 February 2020.
^ "End of Year Charts 2000". Recorded Music NZ. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
^ "Swiss Year-End Charts 2000" (in German). Swiss Music Charts. Retrieved 22 November 2017.
^ "Best Sellers of 2000: Singles Top 100". Music Week. London, England: United Business Media. 20 January 2001. p. 25. ISSN 0265-1548.
^ "Chart of the Decade". Chart of the Decade. 29 December 2009. BBC Radio 1.
^ "New Zealand single certifications – Robbie Williams – Rock DJ". Recorded Music NZ. Retrieved 29 November 2019.
^ "Robbie Williams". EMI Music Australia. Archived from the original on 30 October 2000. Retrieved 1 August 2023.
^ "Rock DJ". RobbieWilliams.com. Archived from the original on 5 February 2012.
^ Stavenes-Dove, Siri (29 July 2000). "Airborne" (PDF). Music & Media. Vol. 17, no. 31. p. 10. Retrieved 1 January 2021.
^ "New Releases – For Week Starting July 31, 2000: Singles" (PDF). Music Week. 29 July 2000. p. 27. Retrieved 17 August 2021.
^ "CHR/Pop: Going for Adds" (PDF). Radio & Records. No. 1364. 18 August 2000. p. 110. Retrieved 28 May 2021.
^ "Gavin Top 40/Rhythm Crossover: Impact Dates". Gavin Report. No. 2317. 11 August 2000. p. 9.
^ "Hot AC: Going for Adds" (PDF). Radio & Records. No. 1369. 22 September 2000. p. 148. Retrieved 28 May 2021.
^ "Gavin AC/Hot AC: Impact Dates". Gavin Report. No. 2322. 15 September 2000. p. 33.
^ "CHR/Rhythmic: Going for Adds" (PDF). Radio & Records. No. 1372. 13 October 2000. p. 54. Retrieved 28 May 2021.
External links
Robbie Williams - Rock DJ on YouTube
Robbie Williams - Rock DJ - Studio version on YouTube
vteRobbie Williams singlesDiscographyLife thru a Lens
"Old Before I Die"
"Lazy Days"
"South of the Border"
"Angels"
"Let Me Entertain You"
I've Been Expecting You
"Millennium"
"No Regrets"
"Strong"
"She's the One" / "It's Only Us"
"Win Some Lose Some"
Sing When You're Winning
"Rock DJ"
"Kids"
"Supreme"
"Let Love Be Your Energy"
"Eternity/The Road to Mandalay"
"Better Man"
Swing When You're Winning
"Somethin' Stupid"
"Mr. Bojangles/I Will Talk and Hollywood Will Listen"
Escapology
"Feel"
"Come Undone"
"Something Beautiful"
"Sexed Up"
Greatest Hits
"Radio"
"Misunderstood"
Intensive Care
"Tripping"
"Make Me Pure"
"Advertising Space"
"Sin Sin Sin"
Rudebox
"Rudebox"
"Kiss Me"
"Lovelight"
"Bongo Bong and Je ne t'aime plus"
"She's Madonna"
Reality Killed the Video Star
"Bodies"
"You Know Me"
"Morning Sun"
In and Out of Consciousness
"Shame"
Take the Crown
"Candy"
"Different"
"Be a Boy"
Swings Both Ways
"Go Gentle"
"Dream a Little Dream"
"Shine My Shoes"
The Heavy Entertainment Show
"Party Like a Russian"
"Love My Life"
"Mixed Signals"
The Christmas Present
"Time for Change"
"Can't Stop Christmas"
Other singles
"Freedom"
"United"
"Close My Eyes"
Featured singles
"My Culture"
"Goin' Crazy"
"The Days"
Other songs
"I Wan'na Be Like You"
"Beyond the Sea"
vteBrit Award for Song of the Year1970s
"Bohemian Rhapsody" by Queen / "A Whiter Shade of Pale" by Procol Harum (1977)
1980s
"Tainted Love" by Soft Cell (1982)
"Come On Eileen" by Dexys Midnight Runners (1983)
"Karma Chameleon" by Culture Club (1984)
"Relax" by Frankie Goes to Hollywood (1985)
"Everybody Wants to Rule the World" by Tears for Fears (1986)
"West End Girls" by Pet Shop Boys (1987)
"Never Gonna Give You Up" by Rick Astley (1988)
"Perfect" by Fairground Attraction (1989)
1990s
"Another Day in Paradise" by Phil Collins (1990)
"Enjoy the Silence" by Depeche Mode (1991)
"These Are the Days of Our Lives" by Queen (1992)
"Could It Be Magic" by Take That (1993)
"Pray" by Take That (1994)
"Parklife" by Blur (1995)
"Back for Good" by Take That (1996)
"Wannabe" by Spice Girls (1997)
"Never Ever" by All Saints (1998)
"Angels" by Robbie Williams (1999)
2000s
"She's the One" by Robbie Williams (2000)
"Rock DJ" by Robbie Williams (2001)
"Don't Stop Movin'" by S Club 7 (2002)
"Just a Little" by Liberty X (2003)
"White Flag" by Dido (2004)
"Your Game" by Will Young (2005)
"Speed of Sound" by Coldplay (2006)
"Patience" by Take That (2007)
"Shine" by Take That (2008)
"The Promise" by Girls Aloud (2009)
2010s
"Beat Again" by JLS (2010)
"Pass Out" by Tinie Tempah featuring Labrinth (2011)
"What Makes You Beautiful" by One Direction (2012)
"Skyfall" by Adele (2013)
"Waiting All Night" by Rudimental featuring Ella Eyre (2014)
"Uptown Funk" by Mark Ronson featuring Bruno Mars (2015)
"Hello" by Adele (2016)
"Shout Out to My Ex" by Little Mix (2017)
"Human" by Rag'n'Bone Man (2018)
"One Kiss" by Calvin Harris and Dua Lipa (2019)
2020s
"Someone You Loved" by Lewis Capaldi (2020)
"Watermelon Sugar" by Harry Styles (2021)
"Easy on Me" by Adele (2022)
"As It Was" by Harry Styles (2023)
"Escapism" by Raye featuring 070 Shake (2024)
vteMTV Europe Music Award for Best Song1990s
"7 Seconds" – Youssou N'Dour and Neneh Cherry (1994)
"Zombie" – The Cranberries (1995)
"Wonderwall" – Oasis (1996)
"Mmmbop" – Hanson (1997)
"Torn" – Ednaswap (1998)
"...Baby One More Time" – Britney Spears (1999)
2000s
"Rock DJ" – Robbie Williams (2000)
"Clint Eastwood" – Gorillaz (2001)
"Get the Party Started" – Pink (2002)
"Crazy in Love" – Beyoncé (2003)
"Hey Ya!" – Outkast (2004)
"Speed of Sound" – Coldplay (2005)
"Crazy" – Gnarls Barkley (2006)
"Girlfriend" – Avril Lavigne (2007)
"So What" – Pink (2008)
"Halo" – Beyoncé (2009)
2010s
"Bad Romance" – Lady Gaga (2010)
"Born This Way" – Lady Gaga (2011)
"Call Me Maybe" – Carly Rae Jepsen (2012)
"Locked Out of Heaven" – Bruno Mars (2013)
"Problem" – Ariana Grande (2014)
"Bad Blood" – Taylor Swift featuring Kendrick Lamar (2015)
"Sorry" – Justin Bieber (2016)
"There's Nothing Holdin' Me Back" – Shawn Mendes (2017)
"Havana" – Camila Cabello (2018)
"Bad Guy" – Billie Eilish (2019)
2020s
"Dynamite" – BTS (2020)
"Bad Habits" – Ed Sheeran (2021)
"Super Freaky Girl" – Nicki Minaj (2022)
"Seven" – Jungkook featuring Latto (2023)
vteMTV Video Music Award for Best Visual Effects
"Rockit" (1984)
"Don't Come Around Here No More" (1985)
"Take On Me" (1986)
"Sledgehammer" (1987)
"Hourglass" (1988)
"Leave Me Alone" (1989)
"Sowing the Seeds of Love" (1990)
"Falling to Pieces" (1991)
"Even Better Than the Real Thing" (1992)
"Steam" (1993)
"Kiss That Frog" (1994)
"Love Is Strong" (1995)
"Tonight, Tonight" (1996)
"Virtual Insanity" (1997)
"Frozen" (1998)
"Special" (1999)
"All Is Full of Love" (2000)
"Rock DJ" (2001)
"Fell in Love with a Girl" (2002)
"Go with the Flow" (2003)
"Hey Ya!" (2004)
"Feel Good Inc." (2005)
"We Run This" (2006)
"Good Life" (2008)
"Paparazzi" (2009)
"Uprising" (2010)
"E.T." (2011)
"First of the Year (Equinox)" (2012)
"Safe and Sound" (2013)
"The Writing's on the Wall" (2014)
"Where Are Ü Now" (2015)
"Up&Up" (2016)
"HUMBLE." (2017)
"All the Stars" (2018)
"ME!" (2019)
"Physical" (2020)
"Montero (Call Me by Your Name)" (2021)
"Industry Baby" (2022)
"Anti-Hero" (2023)
Authority control databases
MusicBrainz release group
MusicBrainz work
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Disc jockey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disc_jockey"},{"link_name":"Robbie Williams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robbie_Williams"},{"link_name":"studio album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Studio_album"},{"link_name":"Sing When You're Winning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sing_When_You%27re_Winning"},{"link_name":"lead single","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_single"},{"link_name":"Barry White's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barry_White"},{"link_name":"It's Ecstasy When You Lay Down Next to Me","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/It%27s_Ecstasy_When_You_Lay_Down_Next_to_Me"},{"link_name":"Can I Kick It?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Can_I_Kick_It%3F"},{"link_name":"A Tribe Called Quest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Tribe_Called_Quest"},{"link_name":"La Di Da Di","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Di_Da_Di"},{"link_name":"Slick Rick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slick_Rick"},{"link_name":"Doug E. Fresh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doug_E._Fresh"},{"link_name":"British Single of the Year","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brit_Award_for_British_Single_of_the_Year"},{"link_name":"British Video of the Year","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brit_Award_for_British_Video_of_the_Year"},{"link_name":"2001 Brit Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001_Brit_Awards"}],"text":"This article is about the song. For the style disc jockeying, see Disc jockey.\"Rock DJ\" is a song by English singer and songwriter Robbie Williams, featured on his third studio album, Sing When You're Winning (2000). The song was released on 31 July 2000 as the lead single from the album. It samples Barry White's song \"It's Ecstasy When You Lay Down Next to Me\", \"Can I Kick It?\" by A Tribe Called Quest and has a quote from \"La Di Da Di\" by Slick Rick and Doug E. Fresh.\"Rock DJ\" reached number one in Costa Rica, Iceland, Ireland, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom whilst reaching the top 10 in Australia, Austria, Germany, Italy, Norway, Spain, and Switzerland. It was the fourth-best-selling song of 2000 in the UK. The music video features Williams trying to impress a female DJ by stripping naked and eventually resorting to removing his skin and muscles, ending up as a skeleton. The song won British Single of the Year, and the video won British Video of the Year at the 2001 Brit Awards.","title":"Rock DJ"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Robbie Williams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robbie_Williams"},{"link_name":"British Phonographic Industry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Phonographic_Industry"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ukcert-2"},{"link_name":"Australian Recording Industry Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Recording_Industry_Association"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auscert-3"},{"link_name":"Billboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billboard_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"Dance Club Play","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dance_Club_Songs"},{"link_name":"MTV Europe Music Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MTV_Europe_Music_Awards"},{"link_name":"Brit Awards 2001","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brit_Awards_2001"}],"text":"The song became Robbie Williams' third number-one solo single in the United Kingdom, going on to sell over 600,000 copies and being certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI).[2] The song also became a hit around Europe, charting inside the top 10 in several countries and becoming his first number-one single in New Zealand. The song also became a top-five hit in Australia, where it went on to sell over 70,000 copies, being certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA).[3] In the United States, the track reached number 24 on the Billboard Dance Club Play chart. \"Rock DJ\" was named the Best Song of 2000 at the MTV Europe Music Awards and Best Single and Best Video at the Brit Awards 2001.","title":"Chart performance"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"music video","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_video"},{"link_name":"Vaughan Arnell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaughan_Arnell"},{"link_name":"roller disco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roller_disco"},{"link_name":"DJ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disc_jockey"},{"link_name":"Lauren Gold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lauren_Gold"},{"link_name":"No animals were harmed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No_animals_were_harmed"},{"link_name":"In and Out of Consciousness: Greatest Hits 1990–2010","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_and_Out_of_Consciousness:_Greatest_Hits_1990%E2%80%932010"},{"link_name":"VIVA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VIVA_(TV_station)"},{"link_name":"MCM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MCM_(TV_channel)"},{"link_name":"The Box","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Box_(UK_and_Ireland)"},{"link_name":"VH1 Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VH1_Europe"},{"link_name":"MTV Classic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MTV_Classic_(UK_%26_Ireland)"},{"link_name":"VH1 Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VH1_Europe"},{"link_name":"MusiquePlus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MusiquePlus"},{"link_name":"The Hits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hits"},{"link_name":"The Box Plus Network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Box_Plus_Network"},{"link_name":"MTV Video Music Award for Best Special Effects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MTV_Video_Music_Award_for_Best_Special_Effects"},{"link_name":"MuchMusic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MuchMusic"},{"link_name":"Dominican Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominican_Republic"},{"link_name":"Satanism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satanism"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Fuse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuse_(TV_channel)"},{"link_name":"Pants-Off Dance-Off","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pants-Off_Dance-Off"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"The accompanying music video for \"Rock DJ\" was directed by Vaughan Arnell. It was released on 6 July 2000. It begins with Williams dancing on a roller disco with women skating around him. He wants to get the attention of the female DJ (played by Lauren Gold) standing above the stage, so he begins taking off his clothes. She ignores him at first, but after she finally notices he is completely naked, he proceeds with stripping off his skin, muscles and organs, until the only thing left of him are his bones, which is performed by special effects. In the end, the DJ dances with his skeleton. The video ends with the note, \"No Robbies were Harmed During the Making of this Video\", a jocular take on the \"No animals were harmed\" note. The skinless Robbie also appears on the single's cover art, as well as on the cover of the DVD release of In and Out of Consciousness: Greatest Hits 1990–2010 in 2010.The video's ending (beginning with Williams taking off his skin) was cut by most music channels around Europe, including VIVA, MCM, The Box and VH1 Europe. However, in the recent years, some of the music channels in Europe (including MTV Classic and VH1 Europe) airs the \"studio recording\" version of the music video, even on late night, which made the edited version of the music video fall into obscurity. Examples of TV stations that still play the full video are Bulgarian channel MM, former German located channel B.TV (often in daytime) and Canadian channel MusiquePlus, some channels ran the edited video during the day and the unedited one overnight, while The Hits played a version which cut from Williams dancing in his underwear to dancing as a skeleton, filling the gap by repeating previous footage. This is the version that is currently played on channels owned by The Box Plus Network. In 2001, \"Rock DJ\" won the MTV Video Music Award for Best Special Effects. In 2006, it was voted by viewers as the seventh Most Groundbreaking Video Ever on MTV and in 2007 it was ranked at number 48 on MuchMusic's 50 Most Controversial Videos. The video was banned in Dominican Republic due to allegations of Satanism.[4]The video has been shown numerous times on Fuse's Pants-Off Dance-Off, despite its gory content. Toward the end of the dancer's dancing/stripping to it when the video is shown in the background like any other, they only show Williams, briefly, ripping and throwing his skin, and dancing in muscle form before cutting to the hostess of the show. The video appears as an instance of the re-use of the motif of \"dancing with the dead\" in a book about medieval images of death and dying in art and literature.[5]A second video shows Williams in a studio while recording the song.[6]","title":"Music videos"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"UK CD and cassette single, Australian CD single[7][8]\"Rock DJ\" – 4:15\n\"Talk to Me\" – 3:28\n\"Rock DJ\" (Player One remix) – 5:34UK DVD single[9]\"Rock DJ\" (full length video)\n\"Rock DJ\" (a short documentary feature)European CD single[10]\"Rock DJ\" – 4:15\n\"Talk to Me\" – 3:28European maxi-CD single[11]\"Rock DJ\" – 4:15\n\"Talk to Me\" – 3:28\n\"Rock DJ\" (Player One remix) – 5:34\n\"Rock DJ\" (video)","title":"Track listings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sing When You're Winning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sing_When_You%27re_Winning"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Sarm Hook End","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hook_End_Recording_Studios"},{"link_name":"Reading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reading,_Berkshire"},{"link_name":"Metropolis Mastering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolis_Studios"},{"link_name":"Guy Chambers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guy_Chambers"},{"link_name":"Katie Kissoon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katie_Kissoon"},{"link_name":"Sylvia Mason-James","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sylvia_Mason-James"},{"link_name":"Tessa Niles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tessa_Niles"},{"link_name":"Steve Power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Power"},{"link_name":"vocoder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocoder"},{"link_name":"Neil Taylor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Taylor_(guitarist)"},{"link_name":"London Session Orchestra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Session_Orchestra"},{"link_name":"Gavyn Wright","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gavyn_Wright"},{"link_name":"concertmaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concertmaster"},{"link_name":"Nick Ingman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick_Ingman"},{"link_name":"Pro Tools","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pro_Tools"}],"text":"Credits are taken from the Sing When You're Winning album booklet.[12]StudiosRecorded at Master Rock Studios (North London, England) and Sarm Hook End (Reading, England)\nMixed at Battery Studios (London, England)\nMastered at Metropolis Mastering (London, England)PersonnelRobbie Williams – writing, lead vocals\nGuy Chambers – writing, all keyboards, production, arrangement\nKelvin Andrews – writing\nNelson Pigford – writing\nEkundayo Paris – writing\nAndy Caine – backing vocals\nDerek Green – backing vocals\nKatie Kissoon – backing vocals\nSylvia Mason-James – backing vocals\nTessa Niles – backing vocals\nPaul \"Tubbs\" Williams – backing vocals\nSteve Power – vocoder, production, mixing\nNeil Taylor – electric guitar\nWinston Blissett – bass guitar\nAndy Duncan – drum programming\nDave Bishop – brass\nNeil Sidwell – brass\nSteve Sidwell – brass\nLondon Session Orchestra – orchestra\nGavyn Wright – concertmaster\nNick Ingman – orchestration\nIsobel Griffiths – orchestral contractor\nSteve Price – orchestral engineering\nRichard Flack – Pro Tools\nTony Cousins – mastering","title":"Credits and personnel"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rock_DJ&action=edit§ion=6"},{"link_name":"ARIA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARIA_Charts"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sc_Australia_Robbie_Williams-13"},{"link_name":"Ö3 Austria Top 40","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%963_Austria_Top_40"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sc_Austria_Robbie_Williams-14"},{"link_name":"Ultratop 50","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultratop"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sc_Flanders_Robbie_Williams-15"},{"link_name":"Ultratop 50","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultratop"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sc_Wallonia_Robbie_Williams-16"},{"link_name":"RPM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RPM_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sc_Canadatopsingles_-17"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"RPM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RPM_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sc_Canadaadultcontemporary_-19"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"El Siglo de Torreón","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Siglo_de_Torre%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"IFPI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Federation_of_the_Phonographic_Industry"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"IFPI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IFPI_Danmark"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"El Siglo de Torreón","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Siglo_de_Torre%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-h.elsiglodetorreon.com.mx-24"},{"link_name":"Eurochart Hot 100","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Hot_100_Singles"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Suomen virallinen lista","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Official_Finnish_Charts"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sc_Finland_Robbie_Williams-26"},{"link_name":"SNEP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syndicat_National_de_l%27%C3%89dition_Phonographique"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sc_France_Robbie_Williams-27"},{"link_name":"Official German Charts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GfK_Entertainment_charts"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sc_Germany_Robbie_Williams-28"},{"link_name":"El Siglo de Torreón","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Siglo_de_Torre%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-h.elsiglodetorreon.com.mx-24"},{"link_name":"Mahasz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_of_Hungarian_Record_Companies"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Íslenski Listinn Topp 40","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Dslenski_listinn"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"IRMA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Singles_Chart"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sc_Ireland2_Robbie_Williams-31"},{"link_name":"FIMI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federazione_Industria_Musicale_Italiana"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sc_Italy_Robbie_Williams-32"},{"link_name":"Dutch Top 40","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_Top_40"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sc_Dutch40_-33"},{"link_name":"Single Top 100","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_Single_Top_100"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sc_Dutch100_Robbie_Williams-34"},{"link_name":"Recorded Music NZ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recorded_Music_NZ"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sc_New_Zealand_Robbie_Williams-35"},{"link_name":"VG-lista","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VG-lista"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sc_Norway_Robbie_Williams-36"},{"link_name":"Music & Media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_%26_Media"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"Polish Airplay Charts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_Music_Charts"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"AFP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associa%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Fonogr%C3%A1fica_Portuguesa"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Singles_and_Albums_Charts"},{"link_name":"OCC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Official_Charts_Company"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sc_Scotland_-40"},{"link_name":"PROMUSICAE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Productores_de_M%C3%BAsica_de_Espa%C3%B1a"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sc_Spain_Robbie_Williams-41"},{"link_name":"Sverigetopplistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sverigetopplistan"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sc_Sweden_Robbie_Williams-42"},{"link_name":"Schweizer Hitparade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_Hitparade"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sc_Switzerland_Robbie_Williams-43"},{"link_name":"UK Singles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Singles_Chart"},{"link_name":"OCC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Official_Charts_Company"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sc_UK_-44"},{"link_name":"El Siglo de Torreón","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Siglo_de_Torre%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-h.elsiglodetorreon.com.mx-24"},{"link_name":"Dance Club Songs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dance_Club_Songs"},{"link_name":"Billboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billboard_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sc_Billboarddanceclubplay_Robbie_Williams-45"},{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rock_DJ&action=edit§ion=7"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"Crowley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowley_Broadcast_Analysis"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rock_DJ&action=edit§ion=8"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"}],"text":"Weekly charts[edit]\n\n\nChart (2000–2001)\n\nPeakposition\n\n\nAustralia (ARIA)[13]\n\n4\n\n\nAustria (Ö3 Austria Top 40)[14]\n\n7\n\n\nBelgium (Ultratop 50 Flanders)[15]\n\n18\n\n\nBelgium (Ultratop 50 Wallonia)[16]\n\n16\n\n\nCanada Top Singles (RPM)[17]\n\n25[a]\n\n\nCanada Adult Contemporary (RPM)[18]\n\n47[b]\n\n\nCosta Rica (El Siglo de Torreón)[19]\n\n1\n\n\nCzech Republic (IFPI)[20]\n\n3\n\n\nDenmark (IFPI)[21]\n\n7\n\n\nEl Salvador (El Siglo de Torreón)[22]\n\n3\n\n\nEurope (Eurochart Hot 100)[23]\n\n5\n\n\nFinland (Suomen virallinen lista)[24]\n\n15\n\n\nFrance (SNEP)[25]\n\n40\n\n\nGermany (Official German Charts)[26]\n\n9\n\n\nGuatemala (El Siglo de Torreón)[22]\n\n4\n\n\nHungary (Mahasz)[27]\n\n6\n\n\nIceland (Íslenski Listinn Topp 40)[28]\n\n1\n\n\nIreland (IRMA)[29]\n\n1\n\n\nItaly (FIMI)[30]\n\n3\n\n\nNetherlands (Dutch Top 40)[31]\n\n6\n\n\nNetherlands (Single Top 100)[32]\n\n11\n\n\nNew Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)[33]\n\n1\n\n\nNorway (VG-lista)[34]\n\n8\n\n\nPoland (Music & Media)[35]\n\n18\n\n\nPoland (Polish Airplay Charts)[36]\n\n7\n\n\nPortugal (AFP)[37]\n\n6\n\n\nScotland (OCC)[38]\n\n1\n\n\nSpain (PROMUSICAE)[39]\n\n3\n\n\nSweden (Sverigetopplistan)[40]\n\n18\n\n\nSwitzerland (Schweizer Hitparade)[41]\n\n9\n\n\nUK Singles (OCC)[42]\n\n1\n\n\nUruguay (El Siglo de Torreón)[22]\n\n3\n\n\nUS Dance Club Songs (Billboard)[43]\n\n24\n\n\n\nYear-end charts[edit]\n\n\nChart (2000)\n\nPosition\n\n\nAustralia (ARIA)[44]\n\n21\n\n\nBelgium (Ultratop 50 Flanders)[45]\n\n94\n\n\nBelgium (Ultratop 50 Wallonia)[46]\n\n76\n\n\nBrazil (Crowley)[47]\n\n27\n\n\nEurope (Eurochart Hot 100)[48]\n\n38\n\n\nGermany (Official German Charts)[49]\n\n78\n\n\nIceland (Íslenski Listinn Topp 40)[50]\n\n12\n\n\nIreland (IRMA)[51]\n\n6\n\n\nNetherlands (Dutch Top 40)[52]\n\n34\n\n\nNetherlands (Single Top 100)[53]\n\n70\n\n\nNew Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)[54]\n\n21\n\n\nSwitzerland (Schweizer Hitparade)[55]\n\n59\n\n\nUK Singles (OCC)[56]\n\n5\n\nDecade-end charts[edit]\n\n\nChart (2000–2009)\n\nPosition\n\n\nUK Singles (OCC)[57]\n\n41","title":"Charts"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Certifications"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Release history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-18"},{"link_name":"RPM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RPM_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-20"}],"text":"^ \"Rock DJ\" reached number 25 when RPM ceased publication in November 2000.\n\n^ \"Rock DJ\" reached number 47 when RPM ceased publication in November 2000.","title":"Notes"}]
|
[]
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[{"reference":"\"British single certifications – Robbie Williams – Rock DJ\". British Phonographic Industry. Retrieved 24 September 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bpi.co.uk/award/5565-533-1","url_text":"\"British single certifications – Robbie Williams – Rock DJ\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Phonographic_Industry","url_text":"British Phonographic Industry"}]},{"reference":"\"ARIA Charts – Accreditations – 2000 Singles\" (PDF). Australian Recording Industry Association. Retrieved 5 July 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dropbox.com/sh/k9o2q7p7o4awhqx/AAABeYGTvZErtZotNbXOr2Tza/2000%20Accreds.pdf","url_text":"\"ARIA Charts – Accreditations – 2000 Singles\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Recording_Industry_Association","url_text":"Australian Recording Industry Association"}]},{"reference":"\"Robbie video banned for 'Satanism'\". BBC News. 19 October 2000. Retrieved 1 April 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/979461.stm","url_text":"\"Robbie video banned for 'Satanism'\""}]},{"reference":"Kinch, Ashby (2013). Imago Mortis: Mediating Images of Death in Late Medieval Culture. Brill. pp. 278–279. ISBN 978-90-04-24581-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://brill.com/view/title/22856","url_text":"Imago Mortis: Mediating Images of Death in Late Medieval Culture"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-24581-5","url_text":"978-90-04-24581-5"}]},{"reference":"\"ROCK DJ: MUSIC VIDEO\". RobbieWilliams.com. Retrieved 4 June 2015. The video's ending was cut by most music channels around Europe, including VIVA, MCM and MTV with VH1 Europe decided to use its own video for the song, created from studio footage.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.robbiewilliams.com/video/official/rock-dj-music-video","url_text":"\"ROCK DJ: MUSIC VIDEO\""}]},{"reference":"Rock DJ (UK & Australian CD single liner notes). Robbie Williams. Chrysalis Records. 2000. CDCHS5118, 7243 889136 2 1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robbie_Williams","url_text":"Robbie Williams"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysalis_Records","url_text":"Chrysalis Records"}]},{"reference":"Rock DJ (UK cassette single sleeve). Robbie Williams. Chrysalis Records. 2000. TCCHS5118, 7243 889120 4 4.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Rock DJ (UK DVD single liner notes). Robbie Williams. Chrysalis Records. 2000. 7243 4 92427 9 1.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Rock DJ (European CD single liner notes). Robbie Williams. Chrysalis Records. 2000. 7243 8 89233 2 3.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Rock DJ (European maxi-CD single liner notes). Robbie Williams. Chrysalis Records. 2000. 7243 8 89232 0 0.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Sing When You're Winning (UK CD album booklet). Robbie Williams. Chrysalis Records. 2000. 7243 5 28125 2 3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sing_When_You%27re_Winning","url_text":"Sing When You're Winning"}]},{"reference":"\"Backstreet Boys acaparan listas de popularidad\". El Siglo de Torreón (in Spanish). 1 November 2000. p. 39. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 10 August 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://h.elsiglodetorreon.com.mx/Repository/getFiles.asp?Style=OliveXLib:LowLevelEntityToSaveGifMSIE_ELSIGLO&Type=text/html&Locale=spanish-skin-custom&Path=EDT/2000/11/01&ChunkNum=-1&ID=Ar03902&PageLabel=39","url_text":"\"Backstreet Boys acaparan listas de popularidad\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160303220156/http://h.elsiglodetorreon.com.mx/Repository/getFiles.asp?Style=OliveXLib%3ALowLevelEntityToSaveGifMSIE_ELSIGLO&Type=text%2Fhtml&Locale=spanish-skin-custom&Path=EDT%2F2000%2F11%2F01&ChunkNum=-1&ID=Ar03902&PageLabel=39","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Hitparada radia - 39/2000\" (in Czech). IFPI CR. Archived from the original on 2 October 2000. Retrieved 6 February 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20001002201422/http://www.ifpicr.cz/radio.htm","url_text":"\"Hitparada radia - 39/2000\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Federation_of_the_Phonographic_Industry","url_text":"IFPI CR"},{"url":"http://www.ifpicr.cz/radio.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Top National Sellers\" (PDF). Music & Media. Vol. 17, no. 35. 26 August 2000. p. 9. Retrieved 16 April 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://worldradiohistory.com/UK/Music-and-Media/00s/2000/MM-2000-08-26.pdf","url_text":"\"Top National Sellers\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_%26_Media","url_text":"Music & Media"}]},{"reference":"\"Los más vendidos en Iberoamerica y EU\". El Siglo de Torreón. 11 December 2000. Retrieved 30 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"http://h.elsiglodetorreon.com.mx/Default/Scripting/ArticleWin.asp?From=Search&Key=EDT/2000/12/11/46/Ar04600.xml&CollName=EDT_2000_2009&DOCID=197918&PageLabelPrint=46&skin=%45%6c%53%69%67%6c%6f&sLanguage=%45%6e%67%6c%69%73%68&Content=%41%4c%4c&selLanguage=&sPublication=%45%44%54&sDateFrom=%30%31%25%32%46%30%31%25%32%46%32%30%30%30&sDateTo=%31%32%25%32%46%33%31%25%32%46%32%30%30%30&dummy=%32%30%30%30&sQuery=%62%72%69%74%6e%65%79%2b%73%70%65%61%72%73&x=%30&y=%30&RefineQueryView=&StartFrom=%36%30&ViewMode=HTML","url_text":"\"Los más vendidos en Iberoamerica y EU\""}]},{"reference":"\"Eurochart Hot 100 Singles\" (PDF). Music & Media. Vol. 17, no. 36. 2 September 2000. p. 11. 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Vika)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DV_(newspaper)","url_text":"Dagblaðið Vísir"}]},{"reference":"\"Major Market Airplay – Week 37/2000\" (PDF). Music & Media. Vol. 17, no. 37. 9 September 2000. p. 19. Retrieved 16 February 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://worldradiohistory.com/UK/Music-and-Media/00s/2000/MM-2000-09-09.pdf","url_text":"\"Major Market Airplay – Week 37/2000\""}]},{"reference":"\"Polish Airplay Charts - Lista krajowa 35/2000\". PiF PaF Production. Archived from the original on 4 March 2001. Retrieved 29 January 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20010304024545/http://www.pifpaf.com.pl/airplay/lista_35_2000.html","url_text":"\"Polish Airplay Charts - Lista krajowa 35/2000\""},{"url":"http://www.pifpaf.com.pl/airplay/lista_35_2000.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Top National Sellers\" (PDF). Music & Media. Vol. 17, no. 39. 23 September 2000. p. 17. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inuit_astronomy
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Inuit astronomy
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["1 Impact of high north latitude","1.1 Polar night and midnight sun","1.2 Atmospheric refraction","1.3 Time telling","2 Spiritual cosmology","3 Constellations","3.1 Naming","3.2 Mythology","4 References","5 Further reading","6 External links"]
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Inuit beliefs about the celestial sphere or Qilak
Tukturjuit, meaning the “caribou". Known as the Big Dipper in western astronomy.
Inuit astronomy is centered around the Qilak, the Inuit name for the celestial sphere and the home for souls of departed people. Inuit beliefs about astronomy are shaped by the harsh climate in the Arctic and the resulting difficulties of surviving and hunting in the region. The stars were an important tool to track time, seasons, and location, particularly during winter.
The Inuit are a group of circumpolar peoples who inhabit the Arctic and subarctic regions of Canada and Alaska (North America), Greenland/ KalaallitNunaat (Denmark) and parts of northern Siberia (Russia). There are many similarities between the traditions and beliefs among the indigenous peoples in Arctic regions. For example, the Inuit, Chukchi and Evenks all have a worldview based on their religious beliefs and have related traditions about astronomy. While differing traditions exist among groups, they overlap in the way the stars, weather, and folk tales assist in hunting, navigation and teaching their young about the world.
Their astronomy and relationship to the sky is heavily influenced by their spiritual and pragmatic needs, as well as the high northerly latitudes where they reside. For those living above the Arctic Circle, the latitude affects the view of the night sky, especially the fact that during winter polar night may occur for multiple months and the midnight sun during summer.
Impact of high north latitude
Inuit Circumpolar Conference members
Polar night and midnight sun
The latitudes within the Arctic Circle significantly influence both the behavior of the sun and the ability to see stars. Starting at approximately the end of November to mid-January, at around the 69th parallel north, the Inuit never see the sun. During this time, though dark, the sky is often obscured by weather conditions like blowing snow or cloud cover. Then, for 10 weeks beginning in mid-May, the sun never sets. This also means that in the spring, summer, and early fall, the skies are too bright to visible see stars. These phenomenons and limitations have had a significant influence on Inuit relationships to the Sun and stars.
Atmospheric refraction
The latitude also means that some stars are not visible at all, while those that are visible, but near the horizon, are visibly affected by atmospheric refraction because of the low temperatures. The appearance of these stars near the horizon changes throughout the day and during "dark days of winter without sunrise, the stars signal the time for villagers to wake up, for children and hunters to begin their days, and for the village to start the routines of the day."
Refraction also affects the appearance of the Sun, in particular when it first re-appears on the horizon after the long, dark winter. This was a time of great anxiety, so the Inuit observed strict taboos "to ensure the sun's rapid and full return." The Sun was not believed to be safely and securely back until it reached a height in the sky roughly equivalent to the width of a mitten on an outstretched hand. Only at this point would longer dog-team journeys be taken and the preparations for moving to spring camps begin.
Time telling
Inuit use the Moon to keep track of the 'calendar year', counting thirteen "moon months." Each month is named for a predictable seasonal characteristic, mostly related to animal behavior, which coincide with a particular moon. For example, one month is called "the nesting of eider ducks" while another is called "the birth of seal pups." The moon month during the polar night is referred to as tauvijjuaq or the "great darkness."
Observing the winter solstice was very important, though the equinoxes and summer solstice were not given much attention. Winter solstice marks both the darkest part of winter and the turning point when light begins to increase, marking the promise of the Sun's return. The first appearance of Aagjuuk happens around mid-December and is used across the Arctic to signal winter solstice's arrival. For some tribes, this would also signal the time for a midwinter celebration.
Some constellations have only seasonal appearances, which help mark the passage of time. For example, Ullakut (Orion) and Sakiattiak (Taurus) are only visible in the winter. Throughout winter, many stars within Tukturjuit (Big Dipper) were used as hour hands to keep track of time during the night or as calendar stars to determine the date. Aagjuuk (Aquila) and Kingulliq (Lyra) begin to appear near the end of winter, signaling that light will be returning to the region.
Spiritual cosmology
See also: Inuit religion and Inuit § Traditional beliefs
Inuit tradition closely links the Earth and sky, with a spatial understanding of the Earth as a large flat disk ending in cliffs and surrounded by sky. The sky itself is understood as layers of celestial realms, up to four or five. Each layer is its own world, a particular land of the dead. The aurora borealis bears special significance as the place where spirits who died from blood loss, murder or childbirth dwell. Legends warn Inuit against wrongdoing and taboo acts by telling the stories of people being transformed into stars after committing transgressions. MacDonald notes, "The best known of such narratives is the ubiquitous Inuit epic in which greed, murder, incest, and retribution account for the creation of the sun, moon, and the first stars." (Sun and Moon (Inuit myth))
Constellations
The Inuit have traditional names for many constellations, asterisms and stars. Inuit astronomy names thirty-three individual stars, two star clusters, and one nebula. The stars are incorporated into 16 or 17 asterisms, though seven stand alone with individual names.
Distinctively, the star Polaris or the North Star is a minor one for the Inuit, possibly because at northern latitudes its location is too high in the sky to be useful for navigation. It is called Nuutuittuq, which means "never moves." It is only used for navigation by the southernmost Inuit.
Naming
Naming practices fall into two main categories: human or animal personification and "intrinsic" designation, drawing from a particular visible feature of the star(s). Intrinsic designation might be based on color, distance to surrounding stars, and movement or progression across the sky. Many stars have two names, an everyday name and "literary" name which would be used when stars personify a mythic character. The stars never collectively make the image of an animal or person because of the belief that each individual star was once an animate being living on Earth. Inanimate objects like the soapstone "lamp-stand" or "collar-bones" are represented by groupings of stars.
Mythology
The names of the stars are recalled through myths and legends, which "reflected social ethics and universal concerns about creation, social and cosmic order, nourishment, retribution, and renewal." These stories are both used as explanations for the way things are or came to be and as a narrative tool to help people remember the location of stars and their relationship to each other, crucial when using the stars for navigation or time telling.
Table of constellations, asterisms, and principle stars
Constellation or asterism name
Translation
Related western constellation
Principal stars of the Inuit
Related traditions or legends
Aagjuuk
Aquila
Altair, Tarazed
Used to mark daytime and coming of spring.
Akuttujuuk
Two placed far apart or those apart
Orion
Betelgeuse, Bellatrix (top two stars of "shoulders" of Orion
Indicator of the change of seasons. Sources conflict on if their appearance marks the beginning or end of winter.
Aviguti
Divider, separator or that which divides
Milky Way
One story says that Aviguti is the track left "by Raven's snowshoe when he walked across the sky creating the inhabitants of the Earth".
Kingulliq*
The one behind
Lyra
The Old Woman (Vega)
Vega is also known in some legends as "a brother of the Sun" since it is the second star visible during the beginning of spring.
Kingulliq*(second)
The one behind
Orion
Rigel (right "foot" of Orion)
Kingulliq is known as a hunter, who is trailing behind Ullakut or "the runners" (three Orion's belt stars) because he dropped his glove.
Nanurjuk*
Like or having the spirit of a polar bear
Taurus
Aldebaran
Many tales where Nanurjuk is a polar bear being hunted by the nearby stars surrounding it.
Nuutuittuq*
(alternate spelling: Niqirtsuituq)
Never moves
Ursa Minor
Polaris
Nuutuittuq is a minor star and cannot be used for navigation by most Inuit. Depicted on the flag and coat of arms of the Canadian territory of Nunavut.
Pituaq
The lamp-stand
Cassiopeia
Scadar, Caph
Qimmiit
Dogs
Taurus
Hyades (star cluster)
In one legend, Qimmiit (the star cluster of Hyades) are dogs who have cornered a polar bear, Nanurjuk (Aldebaran).
Quturjuuk
Collar bones
Gemini and Auriga
Pollux / Castor and Capella / Menkalinan
Used to keep time throughout the night. Each pair of stars denotes a bone each of the collar bone.
Sakiattiak
Breast bone
Taurus
Pleiades (star cluster)
Sometimes believed to be either dogs or hunters
Sikuliarsiujuittuq*
The one who never goes onto the newly formed sea-ice or murdered man
Canis Minor
Procyon
In legends, referred to as "a large man who went hunting". Other legends refer to the man as the one who stole food from fellow village hunters because he was too obese to hunt on ice. He was then killed by the other hunters who convinced him to go on the sea ice anyway. The color of Procyon can often appear red and this color was associated with his bloody end.
Singuuriq*
Flickering or it pulsates
Canis Major
Sirius
The star is located very low on the horizon at northern latitudes. Might be named "flickering" because of atmospheric refraction.
Sivulliik
The first ones or those in front
Boötes
Artcturus, Muphrid
Called "the first ones" because this pair of stars because they mark the beginning of winter.
Tukturjuit
Caribou (pl.)
Ursa Major
Dubhe, Merak, Phecda, Megrez, Alioth, Mizar-Alcor, and Alkaid
Made up of the same seven stars which are referred to collectively as the Big Dipper
Ullaktut
The runners
Orion's Belt
Alnitak, Alnilam, Mintaka
Ullakut represents "three heroic runners" chasing down their prey.
Ursuutaattiaq
Seal-skin oil or blubber container
Cassiopeia
Same stars as in western Cassiopeia
Qangiamariit
Nephews and nieces or cousins
Orion Nebula
Qangiamariit is "thought to be a group of children".
*Asterisks mark names of principle stars, not full constellations or asterisms.
References
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Penprase, Bryan E. (2011). "Northern Circumpolar Sky from Around the World: The Arctic Inuit Sky". The Power of Stars. New York, NY: Springer. pp. 42–46. ISBN 978-1-4419-6802-9.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l MacDonald, John (2015), Ruggles, Clive L.N. (ed.), "Inuit Astronomy", Handbook of Archaeoastronomy and Ethnoastronomy, New York, NY: Springer, pp. 533–539, doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-6141-8_40, ISBN 978-1-4614-6141-8, retrieved 2021-09-17
^ Brice-Bennett, Carol (1999). " The Arctic sky: Inuit astronomy, star lore, and legend". Polar Record. 35 (195): 354–355. doi:10.1017/s0032247400015783. ISSN 0032-2474.
^ MacDonald, John (1998). The Arctic sky: Inuit astronomy, star lore, and legend. Toronto, Ontario/Iqaluit, NWT: Royal Ontario Museum/Nunavut Research Institute. pp. 52–54, 119. ISBN 9780888544278.
^ a b "The Coat of Arms of Nunavut. (n.d.)". Legislative Assembly of Nunavut. Retrieved 2021-09-15.
^ MacDonald, John (1998). The Arctic Sky: Inuit Astronomy, Star Lore, and Legend. Royal Ontario Museum/Nunavut Research Institute. pp. 65–67. ISBN 978-0-88854-427-8.
^ MacDonald, John (1998). The Arctic sky: Inuit astronomy, star lore, and legend. Toronto, Ontario/Iqaluit, NWT: Royal Ontario Museum/Nunavut Research Institute. pp. 72, 231–33. ISBN 9780888544278.
Further reading
Aveni, A. (2019). SIX. Polar Constellations: . In Star Stories: Constellations and People (pp. 89–102). New Haven: Yale University Press. https://doi.org/10.12987/9780300249095-008
Ruggles, C. (2010). Indigenous astronomies and progress in modern astronomy. Retrieved from https://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1010/1010.4873.pdf.
External links
http://www.stellarium.org/wiki/index.php/Inuit_Sky_Culture
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[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Big_Dipper_20210116.jpg"},{"link_name":"Big Dipper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Dipper"},{"link_name":"Inuit name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inuit_languages"},{"link_name":"celestial sphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celestial_sphere"},{"link_name":"Inuit beliefs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inuit#Traditional_beliefs"},{"link_name":"Arctic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-1"},{"link_name":"Inuit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inuit"},{"link_name":"circumpolar peoples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumpolar_peoples"},{"link_name":"subarctic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subarctic"},{"link_name":"Chukchi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chukchi_people"},{"link_name":"Evenks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evenks"},{"link_name":"their religious beliefs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inuit_religion"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-1"},{"link_name":"Arctic Circle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_Circle"},{"link_name":"night sky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Night_sky"},{"link_name":"polar night","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_night"},{"link_name":"midnight sun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midnight_sun"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"}],"text":"Tukturjuit, meaning the “caribou\". Known as the Big Dipper in western astronomy.Inuit astronomy is centered around the Qilak, the Inuit name for the celestial sphere and the home for souls of departed people. Inuit beliefs about astronomy are shaped by the harsh climate in the Arctic and the resulting difficulties of surviving and hunting in the region. The stars were an important tool to track time, seasons, and location, particularly during winter.[1]The Inuit are a group of circumpolar peoples who inhabit the Arctic and subarctic regions of Canada and Alaska (North America), Greenland/ KalaallitNunaat (Denmark) and parts of northern Siberia (Russia). There are many similarities between the traditions and beliefs among the indigenous peoples in Arctic regions. For example, the Inuit, Chukchi and Evenks all have a worldview based on their religious beliefs and have related traditions about astronomy.[2] While differing traditions exist among groups, they overlap in the way the stars, weather, and folk tales assist in hunting, navigation and teaching their young about the world.[1]Their astronomy and relationship to the sky is heavily influenced by their spiritual and pragmatic needs, as well as the high northerly latitudes where they reside. For those living above the Arctic Circle, the latitude affects the view of the night sky, especially the fact that during winter polar night may occur for multiple months and the midnight sun during summer.[2]","title":"Inuit astronomy"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Inuit_conf_map.png"},{"link_name":"Inuit Circumpolar Conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inuit_Circumpolar_Conference"}],"text":"Inuit Circumpolar Conference members","title":"Impact of high north latitude"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"69th parallel north","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/69th_parallel_north"},{"link_name":"never see the sun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_night"},{"link_name":"sun never sets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midnight_sun"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"}],"sub_title":"Polar night and midnight sun","text":"The latitudes within the Arctic Circle significantly influence both the behavior of the sun and the ability to see stars. Starting at approximately the end of November to mid-January, at around the 69th parallel north, the Inuit never see the sun. During this time, though dark, the sky is often obscured by weather conditions like blowing snow or cloud cover. Then, for 10 weeks beginning in mid-May, the sun never sets. This also means that in the spring, summer, and early fall, the skies are too bright to visible see stars. These phenomenons and limitations have had a significant influence on Inuit relationships to the Sun and stars.[2]","title":"Impact of high north latitude"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"horizon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horizon"},{"link_name":"atmospheric refraction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_refraction"},{"link_name":"temperatures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperature"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"dog-team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sled_dog"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"}],"sub_title":"Atmospheric refraction","text":"The latitude also means that some stars are not visible at all, while those that are visible, but near the horizon, are visibly affected by atmospheric refraction because of the low temperatures.[2] The appearance of these stars near the horizon changes throughout the day and during \"dark days of winter without sunrise, the stars signal the time for villagers to wake up, for children and hunters to begin their days, and for the village to start the routines of the day.\"[2]Refraction also affects the appearance of the Sun, in particular when it first re-appears on the horizon after the long, dark winter. This was a time of great anxiety, so the Inuit observed strict taboos \"to ensure the sun's rapid and full return.\"[2] The Sun was not believed to be safely and securely back until it reached a height in the sky roughly equivalent to the width of a mitten on an outstretched hand. Only at this point would longer dog-team journeys be taken and the preparations for moving to spring camps begin.[2]","title":"Impact of high north latitude"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"winter solstice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winter_solstice"},{"link_name":"equinoxes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equinox"},{"link_name":"summer solstice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summer_solstice"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"Orion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orion_(constellation)"},{"link_name":"Taurus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurus_(constellation)"},{"link_name":"Big Dipper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Dipper"},{"link_name":"Aquila","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquila_(constellation)"},{"link_name":"Lyra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyra"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-1"}],"sub_title":"Time telling","text":"Inuit use the Moon to keep track of the 'calendar year', counting thirteen \"moon months.\" Each month is named for a predictable seasonal characteristic, mostly related to animal behavior, which coincide with a particular moon. For example, one month is called \"the nesting of eider ducks\" while another is called \"the birth of seal pups.\" The moon month during the polar night is referred to as tauvijjuaq or the \"great darkness.\"[2]Observing the winter solstice was very important, though the equinoxes and summer solstice were not given much attention. Winter solstice marks both the darkest part of winter and the turning point when light begins to increase, marking the promise of the Sun's return. The first appearance of Aagjuuk happens around mid-December and is used across the Arctic to signal winter solstice's arrival. For some tribes, this would also signal the time for a midwinter celebration.[2]Some constellations have only seasonal appearances, which help mark the passage of time. For example, Ullakut (Orion) and Sakiattiak (Taurus) are only visible in the winter. Throughout winter, many stars within Tukturjuit (Big Dipper) were used as hour hands to keep track of time during the night or as calendar stars to determine the date. Aagjuuk (Aquila) and Kingulliq (Lyra) begin to appear near the end of winter, signaling that light will be returning to the region.[1]","title":"Impact of high north latitude"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Inuit religion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inuit_religion"},{"link_name":"Inuit § Traditional beliefs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inuit#Traditional_beliefs"},{"link_name":"Inuit tradition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inuit#Traditional_beliefs"},{"link_name":"aurora borealis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurora"},{"link_name":"childbirth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childbirth"},{"link_name":"Sun and Moon (Inuit myth)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_and_Moon_(Inuit_myth)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"}],"text":"See also: Inuit religion and Inuit § Traditional beliefsInuit tradition closely links the Earth and sky, with a spatial understanding of the Earth as a large flat disk ending in cliffs and surrounded by sky. The sky itself is understood as layers of celestial realms, up to four or five. Each layer is its own world, a particular land of the dead. The aurora borealis bears special significance as the place where spirits who died from blood loss, murder or childbirth dwell. Legends warn Inuit against wrongdoing and taboo acts by telling the stories of people being transformed into stars after committing transgressions. MacDonald notes, \"The best known of such narratives is the ubiquitous Inuit epic in which greed, murder, incest, and retribution account for the creation of the sun, moon, and the first stars.\" (Sun and Moon (Inuit myth))[2]","title":"Spiritual cosmology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"constellations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constellation"},{"link_name":"asterisms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asterism_(astronomy)"},{"link_name":"Polaris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polaris"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-1"}],"text":"The Inuit have traditional names for many constellations, asterisms and stars. Inuit astronomy names thirty-three individual stars, two star clusters, and one nebula. The stars are incorporated into 16 or 17 asterisms, though seven stand alone with individual names.Distinctively, the star Polaris or the North Star is a minor one for the Inuit, possibly because at northern latitudes its location is too high in the sky to be useful for navigation. It is called Nuutuittuq, which means \"never moves.\" It is only used for navigation by the southernmost Inuit.[1]","title":"Constellations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"}],"sub_title":"Naming","text":"Naming practices fall into two main categories: human or animal personification and \"intrinsic\" designation, drawing from a particular visible feature of the star(s). Intrinsic designation might be based on color, distance to surrounding stars, and movement or progression across the sky. Many stars have two names, an everyday name and \"literary\" name which would be used when stars personify a mythic character. The stars never collectively make the image of an animal or person because of the belief that each individual star was once an animate being living on Earth. Inanimate objects like the soapstone \"lamp-stand\" or \"collar-bones\" are represented by groupings of stars.[2]","title":"Constellations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"}],"sub_title":"Mythology","text":"The names of the stars are recalled through myths and legends, which \"reflected social ethics and universal concerns about creation, social and cosmic order, nourishment, retribution, and renewal.\"[3] These stories are both used as explanations for the way things are or came to be and as a narrative tool to help people remember the location of stars and their relationship to each other, crucial when using the stars for navigation or time telling.[2]*Asterisks mark names of principle stars, not full constellations or asterisms.","title":"Constellations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"https://doi.org/10.12987/9780300249095-008","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.12987/9780300249095-008"},{"link_name":"https://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1010/1010.4873.pdf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1010/1010.4873.pdf"}],"text":"Aveni, A. (2019). SIX. Polar Constellations: . In Star Stories: Constellations and People (pp. 89–102). New Haven: Yale University Press. https://doi.org/10.12987/9780300249095-008\nRuggles, C. (2010). Indigenous astronomies and progress in modern astronomy. Retrieved from https://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1010/1010.4873.pdf.","title":"Further reading"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Tukturjuit, meaning the “caribou\". Known as the Big Dipper in western astronomy.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Big_Dipper_20210116.jpg/220px-Big_Dipper_20210116.jpg"},{"image_text":"Inuit Circumpolar Conference members","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Inuit_conf_map.png/220px-Inuit_conf_map.png"}]
| null |
[{"reference":"Penprase, Bryan E. (2011). \"Northern Circumpolar Sky from Around the World: The Arctic Inuit Sky\". The Power of Stars. New York, NY: Springer. pp. 42–46. ISBN 978-1-4419-6802-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-6802-9","url_text":"978-1-4419-6802-9"}]},{"reference":"MacDonald, John (2015), Ruggles, Clive L.N. (ed.), \"Inuit Astronomy\", Handbook of Archaeoastronomy and Ethnoastronomy, New York, NY: Springer, pp. 533–539, doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-6141-8_40, ISBN 978-1-4614-6141-8, retrieved 2021-09-17","urls":[{"url":"https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-1-4614-6141-8_40","url_text":"\"Inuit Astronomy\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4614-6141-8_40","url_text":"10.1007/978-1-4614-6141-8_40"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4614-6141-8","url_text":"978-1-4614-6141-8"}]},{"reference":"Brice-Bennett, Carol (1999). \"[Review] The Arctic sky: Inuit astronomy, star lore, and legend\". Polar Record. 35 (195): 354–355. doi:10.1017/s0032247400015783. ISSN 0032-2474.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0032247400015783","url_text":"\"[Review] The Arctic sky: Inuit astronomy, star lore, and legend\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0032247400015783","url_text":"10.1017/s0032247400015783"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0032-2474","url_text":"0032-2474"}]},{"reference":"MacDonald, John (1998). The Arctic sky: Inuit astronomy, star lore, and legend. Toronto, Ontario/Iqaluit, NWT: Royal Ontario Museum/Nunavut Research Institute. pp. 52–54, 119. ISBN 9780888544278.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/arcticskyinuitas0000macd/page/52","url_text":"The Arctic sky: Inuit astronomy, star lore, and legend"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Ontario_Museum","url_text":"Royal Ontario Museum"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/arcticskyinuitas0000macd/page/52","url_text":"52–54, 119"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780888544278","url_text":"9780888544278"}]},{"reference":"\"The Coat of Arms of Nunavut. (n.d.)\". Legislative Assembly of Nunavut. Retrieved 2021-09-15.","urls":[{"url":"https://assembly.nu.ca/about-legislative-assembly/coat-arms-nunavut","url_text":"\"The Coat of Arms of Nunavut. (n.d.)\""}]},{"reference":"MacDonald, John (1998). The Arctic Sky: Inuit Astronomy, Star Lore, and Legend. Royal Ontario Museum/Nunavut Research Institute. pp. 65–67. ISBN 978-0-88854-427-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/arcticskyinuitas0000macd","url_text":"The Arctic Sky: Inuit Astronomy, Star Lore, and Legend"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/arcticskyinuitas0000macd/page/65","url_text":"65–67"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88854-427-8","url_text":"978-0-88854-427-8"}]},{"reference":"MacDonald, John (1998). The Arctic sky: Inuit astronomy, star lore, and legend. Toronto, Ontario/Iqaluit, NWT: Royal Ontario Museum/Nunavut Research Institute. pp. 72, 231–33. ISBN 9780888544278.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/arcticskyinuitas0000macd","url_text":"The Arctic sky: Inuit astronomy, star lore, and legend"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/arcticskyinuitas0000macd/page/72","url_text":"72"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780888544278","url_text":"9780888544278"}]}]
|
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migrations_Period
|
Migration Period
|
["1 Chronology","1.1 Germanic tribes prior to migration","1.2 First wave","1.3 Second wave","2 Discussions","2.1 Barbarian identity","2.2 Viewpoints","2.3 Ethnicity","3 Depiction in media","4 See also","5 References","6 Bibliography","7 External links"]
|
Period from the fourth to the sixth centuries
This article is about the period of widespread migrations in Europe during the first millennium AD. For prehistoric migrations, see History of human migration. For seasonal periods of human migrations, see seasonal human migration. For seasonal periods of animal migrations, see animal migration.
"Barbarian invasion" and "Barbarian invasions" redirect here. For the 2003 Canadian film, see The Barbarian Invasions.
Invasions of the Roman EmpireTime300–800 AD (greatest estimate)PlaceEurope and the Mediterranean regionEventTribes invading the declining Roman Empire
The Migration Period (circa 300 to 600 AD), also known as the Barbarian Invasions, was a period in European history marked by large-scale migrations that saw the fall of the Western Roman Empire and subsequent settlement of its former territories by various tribes, and the establishment of the post-Roman kingdoms.
The term refers to the important role played by the migration, invasion, and settlement of various tribes, notably the Franks, Goths, Alemanni, Alans, Huns, early Slavs, Pannonian Avars, Bulgars and Magyars within or into the territories of the Roman Empire and Europe as a whole. The period is traditionally taken to have begun in AD 375 (possibly as early as 300) and ended in 568. Various factors contributed to this phenomenon of migration and invasion, and their role and significance are still widely discussed.
Historians differ as to the dates for the beginning and ending of the Migration Period. The beginning of the period is widely regarded as the invasion of Europe by the Huns from Asia in about 375 and the ending with the conquest of Italy by the Lombards in 568, but a more loosely set period is from as early as 300 to as late as 800. For example, in the 4th century a very large group of Goths was settled as foederati within the Roman Balkans, and the Franks were settled south of the Rhine in Roman Gaul. In 406 a particularly large and unexpected crossing of the Rhine was made by a group of Vandals, Alans and Suebi. As central power broke down in the Western Roman Empire, the military became more important but was dominated by men of barbarian origin.
There are contradictory opinions as to whether the fall of the Western Roman Empire was a result of an increase in migrations, or if both the breakdown of central power and the increased importance of non-Romans created additional internal factors. Migrations, and the use of non-Romans in the military, were known in the periods before and after, and the Eastern Roman Empire adapted and continued to exist until the fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, although it involved the establishment of competing barbarian kingdoms, was to some extent managed by the Eastern emperors.
The migrants comprised war bands or tribes of 10,000 to 20,000 people. Immigration was common throughout the time of the Roman Empire, but over the course of 100 years, the migrants numbered not more than 750,000 in total, compared to an average 40 million population of the Roman Empire at that time. The first migrations of peoples were made by Germanic tribes such as the Goths (including the Visigoths and the Ostrogoths), the Vandals, the Anglo-Saxons, the Lombards, the Suebi, the Frisii, the Jutes, the Burgundians, the Alemanni, the Sciri and the Franks; they were later pushed westward by the Huns, the Avars, the Slavs and the Bulgars. Later invasions, such as the Vikings, the Normans, the Varangians, the Hungarians, the Arabs, the Turks, and the Mongols also had significant effects (especially in North Africa, the Iberian Peninsula, Anatolia and Central and Eastern Europe).
Chronology
Further information: Pre-modern human migration
Germanic tribes prior to migration
Further information: Proto-Germanic, Pre-Roman Iron Age (Northern Europe), and Marcomannic Wars
Germanic peoples moved out of southern Scandinavia and northern Germany to the adjacent lands between the Elbe and Oder after 1000 BC. The first wave moved westward and southward (pushing the resident Celts west to the Rhine around 200 BC), moving into southern Germany up to the Roman provinces of Gaul and Cisalpine Gaul by 100 BC, where they were stopped by Gaius Marius and later by Julius Caesar. It is this western group which was described by the Roman historian Tacitus (AD 56–117) and Julius Caesar (100–44 BC). A later wave of Germanic tribes migrated eastward and southward from Scandinavia, between 600 and 300 BC, to the opposite coast of the Baltic Sea, moving up the Vistula near the Carpathian Mountains. During Tacitus' era they included lesser-known tribes such as the Tencteri, Cherusci, Hermunduri and Chatti; however, a period of federation and intermarriage resulted in the familiar groups known as the Alemanni, Franks, Saxons, Frisians and Thuringians.
First wave
Further information: Roman Iron Age (Northern Europe)
See also: Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Burgundians, Alans, Lombards, Angles (tribe), Saxons, Jutes, Suebi, Alemanni, Gepids, Vandals, and Huns
A Migration Period Germanic gold bracteate depicting a bird, horse, and stylized human head with a Suebian knot
The first wave of invasions, between AD 300 and 500, is partly documented by Greek and Latin historians but is difficult to verify archaeologically. It puts Germanic peoples in control of most areas of what was then the Western Roman Empire.
The Tervingi crossed the Danube into Roman territory in 376, in a migration fleeing the invading Huns. Some time later in Marcianopolis, the escort to their leader Fritigern was killed while meeting with Roman commander Lupicinus. The Tervingi rebelled, and the Visigoths, a group derived either from the Tervingi or from a fusion of mainly Gothic groups, eventually invaded Italy and sacked Rome in 410 before settling in Gaul. Around 460, they founded the Visigothic Kingdom in Iberia. They were followed into Roman territory first by a confederation of Herulian, Rugian, and Scirian warriors under Odoacer, that deposed Romulus Augustulus in 476, and later by the Ostrogoths, led by Theodoric the Great, who settled in Italy.
In Gaul, the Franks (a fusion of western Germanic tribes whose leaders had been aligned with Rome since the 3rd century) entered Roman lands gradually during the 5th century, and after consolidating power under Childeric and his son Clovis's decisive victory over Syagrius in 486, established themselves as rulers of northern Roman Gaul. Fending off challenges from the Alemanni, Burgundians, and Visigoths, the Frankish kingdom became the nucleus of what would later become France and Germany.
The initial Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain occurred during the 5th century, when Roman control of Britain had come to an end. The Burgundians settled in northwestern Italy, Switzerland and Eastern France in the 5th century.
Second wave
See also: Early Slavs, Slavic migrations to Southeastern Europe, Pannonian Avars, Magyars, and Bulgars
Migration of early Slavs in Europe in the 5th–10th centuries
Migration and settlement of the Bulgars during the 6th–7th centuries AD
Slavic fibula brooch made of copper dating back to the Migration Period, c. 600–650 AD
Between AD 500 and 700, Slavic tribes settled more areas of central Europe and pushed farther into southern and eastern Europe, gradually making the eastern half of Europe predominantly Slavic. Additionally, Turkic tribes such as the Avars and later Ugric Magyars became involved in this second wave. In AD 567, the Avars and the Lombards destroyed much of the Gepid Kingdom. The Lombards, a Germanic people, settled in Italy with their Herulian, Suebian, Gepid, Thuringian, Bulgar, Sarmatian and Saxon allies in the 6th century. They were later followed by the Bavarians and the Franks, who conquered and ruled most of Italy.
The Bulgars, originally a nomadic group probably from Central Asia, occupied the Pontic steppe north of Caucasus since the 2nd century, but later, pushed by the Khazars, the majority of them migrated west and dominated Byzantine territories along the lower Danube in the 7th century. From that time the demographic picture of the Balkans changed permanently, becoming predominantly Slavic, while pockets of native people survived in the mountains of the Balkans.
During the early Byzantine–Arab Wars, Arab armies attempted to invade southeast Europe via Asia Minor during the late 7th and early 8th centuries but were defeated at the siege of Constantinople (717–718) by the joint forces of Byzantium and the Bulgars. During the Khazar–Arab Wars, the Khazars stopped the Arab expansion into Europe across the Caucasus (7th and 8th centuries). At the same time, the Moors (consisting of Arabs and Berbers) invaded Europe via Gibraltar (conquering Hispania from the Visigothic Kingdom in 711), before being halted by the Franks at the Battle of Tours in Gaul. These battles broadly demarcated the frontiers between Christendom and Islam for the next millennium. The following centuries saw the Muslims successful in conquering most of Sicily from the Christians by 902.
The Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin from around AD 895 and the following Hungarian invasions of Europe and the Viking expansion from the late 8th century conventionally mark the last large movements of the period. Christian missionaries gradually converted the non-Islamic newcomers and integrated them into the Christendom.
Discussions
Barbarian identity
Main article: Barbarian
Analysis of barbarian identity and how it was created and expressed during the Barbarian Invasions has elicited discussion among scholars. Herwig Wolfram, a historian of the Goths, in discussing the equation of migratio gentium with Völkerwanderung, observes that Michael Schmidt introduced the equation in his 1778 history of the Germans. Wolfram observed that the significance of gens as a biological community was shifting, even during the early Middle Ages and that "to complicate matters, we have no way of devising a terminology that is not derived from the concept of nationhood created during the French Revolution".
The "primordialistic" paradigm prevailed during the 19th century. Scholars, such as German linguist Johann Gottfried Herder, viewed tribes as coherent biological (racial) entities, using the term to refer to discrete ethnic groups. He also believed that the Volk were an organic whole, with a core identity and spirit evident in art, literature and language. These characteristics were seen as intrinsic, unaffected by external influences, even conquest. Language, in particular, was seen as the most important expression of ethnicity. They argued that groups sharing the same (or similar) language possessed a common identity and ancestry. This was the Romantic ideal that there once had been a single German, Celtic or Slavic people who originated from a common homeland and spoke a common tongue, helping to provide a conceptual framework for political movements of the 18th and 19th centuries such as Pan-Germanism and Pan-Slavism.
From the 1960s, a reinterpretation of archaeological and historical evidence prompted scholars, such as Goffart and Todd, to propose new models for explaining the construction of barbarian identity. They maintained that no sense of shared identity was perceived by the Germani; a similar theory having been proposed for Celtic and Slavic groups.
A theory states that the primordialist mode of thinking was encouraged by a prima facie interpretation of Graeco-Roman sources, which grouped together many tribes under such labels as Germanoi, Keltoi or Sclavenoi, thus encouraging their perception as distinct peoples. Modernists argue that the uniqueness perceived by specific groups was based on common political and economic interests rather than biological or racial distinctions. Indeed, on this basis, some schools of thought in recent scholarship urge that the concept of Germanic peoples be jettisoned altogether.
The role of language in constructing and maintaining group identity can be ephemeral since large-scale language shifts occur commonly in history. Modernists propose the idea of "imagined communities"; the barbarian polities in late antiquity were social constructs rather than unchanging lines of blood kinship. The process of forming tribal units was called "ethnogenesis", a term coined by Soviet scholar Yulian Bromley. The Austrian school (led by Reinhard Wenskus) popularized this idea, which influenced medievalists such as Herwig Wolfram, Walter Pohl and Patrick J. Geary. It argues that the stimulus for forming tribal polities was perpetuated by a small nucleus of people, known as the Traditionskern ("kernel of tradition"), who were a military or aristocratic elite. This core group formed a standard for larger units, gathering adherents by employing amalgamative metaphors such as kinship and aboriginal commonality and claiming that they perpetuated an ancient, divinely-sanctioned lineage.
The common, track-filled map of the Völkerwanderung may illustrate such course of events, but it misleads. Unfolded over long periods of time, the changes of position that took place were necessarily irregular ... (with) periods of emphatic discontinuity. For decades and possibly centuries, the tradition bearers idled, and the tradition itself hibernated. There was ample time for forgetfulness to do its work.
Viewpoints
Völkerwanderung is a German word, borrowed from German historiography, that refers to the early migrations of the Germanic peoples. In a broader sense it can mean the mass migration of whole tribes or ethnic groups.— Bell-Fialkoff, Andrew. The Role of Migration, p. 15
Location of Xiongnu and other steppe nations in 100 AD. Some historians believe that the Huns originated from the Xiongnu.
Rather than "invasion", German and Slavic scholars speak of "migration" (see German: Völkerwanderung, Czech: Stěhování národů, Swedish: folkvandring and Hungarian: népvándorlás), aspiring to the idea of a dynamic and "wandering Indo-Germanic people".
In contrast, the standard terms in French and Italian historiography translate to "barbarian invasions", or even "barbaric invasions" (French: Invasions barbares, Italian: Invasioni barbariche)
Historians have postulated several explanations for the appearance of "barbarians" on the Roman frontier: climate change, weather and crops, population pressure, a "primeval urge" to push into the Mediterranean, the construction of the Great Wall of China causing a "domino effect" of tribes being forced westward, leading to the Huns falling upon the Goths who, in turn, pushed other Germanic tribes before them. In general, French and Italian scholars have tended to view this as a catastrophic event, the destruction of a civilization and the beginning of a "Dark Age" that set Europe back a millennium. In contrast, German and English historians have tended to see Roman–Barbarian interaction as the replacement of a "tired, effete and decadent Mediterranean civilization" with a "more virile, martial, Nordic one".
Barbarian invasions against the Roman Empire in the 3rd century
The scholar Guy Halsall has seen the barbarian movement as the result of the fall of the Roman Empire, not its cause. Archaeological discoveries have confirmed that Germanic and Slavic tribes were settled agriculturalists who were probably merely "drawn into the politics of an empire already falling apart for quite a few other causes". Goffart argues that the process of settlement was connected to hospitalitas, the Roman practice of quartering soldiers among the civilian population. The Romans, by granting land and the right to levy taxes to allied (Germanic) armies, hoped to reduce the financial burdens of the empire. The Crisis of the Third Century caused significant changes within the Roman Empire in both its western and its eastern portions. In particular, economic fragmentation removed many of the political, cultural and economic forces that had held the empire together.
The rural population in Roman provinces became distanced from the metropolis, and there was little to differentiate them from other peasants across the Roman frontier. In addition, Rome increasingly used foreign mercenaries to defend itself. That "barbarisation" parallelled changes within Barbaricum. To this end, noted linguist Dennis Howard Green wrote, "the first centuries of our era witness not merely a progressive Romanisation of barbarian society, but also an undeniable barbarisation of the Roman world."
For example, the Roman Empire played a vital role in building up barbarian groups along its frontier. Propped up with imperial support and gifts, the armies of allied barbarian chieftains served as buffers against other, hostile, barbarian groups. The disintegration of Roman economic power weakened groups that had come to depend on Roman gifts for the maintenance of their own power. The arrival of the Huns helped prompt many groups to invade the provinces for economic reasons.
Barbarian kingdoms and peoples after the end of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD
The nature of the barbarian takeover of former Roman provinces varied from region to region. For example, in Aquitaine, the provincial administration was largely self-reliant. Halsall has argued that local rulers simply "handed over" military rule to the Ostrogoths, acquiring the identity of the newcomers. In Gaul, the collapse of imperial rule resulted in anarchy: the Franks and Alemanni were pulled into the ensuing "power vacuum", resulting in conflict. In Spain, local aristocrats maintained independent rule for some time, raising their own armies against the Vandals. Meanwhile, the Roman withdrawal from lowland England resulted in conflict between Saxons and the Brittonic chieftains (whose centres of power retreated westward as a result). The Eastern Roman Empire attempted to maintain control of the Balkan provinces despite a thinly-spread imperial army relying mainly on local militias and an extensive effort to refortify the Danubian limes. The ambitious fortification efforts collapsed, worsening the impoverished conditions of the local populace and resulting in colonization by Slavic warriors and their families.
Halsall and Noble have argued that such changes stemmed from the breakdown in Roman political control, which exposed the weakness of local Roman rule. Instead of large-scale migrations, there were military takeovers by small groups of warriors and their families, who usually numbered only in the tens of thousands. The process involved active, conscious decision-making by Roman provincial populations.
The collapse of centralized control severely weakened the sense of Roman identity in the provinces, which may explain why the provinces then underwent dramatic cultural changes even though few barbarians settled in them. Ultimately, the Germanic groups in the Western Roman Empire were accommodated without "dispossessing or overturning indigenous society", and they maintained a structured and hierarchical (but attenuated) form of Roman administration.
Ironically, they lost their unique identity as a result of such an accommodation and were absorbed into Latinhood. In contrast, in the east, Slavic tribes maintained a more "spartan and egalitarian" existence bound to the land "even in times when they took their part in plundering Roman provinces". Their organizational models were not Roman, and their leaders were not normally dependent on Roman gold for success. Thus they arguably had a greater effect on their region than the Goths, the Franks or the Saxons had on theirs.
Ethnicity
Based on the belief that particular types of artifacts, elements of personal adornment generally found in a funerary context, are thought to indicate the ethnicity of the person buried, the "Culture-History" school of archaeology assumed that archaeological cultures represent the Urheimat (homeland) of tribal polities named in historical sources. As a consequence, the shifting extensions of material cultures were interpreted as the expansion of peoples.
Influenced by constructionism, process-driven archaeologists rejected the culture-historical doctrine and marginalized the discussion of ethnicity altogether and focused on the intragroup dynamics that generated such material remains. Moreover, they argued that adoption of new cultures could occur through trade or internal political developments rather than only military takeovers.
Depiction in media
Terry Jones' Barbarians, a 4-part TV documentary series first broadcast on BBC 2 in 2006
Rome: Total War: Barbarian Invasion and Total War: Attila, strategy video games by The Creative Assembly
Barbarians, 2004 documentary miniseries on The History Channel
See also
Bond event
Dark Ages (historiography)
Environmental migrant
Genetic history of the British Isles
Late Antiquity
Medieval demography
Migration Period art
Five Barbarians and Sixteen Kingdoms
Hephthalite Empire
Immigration
Turkic migration
Middle Ages
Barbarian invasions of the 3rd century
Germanic peoples
References
^ Allgemein Springer (2006), der auch auf alternative Definitionen außerhalb der communis opinio hinweist. Alle Epochengrenzen sind letztlich nur ein Konstrukt und vor allem durch Konvention begründet. Vgl. auch Stefan Krautschick: Zur Entstehung eines Datums. 375 – Beginn der Völkerwanderung. In: Klio 82, 2000, S. 217–222 sowie Stefan Krautschick: Hunnensturm und Germanenflut: 375 – Beginn der Völkerwanderung? In: Byzantinische Zeitschrift 92, 1999, S. 10–67.
^ "History of Europe - Barbarian Migrations, Invasions | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2023-08-12.
^ Halsall, Guy. Barbarian Migrations and the Roman West, 376–568. Cambridge University Press, 2007.
^ For example, Halsall, (2008), Barbarian Migrations and the Roman West, 376–568
^ "The Migration period (fourth to eighth century)", p.5 Migration Art, A.D. 300-800, 1995, Metropolitan Museum of Art, ed. Katharine Reynolds Brown, ISBN 0870997505, 9780870997501
^ Peter Heather (2003). The Visigoths from the Migration Period to the Seventh Century: An Ethnographic Perspective. Boydell & Brewer Ltd. p. 54. ISBN 978-1-84383-033-7.
^ Giovanni Milani-Santarpia, "Immigration Roman Empire", MariaMilani.com
^ Bury, J. B., The Invasion of Europe by the Barbarians, Norton Library, 1967.
^ "Anatolien war nicht Ur-Heimat der indogermanischen Stämme". Eurasischesmagazin.de. Retrieved 2016-02-03.
^ Wolfram Euler, Konrad Badenheuer; "Sprache und Herkunft der Germanen: Abriss des Protogermanischen vor der Ersten Lautverschiebung"; 2009; ISBN 3-9812110-1-4, 978-3-9812110-1-6
^ Bury, Invasion, Ch. 1.
^ a b Halsall 2006a, p. 51.
^ Wolfram 2001, pp. 127ff..
^ Dumville 1990.
^ Zbigniew Kobyliński. "The Slavs" in Paul Fouracre. The New Cambridge Medieval History, pp. 530–537
^ Bertolini 1960, pp. 34–38.
^ Schutz 2002, p. 82
^ Fine, John Van Antwerp (1983), The Early Medieval Balkans, University of Michigan Press, ISBN 0-472-08149-7, p. 31.
^ The Miracles of Saint Demetrius
^ Wolfram, Thomas J. Dunlap, tr. History of the Goths (1979) 1988:5
^ Anthony D. Smith, The Ethnic Origins of Nations (Oxford, 1966) pp. 6ff., coined the term to separate these thinkers from those who view ethnicity as a situational construct, the product of history, rather than a cause, influenced by a variety of political, economic and cultural factors.
^ a b Geary 2006, p. 29.
^ a b Kulikowski 2007, p. 46.
^ That was influenced by the 'family tree' model (Stammbaun) of linguistics in that relationships between related languages were seen to be the result of derivation from a common ancestor. The model still is very influential in linguistics
^ a b Halsall (2008, p. 17)
^ Todd, pp. 8–10) harvtxt error: no target: CITEREFTodd (help) There is no indication that the Germani possessed a feeling that they were a "separate people, nation, or group of tribes"
^ For example, The Celtic World, Miranda Green (1996), p. 3 and The Making of the Slavs. Floring Curta (2001)
^ Halsall (2008, p. 24)
^ Friedrich & Harland (2020) harvtxt error: no target: CITEREFFriedrich_&_Harland2020 (help)
^ Archaeology and Language: Correlating Archaeological and Linguistic Hypotheses. "The Eurasian Spread Zone and the Indo-European Dispersal." Johanna Nichols. p. 224
^ Kulikowski 2007, p. 48.
^ Halsall (2008, p. 15)
^ Geary (2003, p. 77)
^ Wood 2006, p. 97.
^ Halsall 2006b, p. 236.
^ Wright, David Curtis (1997). "The Hsiung-Nu-Hun Equation Revisited". Eurasian Studies Yearbook. 69: 77–112.
^ a b c Halsall 2006a, p. 35.
^ Heather 2006, p. 247.
^ Henri J. M. Claessen, Jarich Gerlof Oosten (1996). Ideology and the Formation of Early States. BRILL. p. 222. ISBN 9789004104709.
^ Curta (2001, p. 120) "he archaeological evidence of late fourth- and fifth-century barbarian graves between the Rhine and Loire suggests that a process of small-scale cultural and demographic change took place on both sides of the Roman frontier. Can we envisage Roman-Slavic relations in a similar way?"
^ Halsall 2006a, p. 42.
^ Green 1998, p. 143.
^ Halsall 2006a, p. 49.
^ Halsall 2006a, p. 50.
^ Curta (2001, pp. 120–180)
^ Halsall 2006a, pp. 50–52.
^ Heather 2006, p. 251.
^ Barford (2001, p. 46)
^ Pohl1998, p. 20)
^ Geary (2003, p. 146)
^ Pohl (1998, pp. 17–23)
^ a b Kulikowski 2007, p. 61.
Bibliography
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Bell-Fialkoff, Andrew, ed. (2000). The Role of Migration in the History of the Eurasian Steppe: Sedentary Civilization vs. 'Barbarian' and Nomad (Role Migrant History Eurasian Step). Basingstoke: Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-349-61839-2.
Börm, Henning (2013), Westrom. Von Honorius bis Justinian, Kohlhammer Verlag, ISBN 978-3-17-023276-1
Curta, Florin (2001). The Making of the Slavs: History and Archaeology of the Lower Danube Region, c. 500–700. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-42888-0.
Curta, Florin (2006). Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500–1250. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81539-0.
Dumville, David (1990). Histories and pseudo-histories of the insular Middle Ages. Aldershot, Hampshire: Variorum.
Friedrich, Matthias and Harland, James M., eds. (2020): Interrogating the "Germanic": A Category and its Use in Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-069976-0.
Geary, Patrick (2003). Myth of Nations. The Medieval Origins of Europe. Princeton Paperbacks. ISBN 0-691-11481-1.
Geary, Patrick (2006). "The crisis of European identity". In Thomas F.X. Noble (ed.). From Roman Provinces to Medieval Kingdoms. New York and London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-32742-3.
Green, D. H. (1998). Language and history in the early Germanic world. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-79423-7.
Halsall, Guy (2006a). "The Barbarian invasions". In Paul Fouracre (ed.). The New Cambridge Medieval History, Vol. 1: c. 500 – c. 700. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-36291-1.
Halsall, Guy (2006b). "Movers and shakers: the barbarians and the fall of Rome". In Thomas F.X. Noble (ed.). From Roman Provinces to Medieval Kingdoms. New York and London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-32742-3.
Halsall, Guy (2008). Barbarian Migrations and the Roman West, 376–568. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-43491-1.
Heather, Peter J (1998). The Goths. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-20932-8.
Heather, Peter (2006). "Foedera and foederati of the fourth century". In Thomas F.X. Noble (ed.). From Roman Provinces to Medieval Kingdoms. New York and London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-32742-3.
Kleineberg, A.; Marx, Chr.; Knobloch, E.; Lelgemann, D.: Germania und die Insel Thule. Die Entschlüsselung von Ptolemaios' "Atlas der Oikumene". WBG 2010. ISBN 978-3-534-23757-9.
Kulikowski, Michael (2007). Rome's Gothic Wars: From the Third Century to Alaric. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84633-2.
Noble, Thomas F.X., ed. (2006). From Roman Provinces to Medieval Kingdoms. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-32742-3.
Pohl, Walter (1998). "Conceptions of Ethnicity in Early Medieval Studies". In Little, Lester K; Rosenwein, Barbara (eds.). Debating the Middle Ages: Issues and Readings. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 1-57718-008-9.
Todd, Malcolm (1996-02-12). The Early Germans. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-19904-7.
Wolfram, Herwig (2001). Die Goten. Von den Anfängen bis zur Mitte des sechsten Jahrhunderts. München: C. H. Beck.
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External links
Media related to Migration period at Wikimedia Commons
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|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"History of human migration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_human_migration"},{"link_name":"seasonal human migration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seasonal_human_migration"},{"link_name":"animal migration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_migration"},{"link_name":"The Barbarian Invasions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Barbarian_Invasions"},{"link_name":"European history","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Europe"},{"link_name":"fall of the Western Roman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"post-Roman kingdoms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbarian_kingdoms"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Franks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franks"},{"link_name":"Goths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goths"},{"link_name":"Alemanni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alemanni"},{"link_name":"Alans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alans"},{"link_name":"Huns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huns"},{"link_name":"early Slavs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Slavs"},{"link_name":"Pannonian Avars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pannonian_Avars"},{"link_name":"Bulgars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgars"},{"link_name":"Magyars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarians"},{"link_name":"Roman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"conquest of Italy by the Lombards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Lombards"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"foederati","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foederati"},{"link_name":"Balkans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkans"},{"link_name":"Rhine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhine"},{"link_name":"Gaul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaul"},{"link_name":"crossing of the Rhine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossing_of_the_Rhine"},{"link_name":"Vandals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vandals"},{"link_name":"Suebi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suebi"},{"link_name":"barbarian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbarian_kingdoms"},{"link_name":"Eastern Roman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire"},{"link_name":"fall of Constantinople","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople"},{"link_name":"Ottomans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Heather2003-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Germanic tribes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_peoples"},{"link_name":"Visigoths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visigoths"},{"link_name":"Ostrogoths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostrogoths"},{"link_name":"Anglo-Saxons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxons"},{"link_name":"Frisii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frisii"},{"link_name":"Jutes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jutes"},{"link_name":"Burgundians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burgundians"},{"link_name":"Sciri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciri"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Vikings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikings"},{"link_name":"Normans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normans"},{"link_name":"Varangians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varangians"},{"link_name":"Hungarians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarians"},{"link_name":"Arabs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabs"},{"link_name":"Turks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkic_peoples"},{"link_name":"Mongols","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongols"},{"link_name":"North Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Africa"},{"link_name":"Iberian Peninsula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula"},{"link_name":"Anatolia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatolia"},{"link_name":"Central","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Europe"},{"link_name":"Eastern Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Europe"}],"text":"This article is about the period of widespread migrations in Europe during the first millennium AD. For prehistoric migrations, see History of human migration. For seasonal periods of human migrations, see seasonal human migration. For seasonal periods of animal migrations, see animal migration.\"Barbarian invasion\" and \"Barbarian invasions\" redirect here. For the 2003 Canadian film, see The Barbarian Invasions.The Migration Period (circa 300 to 600 AD), also known as the Barbarian Invasions, was a period in European history marked by large-scale migrations that saw the fall of the Western Roman Empire and subsequent settlement of its former territories by various tribes, and the establishment of the post-Roman kingdoms.[2]The term refers to the important role played by the migration, invasion, and settlement of various tribes, notably the Franks, Goths, Alemanni, Alans, Huns, early Slavs, Pannonian Avars, Bulgars and Magyars within or into the territories of the Roman Empire and Europe as a whole. The period is traditionally taken to have begun in AD 375 (possibly as early as 300) and ended in 568.[3] Various factors contributed to this phenomenon of migration and invasion, and their role and significance are still widely discussed.Historians differ as to the dates for the beginning and ending of the Migration Period. The beginning of the period is widely regarded as the invasion of Europe by the Huns from Asia in about 375 and the ending with the conquest of Italy by the Lombards in 568,[4] but a more loosely set period is from as early as 300 to as late as 800.[5] For example, in the 4th century a very large group of Goths was settled as foederati within the Roman Balkans, and the Franks were settled south of the Rhine in Roman Gaul. In 406 a particularly large and unexpected crossing of the Rhine was made by a group of Vandals, Alans and Suebi. As central power broke down in the Western Roman Empire, the military became more important but was dominated by men of barbarian origin.There are contradictory opinions as to whether the fall of the Western Roman Empire was a result of an increase in migrations, or if both the breakdown of central power and the increased importance of non-Romans created additional internal factors. Migrations, and the use of non-Romans in the military, were known in the periods before and after, and the Eastern Roman Empire adapted and continued to exist until the fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, although it involved the establishment of competing barbarian kingdoms, was to some extent managed by the Eastern emperors.The migrants comprised war bands or tribes of 10,000 to 20,000 people.[6] Immigration was common throughout the time of the Roman Empire,[7] but over the course of 100 years, the migrants numbered not more than 750,000 in total,[citation needed] compared to an average 40 million population of the Roman Empire at that time. The first migrations of peoples were made by Germanic tribes such as the Goths (including the Visigoths and the Ostrogoths), the Vandals, the Anglo-Saxons, the Lombards, the Suebi, the Frisii, the Jutes, the Burgundians, the Alemanni, the Sciri and the Franks; they were later pushed westward by the Huns, the Avars, the Slavs and the Bulgars.[8] Later invasions, such as the Vikings, the Normans, the Varangians, the Hungarians, the Arabs, the Turks, and the Mongols also had significant effects (especially in North Africa, the Iberian Peninsula, Anatolia and Central and Eastern Europe).","title":"Migration Period"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pre-modern human migration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-modern_human_migration"}],"text":"Further information: Pre-modern human migration","title":"Chronology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Proto-Germanic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Germanic"},{"link_name":"Pre-Roman Iron Age (Northern Europe)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Roman_Iron_Age_(Northern_Europe)"},{"link_name":"Marcomannic Wars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcomannic_Wars"},{"link_name":"Germanic peoples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_peoples"},{"link_name":"Scandinavia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scandinavia"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Elbe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elbe"},{"link_name":"Oder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oder"},{"link_name":"Celts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celts"},{"link_name":"Rhine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhine"},{"link_name":"southern Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Germany"},{"link_name":"Gaul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaul"},{"link_name":"Cisalpine Gaul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaul"},{"link_name":"Gaius Marius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaius_Marius"},{"link_name":"Julius Caesar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Caesar"},{"link_name":"Tacitus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tacitus"},{"link_name":"Baltic Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_Sea"},{"link_name":"Vistula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vistula"},{"link_name":"Carpathian Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carpathian_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Tacitus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tacitus"},{"link_name":"Tencteri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tencteri"},{"link_name":"Cherusci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherusci"},{"link_name":"Hermunduri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermunduri"},{"link_name":"Chatti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chatti"},{"link_name":"Alemanni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alemanni"},{"link_name":"Franks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franks"},{"link_name":"Saxons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons"},{"link_name":"Frisians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frisians"},{"link_name":"Thuringians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thuringii"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"sub_title":"Germanic tribes prior to migration","text":"Further information: Proto-Germanic, Pre-Roman Iron Age (Northern Europe), and Marcomannic WarsGermanic peoples moved out of southern Scandinavia and northern Germany[9][10] to the adjacent lands between the Elbe and Oder after 1000 BC. The first wave moved westward and southward (pushing the resident Celts west to the Rhine around 200 BC), moving into southern Germany up to the Roman provinces of Gaul and Cisalpine Gaul by 100 BC, where they were stopped by Gaius Marius and later by Julius Caesar. It is this western group which was described by the Roman historian Tacitus (AD 56–117) and Julius Caesar (100–44 BC). A later wave of Germanic tribes migrated eastward and southward from Scandinavia, between 600 and 300 BC, to the opposite coast of the Baltic Sea, moving up the Vistula near the Carpathian Mountains. During Tacitus' era they included lesser-known tribes such as the Tencteri, Cherusci, Hermunduri and Chatti; however, a period of federation and intermarriage resulted in the familiar groups known as the Alemanni, Franks, Saxons, Frisians and Thuringians.[11]","title":"Chronology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Roman Iron Age (Northern Europe)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Iron_Age_(Northern_Europe)"},{"link_name":"Ostrogoths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostrogoths"},{"link_name":"Visigoths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visigoths"},{"link_name":"Burgundians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burgundians"},{"link_name":"Alans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alans"},{"link_name":"Lombards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lombards"},{"link_name":"Angles (tribe)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angles_(tribe)"},{"link_name":"Saxons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons"},{"link_name":"Jutes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jutes"},{"link_name":"Suebi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suebi"},{"link_name":"Alemanni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alemanni"},{"link_name":"Gepids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gepids"},{"link_name":"Vandals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vandals"},{"link_name":"Huns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huns"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bracteate_from_Funen,_Denmark_(DR_BR42).jpg"},{"link_name":"bracteate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bracteate"},{"link_name":"Suebian knot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suebian_knot"},{"link_name":"Western Roman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall2006a51-12"},{"link_name":"Tervingi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thervingi"},{"link_name":"Danube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danube"},{"link_name":"Huns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huns"},{"link_name":"Marcianopolis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcianopolis"},{"link_name":"Fritigern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fritigern"},{"link_name":"Lupicinus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lupicinus_(comes_per_Thracias)"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolfram2001127ff.-13"},{"link_name":"Gothic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goths"},{"link_name":"sacked Rome in 410","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(410)"},{"link_name":"Visigothic Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visigothic_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Herulian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heruli"},{"link_name":"Rugian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rugii"},{"link_name":"Scirian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciri"},{"link_name":"Odoacer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odoacer"},{"link_name":"Romulus Augustulus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romulus_Augustulus"},{"link_name":"Ostrogoths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostrogoths"},{"link_name":"Theodoric the Great","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodoric_the_Great"},{"link_name":"Gaul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaul"},{"link_name":"Germanic tribes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ancient_Germanic_peoples"},{"link_name":"Childeric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childeric_I"},{"link_name":"Clovis's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clovis_I"},{"link_name":"Syagrius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syagrius"},{"link_name":"Frankish kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francia"},{"link_name":"Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain"},{"link_name":"Roman control of Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Britain"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDumville1990-14"}],"sub_title":"First wave","text":"Further information: Roman Iron Age (Northern Europe)See also: Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Burgundians, Alans, Lombards, Angles (tribe), Saxons, Jutes, Suebi, Alemanni, Gepids, Vandals, and HunsA Migration Period Germanic gold bracteate depicting a bird, horse, and stylized human head with a Suebian knotThe first wave of invasions, between AD 300 and 500, is partly documented by Greek and Latin historians but is difficult to verify archaeologically. It puts Germanic peoples in control of most areas of what was then the Western Roman Empire.[12]The Tervingi crossed the Danube into Roman territory in 376, in a migration fleeing the invading Huns. Some time later in Marcianopolis, the escort to their leader Fritigern was killed while meeting with Roman commander Lupicinus.[13] The Tervingi rebelled, and the Visigoths, a group derived either from the Tervingi or from a fusion of mainly Gothic groups, eventually invaded Italy and sacked Rome in 410 before settling in Gaul. Around 460, they founded the Visigothic Kingdom in Iberia. They were followed into Roman territory first by a confederation of Herulian, Rugian, and Scirian warriors under Odoacer, that deposed Romulus Augustulus in 476, and later by the Ostrogoths, led by Theodoric the Great, who settled in Italy.In Gaul, the Franks (a fusion of western Germanic tribes whose leaders had been aligned with Rome since the 3rd century) entered Roman lands gradually during the 5th century, and after consolidating power under Childeric and his son Clovis's decisive victory over Syagrius in 486, established themselves as rulers of northern Roman Gaul. Fending off challenges from the Alemanni, Burgundians, and Visigoths, the Frankish kingdom became the nucleus of what would later become France and Germany.The initial Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain occurred during the 5th century, when Roman control of Britain had come to an end.[14] The Burgundians settled in northwestern Italy, Switzerland and Eastern France in the 5th century.","title":"Chronology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Early Slavs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Slavs"},{"link_name":"Slavic migrations to Southeastern Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavic_migrations_to_Southeastern_Europe"},{"link_name":"Pannonian Avars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pannonian_Avars"},{"link_name":"Magyars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magyars"},{"link_name":"Bulgars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgars"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_origin_and_dispersion_of_Slavs_in_the_5-10th_centuries.png"},{"link_name":"early Slavs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Slavs"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_Great_Bulgaria_and_migration_of_Bulgarians.png"},{"link_name":"Bulgars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgars"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pair_of_radiate-head_bow_brooches,_Slavic,_2_of_2,_c._600-650_AD,_copper_alloy,_gilding_-_Morgan_Library_%26_Museum_-_New_York_City_-_DSC06620.jpg"},{"link_name":"fibula brooch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibula_(brooch)"},{"link_name":"copper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kob530-15"},{"link_name":"Turkic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkic_peoples"},{"link_name":"Ugric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ugric_languages"},{"link_name":"Lombards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lombards"},{"link_name":"Gepid Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gepids"},{"link_name":"Sarmatian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarmatians"},{"link_name":"Saxon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DBI-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Bavarians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bavarian_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Central Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Asia"},{"link_name":"Pontic steppe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontic%E2%80%93Caspian_steppe"},{"link_name":"Caucasus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasus"},{"link_name":"Khazars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazars"},{"link_name":"Byzantine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire"},{"link_name":"lower Danube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire"},{"link_name":"Balkans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkans"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Byzantine–Arab Wars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Byzantine_wars"},{"link_name":"Arab armies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashidun_army"},{"link_name":"Asia Minor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatolia"},{"link_name":"siege of Constantinople (717–718)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(717%E2%80%93718)"},{"link_name":"Khazar–Arab Wars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Khazar_wars"},{"link_name":"Khazars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazars"},{"link_name":"Arab expansion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests"},{"link_name":"Arabs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabs"},{"link_name":"Berbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berbers"},{"link_name":"Gibraltar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibraltar"},{"link_name":"conquering Hispania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyad_conquest_of_Hispania"},{"link_name":"Battle of Tours","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tours"},{"link_name":"Christendom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christendom"},{"link_name":"Islam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_world"},{"link_name":"conquering most of Sicily","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_southern_Italy"},{"link_name":"Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_conquest_of_the_Carpathian_Basin"},{"link_name":"Hungarian invasions of Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_invasions_of_Europe"},{"link_name":"Viking expansion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking_expansion"},{"link_name":"gradually converted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianization#Christianization_of_Europe_(6th%E2%80%939th_centuries)"}],"sub_title":"Second wave","text":"See also: Early Slavs, Slavic migrations to Southeastern Europe, Pannonian Avars, Magyars, and BulgarsMigration of early Slavs in Europe in the 5th–10th centuriesMigration and settlement of the Bulgars during the 6th–7th centuries ADSlavic fibula brooch made of copper dating back to the Migration Period, c. 600–650 ADBetween AD 500 and 700, Slavic tribes settled more areas of central Europe and pushed farther into southern and eastern Europe, gradually making the eastern half of Europe predominantly Slavic.[15] Additionally, Turkic tribes such as the Avars and later Ugric Magyars became involved in this second wave. In AD 567, the Avars and the Lombards destroyed much of the Gepid Kingdom. The Lombards, a Germanic people, settled in Italy with their Herulian, Suebian, Gepid, Thuringian, Bulgar, Sarmatian and Saxon allies in the 6th century.[16][17] They were later followed by the Bavarians and the Franks, who conquered and ruled most of Italy.The Bulgars, originally a nomadic group probably from Central Asia, occupied the Pontic steppe north of Caucasus since the 2nd century, but later, pushed by the Khazars, the majority of them migrated west and dominated Byzantine territories along the lower Danube in the 7th century. From that time the demographic picture of the Balkans changed permanently, becoming predominantly Slavic, while pockets of native people survived in the mountains of the Balkans.[18][19]During the early Byzantine–Arab Wars, Arab armies attempted to invade southeast Europe via Asia Minor during the late 7th and early 8th centuries but were defeated at the siege of Constantinople (717–718) by the joint forces of Byzantium and the Bulgars. During the Khazar–Arab Wars, the Khazars stopped the Arab expansion into Europe across the Caucasus (7th and 8th centuries). At the same time, the Moors (consisting of Arabs and Berbers) invaded Europe via Gibraltar (conquering Hispania from the Visigothic Kingdom in 711), before being halted by the Franks at the Battle of Tours in Gaul. These battles broadly demarcated the frontiers between Christendom and Islam for the next millennium. The following centuries saw the Muslims successful in conquering most of Sicily from the Christians by 902.The Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin from around AD 895 and the following Hungarian invasions of Europe and the Viking expansion from the late 8th century conventionally mark the last large movements of the period. Christian missionaries gradually converted the non-Islamic newcomers and integrated them into the Christendom.","title":"Chronology"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Discussions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"identity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_identity"},{"link_name":"Herwig Wolfram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herwig_Wolfram"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Michael Schmidt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Michael_Ignaz_Schmidt&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"de","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Ignaz_Schmidt"},{"link_name":"gens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gens"},{"link_name":"early Middle Ages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages"},{"link_name":"nationhood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nation"},{"link_name":"French Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolution"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Johann Gottfried Herder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeary200629-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKulikowski200746-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Romantic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism"},{"link_name":"common tongue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca"},{"link_name":"conceptual framework","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conceptual_framework"},{"link_name":"political movements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_movement"},{"link_name":"Pan-Germanism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Germanism"},{"link_name":"Pan-Slavism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Slavism"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKulikowski200746-23"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Halsall_2008_17-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeary200629-22"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"prima facie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prima_facie"},{"link_name":"Graeco-Roman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greco-Roman_world"},{"link_name":"economic interests","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_interest"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Halsall_2008_24-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKulikowski200748-31"},{"link_name":"ethnogenesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnogenesis"},{"link_name":"Soviet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"Yulian Bromley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yulian_Bromley"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Austrian school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_School_of_History"},{"link_name":"Reinhard Wenskus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinhard_Wenskus"},{"link_name":"Walter Pohl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Pohl"},{"link_name":"Patrick J. Geary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_J._Geary"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Halsall_2008_17-25"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-harvtxt|Geary|2003|p_=_77-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood200697-34"}],"sub_title":"Barbarian identity","text":"Analysis of barbarian identity and how it was created and expressed during the Barbarian Invasions has elicited discussion among scholars. Herwig Wolfram, a historian of the Goths,[20] in discussing the equation of migratio gentium with Völkerwanderung, observes that Michael Schmidt [de] introduced the equation in his 1778 history of the Germans. Wolfram observed that the significance of gens as a biological community was shifting, even during the early Middle Ages and that \"to complicate matters, we have no way of devising a terminology that is not derived from the concept of nationhood created during the French Revolution\".The \"primordialistic\"[21] paradigm prevailed during the 19th century. Scholars, such as German linguist Johann Gottfried Herder, viewed tribes as coherent biological (racial) entities, using the term to refer to discrete ethnic groups.[22] He also believed that the Volk were an organic whole, with a core identity and spirit evident in art, literature and language. These characteristics were seen as intrinsic, unaffected by external influences, even conquest.[23] Language, in particular, was seen as the most important expression of ethnicity. They argued that groups sharing the same (or similar) language possessed a common identity and ancestry.[24] This was the Romantic ideal that there once had been a single German, Celtic or Slavic people who originated from a common homeland and spoke a common tongue, helping to provide a conceptual framework for political movements of the 18th and 19th centuries such as Pan-Germanism and Pan-Slavism.[23]From the 1960s, a reinterpretation of archaeological and historical evidence prompted scholars, such as Goffart and Todd, to propose new models for explaining the construction of barbarian identity. They maintained that no sense of shared identity was perceived by the Germani;[25][26][22] a similar theory having been proposed for Celtic and Slavic groups.[27]A theory states that the primordialist mode of thinking was encouraged by a prima facie interpretation of Graeco-Roman sources, which grouped together many tribes under such labels as Germanoi, Keltoi or Sclavenoi, thus encouraging their perception as distinct peoples. Modernists argue that the uniqueness perceived by specific groups was based on common political and economic interests rather than biological or racial distinctions. Indeed, on this basis, some schools of thought in recent scholarship urge that the concept of Germanic peoples be jettisoned altogether.[28][29]The role of language in constructing and maintaining group identity can be ephemeral since large-scale language shifts occur commonly in history.[30] Modernists propose the idea of \"imagined communities\"; the barbarian polities in late antiquity were social constructs rather than unchanging lines of blood kinship.[31] The process of forming tribal units was called \"ethnogenesis\", a term coined by Soviet scholar Yulian Bromley.[32] The Austrian school (led by Reinhard Wenskus) popularized this idea, which influenced medievalists such as Herwig Wolfram, Walter Pohl and Patrick J. Geary.[25] It argues that the stimulus for forming tribal polities was perpetuated by a small nucleus of people, known as the Traditionskern (\"kernel of tradition\"), who were a military or aristocratic elite. This core group formed a standard for larger units, gathering adherents by employing amalgamative metaphors such as kinship and aboriginal commonality and claiming that they perpetuated an ancient, divinely-sanctioned lineage.[33]The common, track-filled map of the Völkerwanderung may illustrate such [a] course of events, but it misleads. Unfolded over long periods of time, the changes of position that took place were necessarily irregular ... (with) periods of emphatic discontinuity. For decades and possibly centuries, the tradition bearers idled, and the tradition itself hibernated. There was ample time for forgetfulness to do its work.[34]","title":"Discussions"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:East-Hem_100ad.jpg"},{"link_name":"Xiongnu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiongnu"},{"link_name":"Huns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huns"},{"link_name":"German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language"},{"link_name":"Czech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_language"},{"link_name":"Swedish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_language"},{"link_name":"Hungarian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_language"},{"link_name":"Indo-Germanic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_languages"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall2006b236-35"},{"link_name":"French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language"},{"link_name":"Italian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_language"},{"link_name":"population pressure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_pressure"},{"link_name":"Great Wall of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Wall_of_China"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall2006a35-37"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall2006a35-37"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Barbarian_invasions_from_3rd_century.png"},{"link_name":"Barbarian invasions against the Roman Empire in the 3rd century","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbarian_invasions_of_the_3rd_century"},{"link_name":"Guy Halsall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guy_Halsall"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall2006a35-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather2006247-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Crisis of the Third Century","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall2006a42-41"},{"link_name":"Barbaricum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbaricum"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen1998143-42"},{"link_name":"economic power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_power"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall2006a49-43"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Europe_and_the_Near_East_at_476_AD.png"},{"link_name":"Barbarian kingdoms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbarian_kingdoms"},{"link_name":"Western Roman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Aquitaine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquitaine"},{"link_name":"Ostrogoths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostrogoths"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall2006a51-12"},{"link_name":"Gaul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaul"},{"link_name":"Alemanni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alamanni"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall2006a50-44"},{"link_name":"Vandals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vandals"},{"link_name":"Saxons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons"},{"link_name":"Brittonic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_Britons"},{"link_name":"Eastern Roman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"limes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limes_(Roman_Empire)"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall2006a50%E2%80%9352-46"},{"link_name":"Western Roman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather2006251-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"Saxons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"}],"sub_title":"Viewpoints","text":"Völkerwanderung is a German word, borrowed from German historiography, that refers to the early migrations of the Germanic peoples. In a broader sense it can mean the mass migration of whole tribes or ethnic groups.— Bell-Fialkoff, Andrew. The Role of Migration, p. 15Location of Xiongnu and other steppe nations in 100 AD. Some historians believe that the Huns originated from the Xiongnu.Rather than \"invasion\", German and Slavic scholars speak of \"migration\" (see German: Völkerwanderung, Czech: Stěhování národů, Swedish: folkvandring and Hungarian: népvándorlás), aspiring to the idea of a dynamic and \"wandering Indo-Germanic people\".[35]In contrast, the standard terms in French and Italian historiography translate to \"barbarian invasions\", or even \"barbaric invasions\" (French: Invasions barbares, Italian: Invasioni barbariche)Historians have postulated several explanations for the appearance of \"barbarians\" on the Roman frontier: climate change, weather and crops, population pressure, a \"primeval urge\" to push into the Mediterranean, the construction of the Great Wall of China causing a \"domino effect\" of tribes being forced westward, leading to the Huns falling upon the Goths who, in turn, pushed other Germanic tribes before them.[36] In general, French and Italian scholars have tended to view this as a catastrophic event, the destruction of a civilization and the beginning of a \"Dark Age\" that set Europe back a millennium.[37] In contrast, German and English historians have tended to see Roman–Barbarian interaction as the replacement of a \"tired, effete and decadent Mediterranean civilization\" with a \"more virile, martial, Nordic one\".[37]Barbarian invasions against the Roman Empire in the 3rd centuryThe scholar Guy Halsall has seen the barbarian movement as the result of the fall of the Roman Empire, not its cause.[37] Archaeological discoveries have confirmed that Germanic and Slavic tribes were settled agriculturalists who were probably merely \"drawn into the politics of an empire already falling apart for quite a few other causes\".[38] Goffart argues that the process of settlement was connected to hospitalitas, the Roman practice of quartering soldiers among the civilian population. The Romans, by granting land and the right to levy taxes to allied (Germanic) armies, hoped to reduce the financial burdens of the empire.[39] The Crisis of the Third Century caused significant changes within the Roman Empire in both its western and its eastern portions.[40] In particular, economic fragmentation removed many of the political, cultural and economic forces that had held the empire together.[41]The rural population in Roman provinces became distanced from the metropolis, and there was little to differentiate them from other peasants across the Roman frontier. In addition, Rome increasingly used foreign mercenaries to defend itself. That \"barbarisation\" parallelled changes within Barbaricum. To this end, noted linguist Dennis Howard Green wrote, \"the first centuries of our era witness not merely a progressive Romanisation of barbarian society, but also an undeniable barbarisation of the Roman world.\"[42]For example, the Roman Empire played a vital role in building up barbarian groups along its frontier. Propped up with imperial support and gifts, the armies of allied barbarian chieftains served as buffers against other, hostile, barbarian groups. The disintegration of Roman economic power weakened groups that had come to depend on Roman gifts for the maintenance of their own power. The arrival of the Huns helped prompt many groups to invade the provinces for economic reasons.[43]Barbarian kingdoms and peoples after the end of the Western Roman Empire in 476 ADThe nature of the barbarian takeover of former Roman provinces varied from region to region. For example, in Aquitaine, the provincial administration was largely self-reliant. Halsall has argued that local rulers simply \"handed over\" military rule to the Ostrogoths, acquiring the identity of the newcomers.[12] In Gaul, the collapse of imperial rule resulted in anarchy: the Franks and Alemanni were pulled into the ensuing \"power vacuum\",[44] resulting in conflict. In Spain, local aristocrats maintained independent rule for some time, raising their own armies against the Vandals. Meanwhile, the Roman withdrawal from lowland England resulted in conflict between Saxons and the Brittonic chieftains (whose centres of power retreated westward as a result). The Eastern Roman Empire attempted to maintain control of the Balkan provinces despite a thinly-spread imperial army relying mainly on local militias and an extensive effort to refortify the Danubian limes. The ambitious fortification efforts collapsed, worsening the impoverished conditions of the local populace and resulting in colonization by Slavic warriors and their families.[45]Halsall and Noble have argued that such changes stemmed from the breakdown in Roman political control, which exposed the weakness of local Roman rule. Instead of large-scale migrations, there were military takeovers by small groups of warriors and their families, who usually numbered only in the tens of thousands. The process involved active, conscious decision-making by Roman provincial populations.The collapse of centralized control severely weakened the sense of Roman identity in the provinces, which may explain why the provinces then underwent dramatic cultural changes even though few barbarians settled in them.[46] Ultimately, the Germanic groups in the Western Roman Empire were accommodated without \"dispossessing or overturning indigenous society\", and they maintained a structured and hierarchical (but attenuated) form of Roman administration.[47]Ironically, they lost their unique identity as a result of such an accommodation and were absorbed into Latinhood. In contrast, in the east, Slavic tribes maintained a more \"spartan and egalitarian\"[48] existence bound to the land \"even in times when they took their part in plundering Roman provinces\".[49] Their organizational models were not Roman, and their leaders were not normally dependent on Roman gold for success. Thus they arguably had a greater effect on their region than the Goths, the Franks or the Saxons had on theirs.[50]","title":"Discussions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ethnicity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnicity"},{"link_name":"Urheimat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urheimat"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKulikowski200761-52"},{"link_name":"constructionism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_constructionism"},{"link_name":"culture-historical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture-historical_archaeology"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKulikowski200761-52"}],"sub_title":"Ethnicity","text":"Based on the belief that particular types of artifacts, elements of personal adornment generally found in a funerary context, are thought to indicate the ethnicity of the person buried, the \"Culture-History\" school of archaeology assumed that archaeological cultures represent the Urheimat (homeland) of tribal polities named in historical sources.[51] As a consequence, the shifting extensions of material cultures were interpreted as the expansion of peoples.[52]Influenced by constructionism, process-driven archaeologists rejected the culture-historical doctrine[52] and marginalized the discussion of ethnicity altogether and focused on the intragroup dynamics that generated such material remains. Moreover, they argued that adoption of new cultures could occur through trade or internal political developments rather than only military takeovers.","title":"Discussions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Terry Jones' Barbarians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terry_Jones%27_Barbarians"},{"link_name":"Rome: Total War: Barbarian Invasion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome:_Total_War:_Barbarian_Invasion"},{"link_name":"Total War: Attila","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_War:_Attila"},{"link_name":"The Creative Assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Creative_Assembly"},{"link_name":"Barbarians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbarians_(miniseries)"},{"link_name":"The History Channel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_(U.S._TV_channel)"}],"text":"Terry Jones' Barbarians, a 4-part TV documentary series first broadcast on BBC 2 in 2006\nRome: Total War: Barbarian Invasion and Total War: Attila, strategy video games by The Creative Assembly\nBarbarians, 2004 documentary miniseries on The History Channel","title":"Depiction in media"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-8014-3977-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8014-3977-9"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-349-61839-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-61839-2"},{"link_name":"Kohlhammer Verlag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kohlhammer_Verlag"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-17-023276-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-17-023276-1"},{"link_name":"Curta, Florin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florin_Curta"},{"link_name":"The Making of the Slavs: History and Archaeology of the Lower Danube Region, c. 500–700","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=rcFGhCVs0sYC"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-139-42888-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-42888-0"},{"link_name":"Curta, Florin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florin_Curta"},{"link_name":"Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500–1250","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/southeasterneuro0000curt"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-521-81539-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81539-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-11-069976-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-069976-0"},{"link_name":"Myth of Nations. The Medieval Origins of Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/mythofnationsmed0000gear"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-691-11481-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-11481-1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-415-32742-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-32742-3"},{"link_name":"Green, D. 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The Early Slavs: Culture and Society in Early Medieval Eastern Europe. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-3977-9.\nBell-Fialkoff, Andrew, ed. (2000). The Role of Migration in the History of the Eurasian Steppe: Sedentary Civilization vs. 'Barbarian' and Nomad (Role Migrant History Eurasian Step). Basingstoke: Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-349-61839-2.\nBörm, Henning (2013), Westrom. Von Honorius bis Justinian, Kohlhammer Verlag, ISBN 978-3-17-023276-1\nCurta, Florin (2001). The Making of the Slavs: History and Archaeology of the Lower Danube Region, c. 500–700. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-42888-0.\nCurta, Florin (2006). Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500–1250. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81539-0.\nDumville, David (1990). Histories and pseudo-histories of the insular Middle Ages. Aldershot, Hampshire: Variorum.\nFriedrich, Matthias and Harland, James M., eds. (2020): Interrogating the \"Germanic\": A Category and its Use in Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-069976-0.\nGeary, Patrick (2003). Myth of Nations. The Medieval Origins of Europe. Princeton Paperbacks. ISBN 0-691-11481-1.\nGeary, Patrick (2006). \"The crisis of European identity\". In Thomas F.X. Noble (ed.). From Roman Provinces to Medieval Kingdoms. New York and London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-32742-3.\nGreen, D. H. (1998). Language and history in the early Germanic world. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-79423-7.\nHalsall, Guy (2006a). \"The Barbarian invasions\". In Paul Fouracre (ed.). The New Cambridge Medieval History, Vol. 1: c. 500 – c. 700. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-36291-1.\nHalsall, Guy (2006b). \"Movers and shakers: the barbarians and the fall of Rome\". In Thomas F.X. Noble (ed.). From Roman Provinces to Medieval Kingdoms. New York and London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-32742-3.\nHalsall, Guy (2008). Barbarian Migrations and the Roman West, 376–568. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-43491-1.\nHeather, Peter J (1998). The Goths. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-20932-8.\nHeather, Peter (2006). \"Foedera and foederati of the fourth century\". In Thomas F.X. Noble (ed.). From Roman Provinces to Medieval Kingdoms. New York and London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-32742-3.\nKleineberg, A.; Marx, Chr.; Knobloch, E.; Lelgemann, D.: Germania und die Insel Thule. Die Entschlüsselung von Ptolemaios' \"Atlas der Oikumene\". WBG 2010. ISBN 978-3-534-23757-9.\nKulikowski, Michael (2007). Rome's Gothic Wars: From the Third Century to Alaric. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84633-2.\nNoble, Thomas F.X., ed. (2006). From Roman Provinces to Medieval Kingdoms. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-32742-3.\nPohl, Walter (1998). \"Conceptions of Ethnicity in Early Medieval Studies\". In Little, Lester K; Rosenwein, Barbara (eds.). Debating the Middle Ages: Issues and Readings. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 1-57718-008-9.\nTodd, Malcolm (1996-02-12). The Early Germans. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-19904-7.\nWolfram, Herwig (2001). Die Goten. Von den Anfängen bis zur Mitte des sechsten Jahrhunderts. München: C. H. Beck.\nWood, Ian (2006). \"Defining the Franks: Frankish origins in early medieval historiography\". In Thomas F.X. Noble (ed.). From Roman Provinces to Medieval Kingdoms. New York and London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-32742-3.","title":"Bibliography"}]
|
[{"image_text":"A Migration Period Germanic gold bracteate depicting a bird, horse, and stylized human head with a Suebian knot","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Bracteate_from_Funen%2C_Denmark_%28DR_BR42%29.jpg/170px-Bracteate_from_Funen%2C_Denmark_%28DR_BR42%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Migration of early Slavs in Europe in the 5th–10th centuries","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/The_origin_and_dispersion_of_Slavs_in_the_5-10th_centuries.png/220px-The_origin_and_dispersion_of_Slavs_in_the_5-10th_centuries.png"},{"image_text":"Migration and settlement of the Bulgars during the 6th–7th centuries AD","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Old_Great_Bulgaria_and_migration_of_Bulgarians.png/220px-Old_Great_Bulgaria_and_migration_of_Bulgarians.png"},{"image_text":"Slavic fibula brooch made of copper dating back to the Migration Period, c. 600–650 AD","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Pair_of_radiate-head_bow_brooches%2C_Slavic%2C_2_of_2%2C_c._600-650_AD%2C_copper_alloy%2C_gilding_-_Morgan_Library_%26_Museum_-_New_York_City_-_DSC06620.jpg/170px-Pair_of_radiate-head_bow_brooches%2C_Slavic%2C_2_of_2%2C_c._600-650_AD%2C_copper_alloy%2C_gilding_-_Morgan_Library_%26_Museum_-_New_York_City_-_DSC06620.jpg"},{"image_text":"Location of Xiongnu and other steppe nations in 100 AD. Some historians believe that the Huns originated from the Xiongnu.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/East-Hem_100ad.jpg/270px-East-Hem_100ad.jpg"},{"image_text":"Barbarian invasions against the Roman Empire in the 3rd century","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Barbarian_invasions_from_3rd_century.png/270px-Barbarian_invasions_from_3rd_century.png"},{"image_text":"Barbarian kingdoms and peoples after the end of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Europe_and_the_Near_East_at_476_AD.png/270px-Europe_and_the_Near_East_at_476_AD.png"}]
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[{"title":"Bond event","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bond_event"},{"title":"Dark Ages (historiography)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)"},{"title":"Environmental migrant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_migrant"},{"title":"Genetic history of the British Isles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_history_of_the_British_Isles"},{"title":"Late Antiquity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_antiquity"},{"title":"Medieval demography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_demography"},{"title":"Migration Period art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migration_Period_art"},{"title":"Five Barbarians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Barbarians"},{"title":"Sixteen Kingdoms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sixteen_Kingdoms"},{"title":"Hephthalite Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hephthalite_Empire"},{"title":"Immigration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immigration"},{"title":"Turkic migration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkic_migration"},{"title":"Middle Ages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages"},{"title":"Barbarian invasions of the 3rd century","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbarian_invasions_of_the_3rd_century"},{"title":"Germanic peoples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_peoples"}]
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[{"reference":"\"History of Europe - Barbarian Migrations, Invasions | Britannica\". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2023-08-12.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe/Barbarian-migrations-and-invasions","url_text":"\"History of Europe - Barbarian Migrations, Invasions | Britannica\""}]},{"reference":"Peter Heather (2003). The Visigoths from the Migration Period to the Seventh Century: An Ethnographic Perspective. Boydell & Brewer Ltd. p. 54. ISBN 978-1-84383-033-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=4MADmH2eaGIC&pg=PA54","url_text":"The Visigoths from the Migration Period to the Seventh Century: An Ethnographic Perspective"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84383-033-7","url_text":"978-1-84383-033-7"}]},{"reference":"\"Anatolien war nicht Ur-Heimat der indogermanischen Stämme\". Eurasischesmagazin.de. Retrieved 2016-02-03.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.eurasischesmagazin.de/artikel/Anatolien-war-nicht-Ur-Heimat-der-indogermanischen-Staemme/20040313","url_text":"\"Anatolien war nicht Ur-Heimat der indogermanischen Stämme\""}]},{"reference":"Henri J. M. Claessen, Jarich Gerlof Oosten (1996). Ideology and the Formation of Early States. BRILL. p. 222. ISBN 9789004104709.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004104709","url_text":"9789004104709"}]},{"reference":"Barford, Paul M (2001). The Early Slavs: Culture and Society in Early Medieval Eastern Europe. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-3977-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8014-3977-9","url_text":"0-8014-3977-9"}]},{"reference":"Bell-Fialkoff, Andrew, ed. (2000). The Role of Migration in the History of the Eurasian Steppe: Sedentary Civilization vs. 'Barbarian' and Nomad (Role Migrant History Eurasian Step). Basingstoke: Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-349-61839-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-61839-2","url_text":"978-1-349-61839-2"}]},{"reference":"Curta, Florin (2001). The Making of the Slavs: History and Archaeology of the Lower Danube Region, c. 500–700. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-42888-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florin_Curta","url_text":"Curta, Florin"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=rcFGhCVs0sYC","url_text":"The Making of the Slavs: History and Archaeology of the Lower Danube Region, c. 500–700"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-42888-0","url_text":"978-1-139-42888-0"}]},{"reference":"Curta, Florin (2006). Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500–1250. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81539-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florin_Curta","url_text":"Curta, Florin"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/southeasterneuro0000curt","url_text":"Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500–1250"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81539-0","url_text":"978-0-521-81539-0"}]},{"reference":"Dumville, David (1990). Histories and pseudo-histories of the insular Middle Ages. Aldershot, Hampshire: Variorum.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Geary, Patrick (2003). Myth of Nations. The Medieval Origins of Europe. Princeton Paperbacks. ISBN 0-691-11481-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/mythofnationsmed0000gear","url_text":"Myth of Nations. The Medieval Origins of Europe"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-11481-1","url_text":"0-691-11481-1"}]},{"reference":"Geary, Patrick (2006). \"The crisis of European identity\". In Thomas F.X. Noble (ed.). From Roman Provinces to Medieval Kingdoms. New York and London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-32742-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-32742-3","url_text":"0-415-32742-3"}]},{"reference":"Green, D. H. (1998). Language and history in the early Germanic world. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-79423-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dennis_Howard_Green","url_text":"Green, D. H."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_and_history_in_the_early_Germanic_world","url_text":"Language and history in the early Germanic world"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-79423-7","url_text":"978-0-521-79423-7"}]},{"reference":"Halsall, Guy (2006a). \"The Barbarian invasions\". In Paul Fouracre (ed.). The New Cambridge Medieval History, Vol. 1: c. 500 – c. 700. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-36291-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-36291-1","url_text":"0-521-36291-1"}]},{"reference":"Halsall, Guy (2006b). \"Movers and shakers: the barbarians and the fall of Rome\". In Thomas F.X. Noble (ed.). From Roman Provinces to Medieval Kingdoms. New York and London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-32742-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-32742-3","url_text":"0-415-32742-3"}]},{"reference":"Halsall, Guy (2008). Barbarian Migrations and the Roman West, 376–568. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-43491-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-43491-1","url_text":"978-0-521-43491-1"}]},{"reference":"Heather, Peter J (1998). The Goths. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-20932-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-20932-8","url_text":"0-631-20932-8"}]},{"reference":"Heather, Peter (2006). \"Foedera and foederati of the fourth century\". In Thomas F.X. Noble (ed.). From Roman Provinces to Medieval Kingdoms. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_irredentism
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Chinese irredentism
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["1 Background","2 Modern era","2.1 Bhutan","2.2 East China Sea","2.3 India","2.4 South China Sea","2.5 Taiwan","2.6 Tibet","3 See also","4 Notes","5 References","6 External links"]
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Irredentist claims to territories of the former Chinese Empire
Evolution of Chinese territories throughout Chinese history.
Chinese irredentism involves irredentist claims to the territories of former Chinese dynasties made by the Republic of China (ROC) and subsequently the People's Republic of China (PRC).
Background
Under various dynasties or empires in the past, China acquired and lost territories that overlap with Burma, India, Korea, Mongolia, Russia, and Vietnam today. Some were tributary states.
Modern era
During the 20th century, the Republic of China claimed that numerous neighboring countries and regions used to be parts of China. According to Sun Yat-sen, the reasons for their loss were unequal treaties, forceful occupation and annexation, and foreign interference. Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Zedong were supportive of these claims.
In 1925, the Kuomintang issued a map that showed large areas outside China as belonging to China, including: large portions of Soviet central Asia, a portion of Ladakh, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, Assam, Indochina, the Sulu Archipelago, Taiwan, the Ryukyus, the Philippines, Korea, and Sakhalin. A similar map was produced in 1954 by the Chinese Communist Party.
With the rise of Xi Jinping and increasing territorial conflicts, it is generally believed that China continues to adhere to irredentist claims. A 2023 map by PRC's Ministry of Natural Resources showed a ten-dash line in the South China Sea and depicted territories in dispute with India and Russia as Chinese. Although these claims were not new, a host of countries voiced their objections.
Name
Chinese characters
Pinyin
year of the cession
Note
Nepal
尼泊尔
Níbó'ěr
1816
Lost to the British Empire
Outer Manchuria (Left bank of the Amur River and East of the Ussuri River)
外东北
Wài dōngběi
1858
1860
Lost to the Russian Empire
Sakhalin
库页岛
萨哈林岛
Kù yè dǎo
Sà hā lín dǎo
1860
Lost to the Russian Empire and Empire of Japan
Ryukyu Islands
琉球群岛
Liúqiú qúndǎo
1879
Lost to the Empire of Japan
Annam
安南
Ānnán
1885
Lost to French Empire
Burma
缅甸
Miǎndiàn
1886
Lost to the British Empire
Sikkim
哲孟雄 / 锡金
Zhé mèng xióng / Xíjīn
1889
Lost to the British Empire
Taiwan and Penghu
台湾 (Taiwan)/
澎湖县 (Penghu)
Táiwān (Taiwan)/
Pēnghú xiàn (Penghu)
1895
Lost to the Empire of Japan
South Tibet (part of modern-day Arunachal Pradesh)
藏南 (South Tibet)/阿鲁纳恰尔邦 (Arunachal Pradesh)
Zàng nán (South Tibet)/Ā lǔ nà qià ěr bāng (Arunachal Pradesh)
1914
Lost to the British Empire
Joseon
朝鲜
Cháoxiǎn
1895
Lost to the Empire of Japan
Pamir Mountains/Ladakh area
帕米尔
Pàmǐ'ěr
1895
Lost to the Russian Empire and the British Empire
Sulu Archipelago
苏禄群岛
Sū lù qúndǎo
—
Lost to the Spanish Empire and French Empire
Java
爪哇岛
Zhǎowā dǎo
—
Lost to the Dutch Empire and French Empire
Bhutan
Further information: 2017 China–India border standoff
On June 29, 2017, Bhutan protested to China against the construction of a road in the disputed territory of Doklam. On the same day, the Bhutanese border was put on high alert and border security was tightened as a result of the growing tensions. In 2020, China claimed that the Sakteng Wildlife Sanctuary was also part of the territory in dispute.
East China Sea
Further information: East China Sea EEZ disputesThe PRC has frequently deployed ships since the 2010s to contest Japanese claim over the Senkaku Islands.
India
Main article: Sino-Indian border dispute
Map of Arunachal Pradesh, part of which is claimed by China as South Tibet.
China maintains territorial disputes with India with regard to Aksai Chin and the McMahon Line. The Chinese government claims the Aksai Chin as part of Xinjiang and Tibet, while the government of India claims the territory as part of Ladakh. The 1914 Simla Convention, which the Chinese government does not recognize, negotiated the McMahon Line between India and Tibet. Tensions between India and China have erupted several times, with the largest being the Sino-Indian War of 1962 in which China was victorious and gained control over Aksai Chin, and the 1967 conflict in which India won. The 2020 border clashes, which caused casualties for both sides, further strained Sino–Indian relations.
China has reinforced its claim by publishing maps depicting South Tibet as Chinese territory. China also pushed forward to reinforce its claim over Sikkim and Ladakh, and consolidating border control in Aksai Chin.
South China Sea
Further information: Territorial disputes in the South China Sea and Nine-dash line
The Nine-dash line represents China's irredentist claims in the South China Sea.
Territorial claims of the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China (ROC) in the South China Sea overlap with the claims of Vietnam, the Philippines, Brunei and Malaysia. In 2020, the PRC announced the establishment of Sansha City, which included the entirety of the Paracel Islands and Spratly Islands.
Taiwan
Main article: Chinese unification
See also: One-China policy and 1992 Consensus
The Republic of China (ROC) was established in mainland China in 1912 following the conclusion of the 1911 Revolution which led to the collapse of the Qing dynasty. The Chinese Civil War that broke out in 1927 was fought between the Kuomintang-led Nationalist government and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).
Since the end of the Chinese Civil War in 1949, the de facto territories of the ROC are limited to the Taiwan Area which includes the island of Taiwan (ceded to the Empire of Japan in 1895 by the Qing dynasty of China; handover to the Republic of China in 1945) and several other islands. Meanwhile, the People's Republic of China (PRC), established in 1949 by the CCP, controls mainland China, Hong Kong and Macau. Officially, both the ROC and the PRC claim de jure sovereignty over all of China (including Taiwan), and regard the other government as being in rebellion.
Until 1971, the ROC was the representative of China at the United Nations (UN) and was a permanent member of the UN Security Council with veto power. In 1971, the PRC replaced the ROC as the representative of China at the UN.
Skepticism from Taiwanese toward the PRC has intensified as a result of growing Chinese nationalist threat to attack the island if an independent Taiwanese state was to be created. Since the election of the independence-leaning Tsai Ing-wen, the PRC has conducted numerous military drills preparing for possible armed conflict with the ROC.
Tibet
Main article: Annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China
Tibet came under the control of the Qing dynasty of China in 1720 and remained under Qing suzerainty (or protectorate) until 1912. The succeeding Republic of China claimed inheritance of all territories held by the Qing dynasty, including Tibet. After the Xinhai Revolution in 1911, most of the area comprising the present-day Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR) became a de facto independent polity except for border regions such as Amdo and Eastern Kham.
After defeating the Kuomintang in the Chinese Civil War, the People's Republic of China (PRC) gained control of Tibet through a series of events that involved negotiations with the Government of Tibet, a military conflict in the Chamdo area of western Kham in October 1950, and the Seventeen Point Agreement, which was ratified by the 14th Dalai Lama in October 1951 but later repudiated.
See also
China portal
Chinese imperialism
Territorial disputes of the People's Republic of China
Notes
^ The Republic of China is based on the Chinese mainland before 1949, and on the island of Taiwan since 1949.
^ Brunei, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, the Philippines, Taiwan, the United States, and Vietnam
References
^ a b c d e f Tseng, Hui-Yi (2017). Revolution, State Succession, International Treaties and the Diaoyu/Diaoyutai Islands. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 66. ISBN 9781443893688.
^ a b c d e f g h i j Kim, Samuel S. (1979). China, the United Nations, and World Order. Princeton University Press. p. 43. ISBN 9780691100760.
^ Tzou, Byron N. (1990). China and International Law: The Boundary Disputes. Praeger. p. 77. ISBN 9780275934620.
^ Cleland, John R. D. (1967). "Chinese Rimland Strategy". Military Review. XLVII (1): 4. Archived from the original on 2023-07-15. Retrieved 2023-07-15.
^ "Irredentism and Chinese Foreign Policy with regard to East and South China Sea". www.ipsa.org. Archived from the original on 24 March 2021. Retrieved 6 September 2020.
^ "Assertive China: Irredentism or Expansionism?". IISS.
^ Lavery, Charles (2023-08-30). "China's new map claims swathes of neighboring territory". Newsweek. Archived from the original on 2023-09-05. Retrieved 2023-09-05.
^ Bal Krishna Sah (2023-09-01). "China 2023 map leaves out new map of Nepal". The Himalayan Times. Archived from the original on 2023-09-05. Retrieved 2023-09-05.
^ "Bhutan protests against China's road construction". The Straits Times. Jun 30, 2017. Archived from the original on 2017-07-29. Retrieved 2017-06-30.
^ "Bhutan issues scathing statement against China, claims Beijing violated border agreements of 1988, 1998". Firstpost. Jun 30, 2017. Archived from the original on 2017-07-02. Retrieved 2017-06-30.
^ "No Sanctuary: China's New Territorial Dispute with Bhutan". Foreign Policy Research Institute. July 29, 2020. Archived from the original on December 2, 2022. Retrieved August 23, 2020.
^ "Japan's Effective Control of the Senkaku Islands | Research". Review of Island Studies. Archived from the original on 2021-09-28. Retrieved 2020-08-23.
^ "Japan reports a record number of Chinese ships near contested Senkaku Islands". Stars and Stripes. Archived from the original on 2020-09-16. Retrieved 2020-08-23.
^ Brad Lendon and Yoko Wakatsuki (6 July 2020). "Japan says Chinese ships spend record time violating its territorial waters". CNN. Archived from the original on 1 September 2020. Retrieved 27 August 2020.
^ guruswamy, mohan. "China and Arunachal Pradesh: Time to Understand the History". The Citizen. Archived from the original on 2020-08-18. Retrieved 2020-08-23.
^ "Sino Indian war of 1962 - Manifest IAS". 2 June 2020. Archived from the original on 24 September 2020. Retrieved 23 August 2020.
^ "Remembering the war we forgot: 51 years ago, how India gave China a bloody nose". October 1, 2018. Archived from the original on August 18, 2020. Retrieved September 6, 2020.
^ Lee, Marcelo Duhalde, Dennis Wong, Kaliz. "Why did an India-China border clash turn into a deadly scuffle?". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 2020-07-03. Retrieved 2020-08-27.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ "China includes parts of Arunachal Pradesh in its newly updated map". April 21, 2020. Archived from the original on October 6, 2020. Retrieved August 23, 2020.
^ "Indian and Chinese troops clash in disputed Himalayan border region". the Guardian. Agence France-Presse. August 16, 2017. Archived from the original on August 21, 2020. Retrieved August 23, 2020.
^ Shafiq, Nadeem (December 31, 2011). "India versus China: A review of the Aksai Chin border dispute". Journal of Political Studies – via go.gale.com.
^ Gao, Zhiguo; Jia, Bing Bing (January 23, 2013). "The Nine-Dash Line in the South China Sea: History, Status, and Implications". American Journal of International Law. 107 (1): 98–123. doi:10.5305/amerjintelaw.107.1.0098. S2CID 140885993. Archived from the original on July 18, 2020. Retrieved August 23, 2020 – via Cambridge Core.
^ "US rejects China's 'nine-dash line' in South China Sea". Nikkei Asian Review. Archived from the original on 2020-08-23. Retrieved 2020-08-23.
^ "Sansha and the Expansion of China's South China Sea Administration". Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative. May 12, 2020. Archived from the original on August 6, 2020. Retrieved August 23, 2020.
^ a b c Sarmento, Clara (2009). Eastwards / Westwards: Which Direction for Gender Studies in the 21st Century?. Cambridge Scholars. p. 127. ISBN 9781443808682. Archived from the original on 2022-05-31. Retrieved 2021-05-14.
^ Henckaerts, Jean-Marie (1996). The International Status of Taiwan in the New World Order: Legal And Political Considerations. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 117. ISBN 9789041109293.
^ Hudson, Christopher (2014). The China Handbook. Routledge. p. 59. ISBN 9781134269662. Archived from the original on 2023-04-10. Retrieved 2021-05-14.
^ Rigger, Shelley (2002). Politics in Taiwan: Voting for Reform. Routledge. p. 60. ISBN 9781134692972. Archived from the original on 2023-04-10. Retrieved 2021-05-14.
^ a b Froehlich, Annette; Seffinga, Vincent (2019). The United Nations and Space Security: Conflicting Mandates between UNCOPUOS and the CD. Springer. p. 40. ISBN 9783030060251. Archived from the original on 2024-03-18. Retrieved 2021-05-14.
^ "The Real Reasons Behind Chinese Expansionism". July 25, 2017. Archived from the original on August 7, 2020. Retrieved August 23, 2020.
^ "Chinese expansionism is a problem for democracy: Taiwanese foreign minister". www.efe.com. Archived from the original on 2021-07-16. Retrieved 2020-08-23.
^ "Taiwan, next target of China's hegemonic expansion". August 6, 2020. Archived from the original on September 19, 2020. Retrieved August 23, 2020.
^ Lin (2011). Tibet and Nationalist China's Frontier. pp. 7–8.
^ Lin (2011), p. 9.
^ Tanner, Harold (2009). China: A History. Hackett. p. 419. ISBN 978-0872209152.
^ Shakya 1999 p.4
^ Goldstein (1989). A History of Modern Tibet, Vol. 1. p. 815. Tibet unquestionably controlled its own internal and external affairs during the period from 1913 to 1951 and repeatedly attempted to secure recognition and validation of its de facto autonomy/independence.
^ Shakya 1999 p.6,27. Feigon 1996 p.28
^ A. Tom Grunfeld (30 July 1996). The Making of Modern Tibet. M.E. Sharpe. pp. 107–. ISBN 978-0-7656-3455-9.
^ "The Dalai Lama's Press Statements - Statement issued at Tezpur" (PDF). 18 April 1959. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 October 2022.
^ Anne-Marie Blondeau; Katia Buffetrille (2008). Authenticating Tibet: Answers to China's 100 Questions. University of California Press. p. 61. ISBN 978-0-520-24464-1. Archived from the original on 23 June 2016. Retrieved 15 November 2015. It was evident that the Chinese were not prepared to accept any compromises and that the Tibetans were compelled, under the threat of immediate armed invasion, to sign the Chinese proposal.
^ Tsepon Wangchuk Deden Shakabpa (October 2009). One Hundred Thousand Moons: An Advanced Political History of Tibet. BRILL. pp. 953, 955. ISBN 978-90-04-17732-1.
External links
Media related to Chinese irredentism at Wikimedia Commons
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[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Territories_of_Dynasties_in_China.gif"},{"link_name":"Chinese history","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_China"},{"link_name":"irredentist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irredentism"},{"link_name":"Chinese dynasties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynasties_of_China"},{"link_name":"Republic of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ROC-1"},{"link_name":"People's Republic of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China"}],"text":"Evolution of Chinese territories throughout Chinese history.Chinese irredentism involves irredentist claims to the territories of former Chinese dynasties made by the Republic of China (ROC)[a] and subsequently the People's Republic of China (PRC).","title":"Chinese irredentism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"empires","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Empire"},{"link_name":"China acquired","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_expansionism"},{"link_name":"Burma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"Korea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korea"},{"link_name":"Mongolia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolia"},{"link_name":"Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia"},{"link_name":"Vietnam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam"},{"link_name":"tributary states","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tributaries_of_China"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-source-2"}],"text":"Under various dynasties or empires in the past, China acquired and lost territories that overlap with Burma, India, Korea, Mongolia, Russia, and Vietnam today. Some were tributary states.[1]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Republic of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-source-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Source2-3"},{"link_name":"Sun Yat-sen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen"},{"link_name":"unequal treaties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unequal_treaties"},{"link_name":"Chiang Kai-shek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek"},{"link_name":"Mao Zedong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mao_Zedong"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Kuomintang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuomintang"},{"link_name":"Ladakh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladakh"},{"link_name":"Nepal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepal"},{"link_name":"Sikkim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikkim"},{"link_name":"Bhutan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhutan"},{"link_name":"Assam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam"},{"link_name":"Indochina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indochina"},{"link_name":"Sulu Archipelago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulu_Archipelago"},{"link_name":"Taiwan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan"},{"link_name":"Ryukyus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ryukyu"},{"link_name":"Philippines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines"},{"link_name":"Korea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korea"},{"link_name":"Sakhalin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakhalin"},{"link_name":"Chinese Communist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Xi Jinping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xi_Jinping"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Ministry of Natural Resources","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Natural_Resources_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-list-10"}],"text":"During the 20th century, the Republic of China claimed that numerous neighboring countries and regions used to be parts of China.[1][2] According to Sun Yat-sen, the reasons for their loss were unequal treaties, forceful occupation and annexation, and foreign interference. Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Zedong were supportive of these claims.[3]In 1925, the Kuomintang issued a map that showed large areas outside China as belonging to China, including: large portions of Soviet central Asia, a portion of Ladakh, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, Assam, Indochina, the Sulu Archipelago, Taiwan, the Ryukyus, the Philippines, Korea, and Sakhalin. A similar map was produced in 1954 by the Chinese Communist Party.[4]With the rise of Xi Jinping and increasing territorial conflicts, it is generally believed that China continues to adhere to irredentist claims.[5][6] A 2023 map by PRC's Ministry of Natural Resources showed a ten-dash line in the South China Sea and depicted territories in dispute with India and Russia as Chinese. Although these claims were not new, a host of countries voiced their objections.[7][8][b]","title":"Modern era"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"2017 China–India border standoff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_China%E2%80%93India_border_standoff"},{"link_name":"Doklam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doklam"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Sakteng Wildlife Sanctuary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakteng_Wildlife_Sanctuary"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"sub_title":"Bhutan","text":"Further information: 2017 China–India border standoffOn June 29, 2017, Bhutan protested to China against the construction of a road in the disputed territory of Doklam.[9] On the same day, the Bhutanese border was put on high alert and border security was tightened as a result of the growing tensions.[10] In 2020, China claimed that the Sakteng Wildlife Sanctuary was also part of the territory in dispute.[11]","title":"Modern era"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"East China Sea EEZ disputes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_China_Sea_EEZ_disputes"},{"link_name":"Senkaku Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senkaku_Islands"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"sub_title":"East China Sea","text":"Further information: East China Sea EEZ disputesThe PRC has frequently deployed ships since the 2010s to contest Japanese claim over the Senkaku Islands.[12][13][14]","title":"Modern era"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:India_Arunachal_Pradesh_locator_map.svg"},{"link_name":"Arunachal Pradesh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arunachal_Pradesh"},{"link_name":"South Tibet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Tibet"},{"link_name":"Aksai Chin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aksai_Chin"},{"link_name":"McMahon Line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McMahon_Line"},{"link_name":"Xinjiang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinjiang"},{"link_name":"Tibet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibet"},{"link_name":"Ladakh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladakh"},{"link_name":"Simla Convention","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simla_Convention"},{"link_name":"McMahon Line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McMahon_Line"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Sino-Indian War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-Indian_War"},{"link_name":"Aksai Chin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aksai_Chin"},{"link_name":"1967 conflict","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathu_La_and_Cho_La_clashes"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-manifestias-18"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-theprint-19"},{"link_name":"2020 border clashes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_China%E2%80%93India_skirmishes"},{"link_name":"Sino–Indian relations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China%E2%80%93India_relations"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"sub_title":"India","text":"Map of Arunachal Pradesh, part of which is claimed by China as South Tibet.China maintains territorial disputes with India with regard to Aksai Chin and the McMahon Line. The Chinese government claims the Aksai Chin as part of Xinjiang and Tibet, while the government of India claims the territory as part of Ladakh. The 1914 Simla Convention, which the Chinese government does not recognize, negotiated the McMahon Line between India and Tibet.[15] Tensions between India and China have erupted several times, with the largest being the Sino-Indian War of 1962 in which China was victorious and gained control over Aksai Chin, and the 1967 conflict in which India won.[16][17] The 2020 border clashes, which caused casualties for both sides, further strained Sino–Indian relations.[18]China has reinforced its claim by publishing maps depicting South Tibet as Chinese territory.[19] China also pushed forward to reinforce its claim over Sikkim and Ladakh, and consolidating border control in Aksai Chin.[20][21]","title":"Modern era"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Territorial disputes in the South China Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Territorial_disputes_in_the_South_China_Sea"},{"link_name":"Nine-dash line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nine-dash_line"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:9_dotted_line.png"},{"link_name":"Nine-dash line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nine-dash_line"},{"link_name":"People's Republic of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China"},{"link_name":"Republic of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"South China Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_China_Sea"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Sansha City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sansha"},{"link_name":"Paracel Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paracel_Islands"},{"link_name":"Spratly Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spratly_Islands"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"sub_title":"South China Sea","text":"Further information: Territorial disputes in the South China Sea and Nine-dash lineThe Nine-dash line represents China's irredentist claims in the South China Sea.Territorial claims of the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China (ROC) in the South China Sea overlap with the claims of Vietnam, the Philippines, Brunei and Malaysia.[22][23] In 2020, the PRC announced the establishment of Sansha City, which included the entirety of the Paracel Islands and Spratly Islands.[24]","title":"Modern era"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"One-China policy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One-China_policy"},{"link_name":"1992 Consensus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992_Consensus"},{"link_name":"Republic of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)"},{"link_name":"mainland China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainland_China"},{"link_name":"1911 Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1911_Revolution"},{"link_name":"Qing dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Chinese Civil War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War"},{"link_name":"Kuomintang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuomintang"},{"link_name":"Nationalist government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalist_government"},{"link_name":"Chinese Communist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party"},{"link_name":"ROC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan"},{"link_name":"Taiwan Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_area_of_the_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"ceded","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Shimonoseki"},{"link_name":"Empire of Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"handover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retrocession_Day"},{"link_name":"several other islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Taiwan"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-China1-27"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-China2-28"},{"link_name":"People's Republic of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China"},{"link_name":"Hong Kong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong"},{"link_name":"Macau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macau"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-China1-27"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-China1-27"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-China3-29"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-China4-30"},{"link_name":"representative of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_and_the_United_Nations"},{"link_name":"United Nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations"},{"link_name":"UN Security Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-China5-31"},{"link_name":"replaced","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly_Resolution_2758"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-China5-31"},{"link_name":"independent Taiwanese state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan_independence_movement"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Tsai Ing-wen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsai_Ing-wen"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"}],"sub_title":"Taiwan","text":"See also: One-China policy and 1992 ConsensusThe Republic of China (ROC) was established in mainland China in 1912 following the conclusion of the 1911 Revolution which led to the collapse of the Qing dynasty. The Chinese Civil War that broke out in 1927 was fought between the Kuomintang-led Nationalist government and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).Since the end of the Chinese Civil War in 1949, the de facto territories of the ROC are limited to the Taiwan Area which includes the island of Taiwan (ceded to the Empire of Japan in 1895 by the Qing dynasty of China; handover to the Republic of China in 1945) and several other islands.[25][26] Meanwhile, the People's Republic of China (PRC), established in 1949 by the CCP, controls mainland China, Hong Kong and Macau.[25] Officially, both the ROC and the PRC claim de jure sovereignty over all of China (including Taiwan), and regard the other government as being in rebellion.[25][27][28]Until 1971, the ROC was the representative of China at the United Nations (UN) and was a permanent member of the UN Security Council with veto power.[29] In 1971, the PRC replaced the ROC as the representative of China at the UN.[29]Skepticism from Taiwanese toward the PRC has intensified as a result of growing Chinese nationalist threat to attack the island if an independent Taiwanese state was to be created.[30] Since the election of the independence-leaning Tsai Ing-wen, the PRC has conducted numerous military drills preparing for possible armed conflict with the ROC.[31][32]","title":"Modern era"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Qing dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_dynasty"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"suzerainty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzerainty"},{"link_name":"protectorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protectorate"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELin20119-36"},{"link_name":"Republic of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ROC-37"},{"link_name":"Xinhai Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution"},{"link_name":"Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibet_Autonomous_Region"},{"link_name":"de facto independent polity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibet_(1912%E2%80%931951)"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Amdo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amdo"},{"link_name":"Kham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kham"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Kuomintang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalist_government"},{"link_name":"Chinese Civil War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War"},{"link_name":"People's Republic of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"Tibet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibet"},{"link_name":"Government of Tibet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganden_Phodrang"},{"link_name":"a military conflict","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Chamdo"},{"link_name":"Chamdo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chamdo"},{"link_name":"Kham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kham"},{"link_name":"Seventeen Point Agreement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seventeen_Point_Agreement"},{"link_name":"14th Dalai Lama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/14th_Dalai_Lama"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Grunfeld1996-41"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"}],"sub_title":"Tibet","text":"Tibet came under the control of the Qing dynasty of China in 1720[33] and remained under Qing suzerainty (or protectorate) until 1912.[34] The succeeding Republic of China claimed inheritance of all territories held by the Qing dynasty, including Tibet.[35] After the Xinhai Revolution in 1911, most of the area comprising the present-day Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR) became a de facto independent polity[36][37] except for border regions such as Amdo and Eastern Kham.[38]After defeating the Kuomintang in the Chinese Civil War, the People's Republic of China (PRC) gained control of Tibet through a series of events that involved negotiations with the Government of Tibet, a military conflict in the Chamdo area of western Kham in October 1950, and the Seventeen Point Agreement, which was ratified by the 14th Dalai Lama in October 1951[39] but later repudiated.[40][41][42]","title":"Modern era"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-ROC_1-0"},{"link_name":"Chinese mainland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)"},{"link_name":"Taiwan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_area_of_the_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"since 1949","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retreat_of_the_Republic_of_China_to_Taiwan"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-list_10-0"}],"text":"^ The Republic of China is based on the Chinese mainland before 1949, and on the island of Taiwan since 1949.\n\n^ Brunei, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, the Philippines, Taiwan, the United States, and Vietnam","title":"Notes"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Evolution of Chinese territories throughout Chinese history.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Territories_of_Dynasties_in_China.gif/220px-Territories_of_Dynasties_in_China.gif"},{"image_text":"Map of Arunachal Pradesh, part of which is claimed by China as South Tibet.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/India_Arunachal_Pradesh_locator_map.svg/220px-India_Arunachal_Pradesh_locator_map.svg.png"},{"image_text":"The Nine-dash line represents China's irredentist claims in the South China Sea.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/9_dotted_line.png/220px-9_dotted_line.png"}]
|
[{"title":"China portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:China"},{"title":"Chinese imperialism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_imperialism"},{"title":"Territorial disputes of the People's Republic of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Territorial_disputes_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China"}]
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[{"reference":"Tseng, Hui-Yi (2017). Revolution, State Succession, International Treaties and the Diaoyu/Diaoyutai Islands. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 66. ISBN 9781443893688.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781443893688","url_text":"9781443893688"}]},{"reference":"Kim, Samuel S. (1979). China, the United Nations, and World Order. Princeton University Press. p. 43. ISBN 9780691100760.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/chinaunitednatio0000kims/page/43","url_text":"China, the United Nations, and World Order"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton_University_Press","url_text":"Princeton University Press"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/chinaunitednatio0000kims/page/43","url_text":"43"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691100760","url_text":"9780691100760"}]},{"reference":"Tzou, Byron N. (1990). China and International Law: The Boundary Disputes. Praeger. p. 77. ISBN 9780275934620.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenwood_Publishing_Group","url_text":"Praeger"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780275934620","url_text":"9780275934620"}]},{"reference":"Cleland, John R. D. (1967). \"Chinese Rimland Strategy\". Military Review. XLVII (1): 4. Archived from the original on 2023-07-15. Retrieved 2023-07-15.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=OQPmBCrLNeoC&pg=PA4","url_text":"\"Chinese Rimland Strategy\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_Review","url_text":"Military Review"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230715044851/https://books.google.com/books?id=OQPmBCrLNeoC&pg=PA4","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Irredentism and Chinese Foreign Policy with regard to East and South China Sea\". www.ipsa.org. Archived from the original on 24 March 2021. Retrieved 6 September 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210324113316/https://www.ipsa.org/wc/paper/irredentism-and-chinese-foreign-policy-regard-east-and-south-china-sea","url_text":"\"Irredentism and Chinese Foreign Policy with regard to East and South China Sea\""},{"url":"https://www.ipsa.org/wc/paper/irredentism-and-chinese-foreign-policy-regard-east-and-south-china-sea","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Assertive China: Irredentism or Expansionism?\". IISS.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.iiss.org/publications/survival/2019/survival-global-politics-and-strategy-februarymarch-2019/611-04-roy","url_text":"\"Assertive China: Irredentism or Expansionism?\""}]},{"reference":"Lavery, Charles (2023-08-30). \"China's new map claims swathes of neighboring territory\". Newsweek. Archived from the original on 2023-09-05. 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expansion\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200919032043/https://thediplomatinspain.com/2020/08/taiwan-proximo-objetivo-de-la-expansion-hegemonica-de-china/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=VIWC9wCX2c8C&q=republic+of+china+inherit+all+territories+qing+dynasty&pg=PA419","external_links_name":"China: A History"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=k3BijVR0dVcC&pg=PA815","external_links_name":"815"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=odyxWQGD2eoC&pg=PA107","external_links_name":"The Making of Modern Tibet"},{"Link":"http://www.archieve.claudearpi.net/maintenance/uploaded_pics/590418_Tezpur_Statement.pdf","external_links_name":"\"The Dalai Lama's Press Statements - Statement issued at 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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Affleck
|
Ian Affleck
|
["1 Work","2 References"]
|
Canadian physicist
Ian AffleckFRSBorn (1952-07-02) July 2, 1952 (age 71)Vancouver, British ColumbiaAlma materTrent UniversityHarvard UniversityAwards
Sloan Foundation Fellow (1983–1987)
Canadian Institute for Advanced Research
Fellow (1987–2001)
Associate (2001–2008)
Fellow (2008–)
National Research Council Steacie Prize (1988)
Canadian Association of Physicists Herzberg Medal (1990)
Royal Society of Canada Rutherford Medal in Physics (1991)
Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada/Canadian Academy of Sciences (1991–)
UBC Senior Killam Research Prize (1992)
UBC Jacob Biely Prize (1992)
Canadian Association of Physicists/Centre de Recherche Mathematique Prize for Mathematics/Theoretical Physics (1997)
B.C. Science Council New Frontiers in Research Award (1998)
Fellow of the American Physical Society (2002)
Canadian Association of Physicists Medal for Achievement in Physics (2006)
Fellow of the Royal Society (2010)
Onsager Prize, American Physical Society (2012)
Scientific careerFieldsCondensed matter theory, superconductivity, quantum magnetism, quantum impuritiesDoctoral advisorSidney R. Coleman
Ian Keith Affleck is a Canadian physicist specializing in condensed matter physics. He is (in 2013) Killam University Professor, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of British Columbia.
Work
Ian Affleck currently studies theoretical aspects of condensed matter physics, including high temperature superconductivity, low dimensional magnetism, quantum dots and quantum wires.
Ian Affleck has made many important contributions to theoretical and mathematical physics. He began his career in high energy theory (HEP), and has successfully applied many techniques from HEP to condensed matter. In particular, he has applied conformal field theory techniques to low dimensional magnetism, Kondo effects and quantum impurity problems. In doing so, he enjoys finding "mathematically elegant solutions" to problems.
He is also a member of the CIFAR's Superconductivity Program and the Cosmology and Gravity Program.
Affleck holds numerous awards including the 2006 CAP Medal for Lifetime Achievement and the 2014 DCMMP Brockhouse Medal.
He was elected a Fellow of the American Physical Society in 2002 and a Fellow of the Royal Society in 2010.
References
^ "Ian Affleck". The University of British Columbia Department of Physics & Astronomy. Retrieved 29 September 2012.
^ "Ian Keith Affleck". Retrieved 29 September 2012.
^ "Ian Affleck". University of British Columbia, Department of Physics and Astronomy. Retrieved 11 March 2014.
^ "Professor Ian Affleck FRS". The Royal Society. Retrieved 11 March 2014.
^ "2012 Lars Onsager Prize Recipient". American Physical Society Sites. Retrieved 11 March 2014.
^ "Ian Affleck". CIFAR Canadian Institute for advanced Research. Archived from the original on 12 March 2014. Retrieved 11 March 2014.
^ "New Fellows 2010". Royal Society. Retrieved 30 July 2013.
^ "APS Fellow Archive". APS. Retrieved 17 September 2020.
^ "New Fellows 2010". Royal Society. Retrieved 30 July 2013.
vteFellows of the Royal Society elected in 2010Fellows
Gabriel Aeppli
Ian Affleck
Paul Brakefield
Andrea Brand
Eleanor Campbell
Philip Candelas
Peter Cawley
Nicola Susan Clayton
John William Connor
Russell Cowburn
Gideon Davies
Donald Dawson
Raymond Dolan
Hugh Durrant-Whyte
Lyndon Evans
Richard Evershed
Georg Gottlob
Ben Green
Robert Griffiths
Roger Hardie
Michael Hastings
Andrew Hattersley
Craig Hawker
Ron Hay
Ian Hickson
Peter Horton
Jeremy Hutson
Victoria Kaspi
Lewis Kay
Ondrej Krivanek
Angus Lamond
Alan Lehmann
Malcolm McCulloch
Robin Murray
Robin Perutz
Max Pettini
Thomas Platts-Mills
Wolf Reik
Loren Rieseberg
Peter Rigby
Ezio Rizzardo
Elizabeth Simpson
Alan Smith
Eric Wolff
Honorary
Melvyn Bragg
Foreign
Pascale Cossart
Carl Djerassi
Ludvig Faddeev
Edmond H. Fischer
Michael Goodchild
John B. Goodenough
Detlef Weigel
Kurt Wüthrich
Authority control databases International
VIAF
WorldCat
National
Germany
Academics
MathSciNet
Scopus
zbMATH
Other
IdRef
This article about a physicist is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
|
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[]
| null |
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|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_G20_summits
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List of G20 summits
|
["1 Summits of state leaders","2 Ministerial-level meetings","2.1 Finance Track meetings","3 Working Group Meetings","3.1 Foreign ministers","3.2 Trade ministers","3.3 Labor and Employment ministers","4 Pre-conference meetings","5 B20 summits","6 C20 summits","7 L20 summits","8 P20 summits","9 Science20 summits","10 SAI20 summits","11 Startup20 summits","12 T20 summits","13 U20 summits","14 W20 summits","15 Y20 summits","16 O20 summits","17 J20 summits","18 See also","19 References","20 External links"]
|
For broader coverage of this topic, see G20.
The following list of G20 summits summarizes all G20 conferences held at various different levels: summits of heads of state or heads of government, ministerial-level meetings, Engagement Group meetings and others.
Summits of state leaders
G20 Summits: The G20 Summits are the highest level of meetings, where heads of state or government from member countries come together to discuss key global issues. These summits usually take place annually and are hosted by different member countries. They provide an opportunity for leaders to engage in high-level discussions, negotiate agreements, and set priorities for international cooperation.
2008Apr 2009Sep 2009Jun 2010Nov 201020112012201320142015201620172018201920202021202220232024class=notpageimage| Host cities of G20 summits
Date
Host country
Host city
Venue
Host leader
Ref
1st
14–15 November 2008
United States
Washington, D.C.
National Building Museum
George W. Bush
2nd
2 April 2009
United Kingdom
London
ExCeL London
Gordon Brown
3rd
24–25 September 2009
United States
Pittsburgh
David L. Lawrence Convention Center
Barack Obama
2
4th
26–27 June 2010
Canada
Toronto
Metro Toronto Convention Centre
Stephen Harper
5th
11–12 November 2010
South Korea
Seoul
COEX Convention & Exhibition Center
Lee Myung-bak
6th
3–4 November 2011
France
Cannes
Palais des Festivals
Nicolas Sarkozy
7th
18–19 June 2012
Mexico
San José del Cabo, Los Cabos
Los Cabos International Convention Center
Felipe Calderón
8th
5–6 September 2013
Russia
Saint Petersburg
Constantine Palace
Vladimir Putin
9th
15–16 November 2014
Australia
Brisbane
Brisbane Convention & Exhibition Centre
Tony Abbott
10th
15–16 November 2015
Turkey
Serik, Antalya
Regnum Carya Hotel Convention Centre
Recep Tayyip Erdoğan
11th
4–5 September 2016
China
Hangzhou
Hangzhou International Exhibition Centre
Xi Jinping
12th
7–8 July 2017
Germany
Hamburg
Hamburg Messe
Angela Merkel
13th
30 November – 1 December 2018
Argentina
Buenos Aires
Costa Salguero Center
Mauricio Macri
14th
28–29 June 2019
Japan
Osaka
Intex Osaka
Shinzō Abe
15th
21–22 November 2020
Saudi Arabia
Riyadh
(The summit took place with a worldwide video conference due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Saudi Arabia)
King Salman
16th
30–31 October 2021
Italy
Rome
EUR Convention Center
Mario Draghi
17th
15–16 November 2022
Indonesia
Nusa Dua, Bali
The Apurva Kempinski Bali
Joko Widodo
18th
9–10 September 2023
India
New Delhi
Bharat Mandapam
Narendra Modi
19th
18–19 November 2024
Brazil
Rio de Janeiro
Museum of Modern Art
Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva
20th
TBD 2025
South Africa
TBD
TBD
TBD
21st
TBD 2026
United States
TBD
TBD
TBD
Ministerial-level meetings
In addition to the summits, the G20 holds ministerial-level meetings on specific topics such as finance, trade, agriculture, affordable and accessible healthcare, pharma, tech series, technology advancements, health, and energy. These meetings involve ministers or high-level representatives from member countries who deliberate on policy matters, share experiences, and explore opportunities for collaboration majorly G20 finance and economy ministers, and central bank governors lead the meetings.
Locations in bold text indicate the meeting was concurrent with a G20 summit. Ministerial meetings are not always held in the summit host's country.
Finance Track meetings
The G20 Finance Track includes meetings of finance ministers and central bank governors from member countries. They discuss global economic and financial issues, review the progress of ongoing initiatives, and coordinate policies to foster economic stability and growth.
Year
Host country
Host city
Dates
Notes
1999
Germany
Berlin
2000
Canada
Montréal
2001
Canada
Ottawa/Gatineau
2002
India
New Delhi
2003
Mexico
Morelia
2004
Germany
Berlin
2005
China
Beijing
2006
Australia
Melbourne
Main article: 2006 G20 ministerial meeting
2007
South Africa
Cape Town
2008
Brazil
São Paulo
2009
United Kingdom
Horsham
March
United Kingdom
London
September
United Kingdom
St Andrews
November
2010
South Korea
Incheon
February
Canada
Toronto
June
South Korea
Seoul
November
2011
France
Paris
February
United States
Washington, D.C.
April
United States
Washington, D.C.
September
As part of the annual meeting of the IMF and World Bank
France
Paris
October
France
Cannes
November
2012
Mexico
Mexico City
February
United States
Washington, D.C.
April
Mexico
Mexico City
November
2013
Russia
Moscow
February
United States
Washington, D.C.
April
Part of the annual meeting of the IMF and World Bank
United States
Washington, D.C.
October
Continuation of the meeting mentioned above
2014
Australia
Sydney
February
United States
Washington, D.C.
April
Australia
Cairns
September
2015
Turkey
Istanbul
9–10 February
2016
China
Hangzhou
July
2017
Germany
Baden-Baden
March
2018
Argentina
Buenos Aires
19–20 March
United States
Washington, D.C.
20 April
Argentina
Buenos Aires
21–22 July
Indonesia
Bali
11 October
Argentina
Buenos Aires
November
2019
Japan
Fukuoka
8–9 June
2020
Saudi Arabia
Riyadh
21–22 November
2021
Italy
Venice
9–10 July
2022
Indonesia
Bali
16–17 July
2023
India
Gandhinagar
17-18 July
2024
Brazil
Rio de Janeiro
25–26 July
Working Group Meetings
G20 Working Groups are specialized task forces that focus on specific areas of interest. They work on policy development, research, and coordination to support the discussions and decisions made at higher-level meetings. These groups bring together experts and officials to exchange knowledge and develop practical recommendations.
Foreign ministers
Year
Host country
Host city
Dates
Notes
2017
Germany
Bonn
February
2018
Argentina
Buenos Aires
May
2019
Japan
Nagoya
22–23 November
2020
Saudi Arabia
Riyadh
21–22 November
2021
Italy
Matera
29–30 June
2022
Indonesia
Bali
7–8 July
2023
India
Delhi
1–2 March
2024
Brazil
Rio de Janeiro
21–22 February
Trade ministers
Year
Host country
Host city
Dates
Notes
2012
Mexico
Puerto Vallarta
18–20 April
2014
Australia
Sydney
19 July
2015
Turkey
Istanbul
6 October
2016
China
Shanghai
9–10 July
2018
Argentina
Mar del Plata
14 September
2019
Japan
Tsukuba
8–9 June
2021
Italy
Sorrento
12 October
2022
Indonesia
Bali
22–23 September
2024
Brazil
Brasília
24 October
Labor and Employment ministers
Year
Host country
Host city
Dates
Notes
2010
United States
Washington, D.C.
2011
France
Paris
2012
Mexico
Guadalajara
2013
Russia
Moscow
2014
Australia
Melbourne
2015
Turkey
Ankara
2016
China
Beijing
2017
Germany
Bad Neuenahr-Ahrweiler
2018
Argentina
Mendoza
2019
Japan
Matsuyama
1–2 September
2020
Saudi Arabia
Riyadh
2021
Italy
Catania
22–23 June
2022
Indonesia
Bali
14 September
2023
India
Indore
2024
Brazil
Fortaleza
25–26 July
Pre-conference meetings
G20 engagement groups and pre-conferences are meetings with various stakeholders. These groups make policy recommendations to G20 leaders and help shape the summit agenda.
Sherpas are senior officials who represent their respective countries and play a crucial role in preparing the agenda and negotiating outcomes for G20 meetings. Sherpa meetings allow for in-depth discussions on technical and policy matters before they are presented at higher-level meetings.
B20 summits
B20 summits are summits of business leaders from the G20 countries.
2012: Los Cabos
2013: Saint Petersburg
2014: Sydney
2015: Turkey
2016: Hangzhou
2017: Berlin
2018: Buenos Aires
2019: Tokyo
2020: Riyadh
2021: Rome
2022: Bali
2023: New Delhi
2024: Rio de Janeiro
C20 summits
C20 summits are summits of civil society delegates from the G20 countries.
2014: Melbourne
2015: Istanbul
2017: Hamburg
2018: Buenos Aires
2019: Tokyo
2020: Riyadh
2021: Rome
2022: Bali
2023: Ladakh, Trivandrum, Kochi, Pune, Jaipur
2024: Recife
L20 summits
L20 summits are summits of labor and employment leaders from the G20 countries.
2008: Washington
2009: London
2009: Pittsburgh
2010: Toronto
2010: Seoul
2011: Paris
2012: Los Cabos
2013: Moscow
2014: Brisbane
2015: Antalya
2016: Beijing
2017: Berlin
2018: Mendoza
2019: Tokyo
2020: Riyadh
2021: Rome
2022: Bali
2023: several cities (Amritsar, Kolkata, Raipur, Nagpur, Bhopal, Guwahati, Mumbai, Srinagar, Kochi Thiruvananthapuram, Dhanbad, Delhi, Lucknow, Patna, Pune, Indore, New Delhi)
2024: Brasília
P20 summits
Parliament20 (P20) Engagement Group, started during Canada’s Presidency in 2010, is led by Speakers from Parliaments of G20 countries.
2010: Canada
2022: Indonesia
2023: India
2024: Brazil
Science20 summits
Science 20 (S20) meetings and summits draw together academics and civil society delegates from the G20 countries.
2017: Germany
2018: Argentina
2019: Japan
2020: Saudi Arabia
2021: Italy
2022: Indonesia
2023: India
2024: Brazil
SAI20 summits
Supreme Audit Institutions 20 (SAI20) is an Engagement Group introduced by the Indonesian Presidency in 2022. It is a forum to discuss the important role played by SAIs globally in ensuring transparency and accountability, and in promoting cooperation among the G20 members.
2022: Indonesia
2023: India
2024: Brazil
Startup20 summits
Startup 20 Engagement Group has been initiated under G20 India presidency of 2023 which aspires to create a global narrative for supporting startups and enabling synergies between startups, corporates, investors, innovation agencies and other key ecosystem stakeholders.
2023: India
2024: Brazil
T20 summits
T20 summits are summits of think tanks from the G20 countries.
2012: Mexico City
2013: Moscow
2017: Berlin
2018: Buenos Aires
2019: Tokyo
2020: Riyadh
2021: Milan
2022: Bali
2023: New Delhi, Kolkata, Bhubaneswar, Bengaluru, Mysuru, Mumbai, Goa, Bhopal, Pune, Manipal, Hyderabad, Amritapuri
2024: Rio de Janeiro
U20 summits
Urban 20 (U20) summits are summits of cities from the G20 countries.
2018: Buenos Aires
2019: Tokyo
2020: Riyadh
2021: Rome
2022: Jakarta
2023: New Delhi
2024: São Paulo
W20 summits
First W20 women's summit organized by German Chancellor Angela Merkel.
2017: Berlin
2018: Buenos Aires
2019: Tokyo
2020: Riyadh
2021: Rome
2022: Lake Toba
2023: Aurangabad
2024: several cities
Y20 summits
Y20 summits are summits of young leaders and changemakers from 18 to 30 years old from the G20 countries.
2010: Vancouver
2011: Paris
2012: Puebla
2013: Saint Petersburg
2014: Sydney
2015: Istanbul
2016: Beijing and Shanghai
2017: Berlin
2018: Córdoba
2019: Tokyo
2020: Riyadh
2021: Milan and Bergamo
2022: Jakarta and Bandung
2023: Varanasi
2024: Brasília
O20 summits
O20 summits are summits to discuss the ocean agenda with the civil society of the G20 countries.
2024: Brazil
J20 summits
J20 summits are summits to gather the supreme courts of the G20 countries.
2024: Brazil
See also
List of G7 summits
BRICS § Summits
Shanghai Cooperation Organisation § List of summits
References
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^ "J20 Brazil 2024". J20 Brazil (in Portuguese). Retrieved 18 April 2024.
External links
Official website
G20 website of the OECD
G20 Information Centre at the University of Toronto
vteG20 summits2000s
2008 Washington (1st)
2009 London (2nd)
2009 Pittsburgh (3rd)
2010s
2010 Toronto (4th)
2010 Seoul (5th)
2011 Cannes (6th)
2012 Los Cabos (7th)
2013 Saint Petersburg (8th)
2014 Brisbane (9th)
2015 Antalya (10th)
2016 Hangzhou (11th)
2017 Hamburg (12th)
2018 Buenos Aires (13th)
2019 Osaka (14th)
2020s
2020 extraordinary on COVID-19 / 2020 Riyadh (15th)
2021 Rome (16th)
2022 Bali (17th)
2023 Delhi (18th)
2024 Rio (19th)
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"G20","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G20"},{"link_name":"G20","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G20"}],"text":"For broader coverage of this topic, see G20.The following list of G20 summits summarizes all G20 conferences held at various different levels: summits of heads of state or heads of government, ministerial-level meetings, Engagement Group meetings and others.","title":"List of G20 summits"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:World_location_map_(equirectangular_180).svg"},{"link_name":"2008","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008_G20_Washington_summit"},{"link_name":"Apr 2009","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009_G20_London_summit"},{"link_name":"Sep 2009","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009_G20_Pittsburgh_summit"},{"link_name":"Jun 2010","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_G20_Toronto_summit"},{"link_name":"Nov 2010","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_G20_Seoul_summit"},{"link_name":"2011","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_G20_Cannes_summit"},{"link_name":"2012","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_G20_Los_Cabos_summit"},{"link_name":"2013","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2013_G20_Saint_Petersburg_summit"},{"link_name":"2014","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_G20_Brisbane_summit"},{"link_name":"2015","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_G20_Antalya_summit"},{"link_name":"2016","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_G20_Hangzhou_summit"},{"link_name":"2017","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_G20_Hamburg_summit"},{"link_name":"2018","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_G20_Buenos_Aires_summit"},{"link_name":"2019","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_G20_Osaka_summit"},{"link_name":"2020","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_G20_Riyadh_summit"},{"link_name":"2021","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_G20_Rome_summit"},{"link_name":"2022","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_G20_Bali_summit"},{"link_name":"2023","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2023_G20_New_Delhi_summit"},{"link_name":"2024","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_G20_Brazil_summit"},{"link_name":"class=notpageimage|","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:World_location_map_(equirectangular_180).svg"}],"text":"G20 Summits: The G20 Summits are the highest level of meetings, where heads of state or government from member countries come together to discuss key global issues. These summits usually take place annually and are hosted by different member countries. They provide an opportunity for leaders to engage in high-level discussions, negotiate agreements, and set priorities for international cooperation.2008Apr 2009Sep 2009Jun 2010Nov 201020112012201320142015201620172018201920202021202220232024class=notpageimage| Host cities of G20 summits","title":"Summits of state leaders"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"affordable and accessible healthcare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=G20_Summit_Series_on_Affordable_Healthcare&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"G20","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G20"}],"text":"In addition to the summits, the G20 holds ministerial-level meetings on specific topics such as finance, trade, agriculture, affordable and accessible healthcare, pharma, tech series, technology advancements, health, and energy. These meetings involve ministers or high-level representatives from member countries who deliberate on policy matters, share experiences, and explore opportunities for collaboration majorly G20 finance and economy ministers, and central bank governors lead the meetings.Locations in bold text indicate the meeting was concurrent with a G20 summit. Ministerial meetings are not always held in the summit host's country.","title":"Ministerial-level meetings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"G20","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G20"}],"sub_title":"Finance Track meetings","text":"The G20 Finance Track includes meetings of finance ministers and central bank governors from member countries. They discuss global economic and financial issues, review the progress of ongoing initiatives, and coordinate policies to foster economic stability and growth.","title":"Ministerial-level meetings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"G20","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G20"}],"text":"G20 Working Groups are specialized task forces that focus on specific areas of interest. They work on policy development, research, and coordination to support the discussions and decisions made at higher-level meetings. These groups bring together experts and officials to exchange knowledge and develop practical recommendations.","title":"Working Group Meetings"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Foreign ministers","title":"Working Group Meetings"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Trade ministers","title":"Working Group Meetings"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Labor and Employment ministers","title":"Working Group Meetings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sherpas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherpa_(emissary)"}],"text":"G20 engagement groups and pre-conferences are meetings with various stakeholders. These groups make policy recommendations to G20 leaders and help shape the summit agenda.Sherpas are senior officials who represent their respective countries and play a crucial role in preparing the agenda and negotiating outcomes for G20 meetings. Sherpa meetings allow for in-depth discussions on technical and policy matters before they are presented at higher-level meetings.","title":"Pre-conference meetings"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico"},{"link_name":"Los Cabos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Cabos"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia"},{"link_name":"Saint Petersburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Petersburg"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia"},{"link_name":"Sydney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey"},{"link_name":"Turkey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China"},{"link_name":"Hangzhou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hangzhou"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"Berlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentina"},{"link_name":"Buenos Aires","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buenos_Aires"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"Tokyo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabia"},{"link_name":"Riyadh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riyadh"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"Rome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia"},{"link_name":"Bali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bali"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"New Delhi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Delhi"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil"},{"link_name":"Rio de Janeiro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"}],"text":"B20 summits are summits of business leaders from the G20 countries.2012: Los Cabos\n2013: Saint Petersburg[67]\n2014: Sydney[68]\n2015: Turkey[69]\n2016: Hangzhou[70]\n2017: Berlin[71]\n2018: Buenos Aires[72]\n2019: Tokyo[73]\n2020: Riyadh[74]\n2021: Rome[75]\n2022: Bali[76]\n2023: New Delhi[77]\n2024: Rio de Janeiro[78]","title":"B20 summits"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia"},{"link_name":"Melbourne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melbourne"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey"},{"link_name":"Istanbul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istanbul"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"Hamburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamburg"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentina"},{"link_name":"Buenos Aires","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buenos_Aires"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"Tokyo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabia"},{"link_name":"Riyadh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riyadh"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-84"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"Rome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-84"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia"},{"link_name":"Bali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bali"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"Ladakh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladakh"},{"link_name":"Trivandrum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trivandrum"},{"link_name":"Kochi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kochi"},{"link_name":"Pune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pune"},{"link_name":"Jaipur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaipur"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-84"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil"},{"link_name":"Recife","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recife"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"}],"text":"C20 summits are summits of civil society delegates from the G20 countries.2014: Melbourne[79]\n2015: Istanbul[80]\n2017: Hamburg[81]\n2018: Buenos Aires[82]\n2019: Tokyo[83]\n2020: Riyadh[84]\n2021: Rome[84]\n2022: Bali[85]\n2023: Ladakh, Trivandrum, Kochi, Pune, Jaipur[84]\n2024: Recife[86]","title":"C20 summits"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_D.C."},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Pittsburgh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburgh"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada"},{"link_name":"Toronto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Korea"},{"link_name":"Seoul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seoul"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"},{"link_name":"Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico"},{"link_name":"Los Cabos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Cabos"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia"},{"link_name":"Moscow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia"},{"link_name":"Brisbane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brisbane"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey"},{"link_name":"Antalya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antalya"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China"},{"link_name":"Beijing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beijing"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"Berlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-98"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentina"},{"link_name":"Mendoza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendoza,_Argentina"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-99"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"Tokyo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-100"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabia"},{"link_name":"Riyadh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riyadh"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"Rome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-102"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia"},{"link_name":"Bali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bali"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-103"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"Amritsar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amritsar"},{"link_name":"Kolkata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolkata"},{"link_name":"Raipur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raipur"},{"link_name":"Nagpur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagpur"},{"link_name":"Bhopal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhopal"},{"link_name":"Guwahati","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guwahati"},{"link_name":"Mumbai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mumbai"},{"link_name":"Srinagar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srinagar"},{"link_name":"Kochi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kochi"},{"link_name":"Thiruvananthapuram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thiruvananthapuram"},{"link_name":"Dhanbad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhanbad"},{"link_name":"Delhi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delhi"},{"link_name":"Lucknow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucknow"},{"link_name":"Patna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patna"},{"link_name":"Pune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pune"},{"link_name":"Indore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indore"},{"link_name":"New Delhi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Delhi"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-104"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil"},{"link_name":"Brasília","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bras%C3%ADlia"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-105"}],"text":"L20 summits are summits of labor and employment leaders from the G20 countries.2008: Washington[87]\n2009: London[88]\n2009: Pittsburgh[89]\n2010: Toronto[90]\n2010: Seoul[91]\n2011: Paris[92]\n2012: Los Cabos[93]\n2013: Moscow[94]\n2014: Brisbane[95]\n2015: Antalya[96]\n2016: Beijing[97]\n2017: Berlin[98]\n2018: Mendoza[99]\n2019: Tokyo[100]\n2020: Riyadh[101]\n2021: Rome[102]\n2022: Bali[103]\n2023: several cities (Amritsar, Kolkata, Raipur, Nagpur, Bhopal, Guwahati, Mumbai, Srinagar, Kochi Thiruvananthapuram, Dhanbad, Delhi, Lucknow, Patna, Pune, Indore, New Delhi)[104]\n2024: Brasília[105]","title":"L20 summits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada"},{"link_name":"Indonesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-106"}],"text":"Parliament20 (P20) Engagement Group, started during Canada’s Presidency in 2010, is led by Speakers from Parliaments of G20 countries.2010: Canada\n2022: Indonesia\n2023: India\n2024: Brazil[106]","title":"P20 summits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"Argentina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentina"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"Saudi Arabia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabia"},{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"Indonesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-107"}],"text":"Science 20 (S20) meetings and summits draw together academics and civil society delegates from the G20 countries.2017: Germany\n2018: Argentina\n2019: Japan\n2020: Saudi Arabia\n2021: Italy\n2022: Indonesia\n2023: India\n2024: Brazil[107]","title":"Science20 summits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Indonesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-108"}],"text":"Supreme Audit Institutions 20 (SAI20) is an Engagement Group introduced by the Indonesian Presidency in 2022. It is a forum to discuss the important role played by SAIs globally in ensuring transparency and accountability, and in promoting cooperation among the G20 members.2022: Indonesia\n2023: India\n2024: Brazil[108]","title":"SAI20 summits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-109"}],"text":"Startup 20 Engagement Group has been initiated under G20 India presidency of 2023 which aspires to create a global narrative for supporting startups and enabling synergies between startups, corporates, investors, innovation agencies and other key ecosystem stakeholders.2023: India\n2024: Brazil[109]","title":"Startup20 summits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"think tanks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Think_tank"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico"},{"link_name":"Mexico City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico_City"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia"},{"link_name":"Moscow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-110"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"Berlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-111"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentina"},{"link_name":"Buenos Aires","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buenos_Aires"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-112"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"Tokyo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-113"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabia"},{"link_name":"Riyadh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riyadh"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-114"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"Milan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milan"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-115"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia"},{"link_name":"Bali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bali"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-116"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"New Delhi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Delhi"},{"link_name":"Kolkata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolkata"},{"link_name":"Bhubaneswar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhubaneswar"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-117"},{"link_name":"Bengaluru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengaluru"},{"link_name":"Mysuru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mysuru"},{"link_name":"Mumbai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mumbai"},{"link_name":"Goa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goa"},{"link_name":"Bhopal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhopal"},{"link_name":"Pune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pune"},{"link_name":"Manipal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manipal"},{"link_name":"Hyderabad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyderabad"},{"link_name":"Amritapuri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amritapuri"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-118"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil"},{"link_name":"Rio de Janeiro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-119"}],"text":"T20 summits are summits of think tanks from the G20 countries.2012: Mexico City\n2013: Moscow[110]\n2017: Berlin[111]\n2018: Buenos Aires[112]\n2019: Tokyo[113]\n2020: Riyadh[114]\n2021: Milan[115]\n2022: Bali[116]\n2023: New Delhi, Kolkata, Bhubaneswar,[117] Bengaluru, Mysuru, Mumbai, Goa, Bhopal, Pune, Manipal, Hyderabad, Amritapuri[118]\n2024: Rio de Janeiro[119]","title":"T20 summits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-120"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentina"},{"link_name":"Buenos Aires","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buenos_Aires"},{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-121"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"Tokyo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo"},{"link_name":"[122]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-122"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabia"},{"link_name":"Riyadh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riyadh"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-123"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"Rome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-124"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia"},{"link_name":"Jakarta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jakarta"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-125"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"New Delhi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Delhi"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil"},{"link_name":"São Paulo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-126"}],"text":"Urban 20 (U20) summits are summits of cities from the G20 countries.[120]2018: Buenos Aires[121]\n2019: Tokyo[122]\n2020: Riyadh[123]\n2021: Rome[124]\n2022: Jakarta[125]\n2023: New Delhi\n2024: São Paulo[126]","title":"U20 summits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Angela Merkel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angela_Merkel"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"Berlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin"},{"link_name":"[127]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-127"},{"link_name":"[128]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-128"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentina"},{"link_name":"Buenos Aires","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buenos_Aires"},{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-129"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"Tokyo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-130"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabia"},{"link_name":"Riyadh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riyadh"},{"link_name":"[131]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-131"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"Rome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome"},{"link_name":"[132]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-132"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia"},{"link_name":"Lake Toba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Toba"},{"link_name":"[133]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-133"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"Aurangabad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurangabad"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil"},{"link_name":"[134]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-134"}],"text":"First W20 women's summit organized by German Chancellor Angela Merkel.2017: Berlin[127][128]\n2018: Buenos Aires[129]\n2019: Tokyo[130]\n2020: Riyadh[131]\n2021: Rome[132]\n2022: Lake Toba[133]\n2023: Aurangabad\n2024: several cities[134]","title":"W20 summits"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada"},{"link_name":"Vancouver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vancouver"},{"link_name":"[135]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-135"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"},{"link_name":"Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris"},{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-136"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico"},{"link_name":"Puebla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Cabos"},{"link_name":"[137]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-137"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia"},{"link_name":"Saint Petersburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Petersburg"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-138"},{"link_name":"non-primary source needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia"},{"link_name":"Sydney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-139"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey"},{"link_name":"Istanbul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istanbul"},{"link_name":"[140]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-140"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China"},{"link_name":"Beijing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beijing"},{"link_name":"Shanghai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai"},{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-141"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"Berlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin"},{"link_name":"[142]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-142"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentina"},{"link_name":"Córdoba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Argentina"},{"link_name":"[143]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-143"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"Tokyo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo"},{"link_name":"[144]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-144"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabia"},{"link_name":"Riyadh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riyadh"},{"link_name":"[145]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-145"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"Milan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milan"},{"link_name":"Bergamo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergamo"},{"link_name":"[146]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-146"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia"},{"link_name":"Jakarta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jakarta"},{"link_name":"Bandung","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandung"},{"link_name":"[147]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-147"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"Varanasi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varanasi"},{"link_name":"[148]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-148"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil"},{"link_name":"Brasília","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bras%C3%ADlia"},{"link_name":"[149]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-149"}],"text":"Y20 summits are summits of young leaders and changemakers from 18 to 30 years old from the G20 countries.2010: Vancouver[135]\n2011: Paris[136]\n2012: Puebla[137]\n2013: Saint Petersburg[138][non-primary source needed]\n2014: Sydney[139]\n2015: Istanbul[140]\n2016: Beijing and Shanghai[141]\n2017: Berlin[142]\n2018: Córdoba[143]\n2019: Tokyo[144]\n2020: Riyadh[145]\n2021: Milan and Bergamo[146]\n2022: Jakarta and Bandung[147]\n2023: Varanasi[148]\n2024: Brasília[149]","title":"Y20 summits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil"},{"link_name":"[150]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-150"}],"text":"O20 summits are summits to discuss the ocean agenda with the civil society of the G20 countries.2024: Brazil[150]","title":"O20 summits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil"},{"link_name":"[151]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-151"}],"text":"J20 summits are summits to gather the supreme courts of the G20 countries.2024: Brazil[151]","title":"J20 summits"}]
|
[]
|
[{"title":"List of G7 summits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_of_Seven#List_of_summits"},{"title":"BRICS § Summits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BRICS#Summits"},{"title":"Shanghai Cooperation Organisation § List of summits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation#List_of_summits"}]
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_breeders%27_rights
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Plant breeders' rights
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["1 International rights","2 Plants as intellectual property","3 Seed sovereignty","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]
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Intellectual property
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Outline of intellectual property
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Higher categories:Property and Property law
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Plant breeders' rights (PBR), also known as plant variety rights (PVR), are rights granted in certain places to the breeder of a new variety of plant that give the breeder exclusive control over the propagating material (including seed, cuttings, divisions, tissue culture) and harvested material (cut flowers, fruit, foliage) of a new variety for a number of years.
With these rights, the breeder can choose to become the exclusive marketer of the variety, or to license the variety to others. In order to qualify for these exclusive rights, a variety must be new, distinct, uniform, and stable. A variety is:
new if it has not been commercialized for more than one year in the country of protection;
distinct if it differs from all other known varieties by one or more important botanical characteristics, such as height, maturity, color, etc.;
uniform if the plant characteristics are consistent from plant to plant within the variety;
stable if the plant characteristics are genetically fixed and therefore remain the same from generation to generation, or after a cycle of reproduction in the case of hybrid varieties.
The breeder must also give the variety an acceptable "denomination", which becomes its generic name and must be used by anyone who markets the variety.
Typically, plant variety rights are granted by national offices after examination. Seed is submitted to the plant variety office, who grow it for one or more seasons, to check that it is distinct, stable, and uniform. If these tests are passed, exclusive rights are granted for a specified period (typically 20/25 years, or 25/30 years for trees and vines). Renewal fees (often, annual) are required to maintain the rights.
Breeders can bring suit to enforce their rights and can recover damages. Plant breeders' rights contain exemptions that are not recognized under other legal doctrines such as patent law. Commonly, there is an exemption for farm-saved seed. Farmers may store this production in their own bins for their own use as seed, but this does not necessarily extend to "brown-bag sales" (i.e. resale of farm-saved seed to neighbors in the local area). Further sales for propagation purposes are not allowed without the written approval of the breeder. There is also a breeders' exemption (research exemption in the 1991 Act) that allows breeders to use protected varieties as sources of initial variation to create new varieties of plants (1978 Act), or for other experimental purposes (1991 Act). There is also a provision for compulsory licensing to assure public access to protected varieties if the national interest requires it and the breeder is unable to meet the demand.
There is tension over the relationship between patent rights and plant breeder's rights. There has been litigation in Australia, the United States, and Canada over the overlap between such rights. Each of these cases was decided on the principle that patents and plant breeders' rights were overlapping and not mutually exclusive. Thus, the exemptions from infringement of plant breeders' rights, such as the saved seed exemption, do not create corresponding exemptions from infringement of the patents covering the same plants. Likewise, acts that infringe the plant breeders' rights, such as exportation of the variety, would not necessarily infringe a patent on the variety, which only allows the patent owner to prohibit making, using, or selling (first sale, but not resale) the patented invention.
International rights
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In 1957, in France negotiations took place concerned with the protection of new varieties. This led to the creation of the Union Internationale pour la Protection des Obtentions Végétales (UPOV) and adoption of the first text of the International Convention for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV Convention) in 1961. The purpose of the Convention was to ensure that the member states party to the Convention acknowledge the achievements of breeders of new plant varieties by making available to them an exclusive property right, on the basis of a set of uniform and clearly defined principles.
The Convention was revised in Geneva in 1972, 1978 and 1991. Both the 1978 and the 1991 Acts set out a minimum scope of protection and offer member States the possibility of taking national circumstances into account in their legislation. Under the 1978 Act, the minimum scope of the plant breeder's right requires that the holder's prior authorisation is necessary for the production for purposes of commercial marketing, the offering for sale and the marketing of propagating material of the protected variety. The 1991 Act contains more detailed provisions defining the acts concerning propagating material in relation to which the holder's authorisation is required. The breeder's authorisation is also required in relation to any of the specified acts done with harvested material of the variety, unless the breeder has had reasonable opportunity to exercise their right in relation to the propagating material, or if not doing so could constitute an "Omega Threat" situation. Under that provision, for example, a flower breeder who protects their variety in the Netherlands could block importation of cut flowers of that variety into the Netherlands from Egypt, which does not grant plant breeders' rights, because the breeder had no opportunity to exercise any rights in Egypt. Member countries also have the option to require the breeder's authorization with respect to the specified acts as applied to products directly obtained from the harvested material (such as flour or oil from grain, or juice from fruit), unless the breeder has had reasonable opportunity to exercise their right in relation to the harvested material.
The UPOV Convention also establishes a multilateral system of national treatment, under which citizens of any member state are treated as citizens of all member states for the purpose of obtaining plant breeders rights. It also sets up a multilateral priority filing system, under which an application for protection filed in one member state establishes a filing date for applications filed in all other member states within one year of that original filing date. This allows a breeder to file in any one member country within the one-year period required to preserve the novelty of their variety, and the novelty of the variety will still be recognized when the filing is done in other member countries within one year of the original filing date. However, if the applicant does not wish to make use of priority filing, he or she has four years in which to apply in all other member states, excepting the United States, for all species except tree and vine species in which case he or she has six years to make application. More information can be obtained in Article 10 (1) (b) of Council Regulation (EC) No. 2100/94 of 27 July 2004. The trigger to start the four- or six-year period is not actually the date on which the first filing is made but the date on which the variety was first commercialised.
The UPOV Convention is not self-executing. Each member state must adopt legislation consistent with the requirements of the convention and submit that legislation to the UPOV Secretariat for review and approval by the UPOV Council, which consists of all the UPOV member states acting in committee. In compliance with these treaty obligations, the United Kingdom enacted the Plant Variety and Seeds Act 1964. Similar legislation was passed in the Netherlands, Denmark, Germany, and New Zealand. In 1970 the United States followed the lead of seventeen Western European nations and passed the Plant Variety Protection Act 1970 (US). This legislation provided protection to developers of novel, sexually reproduced plants. However, the United States originally acceded to the UPOV Convention on the basis of the Plant Patent Act and did not bring the PVP Act into compliance with UPOV requirements until 1984 when the Commissioner of Plant Variety Protection promulgated rules to do so. Since the 1980s, the US Patent Office has granted patents on plants, including plant varieties this provides a second way of protecting plant varieties in the United States. Australia passed the Plant Variety Protection Act 1987 (Cth) and the Plant Breeders Rights Act 1994 (Cth). Australian patent law also permits the patenting of plant varieties. In total, 65 countries have signed the UPOV Convention and adopted plant breeders' rights legislation consistent with the requirements of the convention.
The WTO's Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs) requires member states to provide protection for plant varieties either by patents or by an effective sui generis (stand alone) system, or a combination of the two. Most countries meet this requirement through UPOV Convention-compliant legislation. India has adopted a plant breeders' rights law that has been rejected by the UPOV Council as not meeting the requirements of the treaty.
The most recent 1991 UPOV convention established several restrictions upon international plant breeders' rights. While the current legislature of the convention recognizes novel varieties of plants as intellectual property, laws were formed concerning the preservation of seeds for future plantation, such that the need to buy seeds to use in subsequent planting seasons would be significantly reduced, and even potentially eliminated altogether. In addition, the 1991 convention also concerns the method of instigating plant breeding by implementing pre-existing and patented plant species as contributor of vital genetic information in the creation of what would legally be regarded as a new variety of plant.
Constituent countries of the World Trade Organization are required to acknowledge the creation of new varieties of plants, and to uphold these creations within full recognition of intellectual property rights laws. A formalized legislature, exemplifying the manner in which such intellectual property rights can be conferred, is demonstrated by the 1991 UPOV convention, which declares such rights upon an individual breeder. This document further identifies a breeder as one who has found or created a plant variety, one who possesses legal authority for the contractual production of a new plant variety, or one who has inherited legal rights to this form of intellectual property as it was derived under either of the two aforementioned conditions.
As a result of debate over the protection of hybrid plants as new varieties, the legal measure of double protection, as expressed within the current iteration of the UPOV, can be taken. Double protection mediates the overlap between plant breeders' rights and patents that exists within the purview of intellectual property rights law, by enabling the protections of both to be conferred upon a particular plant variety.
Plant breeders' rights (sometimes referred to as breeders' privilege) are contentious, in particular when analysed in balance with other relevant international legal instruments, such as the Convention on Biological Diversity (and its Nagoya Protocol) or the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (Plant Treaty). The UPOV is often criticized on this basis.
Plants as intellectual property
There have been contrary opinions expressed by both lawyers and scientists assessing the general necessity for the protection of bred plant varieties as a form of intellectual property. Currently, intellectual property rights protect ideas that can be demonstrated as being novel and undiscovered at the time of its legal claim as intellectual property. This definition of novelty, however, has been flexible throughout the history of intellectual property law, both internationally, and within the United States. Expectations of future changes to the legal protection of plant-related forms of intellectual property differ from the legal requirements for the first plant patent. Proponents of these laws recognize an overarching need for the financial support of research and development. Agricultural research and development, for example, has been specified as a particularly demanding endeavor, with respect to immediate concerns for the ability to sustainably feed an increasing global population. On the contrary, some believe that a more diverse approach than the imposition of intellectual property rights laws upon new plant varieties is required. This counter argument asserts that complex social, cultural, and economic factors affect the nature of intellectual property and its protection. A specific concern within this argument is with the means by which seeds are accessed within different local and international regions. Recognizing that this process is extremely transient in nature and can vary greatly over time, supporters of this argument purport that this diversity must be reflected within intellectual property rights laws in order for them to exist as an effective protection of plant breeders' rights.
As a result of this conflict concerning authority over seeds, new legislation has been implemented in the United States. The Open Source Seed Initiative (OSSI) is a national attempt that has been introduced within the United States, and is the first of its kind to model its approach regarding plant breeders' rights upon the mechanisms implemented by openly sourced software mechanisms. Subsequent discourse on this approach has arisen, as concerns with the use of open source technology within a legal framework have developed. Some perceive OSSI as having significantly limited plant breeders' ability to access intellectual property rights for new plant varieties. This has resulted in claims that funding for research and development in this sector will also decline.
Seed sovereignty
Seed sovereignty can be defined as the right "to breed and exchange diverse open-sourced seeds". Generally, it comes from the belief that communities should have control over their own seed stock, as a means to increase agricultural biodiversity, resilience, and food security. This idea is closely connected to issues of intellectual property rights, particularly related to the patenting of plant genetics, due to the importance of seed saving in seed sovereignty. Activists argue that farmers and individuals should have legal protection for the practice for maintaining traditional plant varieties. Seed sovereignty activists also argue that seed saving should be protected on the grounds of environmentalism and food security. Some activists argue that seed sovereignty is important because of the cultural value of certain seeds and plant varieties, especially among indigenous communities. Seed sovereignty has strong ties to the food justice and food sovereignty movements, due to its focus on increasing food security for all communities.
See also
Plant breeding
Plant genetic resources
Biodiversity
Biopiracy / Bioprospecting
Germplasm
Seedbank
Access and Benefit Sharing Agreement
Farmers' rights / Peasants' rights
Convention on Biological Diversity and Nagoya Protocol to the Convention on Biological Diversity
UPOV Convention on New Varieties of Plants
United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Peasants
International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (Plant Treaty)
World Intellectual Property Organization
Genetic resources (disambiguation)
Community Plant Variety Office (CPVO)
National laws (Plant Patent Act of 1930, Plant Variety Protection Act - USA; Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers' Rights Act, 2001 - India)
References
^ "Plant Variety Rights". www.plantvarietyrights.org. Retrieved 2020-03-04.
^ "Since 1994, brown-bag sales of PVP-protected seed has been illegal in the United States" (PDF). uidaho.edu. Retrieved 13 March 2024.
^ "International Convention For The Protection Of New Varieties Of Plants of December 2, 1961, as revised at Geneva on November 10, 1972, and on October 23, 1978, UPOV Convention". Archived from the original on June 26, 2012.
^ "International Convention For The Protection Of New Varieties Of Plants of December 2, 1961, as Revised at Geneva on November 10, 1972, on October 23, 1978, and on March 19, 1991, UPOV Convention". Archived from the original on August 21, 2006.
^ Matthew Rimmer. "Franklin Barley Patent Law And Plant Breeders' Rights", Murdoch University Electronic Journal of Law, December 2003, Vol. 10, No. 4, URL http://www.murdoch.edu.au/elaw/issues/v10n4/rimmer104.html
^ a b c d e Fister, Karin; Fister, Iztok; Murovec, Jana; Bohanec, Borut (2017-02-01). "DNA labelling of varieties covered by patent protection: a new solution for managing intellectual property rights in the seed industry". Transgenic Research. 26 (1): 87–95. doi:10.1007/s11248-016-9981-1. ISSN 0962-8819. PMID 27567633. S2CID 20477905.
^ a b c d e f g Kloppenburg, Jack (2014-11-02). "Re-purposing the master's tools: the open source seed initiative and the struggle for seed sovereignty". The Journal of Peasant Studies. 41 (6): 1225–1246. doi:10.1080/03066150.2013.875897. ISSN 0306-6150. S2CID 154646597.
^ a b c d e Smith, Stephen; Lence, Sergio; Hayes, Dermot; Alston, Julian; Corona, Eloy (2016-07-08). "Elements of Intellectual Property Protection in Plant Breeding and Biotechnology: Interactions and Outcomes". Crop Science. 56 (4): 1401. doi:10.2135/cropsci2015.10.0608. ISSN 0011-183X.
^ a b Barh, Debmalya (2013-11-27). Barh, Debmalya (ed.). OMICS Applications in Crop Science. CRC Press. doi:10.1201/b16352. ISBN 9781466585256.
^ Jondle, Robert J.; Hill, Krista K.; Sanny, Tony (2015-11-12). "Current Legal Issues in Intellectual Property Rights and Protection for Crop Plants". Crop Science. 55 (6): 2496. doi:10.2135/cropsci2014.10.0693. ISSN 0011-183X.
^ Palombi, Luigi (2014-06-30). "The Patenting of Biological Materials in the United States: A State of Policy Confusion". Perspectives on Science. 23 (1): 35–65. doi:10.1162/POSC_a_00158. ISSN 1063-6145. S2CID 57560111.
^ Cook, Robert C. “The First Plant Patent.” Journal of the Patent Office Society 14 (1932): 398–403.
^ "Article: Future of protecting plant related innovations - Mewburn Ellis". Mewburn Ellis. Archived from the original on 2016-05-28. Retrieved 2017-05-05.
^ Lence, Sergio H.; Hayes, Dermot J.; Alston, Julian M.; Smith, John Stephen C. (2016-02-01). "Intellectual property in plant breeding: comparing different levels and forms of protection". European Review of Agricultural Economics. 43 (1): 1–29. doi:10.1093/erae/jbv007. ISSN 0165-1587.
^ "Seed Sovereignty". Seed Sovereignty. The Gaia Foundation. Retrieved 8 May 2020.
^ Winter, Lauren (Jan 2020). "Cultivating Farmers' Rights: Reconciling Food Security, Indigenous Agriculture, and TRIPS". Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law. 43 (1): 223–254.
^ Raster, Amanda; Hill, Christina Rish (June 1, 2017). "The dispute over wild rice: an investigation of treaty agreements and Ojibwe food sovereignty". Agriculture and Human Values. 34 (2): 267–281. doi:10.1007/s10460-016-9703-6. S2CID 55940408.
^ LaDuke, Winona. (2012). Seeds of Our Ancestors, Seeds of Life, TEDxTC. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pHNlel72eQc
^ White, Rowen. (2018). The Native Seed Pod, Episode 1. https://www.nativeseedpod.org/podcast/2018/episode-1-the-natural-law-of-seeds
External links
"CIOPORA" International community of breeders of asexually reproduced ornamental and fruit varieties
Guidance on Plant Breeders' Rights from United Kingdom government website
vtePlant breeders' rightsGranting agencies
Community Plant Variety Office (European Union)
Raad voor Plantenrassen (Netherlands)
International organisations
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV)
Relevant international law
Convention on Biological Diversity
Nagoya Protocol
International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (Plant Treaty)
UPOV Convention
United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP)
United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Peasants (UNDROP)
Article 9 of FAO Plant Treaty on Farmers' rights
Right to food as codified in various texts
National legislations
India (2001)
United States of America (1970)
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In order to qualify for these exclusive rights, a variety must be new, distinct, uniform, and stable.[1] A variety is:new if it has not been commercialized for more than one year in the country of protection;\ndistinct if it differs from all other known varieties by one or more important botanical characteristics, such as height, maturity, color, etc.;\nuniform if the plant characteristics are consistent from plant to plant within the variety;\nstable if the plant characteristics are genetically fixed and therefore remain the same from generation to generation, or after a cycle of reproduction in the case of hybrid varieties.The breeder must also give the variety an acceptable \"denomination\", which becomes its generic name and must be used by anyone who markets the variety.Typically, plant variety rights are granted by national offices after examination. Seed is submitted to the plant variety office, who grow it for one or more seasons, to check that it is distinct, stable, and uniform. If these tests are passed, exclusive rights are granted for a specified period (typically 20/25 years, or 25/30 years for trees and vines). Renewal fees (often, annual) are required to maintain the rights.Breeders can bring suit to enforce their rights and can recover damages. Plant breeders' rights contain exemptions that are not recognized under other legal doctrines such as patent law. Commonly, there is an exemption for farm-saved seed. Farmers may store this production in their own bins for their own use as seed, but this does not necessarily extend to \"brown-bag sales\" (i.e. resale of farm-saved seed to neighbors in the local area).[2] Further sales for propagation purposes are not allowed without the written approval of the breeder. There is also a breeders' exemption (research exemption in the 1991 Act) that allows breeders to use protected varieties as sources of initial variation to create new varieties of plants (1978 Act),[3] or for other experimental purposes (1991 Act).[4] There is also a provision for compulsory licensing to assure public access to protected varieties if the national interest requires it and the breeder is unable to meet the demand.There is tension over the relationship between patent rights and plant breeder's rights. There has been litigation in Australia, the United States, and Canada over the overlap between such rights.[5] Each of these cases was decided on the principle that patents and plant breeders' rights were overlapping and not mutually exclusive. Thus, the exemptions from infringement of plant breeders' rights, such as the saved seed exemption, do not create corresponding exemptions from infringement of the patents covering the same plants. Likewise, acts that infringe the plant breeders' rights, such as exportation of the variety, would not necessarily infringe a patent on the variety, which only allows the patent owner to prohibit making, using, or selling (first sale, but not resale) the patented invention.","title":"Plant breeders' rights"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Union Internationale pour la Protection des Obtentions Végétales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Union_for_the_Protection_of_New_Varieties_of_Plants"},{"link_name":"Geneva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva"},{"link_name":"self-executing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-executing_right"},{"link_name":"Plant Variety and Seeds Act 1964","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_Variety_and_Seeds_Act_1964"},{"link_name":"Western European","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_European"},{"link_name":"Plant Variety Protection Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_Variety_Protection_Act"},{"link_name":"Plant Breeders Rights Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plant_Breeders_Rights_Act&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"WTO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WTO"},{"link_name":"Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agreement_on_Trade-Related_Aspects_of_Intellectual_Property_Rights"},{"link_name":"patents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent"},{"link_name":"intellectual property","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_property"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-7"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-6"},{"link_name":"World Trade Organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Trade_Organization"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-6"},{"link_name":"hybrid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_(biology)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-6"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:12-8"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-6"},{"link_name":"Convention on Biological Diversity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_Biological_Diversity"},{"link_name":"Nagoya Protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagoya_Protocol"},{"link_name":"International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Treaty_on_Plant_Genetic_Resources_for_Food_and_Agriculture"},{"link_name":"criticized on this basis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UPOV#Critics_and_public_interest_concerns"}],"text":"In 1957, in France negotiations took place concerned with the protection of new varieties. This led to the creation of the Union Internationale pour la Protection des Obtentions Végétales (UPOV) and adoption of the first text of the International Convention for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV Convention) in 1961. The purpose of the Convention was to ensure that the member states party to the Convention acknowledge the achievements of breeders of new plant varieties by making available to them an exclusive property right, on the basis of a set of uniform and clearly defined principles.The Convention was revised in Geneva in 1972, 1978 and 1991. Both the 1978 and the 1991 Acts set out a minimum scope of protection and offer member States the possibility of taking national circumstances into account in their legislation. Under the 1978 Act, the minimum scope of the plant breeder's right requires that the holder's prior authorisation is necessary for the production for purposes of commercial marketing, the offering for sale and the marketing of propagating material of the protected variety. The 1991 Act contains more detailed provisions defining the acts concerning propagating material in relation to which the holder's authorisation is required. The breeder's authorisation is also required in relation to any of the specified acts done with harvested material of the variety, unless the breeder has had reasonable opportunity to exercise their right in relation to the propagating material, or if not doing so could constitute an \"Omega Threat\" situation. Under that provision, for example, a flower breeder who protects their variety in the Netherlands could block importation of cut flowers of that variety into the Netherlands from Egypt, which does not grant plant breeders' rights, because the breeder had no opportunity to exercise any rights in Egypt. Member countries also have the option to require the breeder's authorization with respect to the specified acts as applied to products directly obtained from the harvested material (such as flour or oil from grain, or juice from fruit), unless the breeder has had reasonable opportunity to exercise their right in relation to the harvested material.The UPOV Convention also establishes a multilateral system of national treatment, under which citizens of any member state are treated as citizens of all member states for the purpose of obtaining plant breeders rights. It also sets up a multilateral priority filing system, under which an application for protection filed in one member state establishes a filing date for applications filed in all other member states within one year of that original filing date. This allows a breeder to file in any one member country within the one-year period required to preserve the novelty of their variety, and the novelty of the variety will still be recognized when the filing is done in other member countries within one year of the original filing date. However, if the applicant does not wish to make use of priority filing, he or she has four years in which to apply in all other member states, excepting the United States, for all species except tree and vine species in which case he or she has six years to make application. More information can be obtained in Article 10 (1) (b) of Council Regulation (EC) No. 2100/94 of 27 July 2004. The trigger to start the four- or six-year period is not actually the date on which the first filing is made but the date on which the variety was first commercialised.The UPOV Convention is not self-executing. Each member state must adopt legislation consistent with the requirements of the convention and submit that legislation to the UPOV Secretariat for review and approval by the UPOV Council, which consists of all the UPOV member states acting in committee. In compliance with these treaty obligations, the United Kingdom enacted the Plant Variety and Seeds Act 1964. Similar legislation was passed in the Netherlands, Denmark, Germany, and New Zealand. In 1970 the United States followed the lead of seventeen Western European nations and passed the Plant Variety Protection Act 1970 (US). This legislation provided protection to developers of novel, sexually reproduced plants. However, the United States originally acceded to the UPOV Convention on the basis of the Plant Patent Act and did not bring the PVP Act into compliance with UPOV requirements until 1984 when the Commissioner of Plant Variety Protection promulgated rules to do so. Since the 1980s, the US Patent Office has granted patents on plants, including plant varieties this provides a second way of protecting plant varieties in the United States. Australia passed the Plant Variety Protection Act 1987 (Cth) and the Plant Breeders Rights Act 1994 (Cth). Australian patent law also permits the patenting of plant varieties. In total, 65 countries have signed the UPOV Convention and adopted plant breeders' rights legislation consistent with the requirements of the convention.The WTO's Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs) requires member states to provide protection for plant varieties either by patents or by an effective sui generis (stand alone) system, or a combination of the two. Most countries meet this requirement through UPOV Convention-compliant legislation. India has adopted a plant breeders' rights law that has been rejected by the UPOV Council as not meeting the requirements of the treaty.The most recent 1991 UPOV convention established several restrictions upon international plant breeders' rights. While the current legislature of the convention recognizes novel varieties of plants as intellectual property, laws were formed concerning the preservation of seeds for future plantation, such that the need to buy seeds to use in subsequent planting seasons would be significantly reduced, and even potentially eliminated altogether.[6][7] In addition, the 1991 convention also concerns the method of instigating plant breeding by implementing pre-existing and patented plant species as contributor of vital genetic information in the creation of what would legally be regarded as a new variety of plant.[6]Constituent countries of the World Trade Organization are required to acknowledge the creation of new varieties of plants, and to uphold these creations within full recognition of intellectual property rights laws. A formalized legislature, exemplifying the manner in which such intellectual property rights can be conferred, is demonstrated by the 1991 UPOV convention, which declares such rights upon an individual breeder.[6] This document further identifies a breeder as one who has found or created a plant variety, one who possesses legal authority for the contractual production of a new plant variety, or one who has inherited legal rights to this form of intellectual property as it was derived under either of the two aforementioned conditions.As a result of debate over the protection of hybrid plants as new varieties, the legal measure of double protection, as expressed within the current iteration of the UPOV, can be taken.[6][8] Double protection mediates the overlap between plant breeders' rights and patents that exists within the purview of intellectual property rights law, by enabling the protections of both to be conferred upon a particular plant variety.[6]Plant breeders' rights (sometimes referred to as breeders' privilege) are contentious, in particular when analysed in balance with other relevant international legal instruments, such as the Convention on Biological Diversity (and its Nagoya Protocol) or the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (Plant Treaty). The UPOV is often criticized on this basis.","title":"International rights"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-7"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-9"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-9"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Agricultural","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:12-8"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:12-8"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:12-8"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:12-8"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-7"},{"link_name":"Open Source Seed Initiative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Source_Seed_Initiative"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-7"}],"text":"There have been contrary opinions expressed by both lawyers and scientists assessing the general necessity for the protection of bred plant varieties as a form of intellectual property.[7][9] Currently, intellectual property rights protect ideas that can be demonstrated as being novel and undiscovered at the time of its legal claim as intellectual property.[9] This definition of novelty, however, has been flexible throughout the history of intellectual property law, both internationally, and within the United States.[10][11] Expectations of future changes to the legal protection of plant-related forms of intellectual property differ from the legal requirements for the first plant patent.[12][13] Proponents of these laws recognize an overarching need for the financial support of research and development. Agricultural research and development, for example, has been specified as a particularly demanding endeavor, with respect to immediate concerns for the ability to sustainably feed an increasing global population.[8][14] On the contrary, some believe that a more diverse approach than the imposition of intellectual property rights laws upon new plant varieties is required.[8][7] This counter argument asserts that complex social, cultural, and economic factors affect the nature of intellectual property and its protection. A specific concern within this argument is with the means by which seeds are accessed within different local and international regions.[8] Recognizing that this process is extremely transient in nature and can vary greatly over time, supporters of this argument purport that this diversity must be reflected within intellectual property rights laws in order for them to exist as an effective protection of plant breeders' rights.[8]As a result of this conflict concerning authority over seeds, new legislation has been implemented in the United States.[7] The Open Source Seed Initiative (OSSI) is a national attempt that has been introduced within the United States, and is the first of its kind to model its approach regarding plant breeders' rights upon the mechanisms implemented by openly sourced software mechanisms.[7] Subsequent discourse on this approach has arisen, as concerns with the use of open source technology within a legal framework have developed. Some perceive OSSI as having significantly limited plant breeders' ability to access intellectual property rights for new plant varieties.[7] This has resulted in claims that funding for research and development in this sector will also decline.[7]","title":"Plants as intellectual property"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"failed verification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability"},{"link_name":"seed saving","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed_saving"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"food justice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_Justice_Movement"},{"link_name":"food sovereignty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_sovereignty"}],"text":"Seed sovereignty can be defined as the right \"to breed and exchange diverse open-sourced seeds\".[15][failed verification] Generally, it comes from the belief that communities should have control over their own seed stock, as a means to increase agricultural biodiversity, resilience, and food security. This idea is closely connected to issues of intellectual property rights, particularly related to the patenting of plant genetics, due to the importance of seed saving in seed sovereignty.[16] Activists argue that farmers and individuals should have legal protection for the practice for maintaining traditional plant varieties.[17] Seed sovereignty activists also argue that seed saving should be protected on the grounds of environmentalism and food security.[18] Some activists argue that seed sovereignty is important because of the cultural value of certain seeds and plant varieties, especially among indigenous communities.[19] Seed sovereignty has strong ties to the food justice and food sovereignty movements, due to its focus on increasing food security for all communities.","title":"Seed sovereignty"}]
|
[]
|
[{"title":"Plant breeding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_breeding"},{"title":"Plant genetic resources","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_genetic_resources"},{"title":"Biodiversity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversity"},{"title":"Biopiracy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biopiracy"},{"title":"Bioprospecting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioprospecting"},{"title":"Germplasm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germplasm"},{"title":"Seedbank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seedbank"},{"title":"Access and Benefit Sharing Agreement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Access_and_Benefit_Sharing_Agreement"},{"title":"Farmers' rights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmers%27_rights"},{"title":"Peasants' rights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peasants%27_rights"},{"title":"Convention on Biological Diversity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_Biological_Diversity"},{"title":"Nagoya Protocol to the Convention on Biological Diversity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagoya_Protocol"},{"title":"UPOV Convention on New Varieties of Plants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_New_Varieties_of_Plants"},{"title":"United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Peasants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Declaration_on_the_Rights_of_Peasants"},{"title":"International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Treaty_on_Plant_Genetic_Resources_for_Food_and_Agriculture"},{"title":"World Intellectual Property Organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Intellectual_Property_Organization"},{"title":"Genetic resources (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_resources_(disambiguation)"},{"title":"Community Plant Variety Office","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_Plant_Variety_Office"},{"title":"Plant Patent Act of 1930","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_Patent_Act_of_1930"},{"title":"Plant Variety Protection Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_Variety_Protection_Act"},{"title":"Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers' Rights Act, 2001","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protection_of_Plant_Varieties_and_Farmers%27_Rights_Act,_2001"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Plant Variety Rights\". www.plantvarietyrights.org. Retrieved 2020-03-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.plantvarietyrights.org/plant-variety-rights.html","url_text":"\"Plant Variety Rights\""}]},{"reference":"\"Since 1994, brown-bag sales of PVP-protected seed has been illegal in the United States\" (PDF). uidaho.edu. Retrieved 13 March 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.uidaho.edu/-/media/UIdaho-Responsive/Files/research/ott/faculty-researchers/learning/seed-ip-flyer.pdf","url_text":"\"Since 1994, brown-bag sales of PVP-protected seed has been illegal in the United States\""}]},{"reference":"\"International Convention For The Protection Of New Varieties Of Plants of December 2, 1961, as revised at Geneva on November 10, 1972, and on October 23, 1978, UPOV Convention\". Archived from the original on June 26, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120626113944/http://www.upov.int/en/publications/conventions/1978/act1978.htm","url_text":"\"International Convention For The Protection Of New Varieties Of Plants of December 2, 1961, as revised at Geneva on November 10, 1972, and on October 23, 1978, UPOV Convention\""},{"url":"http://www.upov.int/en/publications/conventions/1978/act1978.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"International Convention For The Protection Of New Varieties Of Plants of December 2, 1961, as Revised at Geneva on November 10, 1972, on October 23, 1978, and on March 19, 1991, UPOV Convention\". Archived from the original on August 21, 2006.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060821220927/http://www.upov.int/en/publications/conventions/1991/act1991.htm","url_text":"\"International Convention For The Protection Of New Varieties Of Plants of December 2, 1961, as Revised at Geneva on November 10, 1972, on October 23, 1978, and on March 19, 1991, UPOV Convention\""},{"url":"http://www.upov.int/en/publications/conventions/1991/act1991.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Fister, Karin; Fister, Iztok; Murovec, Jana; Bohanec, Borut (2017-02-01). \"DNA labelling of varieties covered by patent protection: a new solution for managing intellectual property rights in the seed industry\". Transgenic Research. 26 (1): 87–95. doi:10.1007/s11248-016-9981-1. ISSN 0962-8819. PMID 27567633. S2CID 20477905.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11248-016-9981-1","url_text":"10.1007/s11248-016-9981-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0962-8819","url_text":"0962-8819"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27567633","url_text":"27567633"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:20477905","url_text":"20477905"}]},{"reference":"Kloppenburg, Jack (2014-11-02). \"Re-purposing the master's tools: the open source seed initiative and the struggle for seed sovereignty\". The Journal of Peasant Studies. 41 (6): 1225–1246. doi:10.1080/03066150.2013.875897. ISSN 0306-6150. S2CID 154646597.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03066150.2013.875897","url_text":"10.1080/03066150.2013.875897"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0306-6150","url_text":"0306-6150"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154646597","url_text":"154646597"}]},{"reference":"Smith, Stephen; Lence, Sergio; Hayes, Dermot; Alston, Julian; Corona, Eloy (2016-07-08). \"Elements of Intellectual Property Protection in Plant Breeding and Biotechnology: Interactions and Outcomes\". Crop Science. 56 (4): 1401. doi:10.2135/cropsci2015.10.0608. ISSN 0011-183X.","urls":[{"url":"http://lib.dr.iastate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1579&context=econ_las_pubs","url_text":"\"Elements of Intellectual Property Protection in Plant Breeding and Biotechnology: Interactions and Outcomes\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2135%2Fcropsci2015.10.0608","url_text":"10.2135/cropsci2015.10.0608"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0011-183X","url_text":"0011-183X"}]},{"reference":"Barh, Debmalya (2013-11-27). Barh, Debmalya (ed.). OMICS Applications in Crop Science. CRC Press. doi:10.1201/b16352. ISBN 9781466585256.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1201%2Fb16352","url_text":"10.1201/b16352"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781466585256","url_text":"9781466585256"}]},{"reference":"Jondle, Robert J.; Hill, Krista K.; Sanny, Tony (2015-11-12). \"Current Legal Issues in Intellectual Property Rights and Protection for Crop Plants\". Crop Science. 55 (6): 2496. doi:10.2135/cropsci2014.10.0693. ISSN 0011-183X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2135%2Fcropsci2014.10.0693","url_text":"10.2135/cropsci2014.10.0693"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0011-183X","url_text":"0011-183X"}]},{"reference":"Palombi, Luigi (2014-06-30). \"The Patenting of Biological Materials in the United States: A State of Policy Confusion\". Perspectives on Science. 23 (1): 35–65. doi:10.1162/POSC_a_00158. ISSN 1063-6145. S2CID 57560111.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1162%2FPOSC_a_00158","url_text":"10.1162/POSC_a_00158"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1063-6145","url_text":"1063-6145"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:57560111","url_text":"57560111"}]},{"reference":"\"Article: Future of protecting plant related innovations - Mewburn Ellis\". Mewburn Ellis. Archived from the original on 2016-05-28. Retrieved 2017-05-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160528100543/http://mewburn.com/resource/article-future-of-protecting-plant-related-innovations/","url_text":"\"Article: Future of protecting plant related innovations - Mewburn Ellis\""},{"url":"http://mewburn.com/resource/article-future-of-protecting-plant-related-innovations/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Lence, Sergio H.; Hayes, Dermot J.; Alston, Julian M.; Smith, John Stephen C. (2016-02-01). \"Intellectual property in plant breeding: comparing different levels and forms of protection\". European Review of Agricultural Economics. 43 (1): 1–29. doi:10.1093/erae/jbv007. ISSN 0165-1587.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Ferae%2Fjbv007","url_text":"\"Intellectual property in plant breeding: comparing different levels and forms of protection\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Ferae%2Fjbv007","url_text":"10.1093/erae/jbv007"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0165-1587","url_text":"0165-1587"}]},{"reference":"\"Seed Sovereignty\". Seed Sovereignty. The Gaia Foundation. Retrieved 8 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.seedsovereignty.info/","url_text":"\"Seed Sovereignty\""}]},{"reference":"Winter, Lauren (Jan 2020). \"Cultivating Farmers' Rights: Reconciling Food Security, Indigenous Agriculture, and TRIPS\". Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law. 43 (1): 223–254.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Raster, Amanda; Hill, Christina Rish (June 1, 2017). \"The dispute over wild rice: an investigation of treaty agreements and Ojibwe food sovereignty\". Agriculture and Human Values. 34 (2): 267–281. doi:10.1007/s10460-016-9703-6. S2CID 55940408.","urls":[{"url":"https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/language_pubs/154","url_text":"\"The dispute over wild rice: an investigation of treaty agreements and Ojibwe food sovereignty\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10460-016-9703-6","url_text":"10.1007/s10460-016-9703-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:55940408","url_text":"55940408"}]}]
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Mewburn Ellis\""},{"Link":"http://mewburn.com/resource/article-future-of-protecting-plant-related-innovations/","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Ferae%2Fjbv007","external_links_name":"\"Intellectual property in plant breeding: comparing different levels and forms of protection\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Ferae%2Fjbv007","external_links_name":"10.1093/erae/jbv007"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0165-1587","external_links_name":"0165-1587"},{"Link":"https://www.seedsovereignty.info/","external_links_name":"\"Seed Sovereignty\""},{"Link":"https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/language_pubs/154","external_links_name":"\"The dispute over wild rice: an investigation of treaty agreements and Ojibwe food sovereignty\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10460-016-9703-6","external_links_name":"10.1007/s10460-016-9703-6"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:55940408","external_links_name":"55940408"},{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pHNlel72eQc","external_links_name":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pHNlel72eQc"},{"Link":"https://www.nativeseedpod.org/podcast/2018/episode-1-the-natural-law-of-seeds","external_links_name":"https://www.nativeseedpod.org/podcast/2018/episode-1-the-natural-law-of-seeds"},{"Link":"http://www.ciopora.org/","external_links_name":"\"CIOPORA\""},{"Link":"https://www.gov.uk/guidance/plant-breeders-rights","external_links_name":"[1]"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alien_Garden
|
Alien Garden
|
["1 Gameplay","2 Development","3 Reception","4 References","5 External links"]
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1982 video gameAlien GardenPublisher(s)EpyxDesigner(s)Bernie De KovenProgrammer(s)Jaron LanierRobert LeylandPlatform(s)Atari 8-bitRelease1982Genre(s)Non-gameMode(s)Single-player
Alien Garden is a non-game for Atari 8-bit computers published by Epyx in 1982 by Bernie De Koven and programmed by virtual reality pioneer Jaron Lanier. Designed with an emphasis on the need for experimentation, Alien Garden was described by its creators as an art game, and ranks among the earliest art games. Its release predates Lanier's Moondust by a year.
Gameplay
Gameplay consists of a side-scrolling world covered in 24 different kinds of crystalline flowers resembling gypsum flowers. The player controls an embryonic animal as it grows, survives and reproduces through 20 generations. Difficulty is introduced through the lack of instructions in the game. As such, the player must employ trial and error techniques to determine which flowers are edible, which flowers shrink or grow when stung, and which flowers are fatal or explosive when touched. The player may use either the organism's tail, stinger, or wings to bump or otherwise make contact with them. To maintain the challenge, the behavior of the flowers changes every time the game is played. To increase the challenge, the score is repeated all along the left and right sides of the scrolling screen. As the score increases, the animal avatar is forced to travel more and more closely to the sometimes deadly crystal flowers.
Development
Alien Garden was designed by Bernie De Koven and programmed by Jaron Lanier and Robert Leyland for the Epyx brand of publisher Automated Simulations. This was one of De Koven's first works alongside Ricochet. He described designing these games as "like writing poetry" and recalled was "very free as there were so few established precedents" despite a 4 KB memory restriction. He said that Alien Garden allowed him to challenge his own preconceptions of what a game should be. He used it as an example of his newfound freedom of expression in design, calling it "kind of like a trip, like some kind of psychedelic experience just to sit there with my eyes closed and imagine all these interactions taking place on the screen."
De Koven desired for Alien Garden to be an alternative to the perilous, alien environments found in other many games of its time. "I wanted to make an alien world, but not one that was necessarily hostile," he said. "A world that had some danger, but also some beauty." He later characterized Alien Garden as "a kind of art game, one that was beautiful to look at but required exploration to understand how to interact with the 'flowers' in the garden." De Koven and Lanier worked together to define the graphical elements due to the memory limitations. The score on the play field's boundary was designed to take up more of the screen as the game progressed, increasing the challenge for the player.
De Koven worked for Epyx for a little more than a year and a half prior to joining the Children's Computer Workshop. Lanier was with Epyx for about one year before departing and developing his more well-known art game Moondust for Creative Software. Leyland left Epyx to program Murder on the Zinderneuf for Free Fall Associates before a brief hiatus from the gaming industry.
Reception
Electronic Fun with Computers & Games praised the game for its "graphically stunning" visuals as well as the experimentation and strategy required. Computer Gaming World, however, harshly criticized the graphics, and felt that the lack of color was "particularly disappointing".
References
^ here’s Bernie — DeepFUN
^ "Epyx". GameSpy. Archived from the original on 27 December 2008. Retrieved 10 November 2008.
^ Thomsen, Michael (8 February 2010). "The Art Of Gaming". Edge. Archived from the original on 5 September 2012.
^ Pratt, Charles J. (8 February 2010). "The Art History... Of Games? Games As Art May Be A Lost Cause". Gamasutra. Archived from the original on 20 February 2019.
^ Pease, Emma (14 May 1997). "Post Symbolic Systems". CSLI Calendar of Public Events. 12 (28). Stanford Center for the Study of Language and Information. Archived from the original on 16 July 2011.
^ Alien Garden Owners Manual. AtariAge entry. Retrieved 10 November 2008.
^ a b c American Journal of Play staff (Winter 2015). "Deep Fun and the Theater of Games: An Interview with Bernie DeKoven". American Journal of Play. Vol. 7, no. 2. The Strong. p. 150. ISSN 1938-0399. OCLC 226081597.
^ a b Juul, Jesper (August 22, 2017). "Interview with Bernie DeKoven". Jesper Juul. Archived from the original on December 9, 2020. Retrieved March 10, 2024.
^ a b Wiswell, Phil (June 1983). "Phil Wiswell's Gamemakers: The learning game". Electronic Fun with Computers & Games. Vol. 1, no. 8. Fun & Games Publishing. pp. 78–9. ISSN 0746-0546. OCLC 10488752.
^ Wiswell, Phil (December 1983). "Phil Wiswell's Gamemakers: Moon Duster". Electronic Fun with Computers & Games. Vol. 2, no. 2. Fun & Games Publishing. pp. 84–5. ISSN 0746-0546. OCLC 10488752.
^ Lanier, Jaron (November 21, 2017). Dawn of a New Everything: Encounters with Reality and Virtual Reality (1st ed.). Henry Holt and Company. p. 99. ISBN 978-1627794091.
^ Hickey Jr., Patrick (October 6, 2022). The Minds Behind PlayStation 2 Games: Interviews with Creators and Developers. McFarland & Company. p. 102. ISBN 978-1476685076.
^ Wiswell, Phil (May 1983). "Alien Garden". Electronic Fun with Computers & Games. Vol. 1, no. 7. p. 66.
^ Doum, Allen (March–April 1983). "The Atari Arena". Computer Gaming World. Vol. 3, no. 2. pp. 20, 22.
External links
Alien Garden at Atari Mania
Alien Garden can be played for free in the browser at the Internet Archive
Manual at the Internet Archive
|
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Designed with an emphasis on the need for experimentation, Alien Garden was described by its creators as an art game,[3] and ranks among the earliest art games.[4] Its release predates Lanier's Moondust by a year.[5]","title":"Alien Garden"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"gypsum flowers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selenite_(mineral)#Gypsum_flower"},{"link_name":"embryonic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embryo"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Gameplay consists of a side-scrolling world covered in 24 different kinds of crystalline flowers resembling gypsum flowers. The player controls an embryonic animal as it grows, survives and reproduces through 20 generations. Difficulty is introduced through the lack of instructions in the game. As such, the player must employ trial and error techniques to determine which flowers are edible, which flowers shrink or grow when stung, and which flowers are fatal or explosive when touched.[6] The player may use either the organism's tail, stinger, or wings to bump or otherwise make contact with them. To maintain the challenge, the behavior of the flowers changes every time the game is played. To increase the challenge, the score is repeated all along the left and right sides of the scrolling screen. 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The score on the play field's boundary was designed to take up more of the screen as the game progressed, increasing the challenge for the player.[8]De Koven worked for Epyx for a little more than a year and a half prior to joining the Children's Computer Workshop.[7][9] Lanier was with Epyx for about one year before departing and developing his more well-known art game Moondust for Creative Software.[10][11] Leyland left Epyx to program Murder on the Zinderneuf for Free Fall Associates before a brief hiatus from the gaming industry.[12]","title":"Development"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Electronic Fun with Computers & Games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Fun_with_Computers_%26_Games"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Computer Gaming World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_Gaming_World"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"Electronic Fun with Computers & Games praised the game for its \"graphically stunning\" visuals as well as the experimentation and strategy required.[13] Computer Gaming World, however, harshly criticized the graphics, and felt that the lack of color was \"particularly disappointing\".[14]","title":"Reception"}]
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Vol. 3, no. 2. pp. 20, 22.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/cgw_9/page/n21","url_text":"\"The Atari Arena\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_Gaming_World","url_text":"Computer Gaming World"}]}]
|
[{"Link":"http://www.deepfun.com/bernie","external_links_name":"here’s Bernie — DeepFUN"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20081227080131/http://gotcha.classicgaming.gamespy.com/epyx.htm","external_links_name":"\"Epyx\""},{"Link":"http://gotcha.classicgaming.gamespy.com/epyx.htm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://archive.today/20120905091730/http://www.next-gen.biz/features/art-gaming","external_links_name":"\"The Art Of Gaming\""},{"Link":"http://www.next-gen.biz/features/art-gaming","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/27133/The_Art_History_Of_Games_Games_As_Art_May_Be_A_Lost_Cause.php","external_links_name":"\"The Art History... Of Games? Games As Art May Be A Lost Cause\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190220165014/https://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/27133/The_Art_History_Of_Games_Games_As_Art_May_Be_A_Lost_Cause.php","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110716051829/http://www-csli.stanford.edu/Archive/calendar/1996-97/msg00029.html","external_links_name":"\"Post Symbolic Systems\""},{"Link":"http://www-csli.stanford.edu/Archive/calendar/1996-97/msg00029.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.atariage.com/box_page.html?SoftwareID=3870&BoxStyleID=76","external_links_name":"Alien Garden Owners Manual"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/ERIC_EJ1053426/page/n13/mode/1up","external_links_name":"\"Deep Fun and the Theater of Games: An Interview with Bernie DeKoven\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1938-0399","external_links_name":"1938-0399"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/226081597","external_links_name":"226081597"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201209080707/https://www.jesperjuul.net/handmadepixels/interviews/dekoven.html","external_links_name":"\"Interview with Bernie DeKoven\""},{"Link":"https://www.jesperjuul.net/handmadepixels/interviews/dekoven.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/Electronic_Fun_with_Computer_Games_Vol_01_No_08_1983-06_Fun_Games_Publishing_US/page/n77/mode/2up","external_links_name":"\"Phil Wiswell's Gamemakers: The learning game\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0746-0546","external_links_name":"0746-0546"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/10488752","external_links_name":"10488752"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/electronic-fun-with-computers-and-games-volume-2-number-2-december-1983/page/n85/mode/2up","external_links_name":"\"Phil Wiswell's Gamemakers: Moon Duster\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0746-0546","external_links_name":"0746-0546"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/10488752","external_links_name":"10488752"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/dawnofneweveryth0000lani/page/n9/mode/1up","external_links_name":"Dawn of a New Everything: Encounters with Reality and Virtual Reality"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=OVOtEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA102#v=onepage&q&f=false","external_links_name":"The Minds Behind PlayStation 2 Games: Interviews with Creators and Developers"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/Electronic_Fun_with_Computer_Games_Vol_01_No_07_1983-05_Fun_Games_Publishing_US/page/n63","external_links_name":"\"Alien Garden\""},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/cgw_9/page/n21","external_links_name":"\"The Atari Arena\""},{"Link":"https://www.atarimania.com/pgesoft.awp?version=196","external_links_name":"Alien Garden"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/a8b_cart_Alien_Garden_1982_Epyx_US","external_links_name":"Alien Garden"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_College_of_the_Cayman_Islands
|
University College of the Cayman Islands
|
["1 History","2 Courses","3 References"]
|
Coordinates: 19°16′45″N 81°23′02″W / 19.279175°N 81.383833°W / 19.279175; -81.383833
University College of the Cayman IslandsFormer namesCommunity College of the Cayman IslandsEstablished1975President(vacant)Websiteucci.edu.ky
The University College of the Cayman Islands (UCCI) is a tertiary educational institution in the Cayman Islands.
History
The original Community College was established as a part-time institution in 1975, and was the first government-sponsored tertiary education in the Cayman Islands.
The Trade School, the Hotel School and the Marine School were founded between 1976 and 1981.
In 1985 all of these institutions were amalgamated as the community College of the Cayman Islands.
In 2004 the Legislate Assembly passed an Act changing the name to the University College of the Cayman Islands.
Courses
The college offers certificate programmes in Accounting, Computer Technician, Electrical Technology, Computer Applications, Construction Technology and Hospitality Studies.
UCCI works with the Cayman Islands Society of Professional Accountants (CISPA) in defining the college's accounting programme, and as of September 2007 to offer Certified Public Accountant (CPA), Certified General Accountant (CGA) and Association of Chartered Certified Accountants (ACCA) review classes.
Reviewing the first year of UCCI's Certified Accounting Technician programme, CISPA considered that it had been successful, although some changes could be made to better prepare students for their first work experience.
The University College offers Associate of Arts, Associate of Sciences and Associate of Applied Sciences courses, followed by degree programmes leading to BSc degrees in Business Administration, Computer Science, Natural Science and Social Science, and Bachelor of Education degrees. UCCI also offers Commonwealth Executive MBA and Master of Public Administration degrees, as well as various professional and executive educational programmes.
References
^ "About Us". UCCI. Archived from the original on 22 July 2011. Retrieved 2 July 2011.
^ a b "Programs". UCCI. Retrieved 2 July 2011.
^ "Accountants usher in new era". Caymanian Compass. 3 April 2007. Archived from the original on 28 September 2011. Retrieved 2 July 2011.
^ Basia Pioro (12 July 2007). "UCCI accounting building bridges". Caymanian Compass. Archived from the original on 15 March 2012. Retrieved 2 July 2011.
^ "Professional Development Centre home page". Archived from the original on 22 August 2017. Retrieved 29 January 2015.
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19°16′45″N 81°23′02″W / 19.279175°N 81.383833°W / 19.279175; -81.383833
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cayman Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cayman_Islands"}],"text":"The University College of the Cayman Islands (UCCI) is a tertiary educational institution in the Cayman Islands.","title":"University College of the Cayman Islands"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"The original Community College was established as a part-time institution in 1975, and was the first government-sponsored tertiary education in the Cayman Islands.The Trade School, the Hotel School and the Marine School were founded between 1976 and 1981.In 1985 all of these institutions were amalgamated as the community College of the Cayman Islands.In 2004 the Legislate Assembly passed an Act changing the name to the University College of the Cayman Islands.[1]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Programs-2"},{"link_name":"Cayman Islands Society of Professional Accountants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cayman_Islands_Society_of_Professional_Accountants"},{"link_name":"Certified Public Accountant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certified_Public_Accountant"},{"link_name":"Certified General Accountant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certified_General_Accountant"},{"link_name":"Association of Chartered Certified Accountants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_of_Chartered_Certified_Accountants"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Compass20070403-3"},{"link_name":"Certified Accounting Technician","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certified_Accounting_Technician"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Programs-2"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"The college offers certificate programmes in Accounting, Computer Technician, Electrical Technology, Computer Applications, Construction Technology and Hospitality Studies.[2]\nUCCI works with the Cayman Islands Society of Professional Accountants (CISPA) in defining the college's accounting programme, and as of September 2007 to offer Certified Public Accountant (CPA), Certified General Accountant (CGA) and Association of Chartered Certified Accountants (ACCA) review classes.[3]\nReviewing the first year of UCCI's Certified Accounting Technician programme, CISPA considered that it had been successful, although some changes could be made to better prepare students for their first work experience.[4]The University College offers Associate of Arts, Associate of Sciences and Associate of Applied Sciences courses, followed by degree programmes leading to BSc degrees in Business Administration, Computer Science, Natural Science and Social Science, and Bachelor of Education degrees.[2] UCCI also offers Commonwealth Executive MBA and Master of Public Administration degrees, as well as various professional and executive educational programmes.[5]","title":"Courses"}]
|
[]
| null |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts%27s_3rd_congressional_district
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Massachusetts's 3rd congressional district
|
["1 Cities and towns in the district","2 Recent statewide election results","3 List of members representing the district","4 Recent election results","4.1 2002","4.2 2004","4.3 2006","4.4 2008","4.5 2010","4.6 2012","4.7 2014","4.8 2016","4.9 2018","4.10 2020","4.11 2022","5 Historical district boundaries","6 Notes","7 References","8 External links","9 Further reading"]
|
Coordinates: 42°35′22″N 71°34′22″W / 42.58944°N 71.57278°W / 42.58944; -71.57278U.S. House district for Massachusetts
Massachusetts's 3rd congressional districtInteractive map of district boundaries since January 3, 2023Representative
Lori TrahanD–WestfordPopulation (2022)781,020Median householdincome$91,476Ethnicity60.7% White21.8% Hispanic8.1% Asian4.1% Two or more races3.9% Black1.4% otherCook PVID+11
Massachusetts's 3rd congressional district is located in northeastern and central Massachusetts.
Massachusetts congressional redistricting after the 2010 census has greatly changed the borders of this congressional district, largely dividing it between the new 2nd and 4th districts, with the new 3rd district covering only a few towns from the old district. Effective with the elections of 2012, Worcester is in the new 2nd district and the new 3rd district is similar to the old 5th district, largely covering the Merrimack valley including Lowell, Lawrence and Haverhill.
The district is currently represented by Democrat Lori Trahan.
Cities and towns in the district
In Essex County: Precincts 2 through 7 and Precinct 9 in Andover, Haverhill, Lawrence, and Methuen.
In Middlesex County: Acton, Ashby, Ayer, Boxborough, Carlisle, Chelmsford, Concord, Dracut, Dunstable, Groton, Hudson, Littleton, Lowell, Marlborough, Maynard, Pepperell, Shirley, Stow, Townsend, Tyngsborough, Westford, and Precinct 1 in Sudbury.
In Worcester County: Ashburnham, Berlin, Bolton, Clinton, Fitchburg, Gardner, Harvard, Lancaster, Lunenburg, Westminster, and Precincts 1A, 2 and 3 in Winchendon.
Recent statewide election results
Year
Office
Result
2000
President
Gore 59–35%
2004
President
Kerry 59–40%
2008
President
Obama 58.8–39.4%
2012
President
Obama 56.9–41.4%
2016
President
Clinton 58.2–35.4%
2020
President
Biden 63.8–34.4%
List of members representing the district
Member
Party
Years
Congress
Electoral history
District area (Counties and municipalities)
District created March 4, 1789
Elbridge Gerry(Marblehead)
Anti-Administration
March 4, 1789 –March 3, 1793
1st2nd
Elected in 1788.Re-elected in 1790.Retired.
1789–1793Middlesex County: All
Shearjashub Bourne(Boston)
Pro-Administration
General ticket:March 4, 1793 –March 3, 1795
3rd
Redistricted from the 5th district and re-elected in 1793 on the second ballot, as part of a two-seat general ticket, representing the district from Barnstable, Dukes, and Nantucket Counties.
1793–1795Barnstable County: AllBristol County: AllDukes County: AllNantucket County: AllPlymouth County: All
Peleg Coffin Jr.(Boston)
Pro-Administration
Elected in 1792, as part of a two-seat general ticket, representing the district from Bristol and Plymouth Counties.Redistricted to the 5th district and lost re-election.
Samuel Lyman(Hampshire County)
Federalist
March 4, 1795 –November 6, 1800
4th5th6th
Elected in 1794.Re-elected in 1796.Re-elected in 1798.Retired and then resigned.
1795–1803Hampshire County: Amherst, Belchertown, Brimfield, Granby, Greenwich, Holland, Leverett, Longmeadow, Ludlow, New Salem, Orange, Palmer, Pelham, Shutesbury, South Brimfield, South Hadley, Springfield, Ware, Warwick, Wendell, and Wilbraham. Worcester County: Athol, Barre, Gardner, Gerry, Hardwick, New Braintree, Petersham, Royalston, Sturbridge, Templeton, Western, Winchendon
Vacant
November 7, 1800 –February 2, 1801
6th
Ebenezer Mattoon(Amherst)
Federalist
February 2, 1801 –March 3, 1803
6th7th
Elected November 3, 1800, to the next term.Elected December 15, 1800, to finish Lyman's term.Retired.
Manasseh Cutler(Hamilton)
Federalist
March 4, 1803 –March 3, 1805
8th
Redistricted from the 11th district and re-elected in 1802.Retired.
1803–1813"Essex North district"Essex County: Amesbury, Andover, Boxford, Bradford, Hamilton, Haverhill, Ipswich, Methuen, Middleton, Newbury, Newburyport, Rowley, Salisbury, Topsfield
Jeremiah Nelson(Newburyport)
Federalist
March 4, 1805 –March 3, 1807
9th
Elected in 1804.Retired.
Edward St. Loe Livermore(Newburyport)
Federalist
March 4, 1807 –March 3, 1811
10th11th
Elected in 1806.Re-elected in 1808.Retired.
Leonard White(Haverhill)
Federalist
March 4, 1811 –March 3, 1813
12th
Elected in 1810.Retired.
Timothy Pickering(Wendham)
Federalist
March 4, 1813 –March 3, 1815
13th
Elected in 1812.Redistricted to the 2nd district.
1813–1815"Essex North district"Essex County: Beverly, Boxford, Bradford, Gloucester, Hamilton, Ipswich, Manchester, Newbury, Newburyport, Rowley, Salisbury, Topsfield, Wenham
Jeremiah Nelson(Newburyport)
Federalist
March 4, 1815 –March 3, 1825
14th15th16th17th18th
Elected to begin member-elect Daniel A. White's term.Re-elected in 1817.Re-elected in 1818.Re-elected in 1820.Re-elected in 1822.Retired.
1815–1817"Essex North district"Essex County: Amesbury, Andover, Boxford, Bradford, Hamilton, Haverhill, Ipswich, Methuen, Middleton, Newbury, Newburyport, Rowley, Salisbury, Saugus, and Topsfield. Middlesex County: South Reading
1817–1823"Essex North district"Essex County: Amesbury, Andover, Boxford, Bradford, Hamilton, Haverhill, Ipswich, Methuen, Middleton, Newbury, Newburyport, Rowley, Salisbury, Saugus, Topsfield, and West Newbury. Middlesex County: Dracut
1823–1833"Essex North district"Essex County: Amesbury, Andover, Boxford, Bradford, Essex, Hamilton, Haverhill, Ipswich, Methuen, Middleton, Newbury, Newburyport, Rowley, Salisbury, Topsfield, Wenham, and West Newbury. Middlesex County: Billerica, Dracut, Tewksbury, Wilmington
John Varnum(Haverhill)
Anti-Jacksonian
March 4, 1825 –March 3, 1831
19th20th21st
Elected in 1825.Re-elected in 1826.Re-elected in 1828.Retired.
Jeremiah Nelson(Essex)
Anti-Jacksonian
March 4, 1831 –March 3, 1833
22nd
Elected late in 1832 on the thirteenth ballot.Retired.
Gayton P. Osgood(North Andover)
Jacksonian
March 4, 1833 –March 3, 1835
23rd
Elected in 1833.Lost renomination.
1833–1843Essex County: Amesbury, Andover, Boxford, Bradford, Haverhill, Methuen, Middleton, Newbury, Newburyport, Rowley, Salisbury, Topsfield, and West Newbury. Middlesex County: Dracut, Lowell, Reading, Tewksbury, South Reading, Wilmington
Caleb Cushing(Newburyport)
Anti-Jacksonian
March 4, 1835 –March 3, 1837
24th25th26th27th
Elected in 1834.Re-elected in 1836.Re-elected in 1838.Re-elected in 1840.Retired.
Whig
March 4, 1837 –March 3, 1843
Amos Abbott(Andover)
Whig
March 4, 1843 –March 3, 1849
28th29th30th
Elected late in 1844 on the seventh ballot.Re-elected in 1846.Retired.
1843–1853Essex County: Amesbury, Andover, Boxford, Bradford, Georgetown, Haverhill, Methuen, Newbury, Newburyport, Rowley, Salisbury, and West Newbury. Middlesex County: Billerica, Carlisle, Chelmsford, Dracut, Dunstable, Groton, Littleton, Lowell, Tewksbury, Tyngsborough, Westford, Wilmington
James H. Duncan(Haverhill)
Whig
March 4, 1849 –March 3, 1853
31st32nd
Elected in 1848.Re-elected in 1850.
J. Wiley Edmands(Lawrence)
Whig
March 4, 1853 –March 3, 1855
33rd
Elected in 1852.Retired.
1853–1863Norfolk County: Bellingam, Braintree, Canton, Dedham, Dorchester, Dover, Foxborough, Franklin, Medfield, Medway, Milton, Needham, Quincy, Randolph, Sharon, Stoughton, Walpole, West Roxbury, Weymouth, and Wrentham. Middlesex County: Brighton, Holliston, Newton, Sherborn, and Watertown. Worcester County: Blackstone, Mendon, Milford, Northbridge, Upton, Uxbridge
William S. Damrell(Dedham)
Know Nothing
March 4, 1855 –March 3, 1857
34th35th
Elected in 1854.Re-elected in 1856.Retired due to failing health.
Republican
March 4, 1857 –March 3, 1859
Charles Adams(Quincy)
Republican
March 4, 1859 –May 1, 1861
36th37th
Elected in 1858.Re-elected in 1860.Resigned to become U.S. Minister to England.
Vacant
May 1, 1861 –June 11, 1861
37th
Benjamin Thomas(Boston)
Union
June 11, 1861 –March 3, 1863
Elected to finish Adams's term.Retired.
Alexander H. Rice(Boston)
Republican
March 4, 1863 –March 3, 1867
38th39th
Redistricted from the 4th district and re-elected in 1862.Re-elected in 1864.Retired.
1863–1867Norfolk County: Roxbury, and Brookline. Suffolk County: Boston (wards 4, 7, 8, 10 thru 12)
Ginery Twichell(Brookline)
Republican
March 4, 1867 –March 3, 1873
40th41st42nd
Elected in 1866.Re-elected in 1868.Re-elected in 1870.Retired.
1867–1873Norfolk County: Roxbury, and Brookline. Suffolk County: Boston (wards 5, 7, 8, 10 thru 12)
William Whiting(Boston)
Republican
March 4, 1873 –June 29, 1873
43rd
Elected in 1872.Died.
1873–1877Suffolk County: Boston (wards 7, 8, 10 thru 16)
Vacant
June 29, 1873 –December 1, 1873
Henry L. Pierce(Boston)
Republican
December 1, 1873 –March 3, 1877
43rd44th
Elected to finish Whiting's term.Re-elected in 1874.Retired.
Walbridge A. Field(Boston)
Republican
March 4, 1877 –March 28, 1878
45th
Lost election contest.
1877–1883Suffolk County: Boston (wards 13 thru 21, 24)
Benjamin Dean(Boston)
Democratic
March 28, 1878 –March 3, 1879
Won election contest.Retired.
Walbridge A. Field(Boston)
Republican
March 4, 1879 –March 3, 1881
46th
Elected in 1878.Retired.
Ambrose Ranney(Boston)
Republican
March 4, 1881 –March 3, 1887
47th48th49th
Elected in 1880.Re-elected in 1882.Re-elected in 1884.Lost re-election.
1883–1893Norfolk County: Milton. Suffolk County: Boston (ward 11, ward 15 (Pct. 3 & 4), wards 17-24)
Leopold Morse(Boston)
Democratic
March 4, 1887 –March 3, 1889
50th
Elected in 1886.Retired.
John F. Andrew(Boston)
Democratic
March 4, 1889 –March 3, 1893
51st52nd
Elected in 1888.Re-elected in 1890.Lost re-election.
Joseph H. Walker(Worcester)
Republican
March 4, 1893 –March 3, 1899
53rd54th55th
Redistricted from the 10th district and re-elected in 1892.Re-elected in 1894.Re-elected in 1896.Lost re-election.
1893–1903Middlesex County: Hopkinton. Worcester County: Auburn, Blackstone, Charlton, Douglas, Dudley, Grafton, Holden, Leicester, Mendon, Millbury, Northbridge, Oxford, Paxton, Rutland, Shrewsbury, Southbrige, Spencer, Sturbridge, Sutton, Upton, Uxbridge, Webster, Westborough, West Boylston, Worcester
John R. Thayer(Worcester)
Democratic
March 4, 1899 –March 3, 1905
56th57th58th
Elected in 1898.Re-elected in 1900.Re-elected in 1902.Retired.
1903–1913Worcester County: Auburn, Charlton, Douglas, Dudley, Grafton, Holden, Leicester, Millbury, Northbridge, Oxford, Paxton, Rutland, Shrewsbury, Southbrige, Spencer, Sturbridge, Sutton, Uxbridge, Webster, Westborough, West Boylston, Worcester
Rockwood Hoar(Worcester)
Republican
March 4, 1905 –November 1, 1906
59th
Elected in 1904.Died.
Vacant
November 1, 1906 –December 18, 1906
59th
Charles G. Washburn(Worcester)
Republican
December 18, 1906 –March 3, 1911
59th60th61st
Elected to finish Hoar's term.Re-elected in 1906.Re-elected in 1908.Lost re-election.
John A. Thayer(Worcester)
Democratic
March 4, 1911 –March 3, 1913
62nd
Elected in 1910.Lost re-election.
William H. Wilder(Gardner)
Republican
March 4, 1913 –September 11, 1913
63rd
Redistricted from the 4th district and re-elected in 1912.Died.
1913–1927Franklin County: New Salem, and Orange. Hampshire County: Greenwich, and Prescott. Middlesex County: Ashby, and Townsend. Hampden County: Brimfield, Holland, Monson, Palmer, and Wales. Worcester County: Ashburnham, Athol, Barre, Boylston, Brookfield, Charlton, Clinton, Dana, Dudley, East Brookfield, Fitchburg, Gardner, Hardwick, Holden, Hubbardston, Lancaster, Leicester, Leominster, Lunenburg, New Braintree, North Brookfield, Oakham, Oxford, Paxton, Petersham, Phillipston, Princeton, Royalston, Rutland, Southbrige, Spencer, Sterling, Sturbridge, Templeton, Warren, Webster, West Boylston, West Brookfield, Westminster, Winchendon
Vacant
September 11, 1913 –November 4, 1913
Calvin Paige(Southbridge)
Republican
November 4, 1913 –March 3, 1925
63rd64th65th66th67th68th
Elected to finish Wilder's term.Re-elected in 1914.Re-elected in 1916.Re-elected in 1918.Re-elected in 1920.Re-elected in 1922.Retired.
Frank H. Foss(Fitchburg)
Republican
March 4, 1925 –January 3, 1935
69th70th71st72nd73rd
Elected in 1924.Re-elected in 1926.Re-elected in 1928.Re-elected in 1930.Re-elected in 1932.Lost re-election.
1927–1933Franklin County: Erving, New Salem, Orange, Shutesbury, Warwick, and Wendell. Hampden County: Brimfield, Holland, Monson, Palmer, and Wales. Hampshire County: Belchertown, Enfield, Greenwich, Pelham, Prescott, and Ware. Worcester County: Ashburnham, Athol, Barre, Boylston, Brookfield, Charlton, Clinton, Dana, Dudley, East Brookfield, Fitchburg, Gardner, Hardwick, Holden, Hubbardston, Lancaster, Leicester, Leominster, Lunenburg, New Braintree, North Brookfield, Oakham, Oxford, Paxton, Petersham, Phillipston, Princeton, Royalston, Rutland, Southbrige, Spencer, Sterling, Sturbridge, Templeton, Warren, Webster, West Boylston, West Brookfield, Westminster, Winchendon
1933–1943Hampden County: Brimfield, Holland, Monson, Palmer, and Wales. Hampshire County: Ware. Middlesex County: Ashby, Boxborough, Framingham, Hudson, Marlborough, Maynard, Pepperell, Shirley, Stow, Sudbury, Townsend, and Wayland. Worcester County: Ashburnham, Barre, Berlin, Bolton, Brookfield, Charlton, Clinton, Dana, Dudley, East Brookfield, Fitchburg, Gardner, Hardwick, Harvard, Hubbardston, Lancaster, Leicester, Leominster, Lunenburg, New Braintree, North Brookfield, Oakham, Oxford, Paxton, Petersham, Phillipston, Princeton, Rutland, Southbrige, Spencer, Sterling, Sturbridge, Templeton, Warren, Webster, West Brookfield, Westminster, Winchendon
Joseph E. Casey(Clinton)
Democratic
January 3, 1935 –January 3, 1943
74th75th76th77th
Elected in 1934.Re-elected in 1936.Re-elected in 1938.Re-elected in 1940.Retired to run for U.S. Senator.
Philip J. Philbin(Clinton)
Democratic
January 3, 1943 –January 3, 1971
78th79th80th81st82nd83rd84th85th86th87th88th89th90th91st
Elected in 1942.Re-elected in 1944.Re-elected in 1946.Re-elected in 1948.Re-elected in 1950.Re-elected in 1952.Re-elected in 1954.Re-elected in 1956.Re-elected in 1958.Re-elected in 1960.Re-elected in 1962.Re-elected in 1964.Re-elected in 1966.Re-elected in 1968.Lost renomination.
1943–1963Hampden County: Palmer. Hampshire County: Ware. Middlesex County: Hudson, Marlborough, Maynard, Shirley, and Stow. Worcester County: Ashburnham, Barre, Blackstone, Bolton, Brookfield, Charlton, Clinton, Douglas, Dudley, East Brookfield, Fitchburg, Gardner, Hardwick, Harvard, Hubbardston, Lancaster, Leicester, Leominster, Lunenburg, Milford, Millbury, Millville, New Braintree, Northbridge, North Brookfield, Oakham, Oxford, Paxton, Princeton, Rutland, Southbrige, Spencer, Sturbridge, Sutton, Upton, Uxbridge, Warren, Webster, West Brookfield, Westminster, Winchendon
1963–1973Worcester County: Ashburnham, Barre, Berlin, Blackstone, Bolton, Charlton, Clinton, Douglas, Dudley, Fitchburg, Gardner, Hardwick, Harvard, Hopedale, Hubbardston, Lancaster, Leicester, Leominster, Lunenburg, Mendon, Milford, Millbury, Millville, New Braintree, Northbridge, Oakham, Oxford, Paxton, Princeton, Rutland, Southbrige, Spencer, Sterling, Sutton, Upton, Uxbridge, Webster, Westminster, and Winchendon. Middlesex County: Acton, Ashby, Ayer, Boxborough, Dunstable, Groton, Holliston, Hudson, Littleton, Marlborough, Maynard, Natick, Pepperell, Sherborn, Shirley, Stow, Townsend, Tyngsborough, and Westford. Norfolk County: Bellingham, Franklin, Medway, Millis
1969–1973Middlesex County: Acton, Ashby, Ayer, Boxborough, Concord, Hudson, Lincoln, Littleton, Marlborough, Maynard, Newton, Shirley, Stow, Townsend, Waltham, Watertown, Westford, and Weston. Worcester County: Ashburnham, Berlin, Bolton, Clinton, Fitchburg, Gardner, Harvard, Lancaster, Leominster, Lunenburg, Sterling, Westminster, Winchendon
Robert Drinan(Newton)
Democratic
January 3, 1971 –January 3, 1973
92nd
Elected in 1970.Redistricted to the 4th district.
Harold Donohue(Worcester)
Democratic
January 3, 1973 –December 31, 1974
93rd
Redistricted from the 4th district and re-elected in 1972.Retired and resigned early.
1973–1983Middlesex County: Ashland, Holliston, Hopkinton, Hudson, and Marlborough. Norfolk County: Bellingham, Franklin, and Medway. Worcester County: Auburn, Berlin, Blackstone, Boylston, Clinton, Grafton, Hopedale, Leicester, Mendon, Milford, Millbury, Millville, Northborough, Northbridge, Shrewsbury, Southborough, Sutton, Upton, Uxbridge, Westborough, West Boylston, Worcester
Vacant
December 31, 1974 –January 3, 1975
Joseph D. Early(Worcester)
Democratic
January 3, 1975 –January 3, 1993
94th95th96th97th98th99th100th101st102nd
Elected in 1974.Re-elected in 1976.Re-elected in 1978.Re-elected in 1980.Re-elected in 1982.Re-elected in 1984.Re-elected in 1986.Re-elected in 1988.Re-elected in 1990.Lost re-election.
1983–1993Middlesex County: Ashland, Holliston, Hopkinton, Hudson, Marlborough, Sherborn, and Stow. Norfolk County: Bellingham, Franklin, Medway, Millis, NorfolkWorcester County: Auburn, Berlin, Blackstone, Bolton, Boylston, Clinton, Douglas, Grafton, Hopedale, Lancaster, Leicester, Lunenburg, Mendon, Milford, Millbury, Millville, Northborough, Northbridge, Shrewsbury, Southborough, Sutton, Upton, Uxbridge, Westborough, West Boylston, Worcester
Peter Blute(Shrewsbury)
Republican
January 3, 1993 –January 3, 1997
103rd104th
Elected in 1992.Re-elected in 1994.Lost re-election.
1993–2003Bristol County: Attleboro, Dartmouth, Fall River (all of wards 1, 2 & 3, ward 6 pcts. A & B, ward 4 pct. A, parts of B & C), Mansfield (pcts. 1, 2 & parts of 3 & 4), North Attleboro, Seekonk, Somerset, Swansea, and Westport.Middlesex County: Holliston, and Hopkinton. Norfolk County: Foxborough (pct. 5, parts of pcts. 1, 3, 4), Franklin, Medway, Plainville, and Wrentham. Worcester County: Auburn (parts of pcts. 1, 3 & 4), Berlin, Boylston, Clinton, Grafton, Holden, Lancaster (parts of pcts. 1 & 2), Northborough, Northbridge, Paxton, Princeton, Rutland, Shrewsbury, Sterling, Upton, Westborough, West Boylston, Worcester
Jim McGovern(Worcester)
Democratic
January 3, 1997 –January 3, 2013
105th106th107th108th109th110th111th112th
Elected in 1996.Re-elected in 1998.Re-elected in 2000.Re-elected in 2002.Re-elected in 2004.Re-elected in 2006.Re-elected in 2008.Re-elected in 2010.Redistricted to the 2nd district.
2003–2013Bristol County: Attleboro, Fall River (wards 1-3; ward 4, Precincts A & B; ward 5, Precincts A & B; ward 6, Precincts B & C; & ward 8, Precinct D), North Attleborough, Rehoboth, Seekonk, Somerset, and Swansea. Middlesex County: Ashland, Holliston, Hopkinton, and Marlborough. Norfolk County: Franklin, Medway, Plainville, and Wrentham. Worcester County: Auburn, Boylston, Clinton, Holden, Northborough, Paxton, Princeton, Rutland, Shrewsbury, Southborough, West Boylston, Westborough, and Worcester.
Niki Tsongas(Lowell)
Democratic
January 3, 2013 –January 3, 2019
113th114th115th
Redistricted from the 5th district and re-elected in 2012.Re-elected in 2014.Re-elected in 2016.Retired.
2013–presentSee Cities and towns in the district, above
Lori Trahan(Westford)
Democratic
January 3, 2019 –present
116th117th118th
Elected in 2018.Re-elected in 2020.Re-elected in 2022.
Recent election results
2002
Massachusetts's 3rd congressional district election, 2002
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
Democratic
Jim McGovern (Incumbent)
155,697
73.34
write-in
1,848
0.87
blank
54,759
25.79
Majority
153,849
72.47
Turnout
212,304
Democratic hold
2004
Massachusetts's 3rd congressional district election, 2004
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Democratic
Jim McGovern (Incumbent)
192,036
67.15
-6.19
Republican
Ronald Crews
80,197
28.04
+28.04
write-in
179
0.06
-0.81
blank
13,584
4.75
-21.04
Majority
111,839
39.11
-33.36
Turnout
285,996
Democratic hold
Swing
2006
Massachusetts's 3rd congressional district election, 2006
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Democratic
Jim McGovern (Incumbent)
166,973
77.63
+10.48
write-in
1,983
0.92
+0.86
blank
46,145
21.45
+16.70
Majority
164,990
76.70
+37.59
Turnout
215,101
Democratic hold
Swing
2008
Massachusetts's 3rd congressional district election, 2008
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Democratic
Jim McGovern (Incumbent)
227,619
75.04
-2.59
write-in
3,488
1.15
+0.23
blank
72,208
23.81
+2.36
Majority
224,131
73.89
-2.81
Turnout
303,315
Democratic hold
Swing
2010
Massachusetts's 3rd congressional district election, 2010
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
Democratic
Jim McGovern (Incumbent)
122,357
56.5
Republican
Marty Lamb
84,972
39.2
Independent
Patrick Barron
9,304
4.3
Total votes
216,633
100
Turnout
Democratic hold
2012
Democratic primary results
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
Democratic
Nicola Tsongas (incumbent)
24,105
99.2
Democratic
Write-ins
196
0.8
Total votes
24,301
100.0
2014
Massachusetts's 3rd congressional district, 2014
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
Democratic
Niki Tsongas (incumbent)
139,104
60.3
Republican
Ann Wofford
81,638
35.4
n/a
Write-ins
204
0.1
Total votes
230,789
100.0
Democratic hold
2016
Massachusetts's 3rd congressional district, 2016
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
Democratic
Niki Tsongas (incumbent)
236,713
68.7
Republican
Ann Wofford
107,519
31.2
n/a
Write-ins
360
0.1
Total votes
344,592
100.0
Democratic hold
2018
Massachusetts' 3rd congressional district, 2018
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
Democratic
Lori Trahan
173,175
62.0
Republican
Rick Green
93,445
33.4
Independent
Mike Mullen
12,572
4.5
Write-in
135
0.1
Total votes
279,327
100.0
Democratic hold
2020
Massachusetts's 3rd congressional district, 2020
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
Democratic
Lori Trahan (incumbent)
286,896
97.7
Write-in
6,643
2.3
Total votes
293,539
100.0
Democratic hold
2022
2022 Massachusetts's 3rd congressional district election
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
Democratic
Lori Trahan (incumbent)
154,496
63.5
Republican
Dean Tran
88,585
36.4
Write-in
220
0.1
Total votes
243,301
100.0
Democratic hold
Historical district boundaries
Massachusetts's 3rd congressional district, 1842
Massachusetts's 3rd congressional district, 1891
The district from 2003 to 2013
From 2003-2013: In Bristol County: Attleboro, Fall River (Wards 1–3; Ward 4, Precincts A and B; Ward 5, Precincts A and B; Ward 6, Precincts B and C; and Ward 8, Precinct D), North Attleborough, Rehoboth, Seekonk, Somerset, Swansea.
In Middlesex County: Ashland, Holliston, Hopkinton, Marlborough.
In Norfolk County: Franklin, Medway, Plainville, Wrentham.
In Worcester County: Auburn, Boylston, Clinton, Holden, Northborough, Paxton, Princeton, Rutland, Shrewsbury, Southborough, West Boylston, Westborough, Worcester.
Notes
^ Supported the Adams-Clay faction in the 1824 United States presidential election.
References
^ "My Congressional District".
^ "2022 Cook PVI: District Map and List". Cook Political Report. Retrieved January 10, 2023.
^ http://www.sec.state.ma.us/spr/sprcat/catpdf2010/cong2010/CongressionalDistrict_2011State.pdf Access Date March 29, 2012
^ "State Apportionment". Massachusetts Register . for 1843. Boston: Loring. 1779.
^ "Massachusetts". Congressional Directory for the Second Session of the Thirty-Seventh Congress. Washington DC: House of Representatives. 1861. Archived from the original on March 16, 2016.
^ Poore, Ben. Perley (1869). "Massachusetts". Congressional Directory for the First Session of the Forty-First Congress (2nd ed.). Washington DC: Government Printing Office. hdl:2027/nyp.33433081796686.
^ "Congressional Districts of Massachusetts". Massachusetts Register and Business Directory, 1878. Boston: Sampson, Davenport, and Co. 1874.
^ Poore, Ben. Perley (1878). "Massachusetts". Congressional Directory: 45th Congress (3rd ed.). Washington DC: Government Printing Office. Archived from the original on March 17, 2016.
^ Poore, Ben. Perley (1882). "Massachusetts". Congressional Directory: 47th Congress (3rd ed.). Washington DC: Government Printing Office.
^ Poore, Ben. Perley (1884). "Massachusetts". Congressional Directory: Forty-Eighth Congress (2nd ed.). Washington DC: Government Printing Office. hdl:2027/mdp.39015022757606.
^ Coolidge, L.A. (1897). "Massachusetts". Official Congressional Directory: Fifty-Fifth Congress. Washington DC: Government Printing Office.
^ Halford, A.J. (1903). "Massachusetts". Official Congressional Directory: Fifty-Eighth Congress. Washington DC: Government Printing Office.
^ Halford, A.J. (1909). "Massachusetts". Congressional Directory: 60th Congress (2nd ed.). Washington DC: Government Printing Office.
^ "Massachusetts". Official Congressional Directory: 64th Congress (2nd ed.). Washington DC: Government Printing Office. 1916. hdl:2027/uc1.l0075858456.
^ "Massachusetts". Official Congressional Directory: 90th Congress. Washington DC: Government Printing Office. 1968.
^ "Massachusetts", 1977 Official Congressional Directory: 95th Congress, Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1977, hdl:2027/uc1.31158002391372
^ "Massachusetts". 1991-1992 Official Congressional Directory: 102nd Congress. Washington DC: Government Printing Office. 1991.
^ a b O'Neill, Edward B.; MacQueen, Robert E. (1983). A Manual for the use of the General Court. Boston, MA: Causeway Print.
^ Congressional Directory for the 105th Congress (1997-1998), Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1997, archived from the original on December 3, 2013, retrieved November 26, 2013
^ "A list of winners in Massachusetts primary races". AP. Boston.com. September 7, 2012. Retrieved September 14, 2012.
^ "Massachusetts Secretary of State General Election Results 2016". Massachusetts Secretary of State. November 8, 2016. Retrieved December 15, 2016.
^ "Massachusetts Secretary of State General Election Results 2016". Massachusetts Secretary of State. November 8, 2016. Retrieved December 15, 2016.
^ Johnson, Cheryl L. (February 28, 2019). "Statistics of the Congressional Election of November 6, 2018". Clerk of the U.S. House of Representatives. Retrieved April 27, 2019.
^ "2020 - US House - All General Election Results". Massachusetts Election Statistics. Retrieved November 24, 2020.
^ "2022 U.S. House General Election - 3rd Congressional District". Secretary of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. Retrieved December 4, 2022.
Martis, Kenneth C. (1989). The Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company.
Martis, Kenneth C. (1982). The Historical Atlas of United States Congressional Districts. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company.
Congressional Biographical Directory of the United States 1774–present
National atlas congressional maps
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Massachusetts's 3rd congressional district.
2004 election results, via CNN.com
2006 election results, via CNN.com
Further reading
Benson, Brent (August 31, 2018). "An overview of Massachusetts 3rd Congressional district and primary candidates". Retrieved September 4, 2018 – via Mass. Numbers.
Rose Institute of State and Local Government, "Massachusetts: 2010 Redistricting Changes: Third District", Redistricting by State, Claremont, CA: Claremont McKenna College, archived from the original on September 15, 2020
"Our Campaigns - United States - Massachusetts - MA - District 03". www.ourcampaigns.com. Retrieved December 31, 2020.
vteMassachusetts's congressional districts
Current districts
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
7th
8th
9th
All districts
At-large
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
7th
8th
9th
10th
11th
12th
13th
14th
15th
16th
17th
18th
19th
20th
The at-large and 10th–20th districts are obsolete. The 14th–20th districts moved to Maine in 1820, and the 14th–16th districts were later restored in Massachusetts.
See also
Massachusetts's past and present representatives, senators, and delegations
Recent U.S. House elections in Massachusetts: 2006, 2008, 2010, 2012, 2014, 2016, 2018, 2020, 2022
All U.S. districts
Apportionment
Redistricting
Gerrymandering
vteMassachusetts's current delegation to the United States CongressSenators
▌Elizabeth Warren (D)
▌Ed Markey (D)
Representatives (ordered by district)
▌Richard Neal (D)
▌Jim McGovern (D)
▌Lori Trahan (D)
▌Jake Auchincloss (D)
▌Katherine Clark (D)
▌Seth Moulton (D)
▌Ayanna Pressley (D)
▌Stephen Lynch (D)
▌Bill Keating (D)
42°35′22″N 71°34′22″W / 42.58944°N 71.57278°W / 42.58944; -71.57278
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"central Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Merrimack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merrimack_River"},{"link_name":"Lowell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lowell,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Lawrence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Haverhill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haverhill,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Lori Trahan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lori_Trahan"}],"text":"U.S. House district for MassachusettsMassachusetts's 3rd congressional district is located in northeastern and central Massachusetts.Massachusetts congressional redistricting after the 2010 census has greatly changed the borders of this congressional district, largely dividing it between the new 2nd and 4th districts, with the new 3rd district covering only a few towns from the old district.[3] Effective with the elections of 2012, Worcester is in the new 2nd district and the new 3rd district is similar to the old 5th district, largely covering the Merrimack valley including Lowell, Lawrence and Haverhill.The district is currently represented by Democrat Lori Trahan.","title":"Massachusetts's 3rd congressional district"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Essex County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essex_County,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Andover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andover,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Haverhill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haverhill,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Lawrence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Methuen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methuen,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Middlesex County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middlesex_County,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Acton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acton,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Ashby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashby,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Ayer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayer,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Boxborough","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boxborough,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Carlisle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlisle,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Chelmsford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chelmsford,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Concord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concord,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Dracut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dracut,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Dunstable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunstable,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Groton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groton,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Hudson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hudson,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Littleton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Littleton,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Lowell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lowell,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Marlborough","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marlborough,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Maynard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maynard,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Pepperell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pepperell,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Shirley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shirley,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Stow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stow,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Townsend","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Townsend,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Tyngsborough","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyngsborough,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Westford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westford,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Sudbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudbury,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Worcester County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worcester_County,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Ashburnham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashburnham,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Berlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Bolton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolton,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Clinton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinton,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Fitchburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitchburg,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Gardner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardner,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Harvard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Lancaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancaster,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Lunenburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunenburg,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Westminster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Winchendon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winchendon,_Massachusetts"}],"text":"In Essex County: Precincts 2 through 7 and Precinct 9 in Andover, Haverhill, Lawrence, and Methuen.In Middlesex County: Acton, Ashby, Ayer, Boxborough, Carlisle, Chelmsford, Concord, Dracut, Dunstable, Groton, Hudson, Littleton, Lowell, Marlborough, Maynard, Pepperell, Shirley, Stow, Townsend, Tyngsborough, Westford, and Precinct 1 in Sudbury.In Worcester County: Ashburnham, Berlin, Bolton, Clinton, Fitchburg, Gardner, Harvard, Lancaster, Lunenburg, Westminster, and Precincts 1A, 2 and 3 in Winchendon.","title":"Cities and towns in the district"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Recent statewide election results"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"List of members representing the district"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Recent election results"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"2002","title":"Recent election results"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"2004","title":"Recent election results"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"2006","title":"Recent election results"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"2008","title":"Recent election results"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"2010","title":"Recent election results"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"2012","title":"Recent election results"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"2014","title":"Recent election results"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"2016","title":"Recent election results"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"2018","title":"Recent election results"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"2020","title":"Recent election results"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"2022","title":"Recent election results"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1842_District_3_detail_of_Congressional_Districts_of_Massachusetts_map_LC_g3761f_ct002131.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1891_District_3_detail_of_Massachusetts_Congressional_Districts_map_BPL_11063.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ma03_109.gif"},{"link_name":"Bristol County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol_County,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Attleboro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attleboro,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Fall River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_River,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"North Attleborough","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Attleborough,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Rehoboth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rehoboth,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Seekonk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seekonk,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Somerset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somerset,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Swansea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swansea,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Middlesex County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middlesex_County,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Ashland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashland,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Holliston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holliston,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Hopkinton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hopkinton,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Marlborough","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marlborough,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Norfolk County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norfolk_County,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Franklin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Medway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medway,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Plainville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plainville,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Wrentham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrentham,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Worcester County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worcester_County,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Auburn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auburn,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Boylston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boylston,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Clinton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinton,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Holden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holden,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Northborough","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northborough,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Paxton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paxton,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Princeton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Rutland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutland,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Shrewsbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shrewsbury,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Southborough","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southborough,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"West Boylston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Boylston,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Westborough","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westborough,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Worcester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worcester,_Massachusetts"}],"text":"Massachusetts's 3rd congressional district, 1842\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tMassachusetts's 3rd congressional district, 1891\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe district from 2003 to 2013From 2003-2013: In Bristol County: Attleboro, Fall River (Wards 1–3; Ward 4, Precincts A and B; Ward 5, Precincts A and B; Ward 6, Precincts B and C; and Ward 8, Precinct D), North Attleborough, Rehoboth, Seekonk, Somerset, Swansea.In Middlesex County: Ashland, Holliston, Hopkinton, Marlborough.In Norfolk County: Franklin, Medway, Plainville, Wrentham.In Worcester County: Auburn, Boylston, Clinton, Holden, Northborough, Paxton, Princeton, Rutland, Shrewsbury, Southborough, West Boylston, Westborough, Worcester.","title":"Historical district boundaries"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Adams-Clay_4-0"},{"link_name":"1824 United States presidential election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1824_United_States_presidential_election"}],"text":"^ Supported the Adams-Clay faction in the 1824 United States presidential election.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"An overview of Massachusetts 3rd Congressional district and primary candidates\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//massnumbers.blogspot.com/2018/08/an-overview-of-massachusetts-3rd.html"},{"link_name":"Rose Institute of State and Local Government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rose_Institute_of_State_and_Local_Government"},{"link_name":"\"Massachusetts: 2010 Redistricting Changes: Third District\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20200915132442/http://roseinstitute.org/redistricting/massachusetts/"},{"link_name":"Claremont McKenna College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claremont_McKenna_College"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//roseinstitute.org/redistricting/massachusetts/"},{"link_name":"\"Our Campaigns - United States - Massachusetts - MA - District 03\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ourcampaigns.com/ContainerDetail.html?ContainerID=471"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:USCongDistStateMA"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:USCongDistStateMA"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:USCongDistStateMA"},{"link_name":"Massachusetts's congressional districts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts%27s_congressional_districts"},{"link_name":"1st","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts%27s_1st_congressional_district"},{"link_name":"2nd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts%27s_2nd_congressional_district"},{"link_name":"3rd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"4th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts%27s_4th_congressional_district"},{"link_name":"5th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts%27s_5th_congressional_district"},{"link_name":"6th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts%27s_6th_congressional_district"},{"link_name":"7th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts%27s_7th_congressional_district"},{"link_name":"8th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts%27s_8th_congressional_district"},{"link_name":"9th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts%27s_9th_congressional_district"},{"link_name":"At-large","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts%27s_at-large_congressional_seat"},{"link_name":"1st","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts%27s_1st_congressional_district"},{"link_name":"2nd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts%27s_2nd_congressional_district"},{"link_name":"3rd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"4th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts%27s_4th_congressional_district"},{"link_name":"5th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts%27s_5th_congressional_district"},{"link_name":"6th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts%27s_6th_congressional_district"},{"link_name":"7th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts%27s_7th_congressional_district"},{"link_name":"8th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts%27s_8th_congressional_district"},{"link_name":"9th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts%27s_9th_congressional_district"},{"link_name":"10th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts%27s_10th_congressional_district"},{"link_name":"11th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts%27s_11th_congressional_district"},{"link_name":"12th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts%27s_12th_congressional_district"},{"link_name":"13th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts%27s_13th_congressional_district"},{"link_name":"14th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts%27s_14th_congressional_district"},{"link_name":"15th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts%27s_15th_congressional_district"},{"link_name":"16th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts%27s_16th_congressional_district"},{"link_name":"17th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts%27s_17th_congressional_district"},{"link_name":"18th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts%27s_18th_congressional_district"},{"link_name":"19th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts%27s_19th_congressional_district"},{"link_name":"20th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts%27s_20th_congressional_district"},{"link_name":"Maine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/District_of_Maine"},{"link_name":"representatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"senators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_senators_from_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"delegations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_congressional_delegations_from_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"2006","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections_in_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"2008","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections_in_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"2010","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections_in_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"2012","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections_in_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"2014","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections_in_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"2016","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections_in_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"2018","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections_in_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"2020","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections_in_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"2022","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections_in_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"All U.S. districts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_congressional_districts"},{"link_name":"Apportionment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_congressional_apportionment"},{"link_name":"Redistricting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redistricting"},{"link_name":"Gerrymandering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerrymandering_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:MA-FedRep"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:MA-FedRep"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:MA-FedRep"},{"link_name":"Massachusetts's current delegation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_congressional_delegations_from_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"United States Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/117th_United_States_Congress"},{"link_name":"Senators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_senators_from_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Elizabeth Warren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Warren"},{"link_name":"Ed Markey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed_Markey"},{"link_name":"Representatives (ordered by district)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Richard Neal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Neal"},{"link_name":"Jim McGovern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_McGovern_(American_politician)"},{"link_name":"Lori Trahan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lori_Trahan"},{"link_name":"Jake Auchincloss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jake_Auchincloss"},{"link_name":"Katherine Clark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katherine_Clark"},{"link_name":"Seth Moulton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seth_Moulton"},{"link_name":"Ayanna Pressley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayanna_Pressley"},{"link_name":"Stephen Lynch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Lynch_(politician)"},{"link_name":"Bill Keating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Keating_(politician)"},{"link_name":"42°35′22″N 71°34′22″W / 42.58944°N 71.57278°W / 42.58944; -71.57278","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Massachusetts%27s_3rd_congressional_district¶ms=42_35_22_N_71_34_22_W_region:US_type:city_source:kolossus-eswiki"}],"text":"Benson, Brent (August 31, 2018). \"An overview of Massachusetts 3rd Congressional district and primary candidates\". Retrieved September 4, 2018 – via Mass. Numbers.\nRose Institute of State and Local Government, \"Massachusetts: 2010 Redistricting Changes: Third District\", Redistricting by State, Claremont, CA: Claremont McKenna College, archived from the original on September 15, 2020\n\"Our Campaigns - United States - Massachusetts - MA - District 03\". www.ourcampaigns.com. Retrieved December 31, 2020.vteMassachusetts's congressional districts \nCurrent districts\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\n6th\n7th\n8th\n9th\n\n \nAll districts\nAt-large\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\n6th\n7th\n8th\n9th\n10th\n11th\n12th\n13th\n14th\n15th\n16th\n17th\n18th\n19th\n20th\n\nThe at-large and 10th–20th districts are obsolete. The 14th–20th districts moved to Maine in 1820, and the 14th–16th districts were later restored in Massachusetts.\nSee also\nMassachusetts's past and present representatives, senators, and delegations\nRecent U.S. House elections in Massachusetts: 2006, 2008, 2010, 2012, 2014, 2016, 2018, 2020, 2022\nAll U.S. districts\nApportionment\nRedistricting \nGerrymanderingvteMassachusetts's current delegation to the United States CongressSenators\n▌Elizabeth Warren (D)\n▌Ed Markey (D)\nRepresentatives (ordered by district)\n▌Richard Neal (D)\n▌Jim McGovern (D)\n▌Lori Trahan (D)\n▌Jake Auchincloss (D)\n▌Katherine Clark (D)\n▌Seth Moulton (D)\n▌Ayanna Pressley (D)\n▌Stephen Lynch (D)\n▌Bill Keating (D)42°35′22″N 71°34′22″W / 42.58944°N 71.57278°W / 42.58944; -71.57278","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"reference":"\"My Congressional District\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.census.gov/mycd/?st=25&cd=03","url_text":"\"My Congressional District\""}]},{"reference":"\"2022 Cook PVI: District Map and List\". Cook Political Report. Retrieved January 10, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cookpolitical.com/cook-pvi/2022-partisan-voting-index/district-map-and-list","url_text":"\"2022 Cook PVI: District Map and List\""}]},{"reference":"\"State Apportionment\". Massachusetts Register . for 1843. Boston: Loring. 1779.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/stream/pocketalmanackfo1843amer#page/97/mode/2up","url_text":"\"State Apportionment\""}]},{"reference":"\"Massachusetts\". Congressional Directory for the Second Session of the Thirty-Seventh Congress. Washington DC: House of Representatives. 1861. Archived from the original on March 16, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/stream/congressionaldirunit#page/10/mode/1up","url_text":"\"Massachusetts\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160316220116/http://archive.org/stream/congressionaldirunit#page/10/mode/1up","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Poore, Ben. Perley (1869). \"Massachusetts\". Congressional Directory for the First Session of the Forty-First Congress (2nd ed.). Washington DC: Government Printing Office. hdl:2027/nyp.33433081796686.","urls":[{"url":"http://hdl.handle.net/2027/nyp.33433081796686?urlappend=%3Bseq=34","url_text":"\"Massachusetts\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)","url_text":"hdl"},{"url":"https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fnyp.33433081796686?urlappend=%3Bseq=34","url_text":"2027/nyp.33433081796686"}]},{"reference":"\"Congressional Districts of Massachusetts\". Massachusetts Register and Business Directory, 1878. Boston: Sampson, Davenport, and Co. 1874.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/stream/massachusettsreg1878bost#page/23/mode/1up","url_text":"\"Congressional Districts of Massachusetts\""}]},{"reference":"Poore, Ben. Perley (1878). \"Massachusetts\". Congressional Directory: 45th Congress (3rd ed.). Washington DC: Government Printing Office. Archived from the original on March 17, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/stream/officialcongres02conggoog#page/n40/mode/2up","url_text":"\"Massachusetts\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160317083824/http://archive.org/stream/officialcongres02conggoog#page/n40/mode/2up","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Poore, Ben. Perley (1882). \"Massachusetts\". Congressional Directory: 47th Congress (3rd ed.). Washington DC: Government Printing Office.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/stream/officialcongres07pringoog#page/n46/mode/2up","url_text":"\"Massachusetts\""}]},{"reference":"Poore, Ben. Perley (1884). \"Massachusetts\". Congressional Directory: Forty-Eighth Congress (2nd ed.). Washington DC: Government Printing Office. hdl:2027/mdp.39015022757606.","urls":[{"url":"http://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015022757606?urlappend=%3Bseq=53","url_text":"\"Massachusetts\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)","url_text":"hdl"},{"url":"https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fmdp.39015022757606?urlappend=%3Bseq=53","url_text":"2027/mdp.39015022757606"}]},{"reference":"Coolidge, L.A. (1897). \"Massachusetts\". Official Congressional Directory: Fifty-Fifth Congress. Washington DC: Government Printing Office.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/stream/officialcongres08pringoog#page/n74/mode/2up","url_text":"\"Massachusetts\""}]},{"reference":"Halford, A.J. (1903). \"Massachusetts\". Official Congressional Directory: Fifty-Eighth Congress. Washington DC: Government Printing Office.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/stream/officialcongres05pringoog#page/n68/mode/2up","url_text":"\"Massachusetts\""}]},{"reference":"Halford, A.J. (1909). \"Massachusetts\". Congressional Directory: 60th Congress (2nd ed.). Washington DC: Government Printing Office.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/stream/officialcongres03hgoog#page/n94/mode/2up","url_text":"\"Massachusetts\""}]},{"reference":"\"Massachusetts\". Official Congressional Directory: 64th Congress (2nd ed.). Washington DC: Government Printing Office. 1916. hdl:2027/uc1.l0075858456.","urls":[{"url":"http://hdl.handle.net/2027/uc1.l0075858456?urlappend=%3Bseq=62","url_text":"\"Massachusetts\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)","url_text":"hdl"},{"url":"https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fuc1.l0075858456?urlappend=%3Bseq=62","url_text":"2027/uc1.l0075858456"}]},{"reference":"\"Massachusetts\". Official Congressional Directory: 90th Congress. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Tilney
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Edmund Tylney
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["1 Early life and family connections","2 Career","3 Works","4 Personal life","5 Ambiguities","6 In popular culture","7 Footnotes","8 References","9 External links"]
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English courtier
Sir Edmund Tilney or Tylney (1536–1610) was a courtier best known now as Master of the Revels to Queen Elizabeth and King James. He was responsible for the censorship of drama in England. He was also instrumental in the development of English drama of the Elizabethan period. Tilney made the office of Master of the Revels into an institution.
Early life and family connections
Edmund Tilney was the only son of Philip Tilney (d. 1541), Usher of the Privy Chamber to King Henry VIII, and Malyn Chambre. Philip Tilney was a younger son of Sir Philip Tilney of Shelley (d. 1533), treasurer during the Battle of Flodden under the command of Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk. Norfolk's first wife was Sir Philip Tilney's cousin, Elizabeth Tilney, Countess of Surrey; after Elizabeth died in 1497, Norfolk married Sir Philip Tilney's sister, Agnes, later Dowager Duchess of Norfolk.
Edmund Tilney's mother, Malyn Tilney, was implicated in the scandal leading to the downfall of the Duchess's step-granddaughter, Queen Catherine Howard, and was sentenced on 22 December 1541 to life imprisonment and loss of goods, but pardoned after the Queen's execution on 13 February 1542. Edmund Tilney's father was buried on 10 September 1541 in St. Leonard's Church, Streatham. He died in debt, and his widow, Malyn, received a promise of help from the Dowager Duchess of Norfolk.
No record of Tilney's education survives. He evidently learned Latin, French, Italian and Spanish because his early works indicate his acquaintance not only with those languages but also with subjects such as law, history, economics and genealogy. There is speculation that he must have travelled because travel was regarded as a part of one's education at that time.
Career
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Though Tilney likely had an informal education, he had a bright future ahead of him because of his royal connections. He was a distant kinsman of Queen Elizabeth by virtue of the familial alliance with the Howards. To obtain royal favour he wrote a treatise called A briefe and pleasant discourse of duties in mariage, called the flower of friendshippe, which was published in 1568. The book was dedicated to the Queen. For the next few years he maintained his connections with the Howard family. In 1572, he represented Gatton, Surrey, in Parliament.
The 2nd Duke of Norfolk's son and grandson held the title of Lord Howard of Effingham consecutively. The second Lord Howard became the Lord Chamberlain in 1574. The Revels Office has always been under the Lord Chamberlain, and he conferred the position of Master on Edmund Tilney. In July 1579, Edmund Tilney formally assumed the office of Master of the Revels though he had been the acting Master since February 1578.
Tilney occupied this position as it underwent a significant change in focus. When he began his work, it consisted principally of planning and conducting royal entertainments, as a unit of the Lord Chamberlain's office. His principal aim was that of pleasing the Queen. Then he started clearing up the various problems associated with the Revels office. It had fallen into major disrepute with creditors. A commission issued on 24 December 1581 solved this financial crisis and enabled him to reduce the maintenance costs of the office to a moderate budget. The second section of the commission was to prohibit the discussion of any controversial issues in theatre. A play would be permitted only if the manuscript had the signature of the Master. Any offender could be imprisoned by Tilney's orders. He was given complete authority in matters concerning drama. This responsibility had been previously shared by Revels officers.
He now became the censor of drama all over the country. One important example is The Book of Sir Thomas More. It concerned the anti-alien riots on the Evil May Day of 1517. Due to its inflammatory political content it was rigidly censored, and the play was never released. Any political content designed to agitate the court was censored.
Tilney's career as Master (1579–1610) spanned some of the most eventful years in the history of English drama. In 1576, The Theatre and The Curtain, the first public playhouses, were built. There were many more being built all over the country at this time. This led to a rapid proliferation of dramatic activity. It began with playwrights such as Christopher Marlowe and Thomas Kyd who were drawing crowds with Tamburlaine and The Spanish Tragedy. The entire career of William Shakespeare, with the exception of a few years, fell within Tilney's tenure of Mastership. The latter licensed thirty of Shakespeare's plays.
But if Tilney's censorship restricted the writers, his support protected them from generally hostile civic authorities. The polite fiction of aristocratic patronage did not obscure the reality that the troupes were commercial enterprises; however, that fiction brought the theatres under royal protection; in 1592, the Lord Mayor of London named Tilney as one of the obstacles to ending public drama in the city. However, Tilney's censorship was not of a generalising nature. While he did omit politically volatile passages and scenes, some, like the deposition scene in Richard II and the murder of Julius Caesar, were allowed to remain. However, there is no way of knowing whether Julius Caesar was allowed to be performed uncensored.
Tilney is also credited with the creation of the Queen's Company of actors. She had received a few players as part of her inheritance. However, Elizabeth never used them and usually asked Tilney to get either children or other companies to perform. Soon it became difficult to arrange for performances according to the court preferences. Some plays proved to be dull and were often cancelled. Just a few years after assuming office, Tilney chose twelve of the best actors from different companies and created the Queen's Men. Soon after this, the Queen's Men played a major part at all court performances. However, they had all but faded by the 1590s.
Tilney brought about another important change in the development of drama by giving priority to the play instead of the masque as part of the entertainment. Masques were very expensive to produce, and Tilney cut down on the Revels' expenses by producing plays. In the succeeding reign of James I, masques made a comeback.
On 24 March 1603, Elizabeth's reign ended and James I ascended the throne. There had been major issues regarding Tilney's patent, as John Lyly had been vying for that post. George Buck, supported by the Howards, was also a contender but Tilney retained his position as the Master even under James I. Also, around 1606, the Master of the Revels was vested with the power of licensing plays for publishing. Some documentary evidence reveals the fact that George Buck had been appointed as acting master. Censorship took on a more relaxed stance with the onset of the Jacobean era. In the following years, Buck licensed many plays, though Tilney controlled and managed the accounts of the office. He stayed in office till his death in 1610.
Works
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Edmund Tilney wrote a treatise called A brief and pleasant dis-course of the duties in Marriage, called the Flower of Friendshipp. This was dedicated to the Queen. It is written in the traditional Renaissance genre of the conversazione. He talks about the perfect state of marital love and expounds it with various historical examples. It is an eloquent work of writing and deals with length on the ideal state of marriage between men and women. The treatise reveals an influence of humanist and philosophical ideas.
Topographical Descriptions, Regiments, and Policies is the unpublished diplomatic book that he was preparing. Tilney dedicated his work to King James and spoke about collating notes on different countries. This reference work reveals Tilney's knowledge on varied subjects include topography, genealogy, geography, economics and law.
Personal life
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Edmund Tilney lived a life which was spent in balancing one controversy against another. On the one hand he had the Lord Treasurer to contend with, and on the other there was the Lord Chamberlain from whom he took direct orders. Following his appointment as the Master, he grew increasingly popular and married Dame Mary Braye in 1583. She was the fourth wife of Sir Edmund Braye. There are no other details about whether they had any children or not. Even in his will written in 1610, there is no mention of either his wife or any issue.
He spent the latter part of his life fighting various lawsuits and claims over property and debt. Towards the end, his financial circumstances had become severely strained. He lost a few properties through lawsuits as well. In his will he wished to be buried near his father without much pomp and ceremony. He bequeathed money to a few poor parishes, some servants and to his cousin Thomas Tilney. He lived in the town of Leatherhead, Surrey, in the building known as the Mansion House. In December 1997, a new Wetherspoons pub in the town's High Street was named after him. He is buried in St Leonard's Church, Streatham, London. A monument was erected in his memory.
Ambiguities
Though the office of the Master of the Revels was one of the most influential posts in Elizabethan England, there is a paucity of information about the life of Edmund Tilney, the Master who was connected with the development of drama at that time. There have been various sources, most of which have offered erroneous information. Starting from scholars like Malone to Sidney Lee, there has been varied representation of facts on Tilney. There are no details about his issue or what happened to his wife as there was mention of neither in his last will and testament. There are even debates about the possibility of Tilney having been knighted.
In popular culture
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In the 1998 movie Shakespeare in Love, Simon Callow plays Tilney.
Tilney is a character in the 2002 alternate history novel Ruled Britannia by Harry Turtledove.
In the 2007 Doctor Who episode The Shakespeare Code, Chris Larkin plays "Mr. Lynley," Master of the Revels, apparently a fictional analog of Tilney.
Tilney is one of the primary figures in the 2021 science fiction novel Master of the Revels by Nicole Galland
Footnotes
^ Boas 1970, pp. 40–41; Richardson 2004, pp. 236–237; Head 2008, pp. 236–237.
^ Boas 1970, pp. 40–41.
^ Dutton 2008; Boas 1970, pp. 40–41.
^ Streitberger, W.R.(February,1978). p.18 "On Edmond Tyllney's Biography".The Review of English Studies 29(113),11-35. JSTOR. Retrieved 29 March 2010.
^ Boas 1970, p. 40.
^ Wilkinson, Sarah (31 March 2020) . "The history of the Revels Office". Museum of the Order of St John. Retrieved 16 October 2023.
^ Clare, Janet (May, 1987). p.173 "Greater Themes for Insurrection's Arguing': Political Censorship of the Elizabethan and Jacobean Stage".The Review of English Studies 38(150),169-183. JSTOR. Retrieved 29 March 2010
^ Clare, Janet (May, 1987). p.182 "Greater Themes for Insurrection's Arguing': Political Censorship of the Elizabethan and Jacobean Stage".The Review of English Studies 38(150),169-183. JSTOR. Retrieved 29 March 2010
^ Boas, Frederick S.(1950). p.47 Queen Elizabeth in Drama and Related Studies. George Allen & Unwin. pp.36-55. ISBN 0-8369-5397-5.Google Book Search. Retrieved 20 March 2010
^ Benger, FB (1951). "Edmund Tylney: A Leatherhead worthy" (PDF). Proceedings of the Leatherhead & District Local History Society. 1 (5): 16–21. Retrieved 1 February 2021.
^ Powell, Goff. "The Mansion, Leatherhead" (PDF). Leatherhead & District Local History Society. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 November 2021. Retrieved 3 November 2021.
^ "Old shops become new pub". Leatherhead Advertiser. 24 December 1997. p. 3.
^ Streitberger, W.R.(February,1978). p.11 "On Edmond Tyllney's Biography".The Review of English Studies 29(113),11-35. JSTOR. Retrieved 29 March 2010
^ Streitberger, W. R. (February, 1978). p.25 "On Edmond Tyllney's Biography".The Review of English Studies 29(113),11-35. JSTOR. Retrieved 29 March 2010.
References
Boas, Frederick Samuel (1970). Queen Elizabeth in Drama and Related Studies. Freeport, New York: Books For Libraries Press. ISBN 9780836953978. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
Davies, Catherine (2008). Howard , Agnes, duchess of Norfolk (b. in or before 1477, d. 1545), noblewoman. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
Dutton, Richard (2008). Tilney, Edmund (1535/6–1610), courtier. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
Head, David M. (2008). Howard, Thomas, second duke of Norfolk (1443–1524), magnate and soldier. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
McDermott, James (2008). Howard, William, first Baron Howard of Effingham (c.1510–1573), naval commander. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
Richardson, Douglas (2004). Plantagenet Ancestry: A Study in Colonial and Medieval Families, ed. Kimball G. Everingham. Baltimore, Maryland: Genealogical Publishing Company, Inc.
Warnicke, Retha M. (2008). Katherine (1518x24-1542), queen of England and Ireland, fifth consort of Henry VIII. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
External links
"Tilney, Edmund" . Dictionary of National Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1885–1900.
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Master of the Revels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_the_Revels"},{"link_name":"Queen Elizabeth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England"},{"link_name":"King James","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_I_of_England"},{"link_name":"Elizabethan period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabethan_era"}],"text":"Sir Edmund Tilney or Tylney (1536–1610) was a courtier best known now as Master of the Revels to Queen Elizabeth and King James. He was responsible for the censorship of drama in England. He was also instrumental in the development of English drama of the Elizabethan period. Tilney made the office of Master of the Revels into an institution.","title":"Edmund Tylney"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Usher of the Privy Chamber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentleman_Usher"},{"link_name":"Henry VIII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England"},{"link_name":"Battle of Flodden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Flodden"},{"link_name":"Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Howard,_2nd_Duke_of_Norfolk"},{"link_name":"Elizabeth Tilney, Countess of Surrey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Tilney"},{"link_name":"Agnes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agnes_Howard,_Duchess_of_Norfolk"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Catherine Howard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_Howard"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Streatham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streatham"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Edmund Tilney was the only son of Philip Tilney (d. 1541), Usher of the Privy Chamber to King Henry VIII, and Malyn Chambre. Philip Tilney was a younger son of Sir Philip Tilney of Shelley (d. 1533), treasurer during the Battle of Flodden under the command of Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk. Norfolk's first wife was Sir Philip Tilney's cousin, Elizabeth Tilney, Countess of Surrey; after Elizabeth died in 1497, Norfolk married Sir Philip Tilney's sister, Agnes, later Dowager Duchess of Norfolk.[1]Edmund Tilney's mother, Malyn Tilney, was implicated in the scandal leading to the downfall of the Duchess's step-granddaughter, Queen Catherine Howard, and was sentenced on 22 December 1541 to life imprisonment and loss of goods, but pardoned after the Queen's execution on 13 February 1542.[2] Edmund Tilney's father was buried on 10 September 1541 in St. Leonard's Church, Streatham. He died in debt, and his widow, Malyn, received a promise of help from the Dowager Duchess of Norfolk.[3]No record of Tilney's education survives. He evidently learned Latin, French, Italian and Spanish because his early works indicate his acquaintance not only with those languages but also with subjects such as law, history, economics and genealogy. There is speculation that he must have travelled because travel was regarded as a part of one's education at that time.[4]","title":"Early life and family connections"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Gatton, Surrey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gatton,_Surrey"},{"link_name":"Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_England"},{"link_name":"son","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Howard,_1st_Baron_Howard_of_Effingham"},{"link_name":"grandson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Howard,_1st_Earl_of_Nottingham"},{"link_name":"Lord Chamberlain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Chamberlain"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"censor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Censorship"},{"link_name":"The Book of Sir Thomas More","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Thomas_More_(play)"},{"link_name":"Evil May Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evil_May_Day"},{"link_name":"The Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Theatre"},{"link_name":"The Curtain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curtain_Theatre"},{"link_name":"Christopher Marlowe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Marlowe"},{"link_name":"Thomas Kyd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Kyd"},{"link_name":"Tamburlaine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamburlaine"},{"link_name":"The Spanish Tragedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Spanish_Tragedy"},{"link_name":"William Shakespeare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespeare"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Richard II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_II_(play)"},{"link_name":"Julius Caesar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Caesar"},{"link_name":"Julius Caesar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Caesar_(play)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Queen's Men","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen%27s_Men"},{"link_name":"masque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masque"},{"link_name":"John Lyly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lyly"},{"link_name":"George Buck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Buck"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Jacobean era","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobean_era"}],"text":"Though Tilney likely had an informal education, he had a bright future ahead of him because of his royal connections. He was a distant kinsman of Queen Elizabeth by virtue of the familial alliance with the Howards. To obtain royal favour he wrote a treatise called A briefe and pleasant discourse of duties in mariage, called the flower of friendshippe, which was published in 1568. The book was dedicated to the Queen. For the next few years he maintained his connections with the Howard family. In 1572, he represented Gatton, Surrey, in Parliament.The 2nd Duke of Norfolk's son and grandson held the title of Lord Howard of Effingham consecutively. The second Lord Howard became the Lord Chamberlain in 1574. The Revels Office has always been under the Lord Chamberlain, and he conferred the position of Master on Edmund Tilney.[5] In July 1579, Edmund Tilney formally assumed the office of Master of the Revels though he had been the acting Master since February 1578.Tilney occupied this position as it underwent a significant change in focus. When he began his work, it consisted principally of planning and conducting royal entertainments, as a unit of the Lord Chamberlain's office. His principal aim was that of pleasing the Queen. Then he started clearing up the various problems associated with the Revels office. It had fallen into major disrepute with creditors. A commission issued on 24 December 1581 solved this financial crisis and enabled him to reduce the maintenance costs of the office to a moderate budget. The second section of the commission was to prohibit the discussion of any controversial issues in theatre. A play would be permitted only if the manuscript had the signature of the Master. Any offender could be imprisoned by Tilney's orders. He was given complete authority in matters concerning drama. This responsibility had been previously shared by Revels officers.He now became the censor of drama all over the country. One important example is The Book of Sir Thomas More. It concerned the anti-alien riots on the Evil May Day of 1517. Due to its inflammatory political content it was rigidly censored, and the play was never released. Any political content designed to agitate the court was censored.Tilney's career as Master (1579–1610) spanned some of the most eventful years in the history of English drama. In 1576, The Theatre and The Curtain, the first public playhouses, were built. There were many more being built all over the country at this time. This led to a rapid proliferation of dramatic activity. It began with playwrights such as Christopher Marlowe and Thomas Kyd who were drawing crowds with Tamburlaine and The Spanish Tragedy. The entire career of William Shakespeare, with the exception of a few years, fell within Tilney's tenure of Mastership. The latter licensed thirty of Shakespeare's plays.[6]But if Tilney's censorship restricted the writers, his support protected them from generally hostile civic authorities. The polite fiction of aristocratic patronage did not obscure the reality that the troupes were commercial enterprises; however, that fiction brought the theatres under royal protection; in 1592, the Lord Mayor of London named Tilney as one of the obstacles to ending public drama in the city. However, Tilney's censorship was not of a generalising nature. While he did omit politically volatile passages and scenes, some, like the deposition scene in Richard II and the murder of Julius Caesar, were allowed to remain. However, there is no way of knowing whether Julius Caesar was allowed to be performed uncensored.[7]Tilney is also credited with the creation of the Queen's Company of actors. She had received a few players as part of her inheritance. However, Elizabeth never used them and usually asked Tilney to get either children or other companies to perform. Soon it became difficult to arrange for performances according to the court preferences. Some plays proved to be dull and were often cancelled. Just a few years after assuming office, Tilney chose twelve of the best actors from different companies and created the Queen's Men. Soon after this, the Queen's Men played a major part at all court performances. However, they had all but faded by the 1590s.Tilney brought about another important change in the development of drama by giving priority to the play instead of the masque as part of the entertainment. Masques were very expensive to produce, and Tilney cut down on the Revels' expenses by producing plays. In the succeeding reign of James I, masques made a comeback.On 24 March 1603, Elizabeth's reign ended and James I ascended the throne. There had been major issues regarding Tilney's patent, as John Lyly had been vying for that post. George Buck, supported by the Howards, was also a contender but Tilney retained his position as the Master even under James I. Also, around 1606, the Master of the Revels was vested with the power of licensing plays for publishing. Some documentary evidence reveals the fact that George Buck had been appointed as acting master.[8] Censorship took on a more relaxed stance with the onset of the Jacobean era. In the following years, Buck licensed many plays, though Tilney controlled and managed the accounts of the office. He stayed in office till his death in 1610.","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Renaissance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance"},{"link_name":"humanist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_humanism"},{"link_name":"topography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topography"}],"text":"Edmund Tilney wrote a treatise called A brief and pleasant dis-course of the duties in Marriage, called the Flower of Friendshipp. This was dedicated to the Queen. It is written in the traditional Renaissance genre of the conversazione. He talks about the perfect state of marital love and expounds it with various historical examples. It is an eloquent work of writing and deals with length on the ideal state of marriage between men and women. The treatise reveals an influence of humanist and philosophical ideas.Topographical Descriptions, Regiments, and Policies is the unpublished diplomatic book that he was preparing. Tilney dedicated his work to King James and spoke about collating notes on different countries. This reference work reveals Tilney's knowledge on varied subjects include topography, genealogy, geography, economics and law.","title":"Works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lord Treasurer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Cecil,_1st_Baron_Burghley"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Leatherhead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leatherhead"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Wetherspoons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetherspoons"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"Edmund Tilney lived a life which was spent in balancing one controversy against another. On the one hand he had the Lord Treasurer to contend with, and on the other there was the Lord Chamberlain from whom he took direct orders. Following his appointment as the Master, he grew increasingly popular and married Dame Mary Braye in 1583. She was the fourth wife of Sir Edmund Braye. There are no other details about whether they had any children or not. Even in his will written in 1610, there is no mention of either his wife or any issue.[9]He spent the latter part of his life fighting various lawsuits and claims over property and debt. Towards the end, his financial circumstances had become severely strained. He lost a few properties through lawsuits as well. In his will he wished to be buried near his father without much pomp and ceremony. He bequeathed money to a few poor parishes, some servants and to his cousin Thomas Tilney. He lived in the town of Leatherhead, Surrey, in the building known as the Mansion House.[10][11] In December 1997, a new Wetherspoons pub in the town's High Street was named after him.[12] He is buried in St Leonard's Church, Streatham, London. A monument was erected in his memory.","title":"Personal life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Malone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmond_Malone"},{"link_name":"Sidney Lee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidney_Lee"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"Though the office of the Master of the Revels was one of the most influential posts in Elizabethan England, there is a paucity of information about the life of Edmund Tilney, the Master who was connected with the development of drama at that time.[13] There have been various sources, most of which have offered erroneous information. Starting from scholars like Malone to Sidney Lee, there has been varied representation of facts on Tilney. There are no details about his issue or what happened to his wife as there was mention of neither in his last will and testament. There are even debates about the possibility of Tilney having been knighted.[14]","title":"Ambiguities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Shakespeare in Love","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespeare_in_Love"},{"link_name":"Simon Callow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Callow"},{"link_name":"alternate history","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternate_history"},{"link_name":"Ruled Britannia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruled_Britannia"},{"link_name":"Harry Turtledove","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Turtledove"},{"link_name":"Doctor Who","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_Who_(series_3)"},{"link_name":"The Shakespeare Code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Shakespeare_Code"},{"link_name":"Chris Larkin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Larkin"},{"link_name":"Master of the Revels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_the_Revels:_A_Return_to_Neal_Stephenson%27s_D.O.D.O."},{"link_name":"Nicole Galland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicole_Galland"}],"text":"In the 1998 movie Shakespeare in Love, Simon Callow plays Tilney.\nTilney is a character in the 2002 alternate history novel Ruled Britannia by Harry Turtledove.\nIn the 2007 Doctor Who episode The Shakespeare Code, Chris Larkin plays \"Mr. Lynley,\" Master of the Revels, apparently a fictional analog of Tilney.\nTilney is one of the primary figures in the 2021 science fiction novel Master of the Revels by Nicole Galland","title":"In popular culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"Boas 1970","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFBoas1970"},{"link_name":"Richardson 2004","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFRichardson2004"},{"link_name":"Head 2008","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFHead2008"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"Boas 1970","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFBoas1970"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"Dutton 2008","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFDutton2008"},{"link_name":"Boas 1970","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFBoas1970"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"\"On Edmond Tyllney's Biography\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/514358"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"Boas 1970","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFBoas1970"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"\"The history of the Revels Office\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//museumstjohn.org.uk/history-revels-office/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"\"Greater Themes for Insurrection's Arguing': Political Censorship of the Elizabethan and Jacobean Stage\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/515421"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"\"Greater Themes for Insurrection's Arguing': Political Censorship of the Elizabethan and Jacobean Stage\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/515421"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-8369-5397-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8369-5397-5"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"\"Edmund Tylney: A Leatherhead worthy\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//leatherheadhistoryarchive.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/VOL_1_NO_5_1951.pdf"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"},{"link_name":"\"The Mansion, Leatherhead\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.leatherheadlocalhistory.org.uk/miscellany/potted-history-7.pdf"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20211103125440/https://www.leatherheadlocalhistory.org.uk/miscellany/potted-history-7.pdf"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-12"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-13"},{"link_name":"\"On Edmond Tyllney's Biography\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/514358"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-14"},{"link_name":"\"On Edmond Tyllney's Biography\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/514358"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/"}],"text":"^ Boas 1970, pp. 40–41; Richardson 2004, pp. 236–237; Head 2008, pp. 236–237.\n\n^ Boas 1970, pp. 40–41.\n\n^ Dutton 2008; Boas 1970, pp. 40–41.\n\n^ Streitberger, W.R.(February,1978). p.18 \"On Edmond Tyllney's Biography\".The Review of English Studies 29(113),11-35. JSTOR. Retrieved 29 March 2010.\n\n^ Boas 1970, p. 40.\n\n^ Wilkinson, Sarah (31 March 2020) [10 January 2018]. \"The history of the Revels Office\". Museum of the Order of St John. Retrieved 16 October 2023.\n\n^ Clare, Janet (May, 1987). p.173 \"Greater Themes for Insurrection's Arguing': Political Censorship of the Elizabethan and Jacobean Stage\".The Review of English Studies 38(150),169-183. JSTOR. Retrieved 29 March 2010\n\n^ Clare, Janet (May, 1987). p.182 \"Greater Themes for Insurrection's Arguing': Political Censorship of the Elizabethan and Jacobean Stage\".The Review of English Studies 38(150),169-183. JSTOR. Retrieved 29 March 2010\n\n^ Boas, Frederick S.(1950). p.47 Queen Elizabeth in Drama and Related Studies. George Allen & Unwin. pp.36-55. ISBN 0-8369-5397-5.Google Book Search. Retrieved 20 March 2010\n\n^ Benger, FB (1951). \"Edmund Tylney: A Leatherhead worthy\" (PDF). Proceedings of the Leatherhead & District Local History Society. 1 (5): 16–21. Retrieved 1 February 2021.\n\n^ Powell, Goff. \"The Mansion, Leatherhead\" (PDF). Leatherhead & District Local History Society. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 November 2021. Retrieved 3 November 2021.\n\n^ \"Old shops become new pub\". Leatherhead Advertiser. 24 December 1997. p. 3.\n\n^ Streitberger, W.R.(February,1978). p.11 \"On Edmond Tyllney's Biography\".The Review of English Studies 29(113),11-35. JSTOR. Retrieved 29 March 2010\n\n^ Streitberger, W. R. (February, 1978). p.25 \"On Edmond Tyllney's Biography\".The Review of English Studies 29(113),11-35. JSTOR. Retrieved 29 March 2010.","title":"Footnotes"}]
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[{"reference":"Wilkinson, Sarah (31 March 2020) [10 January 2018]. \"The history of the Revels Office\". Museum of the Order of St John. Retrieved 16 October 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://museumstjohn.org.uk/history-revels-office/","url_text":"\"The history of the Revels Office\""}]},{"reference":"Benger, FB (1951). \"Edmund Tylney: A Leatherhead worthy\" (PDF). Proceedings of the Leatherhead & District Local History Society. 1 (5): 16–21. Retrieved 1 February 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://leatherheadhistoryarchive.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/VOL_1_NO_5_1951.pdf","url_text":"\"Edmund Tylney: A Leatherhead worthy\""}]},{"reference":"Powell, Goff. \"The Mansion, Leatherhead\" (PDF). Leatherhead & District Local History Society. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 November 2021. Retrieved 3 November 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.leatherheadlocalhistory.org.uk/miscellany/potted-history-7.pdf","url_text":"\"The Mansion, Leatherhead\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20211103125440/https://www.leatherheadlocalhistory.org.uk/miscellany/potted-history-7.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Old shops become new pub\". Leatherhead Advertiser. 24 December 1997. p. 3.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Boas, Frederick Samuel (1970). Queen Elizabeth in Drama and Related Studies. Freeport, New York: Books For Libraries Press. ISBN 9780836953978. Retrieved 7 March 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/queenelizabethin0000boas","url_text":"Queen Elizabeth in Drama and Related Studies"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780836953978","url_text":"9780836953978"}]},{"reference":"Davies, Catherine (2008). Howard [née Tilney], Agnes, duchess of Norfolk (b. in or before 1477, d. 1545), noblewoman. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography","url_text":"Oxford Dictionary of National Biography"}]},{"reference":"Dutton, Richard (2008). Tilney, Edmund (1535/6–1610), courtier. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography","url_text":"Oxford Dictionary of National Biography"}]},{"reference":"Head, David M. (2008). Howard, Thomas, second duke of Norfolk (1443–1524), magnate and soldier. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography","url_text":"Oxford Dictionary of National Biography"}]},{"reference":"McDermott, James (2008). Howard, William, first Baron Howard of Effingham (c.1510–1573), naval commander. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography","url_text":"Oxford Dictionary of National Biography"}]},{"reference":"Richardson, Douglas (2004). Plantagenet Ancestry: A Study in Colonial and Medieval Families, ed. Kimball G. Everingham. Baltimore, Maryland: Genealogical Publishing Company, Inc.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Warnicke, Retha M. (2008). Katherine [Catherine; nee Katherine Howard] (1518x24-1542), queen of England and Ireland, fifth consort of Henry VIII. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography","url_text":"Oxford Dictionary of National Biography"}]},{"reference":"\"Tilney, Edmund\" . Dictionary of National Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1885–1900.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography,_1885-1900/Tilney,_Edmund","url_text":"\"Tilney, Edmund\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography","url_text":"Dictionary of National Biography"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garfield%27s_Nightmare
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Garfield's Nightmare
|
["1 Plot","2 Gameplay","3 Reception","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]
|
2007 video game
This article is about the video game. For the dark ride formerly called "Garfield's Nightmare", see Kennywood § Dark rides.
2007 video gameGarfield's NightmareDeveloper(s)Shin'en MultimediaPublisher(s)Game FactoryProducer(s)Thomas HoldorfDesigner(s)Peter WeissProgrammer(s)Manfred LinznerBernhard WodokComposer(s)Matthias GilchPlatform(s)Nintendo DSReleaseEU: March 9, 2007AU: March 15, 2007NA: August 28, 2007Genre(s)PlatformMode(s)Single player
Garfield's Nightmare is a platform game released for the Nintendo DS, based on the popular cartoon strip Garfield. The game follows Garfield traveling through 16 levels trying to escape a nightmare.
Plot
Garfield comes up with the idea to combine breakfast, lunch and dinner to have more time for his other activities. He crams several pizzas, lasagnas and bags of jelly donuts into a large sandwich, which he eats. However, this proves to be too much for him, and he slowly falls asleep and his nightmare begins.
Garfield suddenly wakes up in a haunted castle; rather than the real world, he has entered a strange dream world populated by the monsters of his sub-conscious. To make things worse, Garfield smashed his alarm clock in the real world, and now his only chance at waking up depends on his ability to find the shattered pieces and put them back together.
Gameplay
Garfield's Nightmare is a 2D platform game. The levels are divided into four sections, with each section having its own theme and a boss battle at the end. Bosses need to be terminated during these timeless fights, gradually enhancing the difficulty level. Each level has a bonus door, leading to a bonus game to collect extra lives, as well as a secret area in each level which contains an extra life.
Reception
ReceptionAggregate scoreAggregatorScoreMetacritic70/100Review scoresPublicationScore4Players73%GameZone6.6/10IGN7/10Nintendo Power7/10PALGN4/10
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (June 2023)
The game received "average" reviews according to the review aggregation website Metacritic.
See also
A ride that shared the game's name was opened at Kennywood Park near Pittsburgh in 2004. The boat ride was originally called "The Old Mill", but was rebranded with a Garfield theme until 2020 when it was changed back to The Old Mill.
References
^ "Garfield's Nightmare". Shin'en Multimedia. Archived from the original on 2011-08-16. Retrieved 2011-08-05.
^ a b "Garfield's Nightmare for DS Reviews". Metacritic. Red Ventures. Archived from the original on 2020-08-12. Retrieved 2020-01-06.
^ Kautz, Paul (March 16, 2007). "Test: Garfield's Nightmare". 4Players (in German). 4Players GmbH. Archived from the original on March 22, 2022. Retrieved March 22, 2022.
^ David, Mike (October 4, 2007). "Garfield's Nightmare - NDS - Review". GameZone. Archived from the original on September 28, 2008. Retrieved March 22, 2022.
^ Adams, Chris (October 12, 2007). "Garfield's Nightmare Review". IGN. Ziff Davis. Archived from the original on March 22, 2022. Retrieved March 22, 2022.
^ "Garfield's Nightmare". Nintendo Power. Vol. 220. Nintendo of America. October 2007. p. 89.
^ Marrow, Mark (April 1, 2007). "Garfield's Nightmare Review". PALGN. PAL Gaming Network. Archived from the original on September 18, 2012. Retrieved March 22, 2022.
^ "Rollercoaster Rides in Pennsylvania". Kennywood. Archived from the original on October 5, 2012. Retrieved March 22, 2022.
External links
Official website (US)
Garfield's Nightmare at MobyGames
vteGarfield by Jim Davis
Merchandise
home video releases
Characters
Garfield
Jon Arbuckle
Books
Garfield at Large (1980)
His 9 Lives (1984)
Pet Force (1998–99)
TelevisionSpecials
Here Comes Garfield (1982)
On the Town (1983)
In the Rough (1984)
Halloween Adventure (1985)
In Paradise (1986)
Garfield Goes Hollywood (1987)
A Garfield Christmas (1987)
His 9 Lives (1988)
Babes and Bullets (1989)
Thanksgiving (1989)
Feline Fantasies (1990)
Garfield Gets a Life (1991)
Animated series
Garfield and Friends
episodes (1988–94)
The Garfield Show
episodes (2009–16)
Garfield Originals (2019–2020)
Feature filmsLive-action
Garfield: The Movie (2004)
A Tail of Two Kitties (2006)
Animated
Garfield Gets Real (2007)
Fun Fest (2008)
Pet Force (2009)
The Garfield Movie (2024)
Video games
Create with Garfield (1986)
Big Fat Hairy Deal (1987)
Winter's Tail (1989)
Garfield Labyrinth (1993)
Caught in the Act (1995)
Garfield (2004)
A Tail of Two Kitties (2006)
Garfield's Nightmare (2007)
Garfield Gets Real (2009)
Garfield Kart (2013)
Nickelodeon All-Star Brawl (2021)
Nickelodeon Kart Racers 3: Slime Speedway (2022)
Nickelodeon All-Star Brawl 2 (2023)
Other media
Happy Birthday, Garfield (1988)
Cartoon All-Stars to the Rescue (1990)
Am I Cool or What? (1991)
Lasagna Cat (2008–17)
Garfield Minus Garfield (2008–)
Other Davis comics
Gnorm Gnat (1973–75)
U.S. Acres (1986–89)
People
Phil Roman
Lorenzo Music
Mark Evanier
Companies
Paws, Inc.
Film Roman
GarfieldEats
vteShin'en Multimedia gamesShooter gamesIridion series
Iridion 3D
Iridion II
Nano series
Nanostray
Nanostray 2
Nano Assault
EX
Nano Assault Neo
X
Racing gamesFast series
Fast Racing League
Fast Racing Neo
Fast RMX
Other games
Maya the Bee: The Great Adventure
Sweet Gold
Miss Spider's Sunny Patch Friends
Pet Alien: An Intergalactic Puzzlepalooza
Garfield's Nightmare
Fun! Fun! Minigolf
TOUCH!
Jett Rocket
II – The Wrath of Taikai
Art of Balance
The Touryst
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|
[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yves_Montand
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Yves Montand
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["1 Early life","2 Career","3 Personal life","4 Filmography","5 Discography","6 References","7 External links"]
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French-Italian actor and singer (1921–1991)
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Yves MontandMontand in 1965BornIvo Livi(1921-10-13)13 October 1921Monsummano Terme, Tuscany, Kingdom of ItalyDied9 November 1991(1991-11-09) (aged 70)Senlis, FranceOccupation(s)Actor, singerYears active1946–1991Spouse
Simone Signoret
(m. 1951; died 1985)PartnerCarole Amiel (1987–1991)Children1RelativesJean-Louis Livi (nephew)
Ivo Livi (Italian pronunciation: ; 13 October 1921 – 9 November 1991), better known as Yves Montand (French: ), was an Italian-born French actor and singer. He is said to be one of France's greatest 20th-century artists.
Early life
Montand was born Ivo Livi in Monsummano Terme, Italy, to Giovanni Livi, a broom manufacturer. Montand's mother Giuseppina Simoni was a devout Catholic. The family left Italy for France in 1923 following fascist Benito Mussolini's rise to power. He grew up in Marseille, where, as a young man, he worked in his sister's beauty salon (Salon de Coiffure), as well as later on the docks. He began a career in show business as a music-hall singer. In 1944, he was discovered by Édith Piaf in Paris; she made him part of her act.
Career
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Montand achieved international recognition as a singer and actor, starring in many films. He is recognised for crooner style songs, with those about Paris becoming instant classics. He was one of the best known performers at Bruno Coquatrix's Paris Olympia music hall, and toured with musicians including Didi Duprat. In October 1947, he sang "Mais qu'est-ce que j'ai ?" (music by Henri Betti and lyrics by Édith Piaf) at the Théâtre de l'Étoile. Betti also asked him to sing "C'est si bon" but Montand refused. Following the success of the recording of this song by the Sœurs Étienne in 1948, he decided to record it. Montand was also very popular in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, where he did a concert tour in 1956-57.
During his career, Montand acted in American motion pictures as well as on Broadway. He was nominated for a César Award for Best Actor in 1980 for I comme Icare and again in 1984 for Garçon! In 1986, after his international box-office draw power had fallen off considerably, the 65-year-old Montand gave one of his best remembered performances, as the scheming uncle in Jean de Florette, co-starring Gérard Depardieu, and Manon des Sources (both 1986), co-starring Emmanuelle Béart. The film was a worldwide critical hit and revived Montand's profile in the United States, where he made an appearance on Late Night with David Letterman.
Personal life
Montand at the 1987 Cannes Film Festival
In 1951, he married Simone Signoret, and they co-starred in several films throughout their careers. The marriage was, by all accounts, fairly harmonious, lasting until her death in 1985, although Montand had a number of well-publicised affairs, notably with American actress Marilyn Monroe, with whom he starred in one of her final films, Let's Make Love. He was the stepfather to Signoret's daughter from her previous marriage, Catherine Allégret.
Montand's only child, a son named Valentin, by his second wife, Carole Amiel (b. 1960), was born in 1988. In a paternity suit that caused commotion across France, another woman accused Montand of being the father of her daughter and went to court to obtain a DNA sample from him. Montand refused, but the woman persisted even after his death. In a court ruling that made international headlines, the woman won the right to have Montand exhumed and a sample taken. The results indicated that he was not the girl's biological father.
He supported left-wing causes during the 1950s and 1960s, and attended Communist festivals and meetings. In later life, his views moderated and shifted to the right.
Signoret and Montand had a home in Autheuil-Authouillet, Normandy, where the main village street is named after him.
In his later years, he maintained a home in Saint-Paul-de-Vence, Provence, until his death from a heart attack in November 1991. In an interview, Jean-Jacques Beineix said, "e died on the set ... On the very last day, after his very last shot. It was the very last night and we were doing retakes. He finished what he was doing and then he just died. And the film tells the story of an old man who dies from a heart attack, which is the same thing that happened!" Montand is interred next to his first wife, Simone Signoret, in Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris.
In 2004, Catherine Allégret, Signoret's daughter from her first marriage to director Yves Allégret, alleged in her autobiography Un monde a l'envers (A World Upside Down) that she had been sexually abused by her stepfather from the age of five; his behaviour apparently continuing for many years. and that he had a "more than equivocal attitude to her" as she got older. However, she also claimed to have been reconciled to him in the latter years of his life.
Filmography
Yves Montand as Formula One driver Jean-Pierre Sarti in Grand Prix, 1966
Year
Title
Role
Director
Notes
1941
La Prière aux étoiles
Un gars dans le café
Marcel Pagnol
Uncredited
1946
Star Without Light
Pierre
Marcel Blistène
Gates of the Night
Jean Diego
Marcel Carné
1948
The Idol
Fontana
Alexander Esway
1950
Lost Souvenirs
Raoul
Christian-Jaque
(segment "Le violon")
1951
The Red Inn
Singing Commentator
Claude Autant-Lara
Voice
Paris Is Always Paris
Himself
Luciano Emmer
cameo appearance
Paris Still Sings
Himself
Pierre Montazel
1953
Le salaire de la peur (The Wages of Fear)
Mario
Henri-Georges Clouzot
Saluti e baci
Himself
Maurice Labro and Giorgio Simonelli
Uncredited
1954
Tempi Nostri
Vasco
Alessandro Blasetti and Paul Paviot
1955
Napoléon
François Joseph Lefebvre
Sacha Guitry
The Heroes Are Tired
Michel Rivière
Yves Ciampi
Marguerite de la nuit
Monsieur Léon
Claude Autant-Lara
1957
The Wolves
Ricuccio
Giuseppe De Santis
Les Sorcières de Salem
John Proctor
Raymond Rouleau
La grande strada azzurra
Giovanni Squarciò
Gillo Pontecorvo
1958
Premier mai
Jean Meunier
Luis Saslavsky
1959
Legge, La
Matteo Brigante
Jules Dassin
1960
Let's Make Love
Clement / Dumas
George Cukor
1961
Sanctuary
Candy Man
Tony Richardson
Goodbye Again
Roger Demarest
Anatole Litvak
1962
My Geisha
Paul Robaix
Jack Cardiff
1963
Le Joli Mai
Narrator
Chris Marker
1965
Compartiment tueurs
Inspector Grazziani
Costa-Gavras
1966
La guerre est finie
Diego Mora
Alain Resnais
Is Paris Burning?
Sgt. Marcel Bizien
René Clément
Grand Prix
Jean- Pierre Sarti
John Frankenheimer
1967
Vivre pour vivre
Robert Colomb
Claude Lelouch
1968
Mr. Freedom
Captain Formidable
William Klein
cameo appearance, Uncredited
Un soir, un train
Mathias
André Delvaux
1969
The Devil by the Tail
Baron César Maricorne
Philippe de Broca
Z
Grigoris Lambrakis
Costa-Gavras
1970
L'Aveu
Gérard
Costa-Gavras
On a Clear Day You Can See Forever
Marc Chabot
Vincente Minnelli
Le Cercle Rouge
Jansen
Jean-Pierre Melville
1971
La folie des grandeurs
Blaze
Gérard Oury
1972
Tout va bien
"The Director"
Jean-Luc Godard and Jean-Pierre Gorin
César et Rosalie
César
Claude Sautet
État de Siège
Philip Michael Santore
Costa-Gavras
1973
Le Fils
Ange Orahona
Pierre Granier-Deferre
1974
Chance and Violence
Laurent Bermann
Philippe Labro
Vincent, François, Paul...et les autres
Vincent
Claude Sautet
1975
Section spéciale
Un milicien
Costa-Gavras
Uncredited
Le Sauvage
Martin
Jean-Paul Rappeneau
1976
Police Python 357
Inspecteur Marc Ferrot
Alain Corneau
Le Grand Escogriffe
Morland
Claude Pinoteau
A Butterfly in the Night
Himself
Armando Bó
Voice
1977
La Menace
Henri Savin
Alain Corneau
Le fond de l'air est rouge
Narrator
Chris Marker
Jacques Prévert
Himself
Jean Desvilles
1978
Roads to the South
Jean Larrea
Joseph Losey
1979
Clair de femme
Michel Follin
Costa-Gavras
I as in Icarus
Henri Volney
Henri Verneuil
1981
Le Choix des armes
Noël Durieux
Alain Corneau
1982
Tout feu, tout flamme
Victor Valance
Jean-Paul Rappeneau
1983
Garçon!
Alex
Claude Sautet
1986
Jean de Florette
César Soubeyran
Claude Berri
Manon des Sources
1988
Trois places pour le 26
Himself
Jacques Demy
1991
Netchaïev est de retour
Pierre Marroux
Jacques Deray
1992
IP5: L'île aux pachydermes
Léon Marcel
Jean-Jacques Beineix
(final film role)
Discography
1952: Chante (Odéon)
1953: Chante ses dernières créations (Odéon)
1953: Chante Paris (Odéon)
1953: Récital au Théâtre de l'Étoile 1953 (Odéon, live)
1954: Chante ses derniers succès (Odéon)
1954: # 54 (Odéon)
1955: Chansons populaires de France (Odéon)
1957: 13 ans déjà ! (Odéon)
1958: Dix chansons pour l'été (Odéon)
1958: Succès du Récital 1958 au Théâtre de L'Étoile (Odéon)
1958: Récital 1 + Récital 2 (Philips)
1958: Étoile 58 (Philips)
1959: One Man Show (Columbia)
1960: Dansez avec Yves Montand (Philips)
1961: Rengaine ta rengaine (Philips)
1962: Chante Prévert (Philips)
1962: Récital 63 – Intégral du Théâtre de l'Étoile (Philips, live)
1967: 7 (Philips)
1968: La Bicyclette (Philips)
1968: Le Paris de... (Philips)
1968: À l'Olympia (Philips, live)
1970: On a Clear Day You Can See Forever (Columbia, soundtrack with Barbra Streisand)
1972: Dans son dernier "One man show" intégral (CBS, live)
1974: Montand de mon temps (CBS or TriStar Music)
1981: D'hier et d'aujourd'hui (Philips)
1981: Le disque de la paix (Philips)
1982: Olympia 81 (Philips)
1983: In English (Philips)
1984: Chante David Mc Neil (Philips)
1988: Trois places pour le 26 (Philips, w/ Mathilda May, soundtrack)
1993: Les années Odéon – 1945–1958 (Columbia, 9-CD boxset)
1997: Plaisirs inédits (Universal)
2000: Et la fête continue – Intégrale 1945–1949 – Vol. 1 (Frémeaux)
2001: Inédits, rares & indispensables (Mercury, 4-CD boxset)
2004: Sensationnel – Intégrale 1949–1953 – Vol. 2 (Frémeaux)
2007: Une étoile à l'Étoile – Intégrale 1953–1954 – Vol. 3 (Frémeaux, live)
References
^ "«Montand est à nous»: le siècle d'Ivo Livi". France tv & vous (in French). 11 October 2021. Archived from the original on 13 October 2021. Retrieved 30 July 2023.
^ Montand, Yves; Hamon, Hervé; Rotman, Patrick; Leggatt, Jeremy (1992). You see, I haven't forgotten. Knopf. ISBN 0679410120.
^ Rosen, Marjorie (25 November 1991). "Adieu, Yves". People. 36 (20). Archived from the original on 5 February 2009. Retrieved 30 July 2023.
^ Hodgson, Moira (5 September 1982). "Yves Montand – From the Music Hall to the Met". The New York Times. Retrieved 30 July 2023.
^ Oiva, Mila; Salmi, Hannu; Johnson, Bruce (29 April 2021). Yves Montand in the USSR: Cultural Diplomacy and Mixed Messages. Cham: Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-69048-9. ISBN 978-3-030-69047-2. S2CID 242402774.
^ "Late Night with David Letterman (a Guest Stars & Air Dates Guide)". 17 June 1987. Retrieved 14 May 2013.
^ "Body of Entertainer Montand Exhumed". Los Angeles Times. 12 March 1998. Retrieved 20 August 2012.
^ Fuchs, Rachel G. (25 July 2008). Contested Paternity: Constructing Families in Modern France. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 272. ISBN 978-0801898167.
^ Meisler, Stanley (1 October 1985). "French Actress Simone Signoret Dies at 64". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 17 November 2021.
^ "Yves Montand - Biography". IMDb. Retrieved 30 July 2023.
^ "The Return of Jean-Jacques Beineix, Pt. II". www.videobusiness.com. 5 June 2009. Retrieved 17 June 2009.
^ Bremnerin, Charles (30 September 2004). "Actress says cinema idol stepfather abused her". Irish Independent. The Times (London). Retrieved 20 November 2013.
^ "Catherine Allégret détaille ses relations avec Montand". L'Obs (in French). 1 October 2004. Retrieved 30 July 2023.
^ Mathieu, Hélène (6 February 2009). "Catherine Allégret : « Cette vérité, c'est à moi de la dire »". Psychologies.com (in French). Retrieved 30 July 2023.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Yves Montand.
Biography portal
International Jose Guillermo Carrillo Foundation
Yves Montand at IMDb
Yves Montand at the Internet Broadway Database
Yves Montand discography at Discogs
Yves Montand at Find a Grave
vteYves MontandSongs
"Les Feuilles mortes" ("Autumn Leaves ")
"Mais qu’est-ce que j’ai?" ("What Can I Do?")
"C'est si bon"
"Maître Pierre" ("The Windmill Song")
"Rien dans les mains, rien dans les poches"
"Sous le ciel de Paris"
vteDavid di Donatello Award for Best Foreign Actor1957–1975
Laurence Olivier (1957)
Marlon Brando / Charles Laughton (1958)
Jean Gabin (1959)
Cary Grant (1960)
Charlton Heston (1961)
Anthony Perkins / Spencer Tracy (1962)
Gregory Peck (1963)
Fredric March / Peter O'Toole (1964)
Rex Harrison (1965)
Richard Burton (1966)
Richard Burton / Peter O'Toole (1967)
Warren Beatty / Spencer Tracy (1968)
Rod Steiger (1969)
Dustin Hoffman / Peter O'Toole (1970)
Ryan O'Neal (1971)
Chaim Topol (1972)
Yves Montand / Laurence Olivier (1973)
Al Pacino / Robert Redford (1974)
Burt Lancaster / Jack Lemmon / Walter Matthau (1975)
1976–1996
Jack Nicholson / Philippe Noiret (1976)
Dustin Hoffman / Sylvester Stallone (1977)
Richard Dreyfuss (1978)
Richard Gere / Michel Serrault (1979)
Dustin Hoffman / Jack Lemmon (1980)
Burt Lancaster (1981)
Klaus Maria Brandauer (1982)
Paul Newman (1983)
Woody Allen (1984)
Tom Hulce (1985)
William Hurt (1986)
Dexter Gordon (1987)
Michael Douglas (1988)
Dustin Hoffman (1989)
Philippe Noiret (1990)
Jeremy Irons (1991)
John Turturro (1992)
Daniel Auteuil (1993)
Anthony Hopkins (1994)
John Travolta (1995)
Harvey Keitel (1996)
vte Film Society of Lincoln Center Gala Tribute Honorees
Charlie Chaplin (1972)
Fred Astaire (1973)
Alfred Hitchcock (1974)
Joanne Woodward and Paul Newman (1975)
George Cukor (1978)
Bob Hope (1979)
John Huston (1980)
Barbara Stanwyck (1981)
Billy Wilder (1982)
Laurence Olivier (1983)
Claudette Colbert (1984)
Federico Fellini (1985)
Elizabeth Taylor (1986)
Alec Guinness (1987)
Yves Montand (1988)
Bette Davis (1989)
James Stewart (1990)
Audrey Hepburn (1991)
Gregory Peck (1992)
Jack Lemmon (1993)
Robert Altman (1994)
Shirley MacLaine (1995)
Clint Eastwood (1996)
Sean Connery (1997)
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Morgan Freeman (2016)
Robert De Niro (2017)
Helen Mirren (2018)
Spike Lee (2020)
Cate Blanchett (2022)
Viola Davis (2023)
Jeff Bridges (2024)
vteCannes Film Festival jury presidents1946–1975
Georges Huisman (1946)
Georges Huisman (1947)
Georges Huisman (1949)
André Maurois (1951)
Maurice Genevoix (1952)
Jean Cocteau (1953)
Jean Cocteau (1954)
Marcel Pagnol (1955)
Maurice Lehmann (1956)
André Maurois (1957)
Marcel Achard (1958)
Marcel Achard (1959)
Georges Simenon (1960)
Jean Giono (1961)
Tetsurō Furukaki (1962)
Armand Salacrou (1963)
Fritz Lang (1964)
Olivia de Havilland (1965)
Sophia Loren (1966)
Alessandro Blasetti (1967)
André Chamson (1968)
Luchino Visconti (1969)
Miguel Ángel Asturias (1970)
Michèle Morgan (1971)
Joseph Losey (1972)
Ingrid Bergman (1973)
René Clair (1974)
Jeanne Moreau (1975)
1976–2000
Tennessee Williams (1976)
Roberto Rossellini (1977)
Alan J. Pakula (1978)
Françoise Sagan (1979)
Kirk Douglas (1980)
Jacques Deray (1981)
Giorgio Strehler (1982)
William Styron (1983)
Dirk Bogarde (1984)
Miloš Forman (1985)
Sydney Pollack (1986)
Yves Montand (1987)
Ettore Scola (1988)
Wim Wenders (1989)
Bernardo Bertolucci (1990)
Roman Polanski (1991)
Gérard Depardieu (1992)
Louis Malle (1993)
Clint Eastwood (1994)
Jeanne Moreau (1995)
Francis Ford Coppola (1996)
Isabelle Adjani (1997)
Martin Scorsese (1998)
David Cronenberg (1999)
Luc Besson (2000)
2001–present
Liv Ullmann (2001)
David Lynch (2002)
Patrice Chéreau (2003)
Quentin Tarantino (2004)
Emir Kusturica (2005)
Wong Kar-wai (2006)
Stephen Frears (2007)
Sean Penn (2008)
Isabelle Huppert (2009)
Tim Burton (2010)
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Nanni Moretti (2012)
Steven Spielberg (2013)
Jane Campion (2014)
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George Miller (2016)
Pedro Almodóvar (2017)
Cate Blanchett (2018)
Alejandro González Iñárritu (2019)
Spike Lee (2021)
Vincent Lindon (2022)
Ruben Östlund (2023)
Greta Gerwig (2024)
vtePresidents of the César Awards ceremonies1976–2000
Jean Gabin (1976)
Lino Ventura (1977)
Jeanne Moreau (1978)
Charles Vanel (1979)
Jean Marais (1980)
Yves Montand (1981)
Orson Welles (1982)
Catherine Deneuve (1983)
Gene Kelly (1984)
Simone Signoret (1985)
Madeleine Renaud and Jean-Louis Barrault (1986)
Sean Connery (1987)
Miloš Forman (1988)
Peter Ustinov (1989)
Kirk Douglas (1990)
Sophia Loren (1991)
Michèle Morgan (1992)
Marcello Mastroianni (1993)
Gérard Depardieu (1994)
Alain Delon (1995)
Philippe Noiret (1996)
Annie Girardot (1997)
Juliette Binoche (1998)
Isabelle Huppert (1999)
Alain Delon (2000)
2001–present
Daniel Auteuil (2001)
Nathalie Baye (2002)
— (2003)
Fanny Ardant (2004)
Isabelle Adjani (2005)
Carole Bouquet (2006)
Claude Brasseur (2007)
Jean Rochefort (2008)
Charlotte Gainsbourg (2009)
Marion Cotillard (2010)
Jodie Foster (2011)
Guillaume Canet (2012)
Jamel Debbouze (2013)
François Cluzet (2014)
Dany Boon (2015)
Claude Lelouch (2016)
— (2017)
Vanessa Paradis (2018)
Kristin Scott Thomas (2019)
Sandrine Kiberlain (2020)
Roschdy Zem (2021)
Danièle Thompson (2022)
Tahar Rahim (2023)
Valérie Lemercier (2024)
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[ˈiːvo ˈliːvi]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Italian"},{"link_name":"[iv mɔ̃tɑ̃]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/French"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"Ivo Livi (Italian pronunciation: [ˈiːvo ˈliːvi]; 13 October 1921 – 9 November 1991), better known as Yves Montand (French: [iv mɔ̃tɑ̃]), was an Italian-born French actor and singer. He is said to be one of France's greatest 20th-century artists.[1]","title":"Yves Montand"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Monsummano Terme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monsummano_Terme"},{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bookref1-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Catholic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Third_Republic"},{"link_name":"Benito Mussolini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Marseille","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marseille"},{"link_name":"music-hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music-hall"},{"link_name":"Édith Piaf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89dith_Piaf"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Montand was born Ivo Livi in Monsummano Terme, Italy, to Giovanni Livi, a broom manufacturer.[2][3] Montand's mother Giuseppina Simoni was a devout Catholic. The family left Italy for France in 1923 following fascist Benito Mussolini's rise to power.[4] He grew up in Marseille, where, as a young man, he worked in his sister's beauty salon (Salon de Coiffure), as well as later on the docks. He began a career in show business as a music-hall singer. In 1944, he was discovered by Édith Piaf in Paris; she made him part of her act.[citation needed]","title":"Early life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"crooner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crooner"},{"link_name":"Bruno Coquatrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruno_Coquatrix"},{"link_name":"Paris Olympia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_Olympia"},{"link_name":"Didi Duprat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Didi_Duprat"},{"link_name":"Mais qu'est-ce que j'ai ?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Can_I_Do%3F_(%C3%89dith_Piaf_song)"},{"link_name":"Henri Betti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Betti"},{"link_name":"Édith Piaf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89dith_Piaf"},{"link_name":"C'est si bon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%27est_si_bon"},{"link_name":"Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Broadway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadway_theatre"},{"link_name":"César Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_Award"},{"link_name":"Jean de Florette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_de_Florette"},{"link_name":"Gérard Depardieu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_Depardieu"},{"link_name":"Manon des Sources","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manon_des_Sources_(1986_film)"},{"link_name":"Emmanuelle Béart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmanuelle_B%C3%A9art"},{"link_name":"Late Night with David Letterman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Night_with_David_Letterman"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Montand achieved international recognition as a singer and actor, starring in many films. He is recognised for crooner style songs, with those about Paris becoming instant classics. He was one of the best known performers at Bruno Coquatrix's Paris Olympia music hall, and toured with musicians including Didi Duprat. In October 1947, he sang \"Mais qu'est-ce que j'ai ?\" (music by Henri Betti and lyrics by Édith Piaf) at the Théâtre de l'Étoile. Betti also asked him to sing \"C'est si bon\" but Montand refused. Following the success of the recording of this song by the Sœurs Étienne in 1948, he decided to record it. Montand was also very popular in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, where he did a concert tour in 1956-57.[5]During his career, Montand acted in American motion pictures as well as on Broadway. He was nominated for a César Award for Best Actor in 1980 for I comme Icare and again in 1984 for Garçon! In 1986, after his international box-office draw power had fallen off considerably, the 65-year-old Montand gave one of his best remembered performances, as the scheming uncle in Jean de Florette, co-starring Gérard Depardieu, and Manon des Sources (both 1986), co-starring Emmanuelle Béart. The film was a worldwide critical hit and revived Montand's profile in the United States, where he made an appearance on Late Night with David Letterman.[6]","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Yves_Montand_Cannes.jpg"},{"link_name":"1987 Cannes Film Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1987_Cannes_Film_Festival"},{"link_name":"Simone Signoret","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simone_Signoret"},{"link_name":"Marilyn Monroe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marilyn_Monroe"},{"link_name":"Let's Make Love","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Let%27s_Make_Love"},{"link_name":"Catherine Allégret","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_All%C3%A9gret"},{"link_name":"DNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Communist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Autheuil-Authouillet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autheuil-Authouillet"},{"link_name":"Saint-Paul-de-Vence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint-Paul-de-Vence"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Jean-Jacques Beineix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Beineix"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Simone Signoret","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simone_Signoret"},{"link_name":"Père Lachaise Cemetery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A8re_Lachaise_Cemetery"},{"link_name":"Yves Allégret","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yves_All%C3%A9gret"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"Montand at the 1987 Cannes Film FestivalIn 1951, he married Simone Signoret, and they co-starred in several films throughout their careers. The marriage was, by all accounts, fairly harmonious, lasting until her death in 1985, although Montand had a number of well-publicised affairs, notably with American actress Marilyn Monroe, with whom he starred in one of her final films, Let's Make Love. He was the stepfather to Signoret's daughter from her previous marriage, Catherine Allégret.Montand's only child, a son named Valentin, by his second wife, Carole Amiel (b. 1960), was born in 1988. In a paternity suit that caused commotion across France, another woman accused Montand of being the father of her daughter and went to court to obtain a DNA sample from him. Montand refused, but the woman persisted even after his death. In a court ruling that made international headlines, the woman won the right to have Montand exhumed and a sample taken.[7] The results indicated that he was not the girl's biological father.[8]He supported left-wing causes during the 1950s and 1960s, and attended Communist festivals and meetings. In later life, his views moderated and shifted to the right.[9]Signoret and Montand had a home in Autheuil-Authouillet, Normandy, where the main village street is named after him.In his later years, he maintained a home in Saint-Paul-de-Vence, Provence, until his death from a heart attack in November 1991.[10] In an interview, Jean-Jacques Beineix said, \"[H]e died on the set [of IP5: The Island of Pachyderms]... On the very last day, after his very last shot. It was the very last night and we were doing retakes. He finished what he was doing and then he just died. And the film tells the story of an old man who dies from a heart attack, which is the same thing that happened!\"[11] Montand is interred next to his first wife, Simone Signoret, in Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris.In 2004, Catherine Allégret, Signoret's daughter from her first marriage to director Yves Allégret, alleged in her autobiography Un monde a l'envers (A World Upside Down) that she had been sexually abused by her stepfather from the age of five; his behaviour apparently continuing for many years.[12] and that he had a \"more than equivocal attitude to her\" as she got older.[13] However, she also claimed to have been reconciled to him in the latter years of his life.[14]","title":"Personal life"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Yves_Montand_1966.jpg"},{"link_name":"Formula One","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formula_One"},{"link_name":"Grand Prix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Prix_(1966_film)"}],"text":"Yves Montand as Formula One driver Jean-Pierre Sarti in Grand Prix, 1966","title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"La Bicyclette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Bicyclette"},{"link_name":"On a Clear Day You Can See Forever","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_a_Clear_Day_You_Can_See_Forever_(soundtrack)"},{"link_name":"Barbra Streisand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbra_Streisand"},{"link_name":"Mathilda May","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathilda_May"}],"text":"1952: Chante (Odéon)\n1953: Chante ses dernières créations (Odéon)\n1953: Chante Paris (Odéon)\n1953: Récital au Théâtre de l'Étoile 1953 (Odéon, live)\n1954: Chante ses derniers succès (Odéon)\n1954: # 54 (Odéon)\n1955: Chansons populaires de France (Odéon)\n1957: 13 ans déjà ! (Odéon)\n1958: Dix chansons pour l'été (Odéon)\n1958: Succès du Récital 1958 au Théâtre de L'Étoile (Odéon)\n1958: Récital 1 + Récital 2 (Philips)\n1958: Étoile 58 (Philips)\n1959: One Man Show (Columbia)\n1960: Dansez avec Yves Montand (Philips)\n1961: Rengaine ta rengaine (Philips)\n1962: Chante Prévert (Philips)\n1962: Récital 63 – Intégral du Théâtre de l'Étoile (Philips, live)\n1967: 7 (Philips)\n1968: La Bicyclette (Philips)\n1968: Le Paris de... (Philips)\n1968: À l'Olympia (Philips, live)\n1970: On a Clear Day You Can See Forever (Columbia, soundtrack with Barbra Streisand)\n1972: Dans son dernier \"One man show\" intégral (CBS, live)\n1974: Montand de mon temps (CBS or TriStar Music)\n1981: D'hier et d'aujourd'hui (Philips)\n1981: Le disque de la paix (Philips)\n1982: Olympia 81 (Philips)\n1983: In English (Philips)\n1984: Chante David Mc Neil (Philips)\n1988: Trois places pour le 26 (Philips, w/ Mathilda May, soundtrack)\n1993: Les années Odéon – 1945–1958 (Columbia, 9-CD boxset)\n1997: Plaisirs inédits (Universal)\n2000: Et la fête continue – Intégrale 1945–1949 – Vol. 1 (Frémeaux)\n2001: Inédits, rares & indispensables (Mercury, 4-CD boxset)\n2004: Sensationnel – Intégrale 1949–1953 – Vol. 2 (Frémeaux)\n2007: Une étoile à l'Étoile – Intégrale 1953–1954 – Vol. 3 (Frémeaux, live)","title":"Discography"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Montand at the 1987 Cannes Film Festival","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Yves_Montand_Cannes.jpg/200px-Yves_Montand_Cannes.jpg"},{"image_text":"Yves Montand as Formula One driver Jean-Pierre Sarti in Grand Prix, 1966","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Yves_Montand_1966.jpg/220px-Yves_Montand_1966.jpg"}]
| null |
[{"reference":"\"«Montand est à nous»: le siècle d'Ivo Livi\". France tv & vous (in French). 11 October 2021. Archived from the original on 13 October 2021. Retrieved 30 July 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20211013224613/https://www.francetelevisions.fr/et-vous/notre-tele/a-ne-pas-manquer/montand-est-a-nous-le-siecle-divo-livi-8319","url_text":"\"«Montand est à nous»: le siècle d'Ivo Livi\""},{"url":"https://www.francetelevisions.fr/et-vous/notre-tele/a-ne-pas-manquer/montand-est-a-nous-le-siecle-divo-livi-8319","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Montand, Yves; Hamon, Hervé; Rotman, Patrick; Leggatt, Jeremy (1992). You see, I haven't forgotten. Knopf. ISBN 0679410120.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knopf","url_text":"Knopf"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0679410120","url_text":"0679410120"}]},{"reference":"Rosen, Marjorie (25 November 1991). \"Adieu, Yves\". People. 36 (20). Archived from the original on 5 February 2009. Retrieved 30 July 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090205111442/http://www.people.com/people/archive/article/0,,20111346,00.html","url_text":"\"Adieu, Yves\""},{"url":"http://www.people.com/people/archive/article/0,,20111346,00.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Hodgson, Moira (5 September 1982). \"Yves Montand – From the Music Hall to the Met\". The New York Times. Retrieved 30 July 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1982/09/05/arts/yves-montand-from-the-music-hall-to-the-met.html?&pagewanted=all","url_text":"\"Yves Montand – From the Music Hall to the Met\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"}]},{"reference":"Oiva, Mila; Salmi, Hannu; Johnson, Bruce (29 April 2021). Yves Montand in the USSR: Cultural Diplomacy and Mixed Messages. Cham: Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-69048-9. ISBN 978-3-030-69047-2. S2CID 242402774.","urls":[{"url":"https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-030-69048-9","url_text":"Yves Montand in the USSR: Cultural Diplomacy and Mixed Messages"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-030-69048-9","url_text":"10.1007/978-3-030-69048-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-69047-2","url_text":"978-3-030-69047-2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:242402774","url_text":"242402774"}]},{"reference":"\"Late Night with David Letterman (a Guest Stars & Air Dates Guide)\". 17 June 1987. Retrieved 14 May 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://epguides.com/LateNightwithDavidLetterman/","url_text":"\"Late Night with David Letterman (a Guest Stars & Air Dates Guide)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Body of Entertainer Montand Exhumed\". Los Angeles Times. 12 March 1998. Retrieved 20 August 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://articles.latimes.com/1998/mar/12/news/mn-28204","url_text":"\"Body of Entertainer Montand Exhumed\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times","url_text":"Los Angeles Times"}]},{"reference":"Fuchs, Rachel G. (25 July 2008). Contested Paternity: Constructing Families in Modern France. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 272. ISBN 978-0801898167.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Z1VqqZE79PoC&pg=PT272","url_text":"Contested Paternity: Constructing Families in Modern France"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0801898167","url_text":"978-0801898167"}]},{"reference":"Meisler, Stanley (1 October 1985). \"French Actress Simone Signoret Dies at 64\". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 17 November 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1985-10-01-mn-19173-story.html","url_text":"\"French Actress Simone Signoret Dies at 64\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times","url_text":"Los Angeles Times"}]},{"reference":"\"Yves Montand - Biography\". IMDb. Retrieved 30 July 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0598971/bio/","url_text":"\"Yves Montand - Biography\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Return of Jean-Jacques Beineix, Pt. II\". www.videobusiness.com. 5 June 2009. Retrieved 17 June 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.videobusiness.com/blog/1740000174/post/370045237.html","url_text":"\"The Return of Jean-Jacques Beineix, Pt. II\""}]},{"reference":"Bremnerin, Charles (30 September 2004). \"Actress says cinema idol stepfather abused her\". Irish Independent. The Times (London). Retrieved 20 November 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.independent.ie/world-news/europe/actress-says-cinema-idol-stepfather-abused-her-25900219.html","url_text":"\"Actress says cinema idol stepfather abused her\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Independent","url_text":"Irish Independent"}]},{"reference":"\"Catherine Allégret détaille ses relations avec Montand\". L'Obs (in French). 1 October 2004. Retrieved 30 July 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://o.nouvelobs.com/people/20040929.OBS8018/catherine-allegret-detaille-ses-relations-avec-montand.html","url_text":"\"Catherine Allégret détaille ses relations avec Montand\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27Obs","url_text":"L'Obs"}]},{"reference":"Mathieu, Hélène (6 February 2009). \"Catherine Allégret : « Cette vérité, c'est à moi de la dire »\". Psychologies.com (in French). Retrieved 30 July 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.psychologies.com/Moi/Epreuves/Deuil/Articles-et-Dossiers/Catherine-Allegret-Cette-verite-c-est-a-moi-de-la-dire","url_text":"\"Catherine Allégret : « Cette vérité, c'est à moi de la dire »\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finsbury
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Finsbury
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["1 Geography","2 Origins and administration","2.1 Soke of Cripplegate","2.2 Manor and parishes","2.3 Latter administration and representation","3 History","3.1 Growth","3.2 Military history","3.3 Medical district","4 Famous residents","5 Points of interest","6 References","7 External links"]
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Coordinates: 51°31′21″N 0°05′33″W / 51.5224°N 0.0925°W / 51.5224; -0.0925District of Central London
For other uses, see Finsbury (disambiguation).
Human settlement in EnglandFinsburyFinsbury Square, looking northThe arms of the Metropolitan Borough refer to the London Wall and the northern gatesFinsburyLocation within Greater LondonOS grid referenceTQ315825London boroughIslingtonCeremonial countyGreater LondonRegionLondonCountryEnglandSovereign stateUnited KingdomPost townLONDONPostcode districtEC1Postcode districtWC1Dialling code020PoliceMetropolitanFireLondonAmbulanceLondon
UK ParliamentIslington South and FinsburyLondon AssemblyNorth East
List of places
UK
England
London
51°31′21″N 0°05′33″W / 51.5224°N 0.0925°W / 51.5224; -0.0925
Finsbury is a district of Central London, forming the southeastern part of the London Borough of Islington. It borders the City of London.
The Manor of Finsbury is first recorded as Vinisbir (1231) and means "manor of a man called Finn". Finsbury lay just outside Cripplegate (and on its later construction, Moorgate) in London Wall. At that time, much of the manor was part of the "great fen which washed against the northern wall of the City".
Finsbury gave its name to two larger administrative areas: the Finsbury Division of the Ossulstone Hundred of Middlesex, from the 17th century until 1900, and from 1900 to 1965 the Metropolitan Borough of Finsbury. The Metropolitan Borough included Finsbury (also known as St Luke's) and Clerkenwell.
The area should not be confused with Finsbury Park, a public space roughly 3 miles (5 km) to the north, which gives its name to its surrounding mainly residential area.
Geography
The area lies immediately north of the City of London, and approximates to the part of the London Borough of Islington east of Goswell Road and south of City Road. It also includes a small area north of City Road, focused on the City Road Basin.
The parts of the City of London's Coleman Street Ward that lie outside the line of the former City walls (now mostly covered by Finsbury Circus) were historically part of the Manor of Finsbury and still sometimes described as part of the area.
Finsbury Town Hall and the Finsbury Estate lie further west, in Clerkenwell and are named after the former borough of Finsbury which included both Finsbury and Clerkenwell.
Origins and administration
Soke of Cripplegate
The Soke of Cripplegate was a landholding outside Cripplegate and Aldersgate. Bordered (in part at least) by the Walbrook to the east, it covered the areas subsequently known as Aldersgate Without and the parish of St Giles-without-Cripplegate (which included Cripplegate Without, the part of Coleman Street Ward north of the wall and the Manor of Finsbury).
Origin of Finsbury: The Soke included Aldersgate Without, Cripplegate Without, the parts of Coleman Street Ward north of the Wall and a much larger area, in the modern London Borough of Islington, that would become the Manor of Finsbury.
The Soke was granted to St. Martin's Le Grand by William the Conqueror in 1068, in exchange for prayers for the souls of his parents. It is thought the estate may be much older dating back to the establishment of the Diocese of London in the 7th century.
The Empress Matilda wished to develop a northern suburb.
The churches of St Botolph without Aldersgate and St Giles-without-Cripplegate appear to have been built in the early decades of the twelfth century (possibly under the aegis of Matilda of Blessed Memory) and there was very little, if any, development north of the wall before that time. St Martins rights to the Soke were confirmed by the Empress Matilda (daughter of Matilda of Blessed Memory) around 1140. St Martins was permitted to enclose land there to prevent rubbish dumping in the area, but it is thought the Empress' principle intention was to promote planned development of a northern suburb.
The development of streets such as Redcross Street, Whitecross Street, Grub Street, Fore Street, Moor Lane, Chiswell Street and others were subsequently recorded.
Manor and parishes
It is not entirely clear how the territory and rights of the Soke evolved into the subsequent administrative and ecclesiastical units.
The area covered by the Soke was served by two parishes; the little parish of St Botolph without Aldersgate served the extramural City Ward of Aldersgate Without, while the parish of St Giles-without-Cripplegate served the extramural City Ward of Cripplegate Without and the Manor (estate) of Finsbury. In the 17th century, Little and Lower Moorfields, previously in the Manor of Finsbury and Parish of St Giles, was transferred to the Coleman Street Ward of the City of London (and also to the parish of St Stephen Coleman Street for religious purposes). This meant that Coleman Street Ward also possessed an extramural area.
Lower Moorfields, north London in 1676, including the re-sited Bethlem Hospital. London's Wall and the Moorgate are clearly shown, and some of the administrative boundaries can also be discerned.
From mid-12th century the Manor of Finsbury was owned by St Paul's cathedral and managed as a Prebendary Manor to provide a prebend (a stipend of money or goods) to support an ecclesiastic person such as a canon, or an institution. For a long time the prebendary income went to Holywell Priory in nearby Shoreditch, so the estate became known as the Prebend of Halliwell and Finsbury, though the Priory itself did not lie adjacent to the prebendary manor or form part of it.
The prebendary manor of Finsbury was, from 1315, leased by the Lord Mayor of London, so that after that the formal title of the Mayors has been Mayor of London and Lord of Finsbury. The mayoral manor house, Finsbury Court, lay on the junction of Chiswell Street and Finsbury Pavement.
The parts of Coleman Street Ward north of the Wall, were part of the Manor of Finsbury.
In this way the part of St Giles parish, Cripplegate Without, that was part of the city was also known as The Freedom and governed by the Mayor as a part of, or a dependency of the city. The remaining part, The Manor of Finsbury, was also known as The Lordship, where the Mayor's position was that of a lessee, albeit with the title Lord of the Manor of Finsbury.
Other accounts suggest the Manor passed to the Lord Mayors later, being made over their use by Richard II, in gratitude for the killing of Wat Tyler by Mayor William Walworth at Smithfield in 1381.
In 1733, the growth of the local population, led to the part of St Giles-without-Cripplegate outside the city, the area which had been the Manor of Finsbury, being made an independent parish, known as St Luke's, after the parish church.
Latter administration and representation
The parts of the parish of St Giles outside of the city (originally the Manor of Finsbury, later organised as the Parish of St Luke) were part of the Hundred of Ossulstone in Middlesex. By the 17th century, population growth made this unit inefficient, so it was sub-divided with the area north of the walls becoming part of a new Finsbury Division which handled the responsibilities previously managed by the Hundred. Parish-level institutions continued to manage the Poor Law and ecclesiastical matters.
In 1832 the parliamentary borough of Finsbury was created to represent the area in parliament. This area loosely approximated to the Finsbury division, but also included parts of west London. In 1857 Finsbury Park was opened some three miles north, for the enjoyment of the residents of this parliamentary borough.
The wards of the Metropolitan Borough preserved the boundary between Finsbury (St Luke's) and Clerkenwell. Finsbury comprised the five eastern wards.
The Metropolitan Borough of Finsbury in the County of London was created in 1900, covering the area of Finsbury (also known as St Luke's) and Clerkenwell, with Finsbury Town Hall located on Rosebery Avenue, Clerkenwell. In 1938, Dr. Chuni Lal Katial was elected mayor of Finsbury, making him the first Asian mayor in the United Kingdom.
The Borough's coat of arms included an embattled chief (top of the shield) representing the London Wall, a Barbican representing the three northern gates (Aldersgate, Cripplegate and Moorgate) and a Winged Bull, the heraldic symbol of St Luke.
In 1965 the area merged with Islington to form the new London Borough of Islington, though Finsbury Circus remains part of the City of London.
History
Growth
Urbanisation was slow, despite the building of a new gate in the adjacent London Wall, Moorgate, in 1511. In 1665 the Bunhill Fields burial ground was opened in the area.
Moorgate was built in 1511, the last gate to be created in the originally Roman wall. The creation of the gate encouraged development to the north of the wall.
Building on Finsbury Fields began in the late 17th century. The parish church of St Luke's was built in 1732–33, development was accelerated by the building of the City Road in 1765, and at the end of the 18th century a residential suburb was built with its centre at Finsbury Square. Little and Lower Moorfields remained open until Finsbury Circus was developed after 1815.
Military history
Finsbury Barracks
In 1641 the Honourable Artillery Company moved to Finsbury, where it still remains. The City of London Yeomanry, founded at the time of the Second Boer War, made its headquarters in Finsbury Square.
In 1862 Finsbury gave its name to a volunteer infantry unit — the Finsbury Rifles, which recruited in both Finsbury and Clerkenwell, and saw distinguished service in several conflicts.
Medical district
Before Harley Street rose to prominence, Finsbury was London's principal medical district. In the mid-19th century it was home to a large number of hospitals, but now only Moorfields Eye Hospital remains.
Finsbury Moorfields Eye Hospital
The area included the following hospitals:
Royal Hospital for Diseases of the Chest
Royal London Ophthalmic Hospital (Moorfields)
St Luke's Hospital for Lunatics
French Huguenot Hospital
St Mark's Hospital for Fistula and other Diseases of the Rectum
Holborn & Finsbury Poor Law Union
Bethlem Hospital, on the site of what is now Finsbury Circus
Famous residents
Charles Gordon, cricketer and grandson of the founder of Gordon's Gin
Violet Kray, mother of the gangster Kray brothers. Twins Ronnie and Reggie were arrested at her flat in Braithwaite House, Finsbury, in connection with gangland crimes including murder and fraud on 8 May 1968.
Eric Maxon, Shakespearean and early film actor, died in Finsbury
Arthur Mullard, comic actor
Dadabhai Naoroji, Indian politician
Points of interest
St Luke Old Street (also known as Finsbury St Luke),completed in 1733 as the parish church, now used as a concert venue by the London Symphony Orchestra.
Ironmonger Row Baths
Whitecross Street Market
Moorfields Eye Hospital
Artillery Ground, an open space and historic cricket venue.
Bunhill Fields, a former burial ground and open space.
Finsbury Square
King Square Gardens
City Road Basin, a canal basin on the Regent's Canal.
Golden Lane Estate
City, University of London
Finsbury Circus, in Coleman Street Ward, in the City of London.
References
^ a b Mills, D. (2000). Oxford Dictionary of London Place Names. ISBN 0-19-860957-4.
^ Recorded by William FitzStephen, writing in the 1170s; a discussion on the extent of the marsh is included in Reclaiming the Marsh: Archaeological Excavations at Moor House, City of London, Pre-construct Archaeology Monograph, J. Butler (2006)
^ London Encyclopaedia, Weinreb and Hibbert, 1983
^ London, its origin and early development, William Page 1923, p129-30
^ London 800-1216, Brooke and Keir, p144-146. Matildas devotion to St Giles is described and links to the process by which the several St Botolphs dedications appeared in London
^ Archaeological Excavations at Moor House, Jeremy Haslam p48
^ Records of St Giles without Cripplegate, Chapter 6 see https://archive.org/stream/recordsstgilesc01dentgoog/recordsstgilesc01dentgoog_djvu.txt
^ The development of Moorfields , the historical background’, in Reclaiming the Marsh: Archaeological excavations at Moor House, City of London, 1998-2004 (ed. J Butler), PCA Monograph 6 (London)
^ Stow, writing in 1603 describes the boundaries of Cripplegate and Coleman Street Wards and the area is in neither at that time. The Ogilby and Morgan Map of 1676 shows the Little and Lower Moorfields as part of Coleman Street Ward
^ 'Religious Houses: Houses of Augustinian canonesses', in A History of the County of Middlesex: Volume 1, Physique, Archaeology, Domesday, Ecclesiastical Organization, the Jews, Religious Houses, Education of Working Classes To 1870, Private Education From Sixteenth Century, ed. J S Cockburn, H P F King and K G T McDonnell (London, 1969), pp. 170-182. British History Online http://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/middx/vol1/pp170-182 .
^ Remembrancia, compiled by W.H. and H.C. Overall p274
^ Online dictionary of heraldry https://www.heraldryclipart.com/dictionary/dm.html
^ Civic heraldry website http://www.civicheraldry.co.uk/lcc.html
^ Weinreb, B. and Hibbert, C. (eds.) (1983) The London Encyclopaedia. Macmillan ISBN 0-333-57688-8
^ Black, Nick (2007). "The lost hospitals of St Luke's". Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 100 (3): 125–129. doi:10.1177/014107680710000310. PMC 1809165. PMID 17339307.
^ "1968: Krays held on suspicion of murder". 8 May 1968.
External links
"Finsbury" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Finsbury (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finsbury_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Central London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_London"},{"link_name":"London Borough of Islington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Borough_of_Islington"},{"link_name":"City of London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_London"},{"link_name":"Manor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manorialism"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mills-1"},{"link_name":"Cripplegate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cripplegate"},{"link_name":"Moorgate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moorgate"},{"link_name":"London Wall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Wall"},{"link_name":"northern wall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Wall"},{"link_name":"City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_London"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Finsbury Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finsbury_division"},{"link_name":"Ossulstone Hundred","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ossulstone_(hundred)"},{"link_name":"Middlesex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middlesex"},{"link_name":"Metropolitan Borough of Finsbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Finsbury"},{"link_name":"St Luke's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Luke%27s,_London"},{"link_name":"Clerkenwell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clerkenwell"},{"link_name":"Finsbury Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finsbury_Park"}],"text":"District of Central LondonFor other uses, see Finsbury (disambiguation).Human settlement in EnglandFinsbury is a district of Central London, forming the southeastern part of the London Borough of Islington. It borders the City of London.The Manor of Finsbury is first recorded as Vinisbir (1231) and means \"manor of a man called Finn\".[1] Finsbury lay just outside Cripplegate (and on its later construction, Moorgate) in London Wall. At that time, much of the manor was part of the \"great fen which washed against the northern wall of the City\".[2]Finsbury gave its name to two larger administrative areas: the Finsbury Division of the Ossulstone Hundred of Middlesex, from the 17th century until 1900, and from 1900 to 1965 the Metropolitan Borough of Finsbury. The Metropolitan Borough included Finsbury (also known as St Luke's) and Clerkenwell.The area should not be confused with Finsbury Park, a public space roughly 3 miles (5 km) to the north, which gives its name to its surrounding mainly residential area.","title":"Finsbury"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"City of London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_London"},{"link_name":"London Borough of Islington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Borough_of_Islington"},{"link_name":"Goswell Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goswell_Road"},{"link_name":"City Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_Road"},{"link_name":"City Road Basin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_Road_Basin"},{"link_name":"Coleman Street Ward","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coleman_Street_Ward"},{"link_name":"Finsbury Circus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finsbury_Circus"},{"link_name":"Finsbury Town Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finsbury_Town_Hall"},{"link_name":"Finsbury Estate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finsbury_Estate"},{"link_name":"Clerkenwell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clerkenwell"}],"text":"The area lies immediately north of the City of London, and approximates to the part of the London Borough of Islington east of Goswell Road and south of City Road. It also includes a small area north of City Road, focused on the City Road Basin.The parts of the City of London's Coleman Street Ward that lie outside the line of the former City walls (now mostly covered by Finsbury Circus) were historically part of the Manor of Finsbury and still sometimes described as part of the area.Finsbury Town Hall and the Finsbury Estate lie further west, in Clerkenwell and are named after the former borough of Finsbury which included both Finsbury and Clerkenwell.","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Origins and administration"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cripplegate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cripplegate"},{"link_name":"Aldersgate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldersgate"},{"link_name":"Walbrook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Walbrook"},{"link_name":"Aldersgate Without","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldersgate"},{"link_name":"St Giles-without-Cripplegate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Giles-without-Cripplegate"},{"link_name":"Cripplegate Without","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cripplegate_Without"},{"link_name":"Coleman Street Ward","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coleman_Street_Ward"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:City_of_London_Ward_Map,_1870.svg"},{"link_name":"Aldersgate Without","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldersgate"},{"link_name":"Cripplegate Without","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cripplegate"},{"link_name":"Coleman Street Ward","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coleman_Street_Ward"},{"link_name":"London Borough of Islington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Borough_of_Islington"},{"link_name":"St. Martin's Le Grand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Martin%27s_Le_Grand"},{"link_name":"William the Conqueror","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_I_of_England"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Empress_Mathilda.png"},{"link_name":"St Botolph without Aldersgate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Botolph%27s,_Aldersgate"},{"link_name":"St Giles-without-Cripplegate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Giles-without-Cripplegate"},{"link_name":"Matilda of Blessed Memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maud_of_Scotland"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"St Martins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Martin%27s_Le_Grand"},{"link_name":"Empress Matilda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empress_Matilda"},{"link_name":"Matilda of Blessed Memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maud_of_Scotland"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"sub_title":"Soke of Cripplegate","text":"The Soke of Cripplegate was a landholding outside Cripplegate and Aldersgate. Bordered (in part at least) by the Walbrook to the east, it covered the areas subsequently known as Aldersgate Without and the parish of St Giles-without-Cripplegate (which included Cripplegate Without, the part of Coleman Street Ward north of the wall and the Manor of Finsbury).Origin of Finsbury: The Soke included Aldersgate Without, Cripplegate Without, the parts of Coleman Street Ward north of the Wall and a much larger area, in the modern London Borough of Islington, that would become the Manor of Finsbury.The Soke was granted to St. Martin's Le Grand by William the Conqueror in 1068, in exchange for prayers for the souls of his parents.[3] It is thought the estate may be much older dating back to the establishment of the Diocese of London in the 7th century.[4]The Empress Matilda wished to develop a northern suburb.The churches of St Botolph without Aldersgate and St Giles-without-Cripplegate appear to have been built in the early decades of the twelfth century (possibly under the aegis of Matilda of Blessed Memory[5]) and there was very little, if any, development north of the wall before that time. St Martins rights to the Soke were confirmed by the Empress Matilda (daughter of Matilda of Blessed Memory) around 1140. St Martins was permitted to enclose land there to prevent rubbish dumping in the area, but it is thought the Empress' principle intention was to promote planned development of a northern suburb.[6]The development of streets such as Redcross Street, Whitecross Street, Grub Street, Fore Street, Moor Lane, Chiswell Street and others were subsequently recorded.","title":"Origins and administration"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"St Botolph without Aldersgate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Botolph%27s,_Aldersgate"},{"link_name":"Aldersgate Without","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldersgate"},{"link_name":"St Giles-without-Cripplegate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Giles-without-Cripplegate"},{"link_name":"Cripplegate Without","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cripplegate"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Coleman Street Ward","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coleman_Street_Ward"},{"link_name":"St Stephen Coleman Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Stephen_Coleman_Street"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_1682_Bethlem_in_Moorfields.jpg"},{"link_name":"north London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_London"},{"link_name":"Bethlem Hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethlem_Royal_Hospital"},{"link_name":"Moorgate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moorgate"},{"link_name":"Prebendary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prebendary"},{"link_name":"canon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_(priest)"},{"link_name":"Holywell Priory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holywell_Priory"},{"link_name":"Shoreditch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoreditch"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Lord Mayor of London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Mayor_of_London"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Chiswell Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiswell_Street"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ward_Coleman_Street_plaque_London.jpg"},{"link_name":"Coleman Street Ward","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coleman_Street_Ward"},{"link_name":"Richard II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_II_of_England"},{"link_name":"Wat Tyler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wat_Tyler"},{"link_name":"William Walworth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Walworth"}],"sub_title":"Manor and parishes","text":"It is not entirely clear how the territory and rights of the Soke evolved into the subsequent administrative and ecclesiastical units.The area covered by the Soke was served by two parishes; the little parish of St Botolph without Aldersgate served the extramural City Ward of Aldersgate Without, while the parish of St Giles-without-Cripplegate served the extramural City Ward of Cripplegate Without and the Manor (estate) of Finsbury.[7] In the 17th century, Little and Lower Moorfields, previously in the Manor of Finsbury and Parish of St Giles, was transferred to the Coleman Street Ward of the City of London (and also to the parish of St Stephen Coleman Street for religious purposes). This meant that Coleman Street Ward also possessed an extramural area.[8][9]Lower Moorfields, north London in 1676, including the re-sited Bethlem Hospital. London's Wall and the Moorgate are clearly shown, and some of the administrative boundaries can also be discerned.From mid-12th century the Manor of Finsbury was owned by St Paul's cathedral and managed as a Prebendary Manor to provide a prebend (a stipend of money or goods) to support an ecclesiastic person such as a canon, or an institution. For a long time the prebendary income went to Holywell Priory in nearby Shoreditch, so the estate became known as the Prebend of Halliwell and Finsbury,[10] though the Priory itself did not lie adjacent to the prebendary manor or form part of it.The prebendary manor of Finsbury was, from 1315,[11] leased by the Lord Mayor of London, so that after that the formal title of the Mayors has been Mayor of London and Lord of Finsbury.[12] The mayoral manor house, Finsbury Court, lay on the junction of Chiswell Street and Finsbury Pavement.The parts of Coleman Street Ward north of the Wall, were part of the Manor of Finsbury.In this way the part of St Giles parish, Cripplegate Without, that was part of the city was also known as The Freedom and governed by the Mayor as a part of, or a dependency of the city. The remaining part, The Manor of Finsbury, was also known as The Lordship, where the Mayor's position was that of a lessee, albeit with the title Lord of the Manor of Finsbury.Other accounts suggest the Manor passed to the Lord Mayors later, being made over their use by Richard II, in gratitude for the killing of Wat Tyler by Mayor William Walworth at Smithfield in 1381.In 1733, the growth of the local population, led to the part of St Giles-without-Cripplegate outside the city, the area which had been the Manor of Finsbury, being made an independent parish, known as St Luke's, after the parish church.","title":"Origins and administration"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hundred","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hundred_(county_division)"},{"link_name":"Ossulstone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ossulstone"},{"link_name":"Middlesex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middlesex"},{"link_name":"Finsbury Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finsbury_division"},{"link_name":"Poor Law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Poor_Law"},{"link_name":"parliamentary borough of Finsbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finsbury_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Finsbury division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finsbury_division"},{"link_name":"Finsbury Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finsbury_Park"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mills-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Finsbury_Met._B_Ward_Map_1952.svg"},{"link_name":"Metropolitan Borough of Finsbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Finsbury"},{"link_name":"Finsbury Town Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finsbury_Town_Hall"},{"link_name":"Rosebery Avenue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosebery_Avenue"},{"link_name":"Chuni Lal Katial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuni_Lal_Katial"},{"link_name":"Borough's coat of arms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Finsbury#Coat_of_arms"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Islington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islington"},{"link_name":"London Borough of Islington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Borough_of_Islington"},{"link_name":"Finsbury Circus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finsbury_Circus"},{"link_name":"City of London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_London"}],"sub_title":"Latter administration and representation","text":"The parts of the parish of St Giles outside of the city (originally the Manor of Finsbury, later organised as the Parish of St Luke) were part of the Hundred of Ossulstone in Middlesex. By the 17th century, population growth made this unit inefficient, so it was sub-divided with the area north of the walls becoming part of a new Finsbury Division which handled the responsibilities previously managed by the Hundred. Parish-level institutions continued to manage the Poor Law and ecclesiastical matters.In 1832 the parliamentary borough of Finsbury was created to represent the area in parliament. This area loosely approximated to the Finsbury division, but also included parts of west London. In 1857 Finsbury Park was opened some three miles north, for the enjoyment of the residents of this parliamentary borough.[1]The wards of the Metropolitan Borough preserved the boundary between Finsbury (St Luke's) and Clerkenwell. Finsbury comprised the five eastern wards.The Metropolitan Borough of Finsbury in the County of London was created in 1900, covering the area of Finsbury (also known as St Luke's) and Clerkenwell, with Finsbury Town Hall located on Rosebery Avenue, Clerkenwell. In 1938, Dr. Chuni Lal Katial was elected mayor of Finsbury, making him the first Asian mayor in the United Kingdom.The Borough's coat of arms included an embattled chief (top of the shield) representing the London Wall, a Barbican representing the three northern gates (Aldersgate, Cripplegate and Moorgate) and a Winged Bull, the heraldic symbol of St Luke.[13]In 1965 the area merged with Islington to form the new London Borough of Islington, though Finsbury Circus remains part of the City of London.","title":"Origins and administration"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"London Wall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Wall"},{"link_name":"Moorgate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moorgate"},{"link_name":"Bunhill Fields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bunhill_Fields"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Moorgate_Hollar.PNG"},{"link_name":"parish church of St Luke's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Luke_Old_Street_(church)"},{"link_name":"City Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_Road"},{"link_name":"Finsbury Square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finsbury_Square"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-encyc-14"},{"link_name":"Little and Lower Moorfields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moorfields"},{"link_name":"Finsbury Circus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finsbury_Circus"}],"sub_title":"Growth","text":"Urbanisation was slow, despite the building of a new gate in the adjacent London Wall, Moorgate, in 1511. In 1665 the Bunhill Fields burial ground was opened in the area.Moorgate was built in 1511, the last gate to be created in the originally Roman wall. The creation of the gate encouraged development to the north of the wall.Building on Finsbury Fields began in the late 17th century. The parish church of St Luke's was built in 1732–33, development was accelerated by the building of the City Road in 1765, and at the end of the 18th century a residential suburb was built with its centre at Finsbury Square.[14] Little and Lower Moorfields remained open until Finsbury Circus was developed after 1815.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Armoury_House.JPG"},{"link_name":"Honourable Artillery Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honourable_Artillery_Company"},{"link_name":"City of London Yeomanry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_London_Yeomanry"},{"link_name":"Second Boer War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Boer_War"},{"link_name":"Finsbury Rifles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finsbury_Rifles"}],"sub_title":"Military history","text":"Finsbury BarracksIn 1641 the Honourable Artillery Company moved to Finsbury, where it still remains. The City of London Yeomanry, founded at the time of the Second Boer War, made its headquarters in Finsbury Square.In 1862 Finsbury gave its name to a volunteer infantry unit — the Finsbury Rifles, which recruited in both Finsbury and Clerkenwell, and saw distinguished service in several conflicts.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Harley Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harley_Street"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Finsbury_moorfields_eye_hospital_1.jpg"},{"link_name":"Royal Hospital for Diseases of the Chest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Chest_Hospital"},{"link_name":"Royal London Ophthalmic Hospital (Moorfields)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moorfields_Eye_Hospital"},{"link_name":"St Luke's Hospital for Lunatics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Luke%27s_Hospital_for_Lunatics"},{"link_name":"Bethlem Hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethlem_Hospital"},{"link_name":"Finsbury Circus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finsbury_Circus"}],"sub_title":"Medical district","text":"Before Harley Street rose to prominence, Finsbury was London's principal medical district. In the mid-19th century it was home to a large number of hospitals,[15] but now only Moorfields Eye Hospital remains.Finsbury Moorfields Eye HospitalThe area included the following hospitals:Royal Hospital for Diseases of the Chest\nRoyal London Ophthalmic Hospital (Moorfields)\nSt Luke's Hospital for Lunatics\nFrench Huguenot Hospital\nSt Mark's Hospital for Fistula and other Diseases of the Rectum\nHolborn & Finsbury Poor Law Union\nBethlem Hospital, on the site of what is now Finsbury Circus","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Charles Gordon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Gordon_(cricketer,_born_1814)"},{"link_name":"Gordon's Gin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon%27s_Gin"},{"link_name":"Kray brothers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kray_Twins"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Eric Maxon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Maxon"},{"link_name":"Arthur Mullard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Mullard"},{"link_name":"Dadabhai Naoroji","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dadabhai_Naoroji"}],"text":"Charles Gordon, cricketer and grandson of the founder of Gordon's Gin\nViolet Kray, mother of the gangster Kray brothers. Twins Ronnie and Reggie were arrested at her flat in Braithwaite House, Finsbury, in connection with gangland crimes including murder and fraud on 8 May 1968.[16]\nEric Maxon, Shakespearean and early film actor, died in Finsbury\nArthur Mullard, comic actor\nDadabhai Naoroji, Indian politician","title":"Famous residents"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"St Luke Old Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Luke_Old_Street"},{"link_name":"London Symphony Orchestra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Symphony_Orchestra"},{"link_name":"Ironmonger Row Baths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ironmonger_Row_Baths"},{"link_name":"Whitecross Street Market","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitecross_Street_Market"},{"link_name":"Moorfields Eye Hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moorfields_Eye_Hospital"},{"link_name":"Artillery Ground","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artillery_Ground"},{"link_name":"Bunhill Fields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bunhill_Fields"},{"link_name":"Finsbury Square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finsbury_Square"},{"link_name":"King Square Gardens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Square_Gardens"},{"link_name":"City Road Basin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_Road_Basin"},{"link_name":"Golden Lane Estate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Lane_Estate"},{"link_name":"City, University of London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City,_University_of_London"},{"link_name":"Finsbury Circus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finsbury_Circus"},{"link_name":"Coleman Street Ward","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coleman_Street_Ward"}],"text":"St Luke Old Street (also known as Finsbury St Luke),completed in 1733 as the parish church, now used as a concert venue by the London Symphony Orchestra.\nIronmonger Row Baths\nWhitecross Street Market\nMoorfields Eye Hospital\nArtillery Ground, an open space and historic cricket venue.\nBunhill Fields, a former burial ground and open space.\nFinsbury Square\nKing Square Gardens\nCity Road Basin, a canal basin on the Regent's Canal.\nGolden Lane Estate\nCity, University of London\nFinsbury Circus, in Coleman Street Ward, in the City of London.","title":"Points of interest"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Origin of Finsbury: The Soke included Aldersgate Without, Cripplegate Without, the parts of Coleman Street Ward north of the Wall and a much larger area, in the modern London Borough of Islington, that would become the Manor of Finsbury.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/City_of_London_Ward_Map%2C_1870.svg/220px-City_of_London_Ward_Map%2C_1870.svg.png"},{"image_text":"The Empress Matilda wished to develop a northern suburb.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Empress_Mathilda.png/220px-Empress_Mathilda.png"},{"image_text":"Lower Moorfields, north London in 1676, including the re-sited Bethlem Hospital. London's Wall and the Moorgate are clearly shown, and some of the administrative boundaries can also be discerned.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Map_1682_Bethlem_in_Moorfields.jpg/220px-Map_1682_Bethlem_in_Moorfields.jpg"},{"image_text":"The parts of Coleman Street Ward north of the Wall, were part of the Manor of Finsbury.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Ward_Coleman_Street_plaque_London.jpg/220px-Ward_Coleman_Street_plaque_London.jpg"},{"image_text":"The wards of the Metropolitan Borough preserved the boundary between Finsbury (St Luke's) and Clerkenwell. Finsbury comprised the five eastern wards.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Finsbury_Met._B_Ward_Map_1952.svg/220px-Finsbury_Met._B_Ward_Map_1952.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Moorgate was built in 1511, the last gate to be created in the originally Roman wall. The creation of the gate encouraged development to the north of the wall.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Moorgate_Hollar.PNG/220px-Moorgate_Hollar.PNG"},{"image_text":"Finsbury Barracks","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Armoury_House.JPG/220px-Armoury_House.JPG"},{"image_text":"Finsbury Moorfields Eye Hospital","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Finsbury_moorfields_eye_hospital_1.jpg/220px-Finsbury_moorfields_eye_hospital_1.jpg"}]
| null |
[{"reference":"Black, Nick (2007). \"The lost hospitals of St Luke's\". Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 100 (3): 125–129. doi:10.1177/014107680710000310. PMC 1809165. PMID 17339307.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1809165","url_text":"\"The lost hospitals of St Luke's\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1177%2F014107680710000310","url_text":"10.1177/014107680710000310"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1809165","url_text":"1809165"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17339307","url_text":"17339307"}]},{"reference":"\"1968: Krays held on suspicion of murder\". 8 May 1968.","urls":[{"url":"http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/8/newsid_2518000/2518695.stm","url_text":"\"1968: Krays held on suspicion of murder\""}]},{"reference":"\"Finsbury\" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Finsbury","url_text":"\"Finsbury\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition","url_text":"Encyclopædia Britannica"}]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Finsbury¶ms=51.5224_N_0.0925_W_region:GB_type:city","external_links_name":"51°31′21″N 0°05′33″W / 51.5224°N 0.0925°W / 51.5224; -0.0925"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Finsbury¶ms=51.526100_N_0.105822_W_region:GB_scale:25000&title=Finsbury","external_links_name":"TQ315825"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Finsbury¶ms=51.5224_N_0.0925_W_region:GB_type:city","external_links_name":"51°31′21″N 0°05′33″W / 51.5224°N 0.0925°W / 51.5224; -0.0925"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/stream/recordsstgilesc01dentgoog/recordsstgilesc01dentgoog_djvu.txt","external_links_name":"https://archive.org/stream/recordsstgilesc01dentgoog/recordsstgilesc01dentgoog_djvu.txt"},{"Link":"http://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/middx/vol1/pp170-182","external_links_name":"http://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/middx/vol1/pp170-182"},{"Link":"https://www.heraldryclipart.com/dictionary/dm.html","external_links_name":"https://www.heraldryclipart.com/dictionary/dm.html"},{"Link":"http://www.civicheraldry.co.uk/lcc.html","external_links_name":"http://www.civicheraldry.co.uk/lcc.html"},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1809165","external_links_name":"\"The lost hospitals of St Luke's\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1177%2F014107680710000310","external_links_name":"10.1177/014107680710000310"},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1809165","external_links_name":"1809165"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17339307","external_links_name":"17339307"},{"Link":"http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/8/newsid_2518000/2518695.stm","external_links_name":"\"1968: Krays held on suspicion of murder\""},{"Link":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Finsbury","external_links_name":"\"Finsbury\""},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/127955521","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJrgPp8XgxtF36dTmmf6rq","external_links_name":"WorldCat"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007567471605171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n88278598","external_links_name":"United States"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upheaval_(book)
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Upheaval (book)
|
["1 Reception","2 References","3 External links"]
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2019 book by Jared Diamond
Upheaval: How Nations Cope with Crisis and Change Hardcover first edition, featuring an illustration by Kinuko Y. Craft, depicting a Japanese samurai riding out to meet Commodore Perry in 1853AuthorJared DiamondAudio read byHenry StrozierLanguageEnglishSubjectEconomicshistorypolitical sciencePublisherAllen LanePublication dateMay 7, 2019Publication placeUnited StatesMedia typePrinte-bookaudiobookPages512ISBN978-0241003398Preceded byThe Third Chimpanzee for Young People
Upheaval: How Nations Cope with Crisis and Change is a 2019 nonfiction book by American scientist and historian Jared Diamond. Diamond attempts to analyze devastating crises (political, economic, civil, ecological, etc.) that may destroy whole countries and the multiple reasons causing them. To support his analysis with real-world examples, Diamond investigates past crises that have hit such countries as Finland, Japan, Chile, Indonesia, Germany, Australia, and the United States. Diamond also tries to understand the ways in which individuals learn to cope with personal traumas and how these approaches can be applied to nations. His unexpected conclusion is that individuals do learn from crisis but countries seldom do. He also concludes that the United States is a country in which crises are getting worse.
Reception
Moisés Naím of The Washington Post wrote, "In the same way that his previous and far more rigorous work, Guns, Germs, and Steel, suffered from an excessive reliance on geography to explain complex, multidimensional events, Upheaval suffers from an over-reliance on psychology. But in some ways, it doesn't matter. Though the analysis stumbles, the virtues of Diamond's storytelling shine through. Ignore his attempts to force the therapeutic 12-step onto history. Ignore also his correct but unsurprising musings about the dangerous threats facing humanity (nuclear weapons, climate change, resource depletion and inequality). Instead, let this experienced observer with an uncanny eye for the small details that reveal larger truths take you on an expedition around the world and through fascinating pivotal moments in seven countries. Upheaval works much better as a travelogue than as a contribution to our understanding of national crises."
Colin Kidd of The Guardian wrote, "Diamond's methods—drawing direct parallels between personal and national trauma, and between the psychology of individuals and character of nations—are not those practised by historians, who tend to emphasise the particularity of circumstance and the intricate unrepeatability of events. Diamond nonetheless plots in counterpoint the various predicaments he discusses, alert, in as non-deterministic a mode as he can manage, to the open textures of historical possibility. The prophet spares us chiselled commandments, but we have been warned."
References
^ Giridharadas, Anand (May 17, 2019). "What to Do When You're a Country in Crisis". The New York Times. Retrieved June 19, 2019.
^ Hughes, Ian (May 11, 2019). "Upheaval review: How countries seldom learn from their past". The Irish Times. Retrieved June 19, 2019.
^ Marr, Andrew (April 21, 2019). "Upheaval by Jared Diamond review — how countries can overcome crisis, and the lessons we can learn for Brexit". The Times. Retrieved June 19, 2019.
^ Murray, Douglas (May 9, 2019). "Nations survive crises just like individuals do, says Jared Diamond". Evening Standard. Retrieved June 19, 2019.
^ Naím, Moisés (June 7, 2019). "Review | Psychotherapy can solve personal problems — why not national crises?". Washington Post. Retrieved June 19, 2019.
^ Kidd, Colin (May 1, 2019). "Upheaval by Jared Diamond review – how nations cope with crisis". The Guardian. Retrieved June 19, 2019.
External links
Jared Diamond official website
vteBooks by Jared Diamond
The Third Chimpanzee: The Evolution and Future of the Human Animal (1992)
Why Is Sex Fun? The Evolution of Human Sexuality (1997)
Guns, Germs, and Steel: A Short History of Everybody for the Last 13,000 Years (1997)
Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed (2005)
The World until Yesterday: What Can We Learn from Traditional Societies? (2012)
Upheaval: How Nations Cope with Crisis and Change (2019)
Jared Diamond bibliography
Portals: Books History Society
Authority control databases
VIAF
2
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jared Diamond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jared_Diamond"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Upheaval: How Nations Cope with Crisis and Change is a 2019 nonfiction book by American scientist and historian Jared Diamond.[1] Diamond attempts to analyze devastating crises (political, economic, civil, ecological, etc.) that may destroy whole countries and the multiple reasons causing them. To support his analysis with real-world examples, Diamond investigates past crises that have hit such countries as Finland, Japan, Chile, Indonesia, Germany, Australia, and the United States. Diamond also tries to understand the ways in which individuals learn to cope with personal traumas and how these approaches can be applied to nations. His unexpected conclusion is that individuals do learn from crisis but countries seldom do. He also concludes that the United States is a country in which crises are getting worse.[2][3][4]","title":"Upheaval (book)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Washington Post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Washington_Post"},{"link_name":"Guns, Germs, and Steel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guns,_Germs,_and_Steel"},{"link_name":"resource depletion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource_depletion"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"The Guardian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Moisés Naím of The Washington Post wrote, \"In the same way that his previous and far more rigorous work, Guns, Germs, and Steel, suffered from an excessive reliance on geography to explain complex, multidimensional events, Upheaval suffers from an over-reliance on psychology. But in some ways, it doesn't matter. Though the analysis stumbles, the virtues of Diamond's storytelling shine through. Ignore his attempts to force the therapeutic 12-step onto history. Ignore also his correct but unsurprising musings about the dangerous threats facing humanity (nuclear weapons, climate change, resource depletion and inequality). Instead, let this experienced observer with an uncanny eye for the small details that reveal larger truths take you on an expedition around the world and through fascinating pivotal moments in seven countries. Upheaval works much better as a travelogue than as a contribution to our understanding of national crises.\"[5]Colin Kidd of The Guardian wrote, \"Diamond's methods—drawing direct parallels between personal and national trauma, and between the psychology of individuals and character of nations—are not those practised by historians, who tend to emphasise the particularity of circumstance and the intricate unrepeatability of events. Diamond nonetheless plots in counterpoint the various predicaments he discusses, alert, in as non-deterministic a mode as he can manage, to the open textures of historical possibility. The prophet spares us chiselled commandments, but we have been warned.\"[6]","title":"Reception"}]
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[]
| null |
[{"reference":"Giridharadas, Anand (May 17, 2019). \"What to Do When You're a Country in Crisis\". The New York Times. Retrieved June 19, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/17/books/review/upheaval-jared-diamond.html","url_text":"\"What to Do When You're a Country in Crisis\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"}]},{"reference":"Hughes, Ian (May 11, 2019). \"Upheaval review: How countries seldom learn from their past\". The Irish Times. Retrieved June 19, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/upheaval-review-how-countries-seldom-learn-from-their-past-1.3883396","url_text":"\"Upheaval review: How countries seldom learn from their past\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Irish_Times","url_text":"The Irish Times"}]},{"reference":"Marr, Andrew (April 21, 2019). \"Upheaval by Jared Diamond review — how countries can overcome crisis, and the lessons we can learn for Brexit\". The Times. Retrieved June 19, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/upheaval-by-jared-diamond-review-how-countries-can-overcome-crisis-and-the-lessons-we-can-learn-for-brexit-d8rjngb7r","url_text":"\"Upheaval by Jared Diamond review — how countries can overcome crisis, and the lessons we can learn for Brexit\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Times","url_text":"The Times"}]},{"reference":"Murray, Douglas (May 9, 2019). \"Nations survive crises just like individuals do, says Jared Diamond\". Evening Standard. Retrieved June 19, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.standard.co.uk/lifestyle/books/upheaval-how-nations-cope-with-crisis-and-change-by-jared-diamond-review-a4137986.html","url_text":"\"Nations survive crises just like individuals do, says Jared Diamond\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evening_Standard","url_text":"Evening Standard"}]},{"reference":"Naím, Moisés (June 7, 2019). \"Review | Psychotherapy can solve personal problems — why not national crises?\". Washington Post. Retrieved June 19, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/psychotherapy-can-solve-personal-problems--why-not-national-crises/2019/06/07/fd13f67c-759d-11e9-b7ae-390de4259661_story.html","url_text":"\"Review | Psychotherapy can solve personal problems — why not national crises?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_Post","url_text":"Washington Post"}]},{"reference":"Kidd, Colin (May 1, 2019). \"Upheaval by Jared Diamond review – how nations cope with crisis\". The Guardian. Retrieved June 19, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/books/2019/may/01/upheaval-by-jared-diamond-review","url_text":"\"Upheaval by Jared Diamond review – how nations cope with crisis\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian","url_text":"The Guardian"}]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/17/books/review/upheaval-jared-diamond.html","external_links_name":"\"What to Do When You're a Country in Crisis\""},{"Link":"https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/upheaval-review-how-countries-seldom-learn-from-their-past-1.3883396","external_links_name":"\"Upheaval review: How countries seldom learn from their past\""},{"Link":"https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/upheaval-by-jared-diamond-review-how-countries-can-overcome-crisis-and-the-lessons-we-can-learn-for-brexit-d8rjngb7r","external_links_name":"\"Upheaval by Jared Diamond review — how countries can overcome crisis, and the lessons we can learn for Brexit\""},{"Link":"https://www.standard.co.uk/lifestyle/books/upheaval-how-nations-cope-with-crisis-and-change-by-jared-diamond-review-a4137986.html","external_links_name":"\"Nations survive crises just like individuals do, says Jared Diamond\""},{"Link":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/psychotherapy-can-solve-personal-problems--why-not-national-crises/2019/06/07/fd13f67c-759d-11e9-b7ae-390de4259661_story.html","external_links_name":"\"Review | Psychotherapy can solve personal problems — why not national crises?\""},{"Link":"https://www.theguardian.com/books/2019/may/01/upheaval-by-jared-diamond-review","external_links_name":"\"Upheaval by Jared Diamond review – how nations cope with crisis\""},{"Link":"http://jareddiamond.org/Jared_Diamond/My_Books.html","external_links_name":"Jared Diamond official website"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/2591158070777808780006","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/1825157952107565600005","external_links_name":"2"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Phonographic_Industry
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British Phonographic Industry
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["1 Structure","2 History","2.1 Awards","3 BRIT Trust","4 BRIT School","5 Certifications","6 Anti-piracy operations","7 See also","8 Notes","9 References"]
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Music industry trade association in the UK
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British Phonographic IndustryAbbreviationBPIFormation1973; 51 years ago (1973)Legal statusNonprofit organizationPurposeMusic industry in theUnited KingdomLocationCounty Hall, LondonRegion served United KingdomMembership British music companiesChairYolanDa BrownChief executiveSophie Jones (interim)Main organBPI CouncilWebsitewww.bpi.co.uk
British Phonographic Industry (BPI) is the British recorded music industry's Trade association. It runs the BRIT Awards; is home to the Mercury Prize; co-owns the Official Charts Company with the Entertainment Retailers Association; and awards UK music sales through the BRIT Certified Awards.
Structure
Its membership comprises hundreds of music companies, including (Sony Music UK, Universal Music UK, Warner Music UK), and over 500 independent record labels and small to medium-sized music businesses.
The BPI council is the management and policy forum of the BPI. It is chaired by the Chair of BPI, and includes the Chief Executive, Chief Operating Officer (COO), General Counsel, Chief Strategy Officer and 12 representatives from the recorded music sector: six from major labels – two each from the three "major" companies – and six from the independent sector, who are selected by voting of all BPI independent label members.
History
BPI has represented the interests of British record companies since being formally incorporated in 1973, when the principal aim was to promote British music and fight copyright infringement.
In 2007, the association's legal name was changed from "British Phonographic Industry Limited (The)" to "BPI (British Recorded Music Industry) Limited".
In September 2008, the BPI became one of the founding members of UK Music, an umbrella organisation representing the interests of all parts of the industry.
In July 2022, YolanDa Brown was appointed chair of BPI, replacing Ged Doherty, who had served in that role the previous seven years.
In July 2023, Dr Jo Twist OBE was appointed Chief Executive of BPI, replacing Geoff Taylor MBE, who had served in the role since 2007.
Awards
BPI founded the annual BRIT Awards for the British music industry in 1977, and, later, the Classic BRIT Awards. The organising company, BRIT Awards Limited, is a fully owned subsidiary of the BPI. Proceeds from both shows go to the BRIT Trust, the charitable arm of the BPI that has distributed almost £30m to charitable causes nationwide since its foundation in 1989. In September 2013, the BPI presented the first ever BRITs Icon Award to Sir Elton John. The BPI also endorsed the launch of the Mercury Prize for the Album of the Year in 1992, and since 2016 has organised the Prize.
The recorded music industry's Certified Awards programme, which attributes Platinum, Gold and Silver status to singles, albums and music videos (Platinum and Gold only) based on their sales performance (see BRIT Certified Awards), has been administered by the BPI since its inception in 1973.
BRIT Trust
The BRIT Trust is the recognised charitable arm of the BPI. It was conceived in 1989 by BPI and a collection of music industry individuals. The BRIT Trust is the only music charity actively supporting all types of music education. Proceeds from the BRIT Awards and The Music Industry Trusts Award (MITS) go to the BRIT Trust, which has donated almost £30m to charitable causes nationwide since its foundation. As of 2024, beneficiaries include The BRIT School, Nordoff and Robbins, East London Arts and Music, Music Support, and Key 4 Life.
BRIT School
Opened in September 1991, the BRIT School is a joint venture between The BRIT Trust and the Department for Education and Skills (DfES). Based at Selhurst in Croydon, the comprehensive school describes itself as the leading performing and creative arts school in the UK and is completely free to attend. It teaches over 1,400 students each year aged from 14 to 19 years in music, dance, drama, musical theatre, production, media and art and design. Students are from diverse backgrounds and are not required to stick to their own discipline; dancers learn songwriting, pianists can learn photography.
In August 2023, the Department for Education approved BPI’s plan to open a new specialist creative school in Bradford, West Yorkshire, inspired by the successful model of the BRIT School in Croydon.
Certifications
A gold certification for Eric Clapton's album August
The BPI administers the BRIT Certified Platinum, Gold and Silver awards scheme for music releases in the United Kingdom. The level of the award varies depending on the format of the release (albums, singles or music videos) and the level of sales achieved. Although the awards program was for many years based on the level of shipments by record labels to retailers, since July 2013 certifications have been automatically allocated by the BPI upon the relevant sales thresholds being achieved in accordance with Official Charts Company data.
Since July 2014, streaming media has been included for singles and from June 2015 audio streams were added to album certifications. In July 2018 video streams were included in singles certifications for the first time. Streaming's contributions to chart-eligible sales totals for singles and albums are calculated using the methodology employed by the Official Charts Company for consumption at title level.
In April 2018, a new Breakthrough certification was introduced, pertaining to an artist's first album to reach 30,000 sales. Additionally, the program was re-branded as BRIT Certified, with public promotion of the programme being assumed by the BRIT Awards' social media outlets and digital properties. Former Chief Executive Geoff Taylor justified the change by stating that it was part of an effort to cross-promote the certifications with "the UK's biggest platform for artistic achievement".
In May 2023, BPI launched an expansion of the BRIT Certified Awards Scheme with BRIT Billion, which celebrates outstanding achievement in recorded music by surpassing the landmark of one billion career UK streams – as calculated by the Official Charts Company. Recipients to date include RAYE, Billie Eilish, Queen, The Rolling Stones, Olivia Rodrigo, Mariah Carey, Wizkid and Coldplay. In Autumn 2023, Ed Sheeran was presented with a special edition Gold BRIT Billion Award, celebrating his achievement as the first British artist to surpass ten billion career UK streams.
Format
Status
Silver
Gold
Platinum
Album
60,000
100,000
300,000
Single
200,000
400,000
600,000
Music DVD
—
25,000
50,000
Anti-piracy operations
The BPI have developed bespoke software and automated crawling tools created in-house by the BPI which search for members' repertoire across more than 400 known infringing sites and generate URLs which are sent to Google as a DMCA Notice for removal within hours of receipt. Additionally, personnel are also seconded to the City of London Police Intellectual Property Crime Unit to support anti-"piracy" operations.
See also
Home Taping Is Killing Music
Official Charts Company
List of music recording certifications
Notes
^ a b c The number of sales required to qualify for Platinum, Gold and Silver discs was changed to the current thresholds of Platinum (300,000 units), Gold (100,000 units) and Silver (60,000 units) in 1979 for albums above a minimum RRP. Below the minimum RRP, the thresholds are doubled. Prior to this, the thresholds were based on monetary revenue: Platinum (£1,000,000), Gold (£150,000 from April 1973 to September 1974, £250,000 from September 1974 to January 1977, and £300,000 from 1977 until 1979) and Silver (£75,000 from April 1973 to January 1975, £100,000 from January 1975 to January 1977, and £150,000 from 1977 until 1979).
^ a b c The number of sales required to qualify for Platinum, Gold and Silver discs was dropped for singles released after 1 January 1989 to the current thresholds of Silver (200,000 units), Gold (400,000 units), and Platinum (600,000 units). Prior to this, the thresholds were Silver (250,000 units), Gold (500,000 units), and Platinum (1,000,000 units).
References
^ "BPI Council Election Results Announced". BPI. Retrieved 18 July 2022.
^ Campbell, Joel (18 July 2022). "YolanDa Brown appointed Chair of the BPI". The Voice. Retrieved 18 July 2022.
^ "Pupil Premium Policy". The BRIT School. November 2021. Retrieved 16 February 2023.
^ Smith, David (15 February 2004). "Out of Croydon, the real Fame Academy". The Observer.
^ Braddock, Kevin (28 January 2007). "Fame Academy: The Brit School". The Independent.
^ "BPI rebrands platinum, gold and silver discs as BRIT Certified Awards". www.musicweek.com. Retrieved 9 November 2020.
^ "BRIT Certified – Certification Levels". British Phonographic Industry. 20 April 2022. Archived from the original on 4 April 2022. Retrieved 20 April 2022.
^ Gallup (4 February 1989). "The Top of the Pops Chart" (PDF). Record Mirror: 4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 October 2010. Retrieved 16 July 2010.
^ IP Crime Group. "IP Crime Report 2013/14" (PDF). p. 52. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 October 2014. Retrieved 19 October 2014.
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|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Trade association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_association"},{"link_name":"BRIT Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brit_Awards"},{"link_name":"Mercury Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_Prize"},{"link_name":"Official Charts Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Official_Charts_Company"}],"text":"British Phonographic Industry (BPI) is the British recorded music industry's Trade association. It runs the BRIT Awards; is home to the Mercury Prize; co-owns the Official Charts Company with the Entertainment Retailers Association; and awards UK music sales through the BRIT Certified Awards.","title":"British Phonographic Industry"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sony Music UK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony_Music_UK"},{"link_name":"Universal Music UK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Music_Group"},{"link_name":"Warner Music UK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Warner_Music_Group_labels#As_Warner_Music"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Council-1"}],"text":"Its membership comprises hundreds of music companies, including (Sony Music UK, Universal Music UK, Warner Music UK), and over 500 independent record labels and small to medium-sized music businesses.The BPI council is the management and policy forum of the BPI. It is chaired by the Chair of BPI, and includes the Chief Executive, Chief Operating Officer (COO), General Counsel, Chief Strategy Officer and 12 representatives from the recorded music sector: six from major labels – two each from the three \"major\" companies – and six from the independent sector, who are selected by voting of all BPI independent label members.[1]","title":"Structure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"copyright infringement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_infringement"},{"link_name":"UK Music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Music"},{"link_name":"YolanDa Brown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YolanDa_Brown"},{"link_name":"Ged Doherty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ged_Doherty"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"BPI has represented the interests of British record companies since being formally incorporated in 1973, when the principal aim was to promote British music and fight copyright infringement.In 2007, the association's legal name was changed from \"British Phonographic Industry Limited (The)\" to \"BPI (British Recorded Music Industry) Limited\".In September 2008, the BPI became one of the founding members of UK Music, an umbrella organisation representing the interests of all parts of the industry.In July 2022, YolanDa Brown was appointed chair of BPI, replacing Ged Doherty, who had served in that role the previous seven years.[2]In July 2023, Dr Jo Twist OBE was appointed Chief Executive of BPI, replacing Geoff Taylor MBE, who had served in the role since 2007.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"BRIT Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brit_Awards"},{"link_name":"Classic BRIT Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classic_Brit_Awards"},{"link_name":"Elton John","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elton_John"},{"link_name":"Mercury Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_Prize"},{"link_name":"BRIT Certified Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Certifications"}],"sub_title":"Awards","text":"BPI founded the annual BRIT Awards for the British music industry in 1977, and, later, the Classic BRIT Awards. The organising company, BRIT Awards Limited, is a fully owned subsidiary of the BPI. Proceeds from both shows go to the BRIT Trust, the charitable arm of the BPI that has distributed almost £30m to charitable causes nationwide since its foundation in 1989. In September 2013, the BPI presented the first ever BRITs Icon Award to Sir Elton John. The BPI also endorsed the launch of the Mercury Prize for the Album of the Year in 1992, and since 2016 has organised the Prize.The recorded music industry's Certified Awards programme, which attributes Platinum, Gold and Silver status to singles, albums and music videos (Platinum and Gold only) based on their sales performance (see BRIT Certified Awards), has been administered by the BPI since its inception in 1973.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The BRIT Trust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_BRIT_Trust"},{"link_name":"The BRIT School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BRIT_School"},{"link_name":"East London Arts and Music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_London_Arts_%26_Music"},{"link_name":"Key 4 Life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Key4Life"}],"text":"The BRIT Trust is the recognised charitable arm of the BPI. It was conceived in 1989 by BPI and a collection of music industry individuals. The BRIT Trust is the only music charity actively supporting all types of music education. Proceeds from the BRIT Awards and The Music Industry Trusts Award (MITS) go to the BRIT Trust, which has donated almost £30m to charitable causes nationwide since its foundation. As of 2024, beneficiaries include The BRIT School, Nordoff and Robbins, East London Arts and Music, Music Support, and Key 4 Life.","title":"BRIT Trust"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"BRIT School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BRIT_School"},{"link_name":"Department for Education and Skills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_for_Education_and_Skills_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"comprehensive school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comprehensive_school"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Opened in September 1991, the BRIT School is a joint venture between The BRIT Trust and the Department for Education and Skills (DfES). Based at Selhurst in Croydon, the comprehensive school describes itself as the leading performing and creative arts school in the UK and is completely free to attend.[3] It teaches over 1,400 students each year aged from 14 to 19 years in music, dance, drama, musical theatre, production, media and art and design. Students are from diverse backgrounds and are not required to stick to their own discipline; dancers learn songwriting, pianists can learn photography.[4][5]In August 2023, the Department for Education approved BPI’s plan to open a new specialist creative school in Bradford, West Yorkshire, inspired by the successful model of the BRIT School in Croydon.","title":"BRIT School"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bpiclaptonaugust.jpg"},{"link_name":"Eric Clapton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Clapton"},{"link_name":"August","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_(Eric_Clapton_album)"},{"link_name":"streaming media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streaming_media"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"RAYE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raye"},{"link_name":"Billie Eilish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billie_Eilish"},{"link_name":"Queen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_(band)"},{"link_name":"The Rolling Stones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Rolling_Stones"},{"link_name":"Olivia Rodrigo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olivia_Rodrigo"},{"link_name":"Mariah Carey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariah_Carey"},{"link_name":"Wizkid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wizkid"},{"link_name":"Coldplay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coldplay"},{"link_name":"Ed Sheeran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed_Sheeran"}],"text":"A gold certification for Eric Clapton's album AugustThe BPI administers the BRIT Certified Platinum, Gold and Silver awards scheme for music releases in the United Kingdom. The level of the award varies depending on the format of the release (albums, singles or music videos) and the level of sales achieved. Although the awards program was for many years based on the level of shipments by record labels to retailers, since July 2013 certifications have been automatically allocated by the BPI upon the relevant sales thresholds being achieved in accordance with Official Charts Company data.Since July 2014, streaming media has been included for singles and from June 2015 audio streams were added to album certifications. In July 2018 video streams were included in singles certifications for the first time. Streaming's contributions to chart-eligible sales totals for singles and albums are calculated using the methodology employed by the Official Charts Company for consumption at title level.In April 2018, a new Breakthrough certification was introduced, pertaining to an artist's first album to reach 30,000 sales. Additionally, the program was re-branded as BRIT Certified, with public promotion of the programme being assumed by the BRIT Awards' social media outlets and digital properties. Former Chief Executive Geoff Taylor justified the change by stating that it was part of an effort to cross-promote the certifications with \"the UK's biggest platform for artistic achievement\".[6]In May 2023, BPI launched an expansion of the BRIT Certified Awards Scheme with BRIT Billion, which celebrates outstanding achievement in recorded music by surpassing the landmark of one billion career UK streams – as calculated by the Official Charts Company. Recipients to date include RAYE, Billie Eilish, Queen, The Rolling Stones, Olivia Rodrigo, Mariah Carey, Wizkid and Coldplay. In Autumn 2023, Ed Sheeran was presented with a special edition Gold BRIT Billion Award, celebrating his achievement as the first British artist to surpass ten billion career UK streams.","title":"Certifications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Police Intellectual Property Crime Unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Police_Intellectual_Property_Crime_Unit"},{"link_name":"\"piracy\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_infringement#%22Piracy%22"}],"text":"The BPI have developed bespoke software and automated crawling tools created in-house by the BPI which search for members' repertoire across more than 400 known infringing sites and generate URLs which are sent to Google as a DMCA Notice for removal within hours of receipt.[9] Additionally, personnel are also seconded to the City of London Police Intellectual Property Crime Unit to support anti-\"piracy\" operations.","title":"Anti-piracy operations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-BPIalbums_8-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-BPIalbums_8-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-BPIalbums_8-2"},{"link_name":"£","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pound_sterling"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-BPIsingles_10-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-BPIsingles_10-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-BPIsingles_10-2"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BPI-9"}],"text":"^ a b c The number of sales required to qualify for Platinum, Gold and Silver discs was changed to the current thresholds of Platinum (300,000 units), Gold (100,000 units) and Silver (60,000 units) in 1979 for albums above a minimum RRP. Below the minimum RRP, the thresholds are doubled. Prior to this, the thresholds were based on monetary revenue: Platinum (£1,000,000), Gold (£150,000 from April 1973 to September 1974, £250,000 from September 1974 to January 1977, and £300,000 from 1977 until 1979) and Silver (£75,000 from April 1973 to January 1975, £100,000 from January 1975 to January 1977, and £150,000 from 1977 until 1979).\n\n^ a b c The number of sales required to qualify for Platinum, Gold and Silver discs was dropped for singles released after 1 January 1989 to the current thresholds of Silver (200,000 units), Gold (400,000 units), and Platinum (600,000 units). Prior to this, the thresholds were Silver (250,000 units), Gold (500,000 units), and Platinum (1,000,000 units).[8]","title":"Notes"}]
|
[{"image_text":"A gold certification for Eric Clapton's album August","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Bpiclaptonaugust.jpg/220px-Bpiclaptonaugust.jpg"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_G._Marsden
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Brian G. Marsden
|
["1 Education","2 Life","3 Family","4 Honours","5 References","6 External links"]
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British astronomer (1937–2010)
For other people named Brian Marsden, see Brian Marsden (disambiguation).
Brian Geoffrey MarsdenBorn(1937-08-05)August 5, 1937Cambridge, EnglandDiedNovember 18, 2010(2010-11-18) (aged 73)Burlington, Massachusetts, USAlma materNew College, OxfordYale UniversityKnown forMinor Planet Center
Brian Geoffrey Marsden (5 August 1937 – 18 November 2010) was a British astronomer and the longtime director of the Minor Planet Center (MPC) at the Center for Astrophysics | Harvard & Smithsonian (director emeritus from 2006 to 2010).
Education
Marsden was educated at The Perse School in Cambridge, New College, Oxford (BA and MA) and Yale University (PhD). His thesis advisor was Dirk Brouwer.
Life
Marsden specialized in celestial mechanics and astrometry, collecting data on the positions of asteroids and comets and computing their orbits, often from minimal observational information and providing their future positions on International Astronomical Union (IAU) circulars. In addition to serving as MPC director since 1978, he served as the director of the Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams (CBAT) from 1968 to 1999. He was president of IAU Commission 6 (2000–2003) and Commission 20 (1976–1979).
Marsden helped to recover once lost asteroids and lost comets. Some asteroid and comet discoveries of previous decades were "lost" because not enough observational data had been obtained at the time to determine a reliable enough orbit to know where to look for identification at future dates. Occasionally, a newly discovered object turns out to be a rediscovery of a previously lost object, which can be determined by calculating its orbit backwards into the past and matching calculated positions with the previously recorded positions of the lost object. In the case of comets this is especially tricky because of forces other than gravity that can affect their orbits (one of which is emission of jets of gas from the comet nucleus), but Marsden has specialized in calculating such forces. Notably, he successfully predicted the 1992 return of the once-lost Comet Swift-Tuttle.
In May 1993, Marsden concluded that the trajectory of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 would put it onto a course to collide with Jupiter in July 1994, marking the first ever time that a cometary-planetary impact was successfully predicted.
In 1998, he calculated that an asteroid, (35396) 1997 XF11 had a small probability of striking the Earth in 2028. Marsden chose to issue a press release, which Robert Roy Britt called a false alarm.
"... astronomers created a media storm by announcing that an asteroid could collide with Earth in 2028, only to revise the estimates hours later."—Gretchen Vogel, Science, 20 March 1998
Other asteroid researchers demonstrated within hours that the computation was in error. Marsden himself admitted the announcement was a strategy which needed "rethinking", and NASA asked astronomers not to sound a public alarm like that again but to communicate with each other. He took some criticism for publicizing this prediction at the same time that movie companies were publicizing films like Deep Impact (see also Science by press conference). However, Marsden justified his actions with the argument that the problem of detecting asteroids needs more attention:
"Much as the incident was bad for my reputation, we needed a scare like that to bring attention to this problem." (Scientific American magazine, 2003)
Follow-up work determined that an impact would be unlikely.
He once proposed that Pluto should be cross-listed as both a planet and a minor planet and assigned the asteroid number 10000; however, this proposal was not accepted. A similar proposal was, however, finally accepted in 2006 when Pluto was designated minor planet 134340 and also declared a dwarf planet.
Marsden campaigned to reclassify Pluto as one of the newly discovered and rapidly growing class of Trans-Neptunian objects, the discovery of which was made possible by CCD-array detectors and dedicated surveys or incidental discoveries of these objects with relatively large telescopes. Partly at his urging, the International Astronomical Union voted at a meeting in Prague in 2006 to designate Pluto and three asteroids “dwarf planets.”, which are objects that have not dynamically cleared their orbits of other debris (except, e.g., for collections of objects in stable dynamic libration at the "Lagrange-points", the libration points L4 and L5 of large, classical planets, as in the case of the Jovian "Trojan" asteroids).
Asteroids discovered: 1
37556 Svyaztie
Aug 28, 1982
with N. S. Chernykh
MPC
Family
He married Nancy Lou Zissell; they had a daughter, Cynthia, and a son, Jonathan. He named minor planet 2298 Cindijon after them. Brian credited his mother for inspiring his interest in astronomy when she showed him the partial solar eclipse of September 10, 1942; that the date and time could be projected far in advance very much impressed him.
Honours
Awards
Merlin Medal and Gift of the British Astronomical Association (1965)
Walter Goodacre Medal of the British Astronomical Association (1979)
George Van Biesbroeck Prize of the American Astronomical Society (1989)
Brouwer Award of the Division on Dynamical Astronomy of the American Astronomical Society (1995)
Royal Astronomical Society Award for Service to Astronomy and Geophysics (2006)
Member of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters.
Named after him
Asteroid 1877 Marsden
Marsden Group of sun-grazing comets
References
^ Gingerich, O. (2010). "Brian Marsden (1937–2010)". Nature. 468 (7327): 1042. Bibcode:2010Natur.468.1042G. doi:10.1038/4681042a. PMID 21179155.
^ "MPEC 2010-W10 : BRIAN MARSDEN (1937 August 5-2010 November 18)". Minor Planet Center. 18 November 2010. Retrieved 18 November 2010.
^ DENNIS HEVESI (22 November 2010). "Brian Marsden, Tracker of Comets, Dies at 73". The New York Times.
^ Kelly Beatty (18 November 2010). "Brian G. Marsden (1937-2010)". Sky and Telescope.
^ "Astronomer Brian G. Marsden dies".
^ Pointless Asteroid Scare Archived 2011-01-09 at the Wayback Machine
^ Browne, Malcolm W. (14 March 1998). "Frantic Hunt Found Photos That Deflated Asteroid Fears". The New York Times.
^ Reichhardt, Tony. "Run for your lives! (Uh, never mind.)".
^ a b Death of Brian Marsden
^ a b Thomas H. Maugh II (20 November 2010). "Brian Marsden dies at 73; astronomer who tracked comets and asteroids". Los Angeles Times.
^ Schmadel, Lutz D. (2007). "(2298) Cindijon". Dictionary of Minor Planet Names – (2298) Cindijon. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. p. 187. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-29925-7_2299. ISBN 978-3-540-00238-3.
^ "Brian Marsden". The Economist. 2 December 2010. Retrieved 3 September 2012.
^ "Division on Dynamical Astronomy | Division on Dynamical Astronomy".
^ "Gruppe 2: Fysikkfag (herunder astronomi, fysikk og geofysikk)" (in Norwegian). Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters. Archived from the original on 27 September 2011. Retrieved 7 October 2010.
External links
Wikiquote has quotations related to Brian G. Marsden.
"A cheery herald of fear: Brian Geoffrey Marsden". The New York Times. Man in the News. 13 March 1998.
Marsden, B. G. (February 1999). "1997 XF11 – the true story". The Journal of the British Astronomical Association. 109 (1): 39. Bibcode:1999JBAA..109...39M. Archived from the original on 31 October 2007.
Hoffman, Tony (ed.). "The Great Asteroid Scare" (pers. webpage). Archived from the original on 14 June 2013. – Marsden's announcement about XF11 made front page headlines
"Obituary of Brian Marsden". The Daily Telegraph. 6 December 2010.
Authority control databases International
ISNI
VIAF
WorldCat
National
Germany
Israel
United States
Netherlands
Academics
Mathematics Genealogy Project
People
Deutsche Biographie
Other
IdRef
|
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Marsden"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Perse School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Perse_School"},{"link_name":"Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge"},{"link_name":"New College, Oxford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_College,_Oxford"},{"link_name":"Yale University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_University"},{"link_name":"Dirk Brouwer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirk_Brouwer"}],"text":"Marsden was educated at The Perse School in Cambridge, New College, Oxford (BA and MA) and Yale University (PhD). His thesis advisor was Dirk Brouwer.","title":"Education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"celestial mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celestial_mechanics"},{"link_name":"astrometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrometry"},{"link_name":"asteroids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid"},{"link_name":"comets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet"},{"link_name":"International Astronomical Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Astronomical_Union"},{"link_name":"Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Bureau_for_Astronomical_Telegrams"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"lost asteroids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lost_asteroid"},{"link_name":"lost comets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lost_comet"},{"link_name":"Comet Swift-Tuttle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/109P/Swift-Tuttle"},{"link_name":"Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoemaker_Levy"},{"link_name":"(35396) 1997 XF11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/(35396)_1997_XF11"},{"link_name":"Robert Roy Britt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robert_Roy_Britt&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"false alarm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_alarm"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"media storm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_by_press_conference"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"NASA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Deep Impact","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_Impact_(film)"},{"link_name":"Science by press conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_by_press_conference"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dbm-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thomas_H._Maugh_II-10"},{"link_name":"Pluto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto"},{"link_name":"planet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet"},{"link_name":"minor planet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minor_planet"},{"link_name":"dwarf planet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet"},{"link_name":"Trans-Neptunian objects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-Neptunian_objects"},{"link_name":"Lagrange-points","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrange_point"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dbm-9"}],"text":"Marsden specialized in celestial mechanics and astrometry, collecting data on the positions of asteroids and comets and computing their orbits, often from minimal observational information and providing their future positions on International Astronomical Union (IAU) circulars. In addition to serving as MPC director since 1978, he served as the director of the Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams (CBAT) from 1968 to 1999.[4] He was president of IAU Commission 6 (2000–2003) and Commission 20 (1976–1979).[5]Marsden helped to recover once lost asteroids and lost comets. Some asteroid and comet discoveries of previous decades were \"lost\" because not enough observational data had been obtained at the time to determine a reliable enough orbit to know where to look for identification at future dates. Occasionally, a newly discovered object turns out to be a rediscovery of a previously lost object, which can be determined by calculating its orbit backwards into the past and matching calculated positions with the previously recorded positions of the lost object. In the case of comets this is especially tricky because of forces other than gravity that can affect their orbits (one of which is emission of jets of gas from the comet nucleus), but Marsden has specialized in calculating such forces. Notably, he successfully predicted the 1992 return of the once-lost Comet Swift-Tuttle.In May 1993, Marsden concluded that the trajectory of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 would put it onto a course to collide with Jupiter in July 1994, marking the first ever time that a cometary-planetary impact was successfully predicted.In 1998, he calculated that an asteroid, (35396) 1997 XF11 had a small probability of striking the Earth in 2028. Marsden chose to issue a press release, which Robert Roy Britt called a false alarm.[6]\"... astronomers created a media storm by announcing that an asteroid could collide with Earth in 2028, only to revise the estimates hours later.\"—Gretchen Vogel, Science, 20 March 1998Other asteroid researchers demonstrated within hours that the computation was in error.[7] Marsden himself admitted the announcement was a strategy which needed \"rethinking\", and NASA asked astronomers not to sound a public alarm like that again but to communicate with each other.[8] He took some criticism for publicizing this prediction at the same time that movie companies were publicizing films like Deep Impact (see also Science by press conference). However, Marsden justified his actions with the argument that the problem of detecting asteroids needs more attention:\"Much as the incident was bad for my reputation, we needed a scare like that to bring attention to this problem.\" (Scientific American magazine, 2003)[9]Follow-up work determined that an impact would be unlikely.[10]He once proposed that Pluto should be cross-listed as both a planet and a minor planet and assigned the asteroid number 10000; however, this proposal was not accepted. A similar proposal was, however, finally accepted in 2006 when Pluto was designated minor planet 134340 and also declared a dwarf planet.Marsden campaigned to reclassify Pluto as one of the newly discovered and rapidly growing class of Trans-Neptunian objects, the discovery of which was made possible by CCD-array detectors and dedicated surveys or incidental discoveries of these objects with relatively large telescopes. Partly at his urging, the International Astronomical Union voted at a meeting in Prague in 2006 to designate Pluto and three asteroids “dwarf planets.”, which are objects that have not dynamically cleared their orbits of other debris (except, e.g., for collections of objects in stable dynamic libration at the \"Lagrange-points\", the libration points L4 and L5 of large, classical planets, as in the case of the Jovian \"Trojan\" asteroids).[9]","title":"Life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thomas_H._Maugh_II-10"},{"link_name":"2298 Cindijon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2298_Cindijon"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"solar eclipse of September 10, 1942","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse_of_September_10,_1942"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"He married Nancy Lou Zissell; they had a daughter, Cynthia, and a son, Jonathan.[10] He named minor planet 2298 Cindijon after them.[11] Brian credited his mother for inspiring his interest in astronomy when she showed him the partial solar eclipse of September 10, 1942; that the date and time could be projected far in advance very much impressed him.[12]","title":"Family"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"British Astronomical Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Astronomical_Association"},{"link_name":"Walter Goodacre Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Goodacre"},{"link_name":"British Astronomical Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Astronomical_Association"},{"link_name":"George Van Biesbroeck Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Van_Biesbroeck_Prize"},{"link_name":"American Astronomical Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Astronomical_Society"},{"link_name":"Brouwer Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brouwer_Award_(Division_on_Dynamical_Astronomy)"},{"link_name":"Division on Dynamical Astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_on_Dynamical_Astronomy"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Royal Astronomical Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Astronomical_Society"},{"link_name":"Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_Academy_of_Science_and_Letters"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Asteroid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid"},{"link_name":"1877 Marsden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1877_Marsden"},{"link_name":"sun-grazing comets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun-grazing_comets"}],"text":"AwardsMerlin Medal and Gift of the British Astronomical Association (1965)\nWalter Goodacre Medal of the British Astronomical Association (1979)\nGeorge Van Biesbroeck Prize of the American Astronomical Society (1989)\nBrouwer Award of the Division on Dynamical Astronomy of the American Astronomical Society (1995)[13]\nRoyal Astronomical Society Award for Service to Astronomy and Geophysics (2006)\nMember of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters.[14]Named after himAsteroid 1877 Marsden\nMarsden Group of sun-grazing comets","title":"Honours"}]
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[]
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Retrieved 18 November 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.minorplanetcenter.org/mpec/K10/K10W10.html","url_text":"\"MPEC 2010-W10 : BRIAN MARSDEN (1937 August 5-2010 November 18)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minor_Planet_Center","url_text":"Minor Planet Center"}]},{"reference":"DENNIS HEVESI (22 November 2010). \"Brian Marsden, Tracker of Comets, Dies at 73\". The New York Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/23/us/23marsden.html","url_text":"\"Brian Marsden, Tracker of Comets, Dies at 73\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"}]},{"reference":"Kelly Beatty (18 November 2010). \"Brian G. Marsden (1937-2010)\". Sky and Telescope.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.skyandtelescope.com/community/skyblog/newsblog/109107254.html","url_text":"\"Brian G. Marsden (1937-2010)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Astronomer Brian G. Marsden dies\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.astronomy.com/~/link.aspx?_id=b1554f8a-dc3d-47e0-b513-4287d776c0a2","url_text":"\"Astronomer Brian G. Marsden dies\""}]},{"reference":"Browne, Malcolm W. (14 March 1998). \"Frantic Hunt Found Photos That Deflated Asteroid Fears\". The New York Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malcolm_Browne","url_text":"Browne, Malcolm W."},{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1998/03/14/us/frantic-hunt-found-photos-that-deflated-asteroid-fears.html","url_text":"\"Frantic Hunt Found Photos That Deflated Asteroid Fears\""}]},{"reference":"Reichhardt, Tony. \"Run for your lives! (Uh, never mind.)\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.columbia.edu/cu/21stC/issue-3.2/reichhardt.html","url_text":"\"Run for your lives! (Uh, never mind.)\""}]},{"reference":"Thomas H. Maugh II (20 November 2010). \"Brian Marsden dies at 73; astronomer who tracked comets and asteroids\". Los Angeles Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://articles.latimes.com/2010/nov/20/local/la-me-brian-marsden-20101120","url_text":"\"Brian Marsden dies at 73; astronomer who tracked comets and asteroids\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times","url_text":"Los Angeles Times"}]},{"reference":"Schmadel, Lutz D. (2007). \"(2298) Cindijon\". Dictionary of Minor Planet Names – (2298) Cindijon. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. p. 187. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-29925-7_2299. ISBN 978-3-540-00238-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-540-29925-7_2299","url_text":"10.1007/978-3-540-29925-7_2299"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-00238-3","url_text":"978-3-540-00238-3"}]},{"reference":"\"Brian Marsden\". The Economist. 2 December 2010. Retrieved 3 September 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.economist.com/node/17627004","url_text":"\"Brian Marsden\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Economist","url_text":"The Economist"}]},{"reference":"\"Division on Dynamical Astronomy | Division on Dynamical Astronomy\".","urls":[{"url":"http://dda.harvard.edu/brouwer_award/brouw95.html","url_text":"\"Division on Dynamical Astronomy | Division on Dynamical Astronomy\""}]},{"reference":"\"Gruppe 2: Fysikkfag (herunder astronomi, fysikk og geofysikk)\" (in Norwegian). Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters. Archived from the original on 27 September 2011. Retrieved 7 October 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110927171005/http://www.dnva.no/c26849/artikkel/vis.html?tid=40118","url_text":"\"Gruppe 2: Fysikkfag (herunder astronomi, fysikk og geofysikk)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_Academy_of_Science_and_Letters","url_text":"Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters"},{"url":"http://www.dnva.no/c26849/artikkel/vis.html?tid=40118","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"A cheery herald of fear: Brian Geoffrey Marsden\". The New York Times. Man in the News. 13 March 1998.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1998/03/13/us/man-in-the-news-a-cheery-herald-of-fear-brian-geoffrey-marsden.html?pagewanted=all","url_text":"\"A cheery herald of fear: Brian Geoffrey Marsden\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"}]},{"reference":"Marsden, B. G. (February 1999). \"1997 XF11 – the true story\". The Journal of the British Astronomical Association. 109 (1): 39. Bibcode:1999JBAA..109...39M. Archived from the original on 31 October 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071031150142/http://www.britastro.org/jbaa/archive/marsden.htm","url_text":"\"1997 XF11 – the true story\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999JBAA..109...39M","url_text":"1999JBAA..109...39M"},{"url":"http://www.britastro.org/jbaa/archive/marsden.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Hoffman, Tony (ed.). \"The Great Asteroid Scare\" (pers. webpage). Archived from the original on 14 June 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130614091520/http://home.earthlink.net/~tonyhoffman/asteroidscare.htm","url_text":"\"The Great Asteroid Scare\""},{"url":"https://home.earthlink.net/~tonyhoffman/asteroidscare.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Obituary of Brian Marsden\". The Daily Telegraph. 6 December 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/science-obituaries/8184899/Brian-Marsden.html","url_text":"\"Obituary of Brian Marsden\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph","url_text":"The Daily Telegraph"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovoviviparity
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Ovoviviparity
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["1 Ovoviviparity","2 Amphibians","3 Ovolarviparity","4 Criticisms and disuse","5 References"]
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Gestation type
The characteristic quivering abdomen caused by movement of tadpoles within a pregnant female Limnonectes larvaepartus.
Ovoviviparity, ovovivipary, ovivipary, or aplacental viviparity is a term used as a "bridging" form of reproduction between egg-laying oviparous and live-bearing viviparous reproduction. Ovoviviparous animals possess embryos that develop inside eggs that remain in the mother's body until they are ready to hatch.
The young of some ovoviviparous amphibians, such as Limnonectes larvaepartus, are born as larvae, and undergo further metamorphosis outside the body of the mother. Members of genera Nectophrynoides and Eleutherodactylus bear froglets, not only the hatching, but all the most conspicuous metamorphosis, being completed inside the body of the mother before birth.
Among insects that depend on opportunistic exploitation of transient food sources, such as many Sarcophagidae and other carrion flies, and species such as many Calliphoridae, that rely on fresh dung, and parasitoids such as tachinid flies that depend on entering the host as soon as possible, the embryos commonly develop to the first larval instar inside the mother's reproductive tract, and they hatch just before being laid or almost immediately afterwards.
Ovoviviparity
Ovoviviparous animals are those animals that are similar to viviparous species in which there is internal fertilization and the young are born alive, but differ in that there is no placental connection and the unborn young are nourished by egg; the mother's body does provide gas exchange.
In some species, the internally developing embryos rely solely on yolk. This is known as "yolk-sac viviparity" and is regarded as a type of lecithotrophy (no maternal provisioning). Other species exhibit matrotrophy, in which the embryo exhausts its yolk supply early in gestation and the mother provides additional nutrition. This additional provisioning may be in the form of unfertilized eggs (intrauterine oophagy), uterine secretions (histotrophy) or it may be delivered through a placenta. The first two of these modes were categorized under histotroph viviparity, or aplacental viviparity.
Amphibians
Further information: Modes of reproduction
The young of ovoviviparous amphibians are sometimes born as larvae, and undergo metamorphosis outside the body of the mother. Modes of reproduction include based on relations between zygote and parents:
Ovuliparity: external fertilisation, as in arthropods, many bony fishes, and most amphibians
Oviparity: internal fertilisation, where the female lays zygotes as eggs with important vitellus (typically birds)
Ovoviviparity can be thought of as a form of oviparity where the zygotes are retained in the female's body or in the male's body, but there are no trophic interactions between zygote and parents. This is found in Anguis fragilis. In seahorses, zygotes remain in the male's ventral "marsupium". In the frog Rhinoderma darwinii, the zygotes develop in the vocal sac. In the frog Rheobatrachus, zygotes develop in the stomach.
Ovolarviparity
Some insects, notably tachinid flies, are ovolarviparous, which means that the embryos develop into the first larval stage (instar) within the eggs while still in the female's oviduct. As a result, the larvae hatch more rapidly, sometimes immediately after egg deposition, and can begin feeding right away. A similar phenomenon is larviparity, in which larvae hatch before the female delivers them, although this may be mistakenly identified in species with very thin and transparent egg membranes.
Criticisms and disuse
A lack of a rigidly defined term resulted in widespread misuse of the term ovoviviparity in the biological literature. Ovoviviparity has been used to describe delayed forms of egg-laying reproduction as well as live-bearing species that provide maternal nutrients but do not use a placenta. This widespread misuse of the term has led to confusion over what earlier authors meant when using the name. Modern practice has seen the disuse of ovoviviparity in favour of the more specific definitions of lecithotrophic and matrotrophic oviparity and viviparity.
References
^ Lodé Thierry T. 2012. Oviparity or viviparity ? That is the question. Reproductive Biology 12: 259-264
^ Carrier, J.C.; Musick, J.A.; Heithaus, M.R., eds. (2012). Biology of Sharks and Their Relatives. CRC Press. pp. 296–301. ISBN 978-1439839249.
^ Lodé, Thierry (2001). Les stratégies de reproduction des animaux (Reproduction strategies in animal kingdom). Eds Dunod Sciences, Paris
^ Tyler, M. J. (1994). Australian Frogs: A Natural History. Chapter 12, Gastric Brooding Frogs pp;135–140 Reed Books
^ Capinera, John L. (2008). "Tachinid Flies (Diptera: Tachinidae)". Encyclopedia of entomology (2nd ed.). Dordrecht: Springer. pp. 3678–3679. ISBN 9781402062421.
^ Wiman, Nik G.; Jones, Vincent P. (2012). "Influence of oviposition strategy of Nemorilla pyste and Nilea erecta (Diptera: Tachinidae) on parasitoid fertility and host mortality" (PDF). Biological Control. 64 (3): 195–202. doi:10.1016/j.biocontrol.2012.12.008.
^ a b Blackburn, Daniel. "Discrepant use of the term 'Ovoviviparity' in the Herpetological Literature". Herpetological Journal. 4: 65–72.
^ Blackburn, Daniel (2015). "Evolution of Vertebrate Viviparity and Specializations for Fetal Nutrition: A Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis". Journal of Morphology. 276 (8): 961–990. doi:10.1002/jmor.20272. PMID 24652663. S2CID 549574.
vteHuman physiology of sexual reproductionMenstrual cycle
Menarche
Menstruation
Follicular phase
Ovulation
Luteal phase
Gametogenesis
Spermatogenesis
spermatogonium
spermatocyte
spermatid
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ootid
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gamete
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Diseases and disorders
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vteModes of reproductionModes
Oviparity
Viviparity (Histotrophic, Hemotrophic)
Ovoviviparity
Fertilization
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Internal fertilization
Parental care
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Related topics
Adelphophagy
Gastric-brooding frog
Live-bearing aquarium fish
Male pregnancy
Matrotrophy
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Trophic egg
vteEggsList of egg topicsTypes
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Fish and amphibian
Monotreme
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Category
Commons
Portals: Sharks Gastropods Snakes Frogs Amphibians Fish
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Ovoviviparous animals possess embryos that develop inside eggs that remain in the mother's body until they are ready to hatch.The young of some ovoviviparous amphibians, such as Limnonectes larvaepartus, are born as larvae, and undergo further metamorphosis outside the body of the mother. Members of genera Nectophrynoides and Eleutherodactylus bear froglets, not only the hatching, but all the most conspicuous metamorphosis, being completed inside the body of the mother before birth.Among insects that depend on opportunistic exploitation of transient food sources, such as many Sarcophagidae and other carrion flies, and species such as many Calliphoridae, that rely on fresh dung, and parasitoids such as tachinid flies that depend on entering the host as soon as possible, the embryos commonly develop to the first larval instar inside the mother's reproductive tract, and they hatch just before being laid or almost immediately afterwards.","title":"Ovoviviparity"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"internal fertilization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_fertilization"},{"link_name":"placental","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placenta"},{"link_name":"egg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egg"},{"link_name":"gas exchange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_exchange"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"yolk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yolk"},{"link_name":"matrotrophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrotrophy"},{"link_name":"gestation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestation"},{"link_name":"oophagy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oophagy"},{"link_name":"histotrophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histotrophy"},{"link_name":"placenta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placenta"},{"link_name":"viviparity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viviparity"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Ovoviviparous animals are those animals that are similar to viviparous species in which there is internal fertilization and the young are born alive, but differ in that there is no placental connection and the unborn young are nourished by egg; the mother's body does provide gas exchange.[citation needed]In some species, the internally developing embryos rely solely on yolk. This is known as \"yolk-sac viviparity\" and is regarded as a type of lecithotrophy (no maternal provisioning). Other species exhibit matrotrophy, in which the embryo exhausts its yolk supply early in gestation and the mother provides additional nutrition. This additional provisioning may be in the form of unfertilized eggs (intrauterine oophagy), uterine secretions (histotrophy) or it may be delivered through a placenta. The first two of these modes were categorized under histotroph viviparity,[1] or aplacental viviparity.[2]","title":"Ovoviviparity"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Modes of reproduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modes_of_reproduction"},{"link_name":"amphibians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphibians"},{"link_name":"larvae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larva"},{"link_name":"metamorphosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamorphosis_(biology)"},{"link_name":"Modes of reproduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modes_of_reproduction"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"zygote","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zygote"},{"link_name":"amphibians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphibia"},{"link_name":"Anguis fragilis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anguis_fragilis"},{"link_name":"seahorses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seahorse"},{"link_name":"Rhinoderma darwinii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhinoderma_darwinii"},{"link_name":"Rheobatrachus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rheobatrachus"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Further information: Modes of reproductionThe young of ovoviviparous amphibians are sometimes born as larvae, and undergo metamorphosis outside the body of the mother. Modes of reproduction include[3] based on relations between zygote and parents:Ovuliparity: external fertilisation, as in arthropods, many bony fishes, and most amphibians\nOviparity: internal fertilisation, where the female lays zygotes as eggs with important vitellus (typically birds)\nOvoviviparity can be thought of as a form of oviparity where the zygotes are retained in the female's body or in the male's body, but there are no trophic interactions between zygote and parents. This is found in Anguis fragilis. In seahorses, zygotes remain in the male's ventral \"marsupium\". In the frog Rhinoderma darwinii, the zygotes develop in the vocal sac. In the frog Rheobatrachus, zygotes develop in the stomach.[4]","title":"Amphibians"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"tachinid flies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tachinidae"},{"link_name":"instar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instar"},{"link_name":"oviduct","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oviduct"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Some insects, notably tachinid flies, are ovolarviparous, which means that the embryos develop into the first larval stage (instar) within the eggs while still in the female's oviduct. As a result, the larvae hatch more rapidly, sometimes immediately after egg deposition, and can begin feeding right away. A similar phenomenon is larviparity, in which larvae hatch before the female delivers them, although this may be mistakenly identified in species with very thin and transparent egg membranes.[5][6]","title":"Ovolarviparity"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Blackburn1994-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Blackburn1994-7"},{"link_name":"lecithotrophic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lecithotrophic"},{"link_name":"matrotrophic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrotrophic"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Blackburn2015-8"}],"text":"A lack of a rigidly defined term resulted in widespread misuse of the term ovoviviparity in the biological literature.[7] Ovoviviparity has been used to describe delayed forms of egg-laying reproduction as well as live-bearing species that provide maternal nutrients but do not use a placenta.[7] This widespread misuse of the term has led to confusion over what earlier authors meant when using the name. Modern practice has seen the disuse of ovoviviparity in favour of the more specific definitions of lecithotrophic and matrotrophic oviparity and viviparity.[8]","title":"Criticisms and disuse"}]
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[{"image_text":"The characteristic quivering abdomen caused by movement of tadpoles within a pregnant female Limnonectes larvaepartus."}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lymph_vessel
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Lymphatic vessel
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["1 Structure","1.1 Lymph capillaries","1.2 Lymph vessels","2 Function","2.1 Afferent vessels","2.2 Efferent vessels","3 Clinical significance","4 Additional images","5 See also","6 References","7 Further reading","8 External links"]
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Tubular vessels that are involved in the transport of lymph and lymphocytes
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Lymphatic vesselLymph capillaries in the tissue spacesThe thoracic duct and right lymphatic ductDetailsSystemLymphatic systemIdentifiersLatinvas lymphaticumMeSHD042601TA98A12.0.00.038TA23915THH3.09.02.0.05001 FMA30315Anatomical terminology
A still image from a 3D medical animation showing afferent vessels
The lymphatic vessels (or lymph vessels or lymphatics) are thin-walled vessels (tubes), structured like blood vessels, that carry lymph. As part of the lymphatic system, lymph vessels are complementary to the cardiovascular system. Lymph vessels are lined by endothelial cells, and have a thin layer of smooth muscle, and adventitia that binds the lymph vessels to the surrounding tissue. Lymph vessels are devoted to the propulsion of the lymph from the lymph capillaries, which are mainly concerned with the absorption of interstitial fluid from the tissues. Lymph capillaries are slightly bigger than their counterpart capillaries of the vascular system. Lymph vessels that carry lymph to a lymph node are called afferent lymph vessels, and those that carry it from a lymph node are called efferent lymph vessels, from where the lymph may travel to another lymph node, may be returned to a vein, or may travel to a larger lymph duct. Lymph ducts drain the lymph into one of the subclavian veins and thus return it to general circulation.
The vessels that bring lymph away from the tissues and towards the lymph nodes can be classified as afferent vessels. These afferent vessels then drain into the subcapsular sinus.
The efferent vessels that bring lymph from the lymphatic organs to the nodes bringing the lymph to the right lymphatic duct or the thoracic duct, the largest lymph vessel in the body. These vessels drain into the right and left subclavian veins, respectively. There are far more afferent vessels bringing in lymph than efferent vessels taking it out to allow for lymphocytes and macrophages to fulfill their immune support functions. The lymphatic vessels contain valves.
Structure
The general structure of lymphatics is based on that of blood vessels. There is an inner lining of single flattened epithelial cells (simple squamous epithelium) composed of a type of epithelium that is called the endothelium, and the cells are called endothelial cells. This layer functions to mechanically transport fluid and since the basement membrane on which it rests is discontinuous; it leaks easily. The next layer is that of smooth muscles that are arranged in a circular fashion around the endothelium, which by shortening (contracting) or relaxing alter the diameter (caliber) of the lumen. The outermost layer is the adventitia which consists of fibrous tissue. The general structure described here is seen only in larger lymphatics; smaller lymphatics have fewer layers. The smallest vessels (lymphatic or lymph capillaries) lack both the muscular layer and the outer adventitia. As they proceed forward and in their course are joined by other capillaries, they grow larger and first take on an adventitia, and then smooth muscles.
The lymphatic conducting system broadly consists of two types of channels—the initial lymphatics, the prelymphatics or lymph capillaries that specialize in collection of the lymph from the interstital fluid, and the larger lymph vessels that propel the lymph forward.
Unlike the cardiovascular system, the lymphatic system is not closed and has no central pump. Lymph movement occurs despite low pressure due to peristalsis (propulsion of the lymph due to alternate contraction and relaxation of smooth muscle), valves, and compression during contraction of adjacent skeletal muscle and arterial pulsation.
Propulsion of lymph through lymph vessel
Lymph capillaries
The lymphatic circulation begins with blind ending (closed at one end) highly permeable superficial lymph capillaries, formed by endothelial cells with button-like junctions between them that allow fluid to pass through them when the interstitial pressure is sufficiently high. These button-like junctions consist of protein filaments like platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1, or PECAM-1. A valve system in place here prevents the absorbed lymph from leaking back into the interstital fluid. This valve system involves collagen fibers attached to lymphatic endothelial cells that respond to increased interstitial fluid pressure by separating the endothelial cells and allowing the flow of lymph into the capillary for circulation. There is another system of semilunar valves that prevents back-flow of lymph along the lumen of the vessel. Lymph capillaries have many interconnections (anastomoses) between them and form a very fine network.
Rhythmic contraction of the vessel walls through movements may also help draw fluid into the smallest lymphatic vessels, capillaries. If tissue fluid builds up the tissue will swell; this is called edema. As the circular path through the body's system continues, the fluid is then transported to progressively larger lymphatic vessels culminating in the right lymphatic duct (for lymph from the right upper body) and the thoracic duct (for the rest of the body); both ducts drain into the circulatory system at the right and left subclavian veins. The system collaborates with white blood cells in lymph nodes to protect the body from being infected by cancer cells, fungi, viruses or bacteria. This is known as a secondary circulatory system.
Lymph vessels
The lymph capillaries drain into larger collecting lymphatics. These are contractile lymphatics which transport lymph using a combination of smooth muscle walls, which contract to assist in transporting lymph, as well as valves to prevent the lymph from flowing backwards. As the collecting lymph vessel accumulates lymph from more and more lymph capillaries along its length, it becomes larger and eventually becomes an afferent lymph vessel as it enters a lymphs node. The lymph percolates through the lymph node tissue and exits via an efferent lymph vessel. An efferent lymph vessel may directly drain into one of the (right or thoracic) lymph ducts, or may empty into another lymph node as its afferent lymph vessel. Both the lymph ducts return the lymph to the blood stream by emptying into the subclavian veins
Lymph vessels consist of functional units known as lymphangions which are segments separated by semilunar valves. These segments propel or resist the flow of lymph by the contraction of the encircling smooth muscle depending upon the ratio of its length to its radius.
Function
See also: Lymphatic system
Lymph vessels act as reservoirs for plasma and other substances including cells that have leaked from the vascular system and transport lymph fluid back from the tissues to the circulatory system. Without functioning lymph vessels, lymph cannot be effectively drained and lymphedema typically results.
Afferent vessels
The afferent lymph vessels enter at all parts of the periphery of the lymph node, and after branching and forming a dense plexus in the substance of the capsule, open into the lymph sinuses of the cortical part. It carries unfiltered lymph into the node. In doing this they lose all their coats except their endothelial lining, which is continuous with a layer of similar cells lining the lymph paths.
Afferent lymphatic vessels are only found in lymph nodes. This is in contrast to efferent lymphatic vessel which are also found in the thymus and spleen.
Efferent vessels
The efferent lymphatic vessel commences from the lymph sinuses of the medullary portion of the lymph nodes and leave the lymph nodes at the hilum, either to veins or greater nodes. It carries filtered lymph out of the node.
Efferent lymphatic vessels are also found in association with the thymus and spleen. This is in contrast to afferent lymphatic vessels, which are found only in association with lymph nodes.
Clinical significance
Lymphedema is the swelling of tissues due to insufficient fluid drainage by the lymphatic vessels. It can be the result from absent, underdeveloped or dysfunctional lymphatic vessels. In hereditary (or primary) lymphedema, the lymphatic vessels are absent, underdeveloped or dysfunctional due to genetic causes. In acquired (or secondary) lymphedema, the lymphatic vessels are damaged by injury or infection. Lymphangiomatosis is a disease involving multiple cysts or lesions formed from lymphatic vessels.
Additional images
Lymphatic system
Section across portal canal of pig. X 250.
See also
Lacteal
Meningeal lymphatic vessels
References
^ "19.2B: Distribution of Lymphatic Vessels". Medicine LibreTexts. 22 July 2018. Retrieved 28 November 2021.
^ Pepper MS, Skobe M (October 2003). "Lymphatic endothelium: morphological, molecular and functional properties". The Journal of Cell Biology. 163 (2): 209–13. doi:10.1083/jcb.200308082. PMC 2173536. PMID 14581448.
^ a b Shayan R, Achen MG, Stacker SA (September 2006). "Lymphatic vessels in cancer metastasis: bridging the gaps". Carcinogenesis. 27 (9): 1729–38. doi:10.1093/carcin/bgl031. PMID 16597644.
^ a b Baluk P, Fuxe J, Hashizume H, Romano T, Lashnits E, Butz S, et al. (October 2007). "Functionally specialized junctions between endothelial cells of lymphatic vessels". The Journal of Experimental Medicine. 204 (10): 2349–62. doi:10.1084/jem.20062596. PMC 2118470. PMID 17846148.
^ Weitman E, Cuzzone D, Mehrara BJ (September 2013). "Tissue engineering and regeneration of lymphatic structures". Future Oncology. 9 (9): 1365–74. doi:10.2217/fon.13.110. PMC 4095806. PMID 23980683.
^ a b Rosse C, Gaddum-Rosse P (1997). "The Cardiovascular System (Chapter 8)". Hollinshead's Textbook of Anatomy (Fifth ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven. pp. 72–73. ISBN 0-397-51256-2.
^ Venugopal AM, Stewart RH, Rajagopalan S, Laine GA, Quick CM (2004). "Optimal Lymphatic Vessel Structure". The 26th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. 26th Annual International Conference of the IEEE. Vol. 2. Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. pp. 3700–3703. doi:10.1109/IEMBS.2004.1404039. ISBN 0-7803-8439-3.
^ Alitalo K (November 2011). "The lymphatic vasculature in disease". Nature Medicine. 17 (11): 1371–80. doi:10.1038/nm.2545. PMID 22064427. S2CID 5899689.
^ Krebs R, Jeltsch M (2013). "The lymphangiogenic growth factors VEGF-C and VEGF-D. Part 2: The role of VEGF-C and VEGF-D in lymphatic system diseases". Lymphologie in Forschung und Praxis. 17 (2): 96–104.
Further reading
Nosek TM. "Role of Lymphatic Vessels". Essentials of Human Physiology. Archived from the original on 2016-03-24.
External links
Lymphatic+Vessels at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
Efferent lymph vessel - BioWeb at University of Wisconsin System
vteHuman systems and organsMusculoskeletal systemSkeletal system
Bone
Carpus
Collar bone (clavicle)
Thigh bone (femur)
Fibula
Humerus
Mandible
Metacarpus
Metatarsus
Ossicles
Patella
Phalanges
Radius
Skull
Tarsus
Tibia
Ulna
Rib
Vertebra
Pelvis
Sternum
Cartilage
Joints
Fibrous joint
Cartilaginous joint
Synovial joint
Muscular system
Muscle
Tendon
Diaphragm
Circulatory systemCardiovascular system
peripheral
Artery
Vein
Lymphatic vessel
Heart
Lymphatic system
primary
Bone marrow
Thymus
secondary
Spleen
Lymph node
CNS equivalent
Glymphatic system
Nervous system
Brain
Spinal cord
Nerve
Sensory system
Ear
Eye
Somatic system
Tissue
Integumentary system
Skin
Subcutaneous tissue
Breast
Mammary gland
Haematopoietic and immune systems
Myeloid
Myeloid immune system
Lymphoid
Lymphoid immune system
Respiratory system
Upper
Nose
Nasopharynx
Larynx
Lower
Trachea
Bronchus
Lung
Digestive system
Mouth
Salivary gland
Tongue
Lip
Tooth
upper GI
Oropharynx
Laryngopharynx
Esophagus
Stomach
lower GI
Small intestine
Appendix
Colon
Rectum
Anus
accessory
Liver
Biliary tract
Pancreas
Urinary system
Genitourinary system
Kidney
Ureter
Bladder
Urethra
Reproductive system
Male
Scrotum
Penis
Prostate
Testicle
Seminal vesicle
Female
Uterus
Vagina
Vulva
Ovary
Placenta
Endocrine system
Pituitary
Pineal
Thyroid
Parathyroid
Adrenal
Islets of Langerhans
vteArteries and veinsVesselsArteries
Nutrient artery
Arteriole
Metarteriole
Elastic artery
Capillaries
Types
Continuous
Fenestrated
Sinusoidal
Precapillary sphincter
Precapillary resistance
Veins
Vena comitans
Superficial vein
Deep vein
Perforator vein
Emissary veins
Venous plexus
Venule
Lymph
Lymphatic vessel
Lymph
Lymph capillary
Circulatory systemSystemicLeft heart → Aorta → Arteries → Arterioles → Capillaries → Venules → Veins → Vena cava → (Right heart)PulmonaryRight heart → Pulmonary arteries → Lungs → Pulmonary vein → (Left heart)Microanatomy
Microvessel
Microcirculation
Tunica intima
Endothelium
Internal elastic lamina
Tunica media
Tunica externa
Vasa vasorum
Vasa nervorum
Vascular nerves
Rete mirabile
Circulatory anastomosis
vteLymphatic vesselsNodal
Lymph capillary
Lymphatic vessel
Other
Lymph trunk
Lymph
Lymphangion
Authority control databases National
Spain
Germany
Czech Republic
Other
Terminologia Anatomica
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As part of the lymphatic system, lymph vessels are complementary to the cardiovascular system. Lymph vessels are lined by endothelial cells, and have a thin layer of smooth muscle, and adventitia that binds the lymph vessels to the surrounding tissue. Lymph vessels are devoted to the propulsion of the lymph from the lymph capillaries, which are mainly concerned with the absorption of interstitial fluid from the tissues. Lymph capillaries are slightly bigger than their counterpart capillaries of the vascular system. Lymph vessels that carry lymph to a lymph node are called afferent lymph vessels, and those that carry it from a lymph node are called efferent lymph vessels, from where the lymph may travel to another lymph node, may be returned to a vein, or may travel to a larger lymph duct. Lymph ducts drain the lymph into one of the subclavian veins and thus return it to general circulation.The vessels that bring lymph away from the tissues and towards the lymph nodes can be classified as afferent vessels. These afferent vessels then drain into the subcapsular sinus.[1] \nThe efferent vessels that bring lymph from the lymphatic organs to the nodes bringing the lymph to the right lymphatic duct or the thoracic duct, the largest lymph vessel in the body. These vessels drain into the right and left subclavian veins, respectively. There are far more afferent vessels bringing in lymph than efferent vessels taking it out to allow for lymphocytes and macrophages to fulfill their immune support functions. The lymphatic vessels contain valves.","title":"Lymphatic vessel"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"blood vessels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_vessel#Anatomy"},{"link_name":"epithelium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epithelium"},{"link_name":"endothelium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endothelium"},{"link_name":"basement membrane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basement_membrane"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pepper-2"},{"link_name":"smooth muscles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smooth_muscle"},{"link_name":"lumen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lumen_(anatomy)"},{"link_name":"adventitia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adventitia"},{"link_name":"lymph capillaries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lymph_capillaries"},{"link_name":"peristalsis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peristalsis"},{"link_name":"smooth muscle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smooth_muscle"},{"link_name":"arterial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arterial"},{"link_name":"pulsation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulse"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shayan2006-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lymph_vessel.png"}],"text":"The general structure of lymphatics is based on that of blood vessels. There is an inner lining of single flattened epithelial cells (simple squamous epithelium) composed of a type of epithelium that is called the endothelium, and the cells are called endothelial cells. This layer functions to mechanically transport fluid and since the basement membrane on which it rests is discontinuous; it leaks easily.[2] The next layer is that of smooth muscles that are arranged in a circular fashion around the endothelium, which by shortening (contracting) or relaxing alter the diameter (caliber) of the lumen. The outermost layer is the adventitia which consists of fibrous tissue. The general structure described here is seen only in larger lymphatics; smaller lymphatics have fewer layers. The smallest vessels (lymphatic or lymph capillaries) lack both the muscular layer and the outer adventitia. As they proceed forward and in their course are joined by other capillaries, they grow larger and first take on an adventitia, and then smooth muscles.The lymphatic conducting system broadly consists of two types of channels—the initial lymphatics, the prelymphatics or lymph capillaries that specialize in collection of the lymph from the interstital fluid, and the larger lymph vessels that propel the lymph forward.Unlike the cardiovascular system, the lymphatic system is not closed and has no central pump. Lymph movement occurs despite low pressure due to peristalsis (propulsion of the lymph due to alternate contraction and relaxation of smooth muscle), valves, and compression during contraction of adjacent skeletal muscle and arterial pulsation.[3]Propulsion of lymph through lymph vessel","title":"Structure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-baluk-4"},{"link_name":"protein filaments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibrous_protein"},{"link_name":"platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD31"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-baluk-4"},{"link_name":"anastomoses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anastomoses"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hollinshead-6"},{"link_name":"capillaries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capillary"},{"link_name":"edema","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edema"},{"link_name":"right lymphatic duct","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_lymphatic_duct"},{"link_name":"thoracic duct","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thoracic_duct"},{"link_name":"subclavian veins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subclavian_vein"}],"sub_title":"Lymph capillaries","text":"The lymphatic circulation begins with blind ending (closed at one end) highly permeable superficial lymph capillaries, formed by endothelial cells with button-like junctions between them that allow fluid to pass through them when the interstitial pressure is sufficiently high.[4] These button-like junctions consist of protein filaments like platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1, or PECAM-1. A valve system in place here prevents the absorbed lymph from leaking back into the interstital fluid. This valve system involves collagen fibers attached to lymphatic endothelial cells that respond to increased interstitial fluid pressure by separating the endothelial cells and allowing the flow of lymph into the capillary for circulation.[5] There is another system of semilunar valves that prevents back-flow of lymph along the lumen of the vessel.[4] Lymph capillaries have many interconnections (anastomoses) between them and form a very fine network.[6]Rhythmic contraction of the vessel walls through movements may also help draw fluid into the smallest lymphatic vessels, capillaries. If tissue fluid builds up the tissue will swell; this is called edema. As the circular path through the body's system continues, the fluid is then transported to progressively larger lymphatic vessels culminating in the right lymphatic duct (for lymph from the right upper body) and the thoracic duct (for the rest of the body); both ducts drain into the circulatory system at the right and left subclavian veins. The system collaborates with white blood cells in lymph nodes to protect the body from being infected by cancer cells, fungi, viruses or bacteria. This is known as a secondary circulatory system.","title":"Structure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shayan2006-3"},{"link_name":"afferent lymph vessel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Afferent_vessels"},{"link_name":"efferent lymph vessel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Efferent_vessels"},{"link_name":"right","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_lymph_duct"},{"link_name":"thoracic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thoracic_duct"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hollinshead-6"},{"link_name":"subclavian veins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subclavian_vein"},{"link_name":"lymphangions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lymphangion"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-venu-7"}],"sub_title":"Lymph vessels","text":"The lymph capillaries drain into larger collecting lymphatics. These are contractile lymphatics which transport lymph using a combination of smooth muscle walls, which contract to assist in transporting lymph, as well as valves to prevent the lymph from flowing backwards.[3] As the collecting lymph vessel accumulates lymph from more and more lymph capillaries along its length, it becomes larger and eventually becomes an afferent lymph vessel as it enters a lymphs node. The lymph percolates through the lymph node tissue and exits via an efferent lymph vessel. An efferent lymph vessel may directly drain into one of the (right or thoracic) lymph ducts, or may empty into another lymph node as its afferent lymph vessel.[6] Both the lymph ducts return the lymph to the blood stream by emptying into the subclavian veinsLymph vessels consist of functional units known as lymphangions which are segments separated by semilunar valves. These segments propel or resist the flow of lymph by the contraction of the encircling smooth muscle depending upon the ratio of its length to its radius.[7]","title":"Structure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lymphatic system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lymphatic_system"},{"link_name":"lymphedema","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lymphedema"}],"text":"See also: Lymphatic systemLymph vessels act as reservoirs for plasma and other substances including cells that have leaked from the vascular system and transport lymph fluid back from the tissues to the circulatory system. Without functioning lymph vessels, lymph cannot be effectively drained and lymphedema typically results.","title":"Function"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"lymph node","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lymph_node"},{"link_name":"cortical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cortex_(anatomy)"},{"link_name":"endothelial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endothelial"},{"link_name":"thymus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thymus"},{"link_name":"spleen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spleen"}],"sub_title":"Afferent vessels","text":"The afferent lymph vessels enter at all parts of the periphery of the lymph node, and after branching and forming a dense plexus in the substance of the capsule, open into the lymph sinuses of the cortical part. It carries unfiltered lymph into the node. In doing this they lose all their coats except their endothelial lining, which is continuous with a layer of similar cells lining the lymph paths.Afferent lymphatic vessels are only found in lymph nodes. This is in contrast to efferent lymphatic vessel which are also found in the thymus and spleen.","title":"Function"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"lymph sinuses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subcapsular_sinus"},{"link_name":"medullary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medulla_of_lymph_node"},{"link_name":"spleen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spleen"}],"sub_title":"Efferent vessels","text":"The efferent lymphatic vessel commences from the lymph sinuses of the medullary portion of the lymph nodes and leave the lymph nodes at the hilum, either to veins or greater nodes. It carries filtered lymph out of the node.Efferent lymphatic vessels are also found in association with the thymus and spleen. This is in contrast to afferent lymphatic vessels, which are found only in association with lymph nodes.","title":"Function"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lymphedema","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lymphedema"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid22064427-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-issn-9"},{"link_name":"Lymphangiomatosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lymphangiomatosis"}],"text":"Lymphedema is the swelling of tissues due to insufficient fluid drainage by the lymphatic vessels. It can be the result from absent, underdeveloped or dysfunctional lymphatic vessels. In hereditary (or primary) lymphedema, the lymphatic vessels are absent, underdeveloped or dysfunctional due to genetic causes. In acquired (or secondary) lymphedema, the lymphatic vessels are damaged by injury or infection.[8][9] Lymphangiomatosis is a disease involving multiple cysts or lesions formed from lymphatic vessels.","title":"Clinical significance"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Illu_lymphatic_system.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gray1093.png"}],"text":"Lymphatic system\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSection across portal canal of pig. X 250.","title":"Additional images"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"Role of Lymphatic Vessels\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20160324124828/http://humanphysiology.tuars.com/program/section3/3ch9/s3ch9_5.htm"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//humanphysiology.tuars.com/program/section3/3ch9/s3ch9_5.htm"}],"text":"Nosek TM. \"Role of Lymphatic Vessels\". Essentials of Human Physiology. Archived from the original on 2016-03-24.","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"A still image from a 3D medical animation showing afferent vessels","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/3D_Medical_Animation_of_Afferent_Vessel.jpg/263px-3D_Medical_Animation_of_Afferent_Vessel.jpg"},{"image_text":"Propulsion of lymph through lymph vessel","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Lymph_vessel.png/200px-Lymph_vessel.png"}]
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[{"title":"Lacteal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lacteal"},{"title":"Meningeal lymphatic vessels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meningeal_lymphatic_vessels"}]
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[{"reference":"\"19.2B: Distribution of Lymphatic Vessels\". Medicine LibreTexts. 22 July 2018. Retrieved 28 November 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Anatomy_and_Physiology/Book%3A_Anatomy_and_Physiology_(Boundless)/19%3A_Lymphatic_System/19.2%3A_Lymphatic_Vessels/19.2B%3A_Distribution_of_Lymphatic_Vessels","url_text":"\"19.2B: Distribution of Lymphatic Vessels\""}]},{"reference":"Pepper MS, Skobe M (October 2003). \"Lymphatic endothelium: morphological, molecular and functional properties\". The Journal of Cell Biology. 163 (2): 209–13. doi:10.1083/jcb.200308082. PMC 2173536. PMID 14581448.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2173536","url_text":"\"Lymphatic endothelium: morphological, molecular and functional properties\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1083%2Fjcb.200308082","url_text":"10.1083/jcb.200308082"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2173536","url_text":"2173536"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14581448","url_text":"14581448"}]},{"reference":"Shayan R, Achen MG, Stacker SA (September 2006). \"Lymphatic vessels in cancer metastasis: bridging the gaps\". Carcinogenesis. 27 (9): 1729–38. doi:10.1093/carcin/bgl031. PMID 16597644.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fcarcin%2Fbgl031","url_text":"\"Lymphatic vessels in cancer metastasis: bridging the gaps\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fcarcin%2Fbgl031","url_text":"10.1093/carcin/bgl031"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16597644","url_text":"16597644"}]},{"reference":"Baluk P, Fuxe J, Hashizume H, Romano T, Lashnits E, Butz S, et al. (October 2007). \"Functionally specialized junctions between endothelial cells of lymphatic vessels\". The Journal of Experimental Medicine. 204 (10): 2349–62. doi:10.1084/jem.20062596. PMC 2118470. PMID 17846148.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2118470","url_text":"\"Functionally specialized junctions between endothelial cells of lymphatic vessels\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1084%2Fjem.20062596","url_text":"10.1084/jem.20062596"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2118470","url_text":"2118470"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17846148","url_text":"17846148"}]},{"reference":"Weitman E, Cuzzone D, Mehrara BJ (September 2013). \"Tissue engineering and regeneration of lymphatic structures\". Future Oncology. 9 (9): 1365–74. doi:10.2217/fon.13.110. PMC 4095806. PMID 23980683.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4095806","url_text":"\"Tissue engineering and regeneration of lymphatic structures\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2217%2Ffon.13.110","url_text":"10.2217/fon.13.110"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4095806","url_text":"4095806"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23980683","url_text":"23980683"}]},{"reference":"Rosse C, Gaddum-Rosse P (1997). \"The Cardiovascular System (Chapter 8)\". Hollinshead's Textbook of Anatomy (Fifth ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven. pp. 72–73. ISBN 0-397-51256-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-397-51256-2","url_text":"0-397-51256-2"}]},{"reference":"Venugopal AM, Stewart RH, Rajagopalan S, Laine GA, Quick CM (2004). \"Optimal Lymphatic Vessel Structure\". The 26th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. 26th Annual International Conference of the IEEE. Vol. 2. Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. pp. 3700–3703. doi:10.1109/IEMBS.2004.1404039. ISBN 0-7803-8439-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1404039","url_text":"\"Optimal Lymphatic Vessel Structure\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FIEMBS.2004.1404039","url_text":"10.1109/IEMBS.2004.1404039"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7803-8439-3","url_text":"0-7803-8439-3"}]},{"reference":"Alitalo K (November 2011). \"The lymphatic vasculature in disease\". Nature Medicine. 17 (11): 1371–80. doi:10.1038/nm.2545. PMID 22064427. S2CID 5899689.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnm.2545","url_text":"10.1038/nm.2545"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22064427","url_text":"22064427"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5899689","url_text":"5899689"}]},{"reference":"Krebs R, Jeltsch M (2013). \"The lymphangiogenic growth factors VEGF-C and VEGF-D. Part 2: The role of VEGF-C and VEGF-D in lymphatic system diseases\". Lymphologie in Forschung und Praxis. 17 (2): 96–104.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275031534","url_text":"\"The lymphangiogenic growth factors VEGF-C and VEGF-D. Part 2: The role of VEGF-C and VEGF-D in lymphatic system diseases\""}]},{"reference":"Nosek TM. \"Role of Lymphatic Vessels\". Essentials of Human Physiology. Archived from the original on 2016-03-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160324124828/http://humanphysiology.tuars.com/program/section3/3ch9/s3ch9_5.htm","url_text":"\"Role of Lymphatic Vessels\""},{"url":"http://humanphysiology.tuars.com/program/section3/3ch9/s3ch9_5.htm","url_text":"the original"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sh%C5%ABgi-bukuro
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Shūgi-bukuro
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["1 Amount given","2 See also","3 Notes","4 References"]
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Japanese special envelope containing money
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An example of a shūgi-bukuro.
A shūgi-bukuro (祝儀袋, lit. 'celebratory gift bag') is a special envelope in which money is given as a gift of celebration in Japan, especially at weddings or other auspicious occasions, such as a birth or celebrating a new home. The giver inserts the money into a shūgi-bukuro on which they have written their name, and the amount of money inside. In the case of weddings, the shūgi-bukuro is handed to the receptionist of the reception party; otherwise, the money is collected by the person themselves, with the envelopes acting as a record of who gave money and how much they gave. Shūgi-bukuro are sold at supermarkets and stationery stores.
Shūgi-bukuro are a category of kinpū (金封, envelope of money), the general term for an envelope of money given on a special occasion. They are distinct from the category of envelopes of money given for funerals, known as fushūgibukuro or kōdenbukuro. Shūgi-bukuro were traditionally hand-made by the person giving the money, a practice that has now largely fallen out of fashion. The envelopes are typically decorated with mizuhiki cord, with the colour of the cord having significance for the occasion, or, in the case of a funeral, the religious denomination of the giver.
Amount given
The amount given in shūgi-bukuro differs according to the givers' relationship to the couple, their social status and the style of venue. In the case of friends or company colleagues, the amount given is usually between ¥20,000 and ¥30,000. In the case of close friends or those in a senior position at the bride or bridegroom's company, ¥30,000 to ¥50,000 is common, and in the case of relatives, ¥50,000 to ¥100,000 is not unusual.
For married couples that attend the wedding, ¥50,000 would be common, as opposed to unmarried couples, where each person would give a separate amount of roughly ¥30,000 each.
It is common to give amounts in which the leading digits form an odd number, such as ¥10,000 or ¥30,000, in order to symbolize the fact that the newly married couple cannot be divided. When the leading digit forms an even number, as in ¥20,000, the amount is usually given in an odd number of bills (e.g. 1 × ¥10,000 and 2 × ¥5,000). Amounts in which the leading digit forms a multiple of 4, such as ¥40,000, are not typically used, as the number 4 in Japanese can be pronounced as shi, the same as the pronunciation of the Japanese word for "death". Likewise, multiples of 9 are avoided, as the pronunciation of this number - ku - is identical to the word for "suffering".
See also
Washi, Japanese paper, used to make shūgi-bukuro
Mizuhiki, decorative cords wrapped around shūgi-bukuro
Otoshidama, a traditional Japanese New Year's gift
Kōden-bukuro, envelope for condolence money offered at Japanese funerals
Red envelope, or Hóngbāo, the Chinese equivalent.
Origami
Origata
Noshi
Notes
^ Within the category of envelopes of money given for auspicious occasions, envelopes of money given for celebrating a new home are known as shinchiku iwai, and envelopes of money given for a new baby are known as shussan iwai.
References
^ a b c d Gordenker, Alice (2011-06-21). "Kinpū". The Japan Times. Retrieved 2020-03-25.
^ "Shugi bukuro Envelopes". traditionalkyoto.com. Traditional Kyoto. Archived from the original on 29 August 2021. Retrieved 29 August 2021.
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shugibukuro-example-japan-feb9-2018.jpg"},{"link_name":"money","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money"},{"link_name":"weddings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marriage_in_Japan"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gordenker2011-1"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"reception party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedding_reception"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gordenker2011-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gordenker2011-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gordenker2011-1"},{"link_name":"mizuhiki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mizuhiki"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"An example of a shūgi-bukuro.A shūgi-bukuro (祝儀袋, lit. 'celebratory gift bag') is a special envelope in which money is given as a gift of celebration in Japan, especially at weddings or other auspicious occasions, such as a birth or celebrating a new home.[1][a] The giver inserts the money into a shūgi-bukuro on which they have written their name, and the amount of money inside. In the case of weddings, the shūgi-bukuro is handed to the receptionist of the reception party; otherwise, the money is collected by the person themselves, with the envelopes acting as a record of who gave money and how much they gave.[1] Shūgi-bukuro are sold at supermarkets and stationery stores.Shūgi-bukuro are a category of kinpū (金封, envelope of money), the general term for an envelope of money given on a special occasion.[1] They are distinct from the category of envelopes of money given for funerals, known as fushūgibukuro or kōdenbukuro. Shūgi-bukuro were traditionally hand-made by the person giving the money, a practice that has now largely fallen out of fashion.[1] The envelopes are typically decorated with mizuhiki cord, with the colour of the cord having significance for the occasion, or, in the case of a funeral, the religious denomination of the giver.[2]","title":"Shūgi-bukuro"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"odd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parity_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_language"},{"link_name":"shi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shi_(kana)"},{"link_name":"death","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_superstitions#Numbers"},{"link_name":"ku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ku_(kana)"}],"text":"The amount given in shūgi-bukuro differs according to the givers' relationship to the couple, their social status and the style of venue. In the case of friends or company colleagues, the amount given is usually between ¥20,000 and ¥30,000. In the case of close friends or those in a senior position at the bride or bridegroom's company, ¥30,000 to ¥50,000 is common, and in the case of relatives, ¥50,000 to ¥100,000 is not unusual.For married couples that attend the wedding, ¥50,000 would be common, as opposed to unmarried couples, where each person would give a separate amount of roughly ¥30,000 each.[citation needed]It is common to give amounts in which the leading digits form an odd number, such as ¥10,000 or ¥30,000, in order to symbolize the fact that the newly married couple cannot be divided. When the leading digit forms an even number, as in ¥20,000, the amount is usually given in an odd number of bills (e.g. 1 × ¥10,000 and 2 × ¥5,000). Amounts in which the leading digit forms a multiple of 4, such as ¥40,000, are not typically used, as the number 4 in Japanese can be pronounced as shi, the same as the pronunciation of the Japanese word for \"death\". Likewise, multiples of 9 are avoided, as the pronunciation of this number - ku - is identical to the word for \"suffering\".","title":"Amount given"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"}],"text":"^ Within the category of envelopes of money given for auspicious occasions, envelopes of money given for celebrating a new home are known as shinchiku iwai, and envelopes of money given for a new baby are known as shussan iwai.","title":"Notes"}]
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[{"image_text":"An example of a shūgi-bukuro.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Shugibukuro-example-japan-feb9-2018.jpg/220px-Shugibukuro-example-japan-feb9-2018.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Washi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washi"},{"title":"Mizuhiki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mizuhiki"},{"title":"Otoshidama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_New_Year#Otoshidama"},{"title":"Kōden-bukuro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etiquette_in_Japan#Funerals"},{"title":"Red envelope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_envelope"},{"title":"Origami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origami"},{"title":"Origata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Origata&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"title":"Noshi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noshi"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1960_Open_Championship
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1960 Open Championship
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["1 Card of the course","2 Round summaries","2.1 First round","2.2 Second round","2.3 Third round","2.4 Final round","3 References","4 External links"]
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Coordinates: 56°20′35″N 2°48′11″W / 56.343°N 2.803°W / 56.343; -2.803
Golf tournament1960 Open ChampionshipFront cover of the 1960 Open programmeTournament informationDates6–9 July 1960LocationSt Andrews, ScotlandCourse(s)Old Course at St AndrewsOrganized byThe R&AStatisticsPar72Length6,936 yards (6,342 m)Field74 players, 47 after cutCut149 (+5)Prize fund£7,000$19,600Winner's share£1,250$3,500Champion Kel Nagle278 (−10)← 19591961 →
St Andrews class=notpageimage| Location in Scotland
St Andrews class=notpageimage| Location in Fife, Scotland
The 1960 Open Championship was the 89th Open Championship, played 6–9 July at the Old Course in St Andrews, Scotland. In the centenary year of the Open Championship, Kel Nagle prevailed over Arnold Palmer by a single stroke; this year marked the championship's re-emergence as a major stop for American players.
The total prize money was increased by forty per cent, from £5,000 to £7,000. The winner's share was increased to £1,250 with £900 for second, £700 for third, £500 for fourth, £400 for fifth, £300 for sixth, £250 for seventh, £200 for eighth, £150 for ninth, and £130 for tenth. The next fifteen places each received £60 with £50 for next seven and then £40 for the next eighteen. The £50 prize for winning the qualification event was unchanged while the four prizes for the lowest score in each round were increased to £50. For the centenary event there was a special prize for the winner in the form of a replica of the claret jug.
Qualifying took place on 4–5 July, Monday and Tuesday, with 18 holes on the Old Course and 18 holes on the New Course. A maximum of 100 players could qualify. Gary Player led the qualifiers as medalist at 135, and the qualifying score was 147 and 74 players qualified; 28 players on 148 were not included. Dick Metz, who had won the World Senior Golf Championship at Gleneagles on 3 July, was one of those on 148 who just failed to qualify.
Roberto De Vicenzo opened the tournament proper with consecutive rounds of 67 on Wednesday and Thursday to take a two-stroke lead over Nagle. In the third round, De Vicenzo's drive on the 14th ended up on top of a wall and he finished the round with a score of 75, allowing Nagle to take a two-shot lead. Palmer, who had won the U.S. Open three weeks earlier by erasing a seven-shot deficit in the final round, was four back after 54-holes. The final round on Friday afternoon was delayed until Saturday due to a heavy rainfall that flooded portions of the course; the first postponement in over fifty years. When play resumed the next day, Palmer and Nagle both went out in 34. Still four-strokes behind, Palmer began another charge on the back. He made up strokes on the 13th and 15th, made a 4 on the 17th, then made birdie at the last. Nagle was standing over a crucial par putt on the Road Hole 17th when he heard the roar signifying Palmer's birdie at 18. He managed to collect himself and hole the putt, then made a safe 4 at the last to win the title by a single shot over Palmer.
Already 39 at the time of his victory, this was Nagle's first top ten finish in a major championship. Although little-known outside of Australia at the time of the tournament, he went on to have success throughout the next decade and came close to winning another major at the 1965 U.S. Open, losing to Gary Player in an 18-hole playoff.
Palmer had won the first two majors at the Masters and U.S. Open, and was attempting to equal Ben Hogan's 1953 season with a third consecutive major. His appearance established the British Open as an important tournament for American golfers and, although Palmer himself skipped the tournament a few times afterward, the best American players began crossing the Atlantic with regularity from then on. Palmer won the next two Opens in 1961 and 1962.
The appearance of Palmer, already the most popular golfer in the world, proved to be a turning point for the Open Championship. Until the 1960s, few Americans made the trip to the Open Championship, with the lengthy ocean-voyage and high costs of traveling to Britain often more than they stood to win in the tournament. Even Palmer, winner of the first two majors of the year, had to play in the 36-hole qualifier immediately preceding it. The 1960 event included only four Americans following the qualifier, and only two made the cut. Ten years later, 24 Americans were in the field of 134. For many years, the event often conflicted with the PGA Championship in the U.S., a more lucrative major which gradually moved to late July and then August.
Card of the course
Hole
Name
Yards
Par
Hole
Name
Yards
Par
1
Burn
374
4
10
Tenth ^
338
4
2
Dyke
411
4
11
High (In)
170
3
3
Cartgate (Out)
400
4
12
Heathery (In)
360
4
4
Ginger Beer
439
4
13
Hole O'Cross (In)
427
4
5
Hole O'Cross (Out)
567
5
14
Long
560
5
6
Heathery (Out)
377
4
15
Cartgate (In)
413
4
7
High (Out)
364
4
16
Corner of the Dyke
380
4
8
Short
163
3
17
Road
453
4
9
End
359
4
18
Tom Morris
381
4
Out
3,454
36
In
3,482
36
Source:
Total
6,936
72
^ The 10th hole was posthumously named for Bobby Jones in 1972
Round summaries
First round
Wednesday, 6 July 1960
Place
Player
Score
To par
1
Roberto De Vicenzo
67
−5
T2
Fidel de Luca
69
−3
Kel Nagle
T4
David Blair (a)
70
−2
Ken Bousfield
Arnold Palmer
Peter Shanks
8
Peter Mills
71
−1
T9
Joe Carr (a)
72
E
José María Gonzáles
Harold Henning
Bernard Hunt
George Low
Jimmy Martin
Ángel Miguel
Ralph Moffitt
Raymond Munro (a)
Gary Player
Leopoldo Ruiz
Peter Thomson
Source:
Second round
Thursday, 7 July 1960
A maximum of fifty players could make the cut. The 47 who scored 149 (+5) or better qualified for the final day; eight players scoring 150 (+6) were not included.
Place
Player
Score
To par
1
Roberto De Vicenzo
67-67=134
−10
2
Kel Nagle
69-67=136
−8
T3
Sebastián Miguel
73-68=141
−3
Arnold Palmer
70-71=141
Peter Thomson
72-69=141
T6
Laurie Ayton, Jnr
73-69=142
−2
Fidel de Luca
69-73=142
T8
David Blair (a)
70-73=143
−1
Eric Brown
75-68=143
Ralph Moffitt
72-71=143
Gary Player
72-71=143
Peter Shanks
70-73=143
Source:
Amateurs: Blair (−1), Wolstenholme (E), Deighton (E), Carr (+1), Jack (+1), Smith (+1),Deboys (+2), Munro (+5), Shade (+5), Walker (+6), Wright (+6), Saddler (+7), Nisbet (+9).
Third round
Friday, 8 July 1960 - (morning)
Place
Player
Score
To par
1
Kel Nagle
69-67-71=207
−9
2
Roberto De Vicenzo
67-67-75=209
−7
T3
Arnold Palmer
70-71-70=211
−5
Syd Scott
73-71-67=211
5
Joe Carr (a)
72-73-67=212
−4
6
Harold Henning
72-72-69=213
−3
7
David Blair (a)
70-73-71=214
−2
T8
Eric Brown
75-68-72=215
−1
Reid Jack (a)
74-71-70=215
Sebastián Miguel
73-68-74=215
Peter Mills
71-74-70=215
Gary Player
72-71-72=215
Harry Weetman
74-70-71=215
Guy Wolstenholme (a)
74-70-71=215
Source:
Final round
Saturday, 9 July 1960
Place
Player
Score
To Par
Money (£)
1
Kel Nagle
69-67-71-71=278
−10
1,250
2
Arnold Palmer
70-71-70-68=279
−9
900
T3
Roberto De Vicenzo
67-67-75-73=282
−6
533
Harold Henning
72-72-69-69=282
Bernard Hunt
72-73-71-66=282
6
Guy Wolstenholme (a)
74-70-71-68=283
−5
−
7
Gary Player
72-71-72-69=284
−4
300
8
Joe Carr (a)
72-73-67-73=285
−3
−
T9
David Blair (a)
70-73-71-72=286
−2
−
Eric Brown
75-68-72-71=286
158
Dai Rees
73-71-73-69=286
Syd Scott
73-71-67-75=286
Peter Thomson
72-69-75-70=286
Harry Weetman
74-70-71-71=286
Source:
(a) denotes amateur
Amateurs: Wolstenholme (−5), Carr (−3), Blair (−2), Jack (E), Deboys (+2), Smith (+9), Shade (+11), Deighton (+14), Munro (+20)
References
^ "Media guide". The Open Championship. 2011. pp. 76, 203–8. Archived from the original on 18 April 2012. Retrieved 13 May 2017.
^ a b Horne, Cyril (11 July 1960). "Nagle Centenary Open champion". Glasgow Herald. p. 3.
^ a b Bartlett, Charles (10 July 1960). "Palmer misses British title by stroke". Chicago Sunday Tribune. p. 1, sec. 2.
^ "Golf - Centenary Open Championship - Prize money increased". The Times. 4 December 1959. p. 12.
^ "The Centenary Open Golf Championship, 1960 – Qualifying Rounds – Official Programme".
^ "Sarazen, Palmer qualify". Milwaukee Sentinel. Associated Press. 6 July 1960. p. 3, part 2.
^ a b Horne, Cyril (6 July 1960). "Many famous names among non-qualifiers". Glasgow Herald. p. 11.
^ a b "Arnold Palmer posts 142 in British qualifying play". Youngstown Vindicator. (Ohio). UPI. 5 July 1960. p. 12.
^ a b "Arnie balloons to 75 but qualifies easily". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Associated Press. 6 July 1960. p. 17.
^ "Metz the World Senior Champion". The Times. 4 July 1960. p. 15.
^ a b Horne, Cyril (8 July 1960). "Great inward half keeps Vicenzo in lead". Glasgow Herald. p. 13.
^ a b Horne, Cyril (9 July 1960). "Play halted at St Andrews". Glasgow Herald. p. 1.
^ a b "Palmer (70) four behind". Milwaukee Sentinel. Associated Press. 9 July 1960. p. 3, part 2.
^ "Palmer's 2-birdie finish just short". Milwaukee Sentinel. United Press. 10 July 1960. p. 1, sports.
^ Wind, Herbert Warren (18 July 1960). "The slam that failed". Sports Illustrated. p. 18.
^ a b Horne, Cyril (7 July 1960). "Vicenzo leads after first round proper". Glasgow Herald. p. 10.
External links
St Andrews 1960 (Official site)
vte1960 Men's major golf championships
The Masters
U.S. Open
The Open Championship
PGA Championship
vteThe Open Championship
Venues
Champions
Qualifying/Format
Challenge Belt
Claret Jug
Broadcasters
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56°20′35″N 2°48′11″W / 56.343°N 2.803°W / 56.343; -2.803
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scotland_relief_location_map.jpg"},{"link_name":"class=notpageimage|","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scotland_relief_location_map.jpg"},{"link_name":"Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fife_UK_location_map.svg"},{"link_name":"class=notpageimage|","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fife_UK_location_map.svg"},{"link_name":"Fife","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fife"},{"link_name":"Open Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Championship"},{"link_name":"Old Course","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Course_at_St_Andrews"},{"link_name":"St Andrews, Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Andrews"},{"link_name":"Kel Nagle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kel_Nagle"},{"link_name":"Arnold Palmer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnold_Palmer"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cochng-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cstmbtbs-3"},{"link_name":"£","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pound_sterling"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Gary Player","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary_Player"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60broq2-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cftco-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-appqpl-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-abtsf-9"},{"link_name":"Dick Metz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dick_Metz"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Roberto De Vicenzo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roberto_De_Vicenzo"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-grtinh-11"},{"link_name":"U.S. Open","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1960_U.S._Open_(golf)"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-phasta-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ms60brord3-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ms60brord4-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"1965 U.S. Open","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1965_U.S._Open_(golf)"},{"link_name":"Gary Player","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary_Player"},{"link_name":"Masters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1960_Masters_Tournament"},{"link_name":"U.S. Open","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1960_U.S._Open_(golf)"},{"link_name":"Ben Hogan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Hogan"},{"link_name":"1961","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1961_Open_Championship"},{"link_name":"1962","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1962_Open_Championship"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-appqpl-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-abtsf-9"},{"link_name":"PGA Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PGA_Championship"}],"text":"Golf tournamentSt Andrews class=notpageimage| Location in ScotlandSt Andrews class=notpageimage| Location in Fife, ScotlandThe 1960 Open Championship was the 89th Open Championship, played 6–9 July at the Old Course in St Andrews, Scotland. In the centenary year of the Open Championship, Kel Nagle prevailed over Arnold Palmer by a single stroke;[2][3] this year marked the championship's re-emergence as a major stop for American players.The total prize money was increased by forty per cent, from £5,000 to £7,000. The winner's share was increased to £1,250 with £900 for second, £700 for third, £500 for fourth, £400 for fifth, £300 for sixth, £250 for seventh, £200 for eighth, £150 for ninth, and £130 for tenth. The next fifteen places each received £60 with £50 for next seven and then £40 for the next eighteen. The £50 prize for winning the qualification event was unchanged while the four prizes for the lowest score in each round were increased to £50. For the centenary event there was a special prize for the winner in the form of a replica of the claret jug.[4]Qualifying took place on 4–5 July, Monday and Tuesday, with 18 holes on the Old Course and 18 holes on the New Course.[5] A maximum of 100 players could qualify. Gary Player led the qualifiers as medalist at 135, and the qualifying score was 147 and 74 players qualified; 28 players on 148 were not included.[6][7][8][9] Dick Metz, who had won the World Senior Golf Championship at Gleneagles on 3 July, was one of those on 148 who just failed to qualify.[10]Roberto De Vicenzo opened the tournament proper with consecutive rounds of 67 on Wednesday and Thursday to take a two-stroke lead over Nagle.[11] In the third round, De Vicenzo's drive on the 14th ended up on top of a wall and he finished the round with a score of 75, allowing Nagle to take a two-shot lead. Palmer, who had won the U.S. Open three weeks earlier by erasing a seven-shot deficit in the final round, was four back after 54-holes. The final round on Friday afternoon was delayed until Saturday due to a heavy rainfall that flooded portions of the course;[12][13] the first postponement in over fifty years.[14] When play resumed the next day, Palmer and Nagle both went out in 34. Still four-strokes behind, Palmer began another charge on the back. He made up strokes on the 13th and 15th, made a 4 on the 17th, then made birdie at the last. Nagle was standing over a crucial par putt on the Road Hole 17th when he heard the roar signifying Palmer's birdie at 18. He managed to collect himself and hole the putt, then made a safe 4 at the last to win the title by a single shot over Palmer.[15]Already 39 at the time of his victory, this was Nagle's first top ten finish in a major championship. Although little-known outside of Australia at the time of the tournament, he went on to have success throughout the next decade and came close to winning another major at the 1965 U.S. Open, losing to Gary Player in an 18-hole playoff.Palmer had won the first two majors at the Masters and U.S. Open, and was attempting to equal Ben Hogan's 1953 season with a third consecutive major. His appearance established the British Open as an important tournament for American golfers and, although Palmer himself skipped the tournament a few times afterward, the best American players began crossing the Atlantic with regularity from then on. Palmer won the next two Opens in 1961 and 1962.The appearance of Palmer, already the most popular golfer in the world, proved to be a turning point for the Open Championship. Until the 1960s, few Americans made the trip to the Open Championship, with the lengthy ocean-voyage and high costs of traveling to Britain often more than they stood to win in the tournament. Even Palmer, winner of the first two majors of the year, had to play in the 36-hole qualifier immediately preceding it.[8][9] The 1960 event included only four Americans following the qualifier, and only two made the cut. Ten years later, 24 Americans were in the field of 134. For many years, the event often conflicted with the PGA Championship in the U.S., a more lucrative major which gradually moved to late July and then August.","title":"1960 Open Championship"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bobby Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobby_Jones_(golfer)"}],"text":"^ The 10th hole was posthumously named for Bobby Jones in 1972","title":"Card of the course"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Round summaries"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vlafrp-16"}],"sub_title":"First round","text":"Wednesday, 6 July 1960Source:[16]","title":"Round summaries"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-grtinh-11"},{"link_name":"Wolstenholme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guy_Wolstenholme"},{"link_name":"Deighton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Deighton"},{"link_name":"Carr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Carr"},{"link_name":"Shade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronnie_Shade"}],"sub_title":"Second round","text":"Thursday, 7 July 1960A maximum of fifty players could make the cut. The 47 who scored 149 (+5) or better qualified for the final day; eight players scoring 150 (+6) were not included.Source:[11]\nAmateurs: Blair (−1), Wolstenholme (E), Deighton (E), Carr (+1), Jack (+1), Smith (+1),Deboys (+2), Munro (+5), Shade (+5), Walker (+6), Wright (+6), Saddler (+7), Nisbet (+9).","title":"Round summaries"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ms60brord3-13"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-phasta-12"}],"sub_title":"Third round","text":"Friday, 8 July 1960 - (morning)Source:[13][12]","title":"Round summaries"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cochng-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cstmbtbs-3"},{"link_name":"amateur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur"},{"link_name":"Deighton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Deighton"}],"sub_title":"Final round","text":"Saturday, 9 July 1960Source:[2][3](a) denotes amateurAmateurs: Wolstenholme (−5), Carr (−3), Blair (−2), Jack (E), Deboys (+2), Smith (+9), Shade (+11), Deighton (+14), Munro (+20)","title":"Round summaries"}]
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[]
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[{"reference":"\"Media guide\". The Open Championship. 2011. pp. 76, 203–8. Archived from the original on 18 April 2012. Retrieved 13 May 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120418224641/http://www.theopen.com/~/media/The%20Open/Information/Media_Guide.ashx","url_text":"\"Media guide\""},{"url":"http://www.theopen.com/~/media/The%20Open/Information/Media_Guide.ashx","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Horne, Cyril (11 July 1960). \"Nagle Centenary Open champion\". Glasgow Herald. p. 3.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=U4RAAAAAIBAJ&sjid=qZsMAAAAIBAJ&pg=1930%2C1606964","url_text":"\"Nagle Centenary Open champion\""}]},{"reference":"Bartlett, Charles (10 July 1960). \"Palmer misses British title by stroke\". Chicago Sunday Tribune. p. 1, sec. 2.","urls":[{"url":"http://archives.chicagotribune.com/1960/07/10/page/39/article/palmer-misses-british-title-by-stroke","url_text":"\"Palmer misses British title by stroke\""}]},{"reference":"\"Golf - Centenary Open Championship - Prize money increased\". The Times. 4 December 1959. p. 12.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"The Centenary Open Golf Championship, 1960 – Qualifying Rounds – Official Programme\".","urls":[{"url":"https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B8-5GSbMME56N1BEbjJ0eHJxdlRWNjFMcXFDbmJkY1RqZ2VZ/view?usp=drivesdk","url_text":"\"The Centenary Open Golf Championship, 1960 – Qualifying Rounds – Official Programme\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sarazen, Palmer qualify\". Milwaukee Sentinel. Associated Press. 6 July 1960. p. 3, part 2.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Z14xAAAAIBAJ&sjid=eg8EAAAAIBAJ&pg=4847%2C2778345","url_text":"\"Sarazen, Palmer qualify\""}]},{"reference":"Horne, Cyril (6 July 1960). \"Many famous names among non-qualifiers\". Glasgow Herald. p. 11.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=T4RAAAAAIBAJ&sjid=qZsMAAAAIBAJ&pg=2157%2C819361","url_text":"\"Many famous names among non-qualifiers\""}]},{"reference":"\"Arnold Palmer posts 142 in British qualifying play\". Youngstown Vindicator. (Ohio). UPI. 5 July 1960. p. 12.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=FSVKAAAAIBAJ&sjid=i4UMAAAAIBAJ&pg=3370%2C1038240","url_text":"\"Arnold Palmer posts 142 in British qualifying play\""}]},{"reference":"\"Arnie balloons to 75 but qualifies easily\". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Associated Press. 6 July 1960. p. 17.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=kclaAAAAIBAJ&sjid=PWwDAAAAIBAJ&pg=7146%2C1294689","url_text":"\"Arnie balloons to 75 but qualifies easily\""}]},{"reference":"\"Metz the World Senior Champion\". The Times. 4 July 1960. p. 15.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Horne, Cyril (8 July 1960). \"Great inward half keeps Vicenzo in lead\". Glasgow Herald. p. 13.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=UYRAAAAAIBAJ&sjid=qZsMAAAAIBAJ&pg=1746%2C1352898","url_text":"\"Great inward half keeps Vicenzo in lead\""}]},{"reference":"Horne, Cyril (9 July 1960). \"Play halted at St Andrews\". Glasgow Herald. p. 1.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=UoRAAAAAIBAJ&sjid=qZsMAAAAIBAJ&pg=1783%2C1423250","url_text":"\"Play halted at St Andrews\""}]},{"reference":"\"Palmer (70) four behind\". Milwaukee Sentinel. Associated Press. 9 July 1960. p. 3, part 2.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=al4xAAAAIBAJ&sjid=eg8EAAAAIBAJ&pg=6572%2C4450547","url_text":"\"Palmer (70) four behind\""}]},{"reference":"\"Palmer's 2-birdie finish just short\". Milwaukee Sentinel. United Press. 10 July 1960. p. 1, sports.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=a14xAAAAIBAJ&sjid=eg8EAAAAIBAJ&pg=3949%2C4627087","url_text":"\"Palmer's 2-birdie finish just short\""}]},{"reference":"Wind, Herbert Warren (18 July 1960). \"The slam that failed\". Sports Illustrated. p. 18.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Warren_Wind","url_text":"Wind, Herbert Warren"},{"url":"https://www.si.com/vault/1960/07/18/587409/contents","url_text":"\"The slam that failed\""}]},{"reference":"Horne, Cyril (7 July 1960). \"Vicenzo leads after first round proper\". Glasgow Herald. p. 10.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=UIRAAAAAIBAJ&sjid=qZsMAAAAIBAJ&pg=1814%2C1155456","url_text":"\"Vicenzo leads after first round proper\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_cryptography
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Magic (cryptography)
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["1 Codebreaking","1.1 RED","1.2 BLUE","1.3 PURPLE","2 PURPLE traffic","3 Distribution prior to Pearl Harbor","4 Dewey and Marshall","5 Post-war debates","6 History","7 Decryption process","8 Executive Order 9066","8.1 Tokyo to Washington","8.2 Japanese U.S. consulates to Tokyo","8.3 Access by Roosevelt's cabinet","8.4 Opposing viewpoint","9 Other Japanese ciphers","10 Other claimed breaks into PURPLE","11 How secret was Magic?","12 Fiction","13 See also","14 Footnotes","15 Sources","16 Further reading"]
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Magic" cryptography – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (November 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Allied cryptanalysis project during World War II
Magic was an Allied cryptanalysis project during World War II. It involved the United States Army's Signals Intelligence Service (SIS) and the United States Navy's Communication Special Unit.
Codebreaking
Magic was set up to combine the US government's cryptologic capabilities in one organization dubbed the Research Bureau. Intelligence officers from the Army and Navy (and later civilian experts and technicians) were all under one roof. Although they worked on a series of codes and cyphers, their most important successes involved RED, BLUE, and PURPLE.
RED
In 1923, a US Navy officer acquired a stolen copy of the Secret Operating Code codebook used by the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War I. Photographs of the codebook were given to the cryptanalysts at the Research Desk and the processed code was kept in red-colored folders (to indicate its Top Secret classification). This code was called "RED".
BLUE
In 1930, the Japanese government created a more complex code that was codenamed BLUE, although RED was still being used for low-level communications. It was quickly broken by the Research Desk no later than 1932. US Military Intelligence COMINT listening stations began monitoring command-to-fleet, ship-to-ship, and land-based communications.
PURPLE
Main article: Purple code
After Japan's ally Germany declared war in the fall of 1939, the German government began sending technical assistance to upgrade their communications and cryptography capabilities. One part was to send them modified Enigma machines to secure Japan's high-level communications with Germany. The new code, codenamed PURPLE (from the color obtained by mixing red and blue), was baffling.
PURPLE, like Enigma, began its communications with the same line of code but then became an unfathomable jumble. Codebreakers tried to break PURPLE communiques by hand but found they could not. Then the codebreakers realized that it was not a manual additive or substitution code like RED and BLUE, but a machine-generated code similar to Germany's Enigma cipher. Decoding was slow and much of the traffic was still hard to break. By the time the traffic was decoded and translated, the contents were often out of date.
A reverse-engineered machine created in 1939 by a team of technicians led by William Friedman and Frank Rowlett could decrypt some of the PURPLE code by replicating some of the settings of the Japanese Enigma machines. This accelerated decoding and the addition of more translators on staff in 1942 made it easier and quicker to decipher the traffic intercepted.
PURPLE traffic
The Japanese Foreign Office used a cipher machine to encrypt its diplomatic messages. The machine was called "PURPLE" by U.S. cryptographers. A message was typed into the machine, which enciphered and sent it to an identical machine. The receiving machine could decipher the message only if set to the correct settings, or keys. American cryptographers built a machine that could decrypt these messages.
The PURPLE machine itself was first used by Japan in 1940. U.S. and British cryptographers had broken some PURPLE traffic well before the attack on Pearl Harbor. However, the PURPLE machines were used only by the Foreign Office to carry diplomatic traffic to its embassies. The Japanese Navy used a completely different crypto-system, known as JN-25.
U.S. analysts discovered no hint in PURPLE of the impending Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. Nor could they, as the Japanese were very careful not to discuss their plan in Foreign Office communications. No detailed information about the planned attack was even available to the Japanese Foreign Office, as that agency was regarded by the military, particularly its more nationalist members, as insufficiently "reliable".
U.S. access to private Japanese diplomatic communications (even the most secret ones) was less useful than it might otherwise have been because policy in prewar Japan was controlled largely by military groups like the Imperial Way Faction, and not by the Foreign Office. The Foreign Office itself deliberately withheld from its embassies and consulates much of the information it did have, so the ability to read PURPLE messages was less than definitive regarding Japanese tactical or strategic military intentions.
U.S. cryptographers (see Station HYPO) had decrypted and translated the 14-part Japanese diplomatic message breaking off ongoing negotiations with the U.S. at 1 p.m. Washington time on 7 December 1941, even before the Japanese Embassy in Washington could do so. As a result of the deciphering and typing difficulties at the embassy, the note was delivered late to American Secretary of State Cordell Hull. When the two Japanese diplomats finally delivered the note, Hull had to pretend to be reading it for the first time, even though he already knew about the attack on Pearl Harbor.
Throughout the war, the Allies routinely read both German and Japanese cryptography. The Japanese Ambassador to Germany, General Hiroshi Ōshima, often sent priceless German military information to Tokyo. This information was routinely intercepted and read by Roosevelt, Churchill and Eisenhower. According to Lowman, "The Japanese considered the PURPLE system absolutely unbreakable… Most went to their graves refusing to believe the had been broken by analytic means… They believed someone had betrayed their system."
Distribution prior to Pearl Harbor
Even so, the diplomatic information was of limited value to the U.S. because of its manner and its description. "Magic" was distributed in such a way that many policy-makers who had need of the information in it knew nothing of it, and those to whom it actually was distributed (at least before Pearl Harbor) saw each message only briefly, as the courier stood by to take it back, and in isolation from other messages (no copies or notes being permitted). Before Pearl Harbor, they saw only those decrypts thought "important enough" by the distributing Army or Navy officers.
Nonetheless, being able to read PURPLE messages gave the Allies a great advantage in the war. For instance, the Japanese ambassador to Germany, Baron Hiroshi Ōshima, produced long reports for Tokyo which were enciphered on the PURPLE machine. They included reports on personal discussions with Adolf Hitler and a report on a tour of the invasion defenses in Northern France (including the D-Day invasion beaches). General Marshall said that Ōshima was "our main basis of... information regarding Hitler's intentions in Europe".
Dewey and Marshall
During the 1944 election, Thomas Dewey threatened to make Pearl Harbor a campaign issue, until General Marshall sent him a personal letter which said, in part:
To explain the critical nature of this set-up, which would be wiped out in an instant if the least suspicion were aroused regarding it, the Battle of Coral Sea was based on deciphered messages and therefore our few ships were in the right place at the right time. Further, we were able to concentrate our limited forces to meet their naval advance on Midway when otherwise we almost certainly would have been some 3,000 miles out of place. We had full information on the strength of their forces.
Dewey promised not to raise the issue, and kept his word.
Post-war debates
The break into the PURPLE system, and into Japanese messages generally, was the subject of acrimonious hearings in Congress post-World War II in connection with an attempt to decide who, if anyone, had allowed the disaster at Pearl Harbor to happen and who therefore should be blamed. During those hearings the Japanese learned, for the first time, the PURPLE cypher system had been broken. They had been continuing to use it, even after the War, with the encouragement of the American Occupation Government.
Much confusion over who in Washington or Hawaii knew what and when, especially as "we were decrypting their messages," has led some to conclude "someone in Washington" knew about the Pearl Harbor attack before it happened, and, since Pearl Harbor was not expecting to be attacked, the "failure to warn Hawaii one was coming must have been deliberate, since it could hardly have been mere oversight". However, PURPLE was a diplomatic, not a military code. Thus, only inferences could be drawn from PURPLE as to specific Japanese military actions.
History
When PURPLE was broken by the U.S. Army's Signals Intelligence Service (SIS), several problems arose for the Americans: who would get the decrypts, which decrypts, how often, under what circumstances, and crucially (given interservice rivalries) who would do the delivering. Both the U.S. Navy and Army were insistent they alone handle all decrypted traffic delivery, especially to highly placed policy makers in the U.S. Eventually, after much to-ing and fro-ing, a compromise was reached: the Army would be responsible for the decrypts on one day, and the Navy the next.
The distribution list eventually included some—but not all—military intelligence leaders in Washington and elsewhere, and some—but, again, not all—civilian policy leaders in Washington. The eventual routine for distribution included the following steps:
the duty officer (Army or Navy, depending on the day) would decide which decrypts were significant or interesting enough to distribute
they would be collected, locked into a briefcase, and turned over to a relatively junior officer (not always cleared to read the decrypts) who would 'make the rounds' to the appropriate offices.
no copies of any decrypts were left with anyone on the list. The recipient would be allowed to read the translated decrypt, in the presence of the distributing officer, and was required to return it immediately upon finishing. Before the beginning of the second week in December 1941, that was the last time anyone on the list saw that particular decrypt.
Decryption process
There were several prior steps needed before any decrypt was ready for distribution:
Interception. The Japanese Foreign Office used both wireless transmission and cables to communicate with its off shore units. Wireless transmission was intercepted (if possible) at any of several listening stations (Hawaii, Guam, Bainbridge Island in Washington state, Dutch Harbor on an Alaska island, etc.) and the raw cypher groups were forwarded to Washington, D.C. Eventually, there were decryption stations (including a copy of the Army's PURPLE machine) in the Philippines as well. Cable traffic was (for many years before late 1941) collected at cable company offices by a military officer who made copies and started them to Washington. Cable traffic in Hawaii was not intercepted due to legal concerns until David Sarnoff of RCA agreed to allow it during a visit to Hawaii the first week of December 1941. At one point, intercepts were being mailed to (Army or Navy) Intelligence from the field.
Deciphering. The raw intercept was deciphered by either the Army or the Navy (depending on the day). Deciphering was usually successful as the cipher had been broken.
Translation. Having obtained the plain text, in Latin letters, it was translated. Because the Navy had more Japanese-speaking officers, much of the burden of translation fell onto the Navy. And because Japanese is a difficult language, with meaning highly dependent upon context, effective translation required not only fluent Japanese, but considerable knowledge of the context within which the message was sent.
Evaluation. The translated decrypt had to be evaluated for its intelligence content. For example, is the ostensible content of the message meaningful? If it is, for instance, part of a power contest within the Foreign Office or some other part of the Japanese government, its meaning and implications would be quite different from a simple informational or instructional message to an Embassy. Or, might it be another message in a series whose meaning, taken together, is more than the meaning of any individual message. Thus, the fourteenth message to an Embassy instructing that Embassy to instruct Japanese merchant ships calling at that country to return to home waters before, say, the end of November would be more significant than a single such message meant for a single ship or port. Only after having evaluated a translated decrypt for its intelligence value could anyone decide whether it deserved to be distributed.
In the period before the attack on Pearl Harbor, the material was handled awkwardly and inefficiently, and was distributed even more awkwardly. Nevertheless, the extraordinary experience of reading a foreign government's most closely held communications, sometimes even before the intended recipient, was astonishing. It was so astonishing, someone (possibly President Roosevelt) called it magic. The name stuck.
Executive Order 9066
One aspect of Magic remains controversial to this day—the amount of involvement the intercepts played in the issuing of United States Executive Order 9066 on February 19, 1942, and subsequent Executive Order 9102 on March 18, which led to the creation of the Wartime Relocation Authority (WRA). This is often confused with the issue of internment, which was actually handled by the Justice Department's Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) and affected all citizens of countries at war with the United States in any location.
Internment of "enemy aliens" by the U.S. government began two months prior to Executive Order 9066 on December 8, 1941, immediately after the attack at Pearl Harbor and included Germans and Italians, and not just the Japanese living on the U.S. West Coast.
David Lowman in his book MAGIC: the Untold Story reports that the primary justification for the Japanese-American relocations and internments was to protect against espionage and sabotage, because Magic could not be mentioned during the war. Those defending the decision to evacuate and relocate when seen in context, notably blogger and investigative reporter Michelle Malkin, point to Magic intercepts as partial justification for EO 9066. Malkin cites 1984 testimony of the Undersecretary with the most Magic knowledge, who stated that Magic "was a very important factor" in their considerations.
Extensive additional primary source documents are cited in Malkin's book In Defense of Internment to argue that Magic intercepts discuss the development of a spy ring among Japanese Americans by the Japanese consulates, provide the type of espionage data being sent to Japan, and much more which raised a suspicion that many thousands in the Japanese American community were an espionage risk, including members of Kibei, Issei and Nisei.
In 1988, Congress passed and President Ronald Reagan signed legislation that apologized for the internment on behalf of the U.S. government. The legislation said that government actions were based on "race prejudice, war hysteria, and a failure of political leadership". The hearings that produced this decision did not take into account the Magic intercepts.
The following is the actual text of several Magic intercepts translated into English before and during the war and declassified and made public in 1978 by the U.S. government (The Magic Background of Pearl Harbor, Government Printing Office, 8 volumes)
Tokyo to Washington
Magic intercept Tokyo to Washington #44 – Jan 30, 1941
Intercept dated January 30, 1941 and noted as translated 2-7-41
Numbered #44
FROM: Tokyo (Matsuoka)
TO: Washington (Koshi)
(In two parts – complete).
(Foreign Office secret).
(1) Establish an intelligence organ in the Embassy which will maintain liaison with private and semi-official intelligence organs (see my message to Washington #591 and #732 from New York to Tokyo, both of last year's series).
With regard to this, we are holding discussions with the various circles involved at the present time.
(2) The focal point of our investigations shall be the determination of the total strength of the U.S. Our investigations shall be divided into three general classifications: political, economic, and military, and definite course of action shall be mapped out.
(3) Make a survey of all persons or organizations which either openly or secretly oppose participation in the war.
(4) Make investigations of all antisemitism, communism, movements of Negroes, and labor movements.
(5) Utilization of U.S. citizens of foreign extraction (other than Japanese), aliens (other than Japanese), communists, Negroes, labor union members, and anti-Semites, in carrying out the investigations described in the preceding paragraph would undoubtedly bear the best results.
These men, moreover, should have access to governmental establishments, (laboratories?), governmental organizations of various characters, factories, and transportation facilities.
(6) Utilization of our "Second Generations" and our resident nationals. (In view of the fact that if there is any slip in this phase, our people in the U.S. will be subjected to considerable persecution, and the utmost caution must be exercised).
(7) In the event of U.S. participation in the war, our intelligence set-up will be moved to Mexico, making that country the nerve center of our intelligence net. Therefore, will you bear this in mind and in anticipation of such an eventuality, set up facilities for a U.S.-Mexico international intelligence route. This net which will cover Brazil, Argentina, Chile, and Peru will also be centered in Mexico.
(8) We shall cooperate with the German and Italian intelligence organs in the U.S. This phase has been discussed with the Germans and Italians in Tokyo, and it has been approved.
Please get the details from Secretary Terasaki upon his assuming his duties there.
Please send copies to those offices which were on the distribution list of No. 43.
Japanese U.S. consulates to Tokyo
Throughout the rest of 1941, some of the messages between Tokyo and its embassies and consulates continued to be intercepted.
In response to the ordered shift from propaganda efforts to espionage collection, the Japanese consulates throughout the western hemisphere reported their information normally through the use of diplomatic channels, but when time-sensitive through the use of PURPLE encoded messages. This provided vital clues to their progress directly to the U.S. President and his top advisers.
Intercepts in May 1941 from the consulates in Los Angeles and Seattle report that the Japanese were having success in obtaining information and cooperation from "second generation" Japanese Americans and others.
Magic intercept LA to Tokyo #067 – May 9, 1941
Intercept dated May 9, 1941 and translated 5-19-41
Numbered #067
FROM: Los Angeles (Nakauchi)
TO: Tokyo (Gaimudaijin)
(In 2 parts – complete).
Strictly Secret.
Re your message # 180 to Washington.
We are doing everything in our power to establish outside contacts in connection with our efforts to gather intelligence material. In this regard, we have decided to make use of white persons and Negroes, through Japanese persons whom we cannot trust completely. (It not only would be very difficult to hire U.S. (military?) experts for this work at present time, but the expenses would be exceedingly high.) We shall, furthermore, maintain close connections with the Japanese Association, the Chamber of Commerce, and the newspapers.
With regard to airplane manufacturing plants and other military establishments in other parts, we plan to establish very close relations with various organizations and in strict secrecy have them keep these military establishments under close surveillance. Through such means, we hope to be able to obtain accurate and detailed intelligence reports. We have already established contacts with absolutely reliable Japanese in the San Pedro and San Diego area, who will keep a close watch on all shipments of airplanes and other war materials, and report the amounts and destinations of such shipments. The same steps have been taken with regards to traffic across the U.S.-Mexico border.
We shall maintain connection with our second generations who are at present in the (U.S.) Army, to keep us informed of various developments in the Army. We also have connections with our second generations working in airplane plants for intelligence purposes.
With regard to the Navy, we are cooperating with our Naval Attache's office, and are submitting reports as accurately and speedily as possible.
We are having Nakazawa investigate and summarize information gathered through first hand and newspaper reports, with regard to military movements, labor disputes, communistic activities and other similar matters. With regard to anti-Jewish movements, we are having investigations made by both prominent Americans and Japanese who are connected with the movie industry which is centered in this area. We have already established connections with very influential Negroes to keep us informed with regard to the Negro movement.
Magic intercept Seattle to Tokyo #45 – May 11, 1941
Intercept dated May 11, 1941 and translated 6-9-41
Numbered # 45
FROM: Seattle (Sato)
TO: Tokyo
(3 parts – complete)
Re your # 180 to Washington
1. Political Contacts
We are collecting intelligences revolving around political questions, and also the questions of American participation in the war which has to do with the whole country and this local area.
2. Economic Contacts
We are using foreign company employees, as well as employees in our own companies here, for the collection of intelligence having to do with economics along the lines of the construction of ships, the number of airplanes produced and their various types, the production of copper, zinc and aluminum, the yield of tin for cans, and lumber. We are now exerting our best efforts toward the acquisition of such intelligences through competent Americans. From an American, whom we contacted recently, we have received a private report on machinists of German origin who are Communists and members of the labor organizations in the Bremerton Naval Yard and Boeing airplane factory. Second generation Japanese ----- ----- ----- .
3. Military Contacts
We are securing intelligences concerning the concentration of warships within the Bremerton Naval Yard, information with regard to mercantile shipping and airplane manufacturing, movements of military forces, as well as that which concerns troop maneuvers.
With this as a basis, men are sent out into the field who will contact Lt. Comdr. OKADA, and such intelligences will be wired to you in accordance with past practice. KANEKO is in charge of this. Recently we have on two occasions made investigations on the spot of various military establishments and concentration points in various areas. For the future we have made arrangements to collect intelligences from second generation Japanese draftees on matters dealing with the troops, as well as troop speech and behavior. ----- ---- -----.
4. Contacts with Labor Unions
The local labor unions A.F. of L. and C.I.O. have considerable influence. The (Socialist?) Party maintains an office here (its political sphere of influence extends over twelve zones.) The C.I.O., especially, has been very active here. We have had a first generation Japanese, who is a member of the labor movement and a committee chairman, contact the organizer, and we have received a report, though it is but a resume, on the use of American members of the (Socialist ?) Party. ------ OKAMARU is in charge of this.
5. In order to contact Americans of foreign extraction and foreigners, in addition to third parties, for the collection of intelligences with regard to anti-participation organizations and the anti-Jewish movement, we are making use of a second generation Japanese lawyer.
This intelligence ---- ----- -----.
Access by Roosevelt's cabinet
These intercepts plus other reports from the FBI and the Office of Naval Intelligence counter-espionage efforts, the TACHIBANA espionage case during summer 1941, FBI efforts against Japanese yakuza throughout the 1930s along the West Coast (the TOKOYO and TOYO CLUBs) were all available only to the most senior leaders in the Roosevelt cabinet. Even J. Edgar Hoover, Director of the FBI, was not privy to the existence of Magic intelligence.
Opposing viewpoint
Those who consider that Executive Order 9066 regarding Japanese American internment was not based on Magic intercepts, argue:
the commanding officer on the West coast, Lt. Gen. J. L. DeWitt, was not on the Magic intercept list,
his superior, Secretary of War Henry Stimson, was on the intercept list, and
Stimson requested justification for the relocation program from DeWitt.
If Magic intercepts provided justification, why ask DeWitt for further justification?
One theory is that Stimson wanted DeWitt to provide justifications that could be made public, because the Magic intercepts could not be made public.
The issue was inflamed due to the release of Malkin's 2004 book, In Defense of Internment, in which the Magic intercepts play a major role in the defense of her thesis.
Other Japanese ciphers
PURPLE was an enticing, but quite tactically limited, window into Japanese planning and policy because of the peculiar nature of Japanese policy making prior to the War (see above). Early on, a better tactical window was the Japanese Fleet Code (an encoded cypher), called JN-25 by U.S. Navy cryptanalysts. Breaking into the version in use in the months after December 7, 1941 provided enough information to lead to U.S. naval victories in the battles of the Coral Sea and Midway, stopping the initial Japanese advances to the south and eliminating the bulk of Japanese naval air power.
Later, broken JN-25 traffic provided the schedule and routing of the plane Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto would be flying in during an inspection tour in the southwest Pacific, giving USAAF pilots a chance to ambush the officer who had conceived the Pearl Harbor attack. Later still, access to Japanese Army messages from decrypts of Army communications traffic assisted in planning the island hopping campaign to the Philippines and beyond.
Another source of information was the Japanese Military Attaché code (known as JMA to the Allies) introduced in 1941. This was a fractionating transposition system based on two-letter code groups which stood for common words and phrases. The groups were written in a square grid according to an irregular pattern and read off vertically, similar to a disrupted columnar transposition. Then the letters were superenciphered using a pre-arranged table of alphabets. This system was broken by John Tiltman at Bletchley Park in 1942.
Other claimed breaks into PURPLE
The 1992 book The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB, by Christopher Andrew, based on the Mitrokhin Archive smuggled out of Russia in the early 1990s by a KGB archivist, contains information about wartime Soviet knowledge of Japanese enciphered transmissions. It claims that the Soviets independently broke into Japanese PURPLE traffic (as well as the Red predecessor machine).
It claims that decrypted PURPLE messages contributed to the decision by Stalin to move troops from Far Eastern Asia to the area around Moscow for the counterattack against Germany in December 1941, as the messages convinced the Soviet government that there would not be a Japanese attack.
How secret was Magic?
Public notice had actually been served that Japanese cryptography was dangerously inadequate by the Chicago Tribune, which published a series of stories just after Midway, starting on 7 June 1942, which claimed (correctly) that victory was due in large part to the U.S. breaking into Japanese crypto systems (in this case, the JN-25 cypher, though which system(s) had been broken was not mentioned in the newspaper stories). The Tribune claimed the story was written by Stanley Johnston from his own knowledge (and Jane's).
Ronald Lewin points out that the story repeats the layout and errors of a signal from Admiral Nimitz which Johnston saw while on the transport Barnett. Nimitz was reprimanded by Admiral King for sending the dispatch to Task Force commanders on a channel available to nearly all ships. The Lexington's executive officer, Commander Morton T. Seligman was assigned to shore duty and retired early.
However, neither the Japanese nor anyone who might have told them seem to have noticed either the Tribune coverage, or the stories based on the Tribune account published in other U.S. papers. Nor did they notice announcements made on the floor of the United States Congress to the same effect. There were no changes in Japanese cryptography connected with those newspaper accounts or Congressional disclosures.
Alvin Kernan was an aviation ordnanceman on board the aircraft carriers Enterprise and the Hornet during the war. During that time, he was awarded the Navy Cross. In his book Crossing the Line, he states that when the carrier returned to Pearl Harbor to resupply before the Battle of Midway, the crew knew that the Japanese code had been broken and that U.S. naval forces were preparing to engage the Japanese fleet at Midway. He insists that he "…exactly remembers the occasion on which I was told, with full details about ships and dates…" despite the later insistence that the breaking of the code was kept secret.
U.S. Navy Commander I.J. Galantin, who retired as an Admiral, refers several times to Magic in his 1988 book about his Pacific theater war patrols as captain of the U.S. submarine Halibut. However, Galantin refers to Magic as "Ultra" which was actually the name given to the breaking of the German code. Upon receiving one message from Pacific Fleet command, directing him off normal station to intercept Japanese vessels due to a Magic message, Galantin writes. "I had written my night orders carefully. I made no reference to Ultra and stressed only the need to be very alert for targets in this fruitful area". Galantin had previously mentioned in his book that all submarine captains were aware of "Ultra" (Magic).
In addition, Army Chief of Staff George C. Marshall discovered early in the war that Magic documents were being widely read at the White House, and that "…at one time over 500 people were reading messages we had intercepted from the Japanese… Everyone seemed to be reading them" .
Fiction
Neal Stephenson's novel Cryptonomicon includes a fictionalized version of Magic, with the Japanese cryptosystem being named "Indigo" rather than "PURPLE".
James Bond is given the products of the fictionalized "MAGIC 44" decryption programme in You Only Live Twice as a bargaining chip when he is deployed to negotiate for intelligence concessions from Tiger Tanaka, head of Japanese intelligence.
The W.E.B. Griffin series The Corps is a fictionalized account of United States Navy and Marine Corps intelligence operations in the Pacific Theater during World War II. Many of the main characters in the novels, both fictional and historical, have access to and use intelligence from Magic.
See also
Japanese army and diplomatic codes
Japanese naval codes
Ultra (cryptography)
Footnotes
^ Lowman 2000, p. 39.
^ Lowman 2000, pp. 52–53.
^ Lowman 2000, p. 4.
^ Friedman, William F. "Certain Aspects of MAGIC in the Cryptological Background of the Various Official Investigations into the Attack on Pearl Harbor (SRH-125)". pp. 45–47.
^ Friedman, William F. (October 14, 1940). "Preliminary Historical Report of the Solution of the "B" Machine" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on April 4, 2013 – via Cryptocellar.web.cern.ch.
^ Stephen Fox, "The Unknown Internment: An Oral History of the Relocation of Italian Americans during World War II"
^ Lowman 2000, p. 75.
^ a b JAAWR Hearings (1984)
^ Malkin (2004), cf entire chapters on subversives, spies, MAGIC, and the rationale for evacuation
^ 100th Congress, S. 1009, reproduced at Internment archives. Retrieved September 19, 2006.
^ Smith 2000, pp. 158–159.
^ a b Lewin 1982, pp. 113–115.
^ Kernan 1994, p. 47.
^ Galantin 1988, p. 122.
^ Asahina 2007, p. 267.
Sources
Asahina, R. (2007), Just Americans: How Japanese Americans Won a War at Home and Abroad, Gotham Books, ISBN 978-1-59240-300-4
Galantin, I.J. (1988), Take Her Deep!, New York: Pocket Books, ISBN 0-671-73651-5
Kernan, A. (1994), Crossing the Line: A Bluejacket's World War II Odyssey, Annapolis: Naval Institute Press; Blue Jacket Books Press, ISBN 1-55750-455-5
Lewin, Ronald (1982), The American Magic: Codes, Ciphers and the defeat of Japan, New York: Farrar Straus Giroux, ISBN 0-374-10417-4 (American edition)
Lewin, Ronald (1982), The Other Ultra, London: Hutchinson, ISBN 0-374-10417-4 (British edition)
Lowman, David D. (2000), Magic: The Untold Story, Athena Press, ISBN 0-9602736-1-1
Smith, M. (2000), The Emperor's Codes, Bantam Books, ISBN 0-553-81320-X
Further reading
Clark, R.W. (1977), The Man Who Broke PURPLE, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, ISBN 0-297-77279-1
Farago, Ladislas (1967). The Broken Seal: "Operation Magic" and the Secret Road to Pearl Harbor. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0-39441789-9.
Freeman, Wes; Sullivan, Geoff; Weierud, Frode. "PURPLE Revealed: Simulation and Computer-aided Cryptanalysis of Angooki Taipu B" (PDF).
Holmes, W.J. (1998) , Double-edged Secrets: U.S. Naval Intelligence Operations in the Pacific During World War II, Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, ISBN 1-55750-324-9
Kahn, D. (1996) , "The Scrutable Orientals", The Codebreakers, New York: Scribner, pp. 561–613, ISBN 0-684-83130-9
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cryptanalysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptanalysis"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"United States Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army"},{"link_name":"Signals Intelligence Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_Intelligence_Service"},{"link_name":"United States Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Navy"},{"link_name":"Communication Special Unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Communication_Special_Unit&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"text":"Allied cryptanalysis project during World War IIMagic was an Allied cryptanalysis project during World War II. It involved the United States Army's Signals Intelligence Service (SIS) and the United States Navy's Communication Special Unit.","title":"Magic (cryptography)"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Magic was set up to combine the US government's cryptologic capabilities in one organization dubbed the Research Bureau. Intelligence officers from the Army and Navy (and later civilian experts and technicians) were all under one roof. Although they worked on a series of codes and cyphers, their most important successes involved RED, BLUE, and PURPLE.","title":"Codebreaking"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Imperial Japanese Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy"},{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"RED","text":"In 1923, a US Navy officer acquired a stolen copy of the Secret Operating Code codebook used by the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War I. Photographs of the codebook were given to the cryptanalysts at the Research Desk and the processed code was kept in red-colored folders (to indicate its Top Secret classification). This code was called \"RED\".[citation needed]","title":"Codebreaking"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"COMINT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COMINT"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"BLUE","text":"In 1930, the Japanese government created a more complex code that was codenamed BLUE, although RED was still being used for low-level communications. It was quickly broken by the Research Desk no later than 1932. US Military Intelligence COMINT listening stations began monitoring command-to-fleet, ship-to-ship, and land-based communications.[citation needed]","title":"Codebreaking"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Enigma machines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enigma_machine"},{"link_name":"William Friedman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Friedman"},{"link_name":"Frank Rowlett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Rowlett"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"PURPLE","text":"After Japan's ally Germany declared war in the fall of 1939, the German government began sending technical assistance to upgrade their communications and cryptography capabilities. One part was to send them modified Enigma machines to secure Japan's high-level communications with Germany. The new code, codenamed PURPLE (from the color obtained by mixing red and blue), was baffling.PURPLE, like Enigma, began its communications with the same line of code but then became an unfathomable jumble. Codebreakers tried to break PURPLE communiques by hand but found they could not. Then the codebreakers realized that it was not a manual additive or substitution code like RED and BLUE, but a machine-generated code similar to Germany's Enigma cipher. Decoding was slow and much of the traffic was still hard to break. By the time the traffic was decoded and translated, the contents were often out of date.A reverse-engineered machine created in 1939 by a team of technicians led by William Friedman and Frank Rowlett could decrypt some of the PURPLE code by replicating some of the settings of the Japanese Enigma machines. This accelerated decoding and the addition of more translators on staff in 1942 made it easier and quicker to decipher the traffic intercepted.[citation needed]","title":"Codebreaking"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Japanese Foreign Office","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_Foreign_Office"},{"link_name":"diplomatic messages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diplomatic_cable"},{"link_name":"PURPLE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purple_(cipher_machine)"},{"link_name":"keys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Key_(cryptography)"},{"link_name":"attack on Pearl Harbor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor"},{"link_name":"crypto-system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptography"},{"link_name":"JN-25","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JN-25"},{"link_name":"Imperial Way Faction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Way_Faction"},{"link_name":"Station HYPO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Station_HYPO"},{"link_name":"Secretary of State","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State"},{"link_name":"Cordell Hull","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cordell_Hull"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELowman200039-1"},{"link_name":"Hiroshi Ōshima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiroshi_%C5%8Cshima"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELowman200052%E2%80%9353-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELowman20004-3"}],"text":"The Japanese Foreign Office used a cipher machine to encrypt its diplomatic messages. The machine was called \"PURPLE\" by U.S. cryptographers. A message was typed into the machine, which enciphered and sent it to an identical machine. The receiving machine could decipher the message only if set to the correct settings, or keys. American cryptographers built a machine that could decrypt these messages.The PURPLE machine itself was first used by Japan in 1940. U.S. and British cryptographers had broken some PURPLE traffic well before the attack on Pearl Harbor. However, the PURPLE machines were used only by the Foreign Office to carry diplomatic traffic to its embassies. The Japanese Navy used a completely different crypto-system, known as JN-25.U.S. analysts discovered no hint in PURPLE of the impending Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. Nor could they, as the Japanese were very careful not to discuss their plan in Foreign Office communications. No detailed information about the planned attack was even available to the Japanese Foreign Office, as that agency was regarded by the military, particularly its more nationalist members, as insufficiently \"reliable\".U.S. access to private Japanese diplomatic communications (even the most secret ones) was less useful than it might otherwise have been because policy in prewar Japan was controlled largely by military groups like the Imperial Way Faction, and not by the Foreign Office. The Foreign Office itself deliberately withheld from its embassies and consulates much of the information it did have, so the ability to read PURPLE messages was less than definitive regarding Japanese tactical or strategic military intentions.U.S. cryptographers (see Station HYPO) had decrypted and translated the 14-part Japanese diplomatic message breaking off ongoing negotiations with the U.S. at 1 p.m. Washington time on 7 December 1941, even before the Japanese Embassy in Washington could do so. As a result of the deciphering and typing difficulties at the embassy, the note was delivered late to American Secretary of State Cordell Hull. When the two Japanese diplomats finally delivered the note, Hull had to pretend to be reading it for the first time, even though he already knew about the attack on Pearl Harbor.[1]Throughout the war, the Allies routinely read both German and Japanese cryptography. The Japanese Ambassador to Germany, General Hiroshi Ōshima, often sent priceless German military information to Tokyo. This information was routinely intercepted and read by Roosevelt, Churchill and Eisenhower.[2] According to Lowman, \"The Japanese considered the PURPLE system absolutely unbreakable… Most went to their graves refusing to believe the [cipher] had been broken by analytic means… They believed someone had betrayed their system.\"[3]","title":"PURPLE traffic"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pearl Harbor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor"},{"link_name":"Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army"},{"link_name":"Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Navy"},{"link_name":"Allies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"Hiroshi Ōshima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiroshi_%C5%8Cshima"},{"link_name":"Tokyo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo"},{"link_name":"Adolf Hitler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Hitler"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"},{"link_name":"D-Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D-Day"},{"link_name":"General Marshall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Marshall"}],"text":"Even so, the diplomatic information was of limited value to the U.S. because of its manner and its description. \"Magic\" was distributed in such a way that many policy-makers who had need of the information in it knew nothing of it, and those to whom it actually was distributed (at least before Pearl Harbor) saw each message only briefly, as the courier stood by to take it back, and in isolation from other messages (no copies or notes being permitted). Before Pearl Harbor, they saw only those decrypts thought \"important enough\" by the distributing Army or Navy officers.Nonetheless, being able to read PURPLE messages gave the Allies a great advantage in the war. For instance, the Japanese ambassador to Germany, Baron Hiroshi Ōshima, produced long reports for Tokyo which were enciphered on the PURPLE machine. They included reports on personal discussions with Adolf Hitler and a report on a tour of the invasion defenses in Northern France (including the D-Day invasion beaches). General Marshall said that Ōshima was \"our main basis of... information regarding Hitler's intentions in Europe\".","title":"Distribution prior to Pearl Harbor"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Thomas Dewey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Dewey"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"During the 1944 election, Thomas Dewey threatened to make Pearl Harbor a campaign issue,[4] until General Marshall sent him a personal letter which said, in part:To explain the critical nature of this set-up, which would be wiped out in an instant if the least suspicion were aroused regarding it, the Battle of Coral Sea was based on deciphered messages and therefore our few ships were in the right place at the right time. Further, we were able to concentrate our limited forces to meet their naval advance on Midway when otherwise we almost certainly would have been some 3,000 miles [4,800 km] out of place. We had full information on the strength of their forces.Dewey promised not to raise the issue, and kept his word.","title":"Dewey and Marshall"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"American Occupation Government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupation_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_D.C."},{"link_name":"Hawaii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaii"},{"link_name":"Pearl Harbor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"The break into the PURPLE system, and into Japanese messages generally, was the subject of acrimonious hearings in Congress post-World War II in connection with an attempt to decide who, if anyone, had allowed the disaster at Pearl Harbor to happen and who therefore should be blamed. During those hearings the Japanese learned, for the first time, the PURPLE cypher system had been broken. They had been continuing to use it, even after the War, with the encouragement of the American Occupation Government.Much confusion over who in Washington or Hawaii knew what and when, especially as \"we were decrypting their messages,\" has led some to conclude \"someone in Washington\" knew about the Pearl Harbor attack before it happened, and, since Pearl Harbor was not expecting to be attacked, the \"failure to warn Hawaii one was coming must have been deliberate, since it could hardly have been mere oversight\".[citation needed] However, PURPLE was a diplomatic, not a military code. Thus, only inferences could be drawn from PURPLE as to specific Japanese military actions.","title":"Post-war debates"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Signals Intelligence Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signals_Intelligence_Service"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"interservice rivalries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interservice_rivalry"},{"link_name":"beginning of the second week in December","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor"}],"text":"When PURPLE was broken by the U.S. Army's Signals Intelligence Service (SIS),[5] several problems arose for the Americans: who would get the decrypts, which decrypts, how often, under what circumstances, and crucially (given interservice rivalries) who would do the delivering. Both the U.S. Navy and Army were insistent they alone handle all decrypted traffic delivery, especially to highly placed policy makers in the U.S. Eventually, after much to-ing and fro-ing, a compromise was reached: the Army would be responsible for the decrypts on one day, and the Navy the next.The distribution list eventually included some—but not all—military intelligence leaders in Washington and elsewhere, and some—but, again, not all—civilian policy leaders in Washington. The eventual routine for distribution included the following steps:the duty officer (Army or Navy, depending on the day) would decide which decrypts were significant or interesting enough to distribute\nthey would be collected, locked into a briefcase, and turned over to a relatively junior officer (not always cleared to read the decrypts) who would 'make the rounds' to the appropriate offices.\nno copies of any decrypts were left with anyone on the list. The recipient would be allowed to read the translated decrypt, in the presence of the distributing officer, and was required to return it immediately upon finishing. Before the beginning of the second week in December 1941, that was the last time anyone on the list saw that particular decrypt.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hawaii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaii"},{"link_name":"Guam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guam"},{"link_name":"Bainbridge Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bainbridge_Island,_Washington"},{"link_name":"Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_(state)"},{"link_name":"Dutch Harbor on an Alaska island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_Harbor_Naval_Operating_Base_and_Fort_Mears,_U.S._Army"}],"text":"There were several prior steps needed before any decrypt was ready for distribution:Interception. The Japanese Foreign Office used both wireless transmission and cables to communicate with its off shore units. Wireless transmission was intercepted (if possible) at any of several listening stations (Hawaii, Guam, Bainbridge Island in Washington state, Dutch Harbor on an Alaska island, etc.) and the raw cypher groups were forwarded to Washington, D.C. Eventually, there were decryption stations (including a copy of the Army's PURPLE machine) in the Philippines as well. Cable traffic was (for many years before late 1941) collected at cable company offices by a military officer who made copies and started them to Washington. Cable traffic in Hawaii was not intercepted due to legal concerns until David Sarnoff of RCA agreed to allow it during a visit to Hawaii the first week of December 1941. At one point, intercepts were being mailed to (Army or Navy) Intelligence from the field.\nDeciphering. The raw intercept was deciphered by either the Army or the Navy (depending on the day). Deciphering was usually successful as the cipher had been broken.\nTranslation. Having obtained the plain text, in Latin letters, it was translated. Because the Navy had more Japanese-speaking officers, much of the burden of translation fell onto the Navy. And because Japanese is a difficult language, with meaning highly dependent upon context, effective translation required not only fluent Japanese, but considerable knowledge of the context within which the message was sent.\nEvaluation. The translated decrypt had to be evaluated for its intelligence content. For example, is the ostensible content of the message meaningful? If it is, for instance, part of a power contest within the Foreign Office or some other part of the Japanese government, its meaning and implications would be quite different from a simple informational or instructional message to an Embassy. Or, might it be another message in a series whose meaning, taken together, is more than the meaning of any individual message. Thus, the fourteenth message to an Embassy instructing that Embassy to instruct Japanese merchant ships calling at that country to return to home waters before, say, the end of November would be more significant than a single such message meant for a single ship or port. Only after having evaluated a translated decrypt for its intelligence value could anyone decide whether it deserved to be distributed.In the period before the attack on Pearl Harbor, the material was handled awkwardly and inefficiently, and was distributed even more awkwardly. Nevertheless, the extraordinary experience of reading a foreign government's most closely held communications, sometimes even before the intended recipient, was astonishing. It was so astonishing, someone (possibly President Roosevelt) called it magic. The name stuck.","title":"Decryption process"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"United States Executive Order 9066","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Executive_Order_9066"},{"link_name":"Executive Order 9102","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_Order_9102"},{"link_name":"Wartime Relocation Authority","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wartime_Relocation_Authority&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"internment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internment_of_Japanese_Americans"},{"link_name":"Immigration and Naturalization Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immigration_and_Naturalization_Service"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELowman200075-7"},{"link_name":"Michelle Malkin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelle_Malkin"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JAAWR-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Congress"},{"link_name":"Ronald Reagan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Reagan"},{"link_name":"U.S. government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JAAWR-8"}],"text":"One aspect of Magic remains controversial to this day—the amount of involvement the intercepts played in the issuing of United States Executive Order 9066 on February 19, 1942, and subsequent Executive Order 9102 on March 18, which led to the creation of the Wartime Relocation Authority (WRA). This is often confused with the issue of internment, which was actually handled by the Justice Department's Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) and affected all citizens of countries at war with the United States in any location.Internment of \"enemy aliens\" by the U.S. government began two months prior to Executive Order 9066 on December 8, 1941, immediately after the attack at Pearl Harbor and included Germans and Italians, and not just the Japanese living on the U.S. West Coast.[6]David Lowman in his book MAGIC: the Untold Story[7] reports that the primary justification for the Japanese-American relocations and internments was to protect against espionage and sabotage, because Magic could not be mentioned during the war. Those defending the decision to evacuate and relocate when seen in context, notably blogger and investigative reporter Michelle Malkin, point to Magic intercepts as partial justification for EO 9066. Malkin cites 1984 testimony of the Undersecretary with the most Magic knowledge, who stated[8] that Magic \"was a very important factor\" in their considerations.Extensive additional primary source documents are cited in Malkin's book In Defense of Internment[9] to argue that Magic intercepts discuss the development of a spy ring among Japanese Americans by the Japanese consulates, provide the type of espionage data being sent to Japan, and much more which raised a suspicion that many thousands in the Japanese American community were an espionage risk, including members of Kibei, Issei and Nisei.In 1988, Congress passed and President Ronald Reagan signed legislation that apologized for the internment on behalf of the U.S. government. The legislation said that government actions were based on \"race prejudice, war hysteria, and a failure of political leadership\".[10] The hearings that produced this decision did not take into account the Magic intercepts.[8]The following is the actual text of several Magic intercepts translated into English before and during the war and declassified and made public in 1978 by the U.S. government (The Magic Background of Pearl Harbor, Government Printing Office, 8 volumes)","title":"Executive Order 9066"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Tokyo to Washington","text":"Magic intercept Tokyo to Washington #44 – Jan 30, 1941Intercept dated January 30, 1941 and noted as translated 2-7-41\nNumbered #44FROM: Tokyo (Matsuoka)\nTO: Washington (Koshi)\n(In two parts – complete).\n(Foreign Office secret).\n(1) Establish an intelligence organ in the Embassy which will maintain liaison with private and semi-official intelligence organs (see my message to Washington #591 and #732 from New York to Tokyo, both of last year's series).\nWith regard to this, we are holding discussions with the various circles involved at the present time.\n(2) The focal point of our investigations shall be the determination of the total strength of the U.S. Our investigations shall be divided into three general classifications: political, economic, and military, and definite course of action shall be mapped out.\n(3) Make a survey of all persons or organizations which either openly or secretly oppose participation in the war.\n(4) Make investigations of all antisemitism, communism, movements of Negroes, and labor movements.\n(5) Utilization of U.S. citizens of foreign extraction (other than Japanese), aliens (other than Japanese), communists, Negroes, labor union members, and anti-Semites, in carrying out the investigations described in the preceding paragraph would undoubtedly bear the best results.\nThese men, moreover, should have access to governmental establishments, (laboratories?), governmental organizations of various characters, factories, and transportation facilities.\n(6) Utilization of our \"Second Generations\" and our resident nationals. (In view of the fact that if there is any slip in this phase, our people in the U.S. will be subjected to considerable persecution, and the utmost caution must be exercised).\n(7) In the event of U.S. participation in the war, our intelligence set-up will be moved to Mexico, making that country the nerve center of our intelligence net. Therefore, will you bear this in mind and in anticipation of such an eventuality, set up facilities for a U.S.-Mexico international intelligence route. This net which will cover Brazil, Argentina, Chile, and Peru will also be centered in Mexico.\n(8) We shall cooperate with the German and Italian intelligence organs in the U.S. This phase has been discussed with the Germans and Italians in Tokyo, and it has been approved.\nPlease get the details from Secretary Terasaki upon his assuming his duties there.\nPlease send copies to those offices which were on the distribution list of No. 43.","title":"Executive Order 9066"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Japanese U.S. consulates to Tokyo","text":"Throughout the rest of 1941, some of the messages between Tokyo and its embassies and consulates continued to be intercepted.In response to the ordered shift from propaganda efforts to espionage collection, the Japanese consulates throughout the western hemisphere reported their information normally through the use of diplomatic channels, but when time-sensitive through the use of PURPLE encoded messages. This provided vital clues to their progress directly to the U.S. President and his top advisers.Intercepts in May 1941 from the consulates in Los Angeles and Seattle report that the Japanese were having success in obtaining information and cooperation from \"second generation\" Japanese Americans and others.Magic intercept LA to Tokyo #067 – May 9, 1941Intercept dated May 9, 1941 and translated 5-19-41\nNumbered #067FROM: Los Angeles (Nakauchi)\nTO: Tokyo (Gaimudaijin)\n(In 2 parts – complete).\nStrictly Secret.\nRe your message # 180 to Washington.\nWe are doing everything in our power to establish outside contacts in connection with our efforts to gather intelligence material. In this regard, we have decided to make use of white persons and Negroes, through Japanese persons whom we cannot trust completely. (It not only would be very difficult to hire U.S. (military?) experts for this work at present time, but the expenses would be exceedingly high.) We shall, furthermore, maintain close connections with the Japanese Association, the Chamber of Commerce, and the newspapers.\nWith regard to airplane manufacturing plants and other military establishments in other parts, we plan to establish very close relations with various organizations and in strict secrecy have them keep these military establishments under close surveillance. Through such means, we hope to be able to obtain accurate and detailed intelligence reports. We have already established contacts with absolutely reliable Japanese in the San Pedro and San Diego area, who will keep a close watch on all shipments of airplanes and other war materials, and report the amounts and destinations of such shipments. The same steps have been taken with regards to traffic across the U.S.-Mexico border.\nWe shall maintain connection with our second generations who are at present in the (U.S.) Army, to keep us informed of various developments in the Army. We also have connections with our second generations working in airplane plants for intelligence purposes.\nWith regard to the Navy, we are cooperating with our Naval Attache's office, and are submitting reports as accurately and speedily as possible.\nWe are having Nakazawa investigate and summarize information gathered through first hand and newspaper reports, with regard to military movements, labor disputes, communistic activities and other similar matters. With regard to anti-Jewish movements, we are having investigations made by both prominent Americans and Japanese who are connected with the movie industry which is centered in this area. We have already established connections with very influential Negroes to keep us informed with regard to the Negro movement.Magic intercept Seattle to Tokyo #45 – May 11, 1941Intercept dated May 11, 1941 and translated 6-9-41\nNumbered # 45FROM: Seattle (Sato)\nTO: Tokyo\n(3 parts – complete)\nRe your # 180 to Washington\n1. Political Contacts\nWe are collecting intelligences revolving around political questions, and also the questions of American participation in the war which has to do with the whole country and this local area.\n2. Economic Contacts\nWe are using foreign company employees, as well as employees in our own companies here, for the collection of intelligence having to do with economics along the lines of the construction of ships, the number of airplanes produced and their various types, the production of copper, zinc and aluminum, the yield of tin for cans, and lumber. We are now exerting our best efforts toward the acquisition of such intelligences through competent Americans. From an American, whom we contacted recently, we have received a private report on machinists of German origin who are Communists and members of the labor organizations in the Bremerton Naval Yard and Boeing airplane factory. Second generation Japanese ----- ----- ----- [three words missing].\n3. Military Contacts\nWe are securing intelligences concerning the concentration of warships within the Bremerton Naval Yard, information with regard to mercantile shipping and airplane manufacturing, movements of military forces, as well as that which concerns troop maneuvers.\nWith this as a basis, men are sent out into the field who will contact Lt. Comdr. OKADA, and such intelligences will be wired to you in accordance with past practice. KANEKO is in charge of this. Recently we have on two occasions made investigations on the spot of various military establishments and concentration points in various areas. For the future we have made arrangements to collect intelligences from second generation Japanese draftees on matters dealing with the troops, as well as troop speech and behavior. ----- ---- -----. [three words missing]\n4. Contacts with Labor Unions\nThe local labor unions A.F. of L. and C.I.O. have considerable influence. The (Socialist?) Party maintains an office here (its political sphere of influence extends over twelve zones.) The C.I.O., especially, has been very active here. We have had a first generation Japanese, who is a member of the labor movement and a committee chairman, contact the organizer, and we have received a report, though it is but a resume, on the use of American members of the (Socialist ?) Party. ------ OKAMARU is in charge of this.\n5. In order to contact Americans of foreign extraction and foreigners, in addition to third parties, for the collection of intelligences with regard to anti-participation organizations and the anti-Jewish movement, we are making use of a second generation Japanese lawyer.\nThis intelligence ---- ----- -----.","title":"Executive Order 9066"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"FBI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FBI"},{"link_name":"Office of Naval Intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_Naval_Intelligence"},{"link_name":"yakuza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakuza"},{"link_name":"West Coast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"J. Edgar Hoover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Edgar_Hoover"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Access by Roosevelt's cabinet","text":"These intercepts plus other reports from the FBI and the Office of Naval Intelligence counter-espionage efforts, the TACHIBANA espionage case during summer 1941, FBI efforts against Japanese yakuza throughout the 1930s along the West Coast (the TOKOYO and TOYO CLUBs) were all available only to the most senior leaders in the Roosevelt cabinet. Even J. Edgar Hoover, Director of the FBI, was not privy to the existence of Magic intelligence.[citation needed]","title":"Executive Order 9066"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Executive Order 9066","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_Order_9066"},{"link_name":"Japanese American internment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_American_internment"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"In Defense of Internment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_Defense_of_Internment"}],"sub_title":"Opposing viewpoint","text":"Those who consider that Executive Order 9066 regarding Japanese American internment was not based on Magic intercepts, argue[citation needed]:the commanding officer on the West coast, Lt. Gen. J. L. DeWitt, was not on the Magic intercept list,\nhis superior, Secretary of War Henry Stimson, was on the intercept list, and\nStimson requested justification for the relocation program from DeWitt.\nIf Magic intercepts provided justification, why ask DeWitt for further justification?One theory is that Stimson wanted DeWitt to provide justifications that could be made public, because the Magic intercepts could not be made public.The issue was inflamed due to the release of Malkin's 2004 book, In Defense of Internment, in which the Magic intercepts play a major role in the defense of her thesis.","title":"Executive Order 9066"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"JN-25","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JN-25"},{"link_name":"U.S.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Coral Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Coral_Sea"},{"link_name":"Midway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Midway"},{"link_name":"Isoroku Yamamoto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamamoto_Isoroku"},{"link_name":"USAAF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USAAF"},{"link_name":"ambush the officer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Vengeance"},{"link_name":"Philippines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines"},{"link_name":"fractionating transposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transposition_cipher#Fractionation"},{"link_name":"disrupted columnar transposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transposition_cipher#Disrupted_transposition"},{"link_name":"superenciphered","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_(cryptography)#Superencipherment"},{"link_name":"John Tiltman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Tiltman"},{"link_name":"Bletchley Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bletchley_Park"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2000158%E2%80%93159-11"}],"text":"PURPLE was an enticing, but quite tactically limited, window into Japanese planning and policy because of the peculiar nature of Japanese policy making prior to the War (see above). Early on, a better tactical window was the Japanese Fleet Code (an encoded cypher), called JN-25 by U.S. Navy cryptanalysts. Breaking into the version in use in the months after December 7, 1941 provided enough information to lead to U.S. naval victories in the battles of the Coral Sea and Midway, stopping the initial Japanese advances to the south and eliminating the bulk of Japanese naval air power.Later, broken JN-25 traffic provided the schedule and routing of the plane Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto would be flying in during an inspection tour in the southwest Pacific, giving USAAF pilots a chance to ambush the officer who had conceived the Pearl Harbor attack. Later still, access to Japanese Army messages from decrypts of Army communications traffic assisted in planning the island hopping campaign to the Philippines and beyond.Another source of information was the Japanese Military Attaché code (known as JMA to the Allies) introduced in 1941. This was a fractionating transposition system based on two-letter code groups which stood for common words and phrases. The groups were written in a square grid according to an irregular pattern and read off vertically, similar to a disrupted columnar transposition. Then the letters were superenciphered using a pre-arranged table of alphabets. This system was broken by John Tiltman at Bletchley Park in 1942.[11]","title":"Other Japanese ciphers"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mitrokhin Archive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitrokhin_Archive"},{"link_name":"Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia"},{"link_name":"KGB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KGB"},{"link_name":"Soviets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"Moscow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow"}],"text":"The 1992 book The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB, by Christopher Andrew, based on the Mitrokhin Archive smuggled out of Russia in the early 1990s by a KGB archivist, contains information about wartime Soviet knowledge of Japanese enciphered transmissions. It claims that the Soviets independently broke into Japanese PURPLE traffic (as well as the Red predecessor machine).It claims that decrypted PURPLE messages contributed to the decision by Stalin to move troops from Far Eastern Asia to the area around Moscow for the counterattack against Germany in December 1941, as the messages convinced the Soviet government that there would not be a Japanese attack.","title":"Other claimed breaks into PURPLE"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chicago Tribune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Tribune"},{"link_name":"series of stories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_naval_codes#1942_Chicago_Tribune_incident"},{"link_name":"Stanley Johnston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Johnston"},{"link_name":"Jane's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane%27s_Fighting_Ships"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewin1982113%E2%80%93115-12"},{"link_name":"Ronald Lewin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Lewin"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewin1982113%E2%80%93115-12"},{"link_name":"Morton T. Seligman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morton_T._Seligman"},{"link_name":"United States Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Congress"},{"link_name":"Enterprise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Enterprise_(CV-6)"},{"link_name":"Hornet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Hornet_(CV-8)"},{"link_name":"Navy Cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navy_Cross_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Battle of Midway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Midway"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKernan199447-13"},{"link_name":"I.J. Galantin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignatius_J._Galantin"},{"link_name":"Halibut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Halibut_(SS-232)"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalantin1988122-14"},{"link_name":"George C. Marshall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Marshall"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsahina2007267-15"}],"text":"Public notice had actually been served that Japanese cryptography was dangerously inadequate by the Chicago Tribune, which published a series of stories just after Midway, starting on 7 June 1942, which claimed (correctly) that victory was due in large part to the U.S. breaking into Japanese crypto systems (in this case, the JN-25 cypher, though which system(s) had been broken was not mentioned in the newspaper stories). The Tribune claimed the story was written by Stanley Johnston from his own knowledge (and Jane's).[12]Ronald Lewin points out that the story repeats the layout and errors of a signal from Admiral Nimitz which Johnston saw while on the transport Barnett. Nimitz was reprimanded by Admiral King for sending the dispatch to Task Force commanders on a channel available to nearly all ships.[12] The Lexington's executive officer, Commander Morton T. Seligman was assigned to shore duty and retired early.However, neither the Japanese nor anyone who might have told them seem to have noticed either the Tribune coverage, or the stories based on the Tribune account published in other U.S. papers. Nor did they notice announcements made on the floor of the United States Congress to the same effect. There were no changes in Japanese cryptography connected with those newspaper accounts or Congressional disclosures.Alvin Kernan was an aviation ordnanceman on board the aircraft carriers Enterprise and the Hornet during the war. During that time, he was awarded the Navy Cross. In his book Crossing the Line, he states that when the carrier returned to Pearl Harbor to resupply before the Battle of Midway, the crew knew that the Japanese code had been broken and that U.S. naval forces were preparing to engage the Japanese fleet at Midway. He insists that he \"…exactly remembers the occasion on which I was told, with full details about ships and dates…\" despite the later insistence that the breaking of the code was kept secret.[13]U.S. Navy Commander I.J. Galantin, who retired as an Admiral, refers several times to Magic in his 1988 book about his Pacific theater war patrols as captain of the U.S. submarine Halibut. However, Galantin refers to Magic as \"Ultra\" which was actually the name given to the breaking of the German code. Upon receiving one message from Pacific Fleet command, directing him off normal station to intercept Japanese vessels due to a Magic message, Galantin writes. \"I had written my night orders carefully. I made no reference to Ultra and stressed only the need to be very alert for targets in this fruitful area\". Galantin had previously mentioned in his book that all submarine captains were aware of \"Ultra\" (Magic).[14]In addition, Army Chief of Staff George C. Marshall discovered early in the war that Magic documents were being widely read at the White House, and that \"…at one time over 500 people were reading messages we had intercepted from the Japanese… Everyone seemed to be reading them\" .[15]","title":"How secret was Magic?"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Neal Stephenson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neal_Stephenson"},{"link_name":"Cryptonomicon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptonomicon"},{"link_name":"James Bond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Bond"},{"link_name":"You Only Live Twice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/You_Only_Live_Twice_(novel)"},{"link_name":"W.E.B. Griffin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W.E.B._Griffin"},{"link_name":"United States Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Navy"},{"link_name":"Marine Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps"}],"text":"Neal Stephenson's novel Cryptonomicon includes a fictionalized version of Magic, with the Japanese cryptosystem being named \"Indigo\" rather than \"PURPLE\".James Bond is given the products of the fictionalized \"MAGIC 44\" decryption programme in You Only Live Twice as a bargaining chip when he is deployed to negotiate for intelligence concessions from Tiger Tanaka, head of Japanese intelligence.The W.E.B. Griffin series The Corps is a fictionalized account of United States Navy and Marine Corps intelligence operations in the Pacific Theater during World War II. Many of the main characters in the novels, both fictional and historical, have access to and use intelligence from Magic.","title":"Fiction"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELowman200039_1-0"},{"link_name":"Lowman 2000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFLowman2000"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELowman200052%E2%80%9353_2-0"},{"link_name":"Lowman 2000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFLowman2000"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELowman20004_3-0"},{"link_name":"Lowman 2000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFLowman2000"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"\"Certain Aspects of MAGIC in the Cryptological Background of the Various Official Investigations into the Attack on Pearl Harbor (SRH-125)\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/PTO/Magic/SRH-125/SRH-125-4.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"\"Preliminary Historical Report of the Solution of the \"B\" Machine\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20130404171310/http://cryptocellar.web.cern.ch/cryptocellar/PURPLE_History.pdf"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//cryptocellar.web.cern.ch/cryptocellar/PURPLE_History.pdf"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELowman200075_7-0"},{"link_name":"Lowman 2000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFLowman2000"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-JAAWR_8-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-JAAWR_8-1"},{"link_name":"JAAWR Hearings (1984)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.mansell.com/eo9066/1984/IA213.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"reproduced at","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.internmentarchives.com/showdoc.php?docid=00055&search_id=19269&pagenum=2"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2000158%E2%80%93159_11-0"},{"link_name":"Smith 2000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFSmith2000"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewin1982113%E2%80%93115_12-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewin1982113%E2%80%93115_12-1"},{"link_name":"Lewin 1982","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFLewin1982"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKernan199447_13-0"},{"link_name":"Kernan 1994","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFKernan1994"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalantin1988122_14-0"},{"link_name":"Galantin 1988","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFGalantin1988"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsahina2007267_15-0"},{"link_name":"Asahina 2007","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFAsahina2007"}],"text":"^ Lowman 2000, p. 39.\n\n^ Lowman 2000, pp. 52–53.\n\n^ Lowman 2000, p. 4.\n\n^ Friedman, William F. \"Certain Aspects of MAGIC in the Cryptological Background of the Various Official Investigations into the Attack on Pearl Harbor (SRH-125)\". pp. 45–47.\n\n^ Friedman, William F. (October 14, 1940). \"Preliminary Historical Report of the Solution of the \"B\" Machine\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on April 4, 2013 – via Cryptocellar.web.cern.ch.\n\n^ Stephen Fox, \"The Unknown Internment: An Oral History of the Relocation of Italian Americans during World War II\"\n\n^ Lowman 2000, p. 75.\n\n^ a b JAAWR Hearings (1984)\n\n^ Malkin (2004), cf entire chapters on subversives, spies, MAGIC, and the rationale for evacuation\n\n^ 100th Congress, S. 1009, reproduced at Internment archives. Retrieved September 19, 2006.\n\n^ Smith 2000, pp. 158–159.\n\n^ a b Lewin 1982, pp. 113–115.\n\n^ Kernan 1994, p. 47.\n\n^ Galantin 1988, p. 122.\n\n^ Asahina 2007, p. 267.","title":"Footnotes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Just Americans: How Japanese Americans Won a War at Home and Abroad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/justamericanshow00robe"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-59240-300-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59240-300-4"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-671-73651-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-671-73651-5"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-55750-455-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55750-455-5"},{"link_name":"Lewin, Ronald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Lewin"},{"link_name":"The American Magic: Codes, Ciphers and the defeat of Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/americanmagiccod00lewi"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-374-10417-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-374-10417-4"},{"link_name":"Lewin, Ronald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Lewin"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-374-10417-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-374-10417-4"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-9602736-1-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9602736-1-1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-553-81320-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-553-81320-X"}],"text":"Asahina, R. (2007), Just Americans: How Japanese Americans Won a War at Home and Abroad, Gotham Books, ISBN 978-1-59240-300-4\nGalantin, I.J. (1988), Take Her Deep!, New York: Pocket Books, ISBN 0-671-73651-5\nKernan, A. (1994), Crossing the Line: A Bluejacket's World War II Odyssey, Annapolis: Naval Institute Press; Blue Jacket Books Press, ISBN 1-55750-455-5\nLewin, Ronald (1982), The American Magic: Codes, Ciphers and the defeat of Japan, New York: Farrar Straus Giroux, ISBN 0-374-10417-4 (American edition)\nLewin, Ronald (1982), The Other Ultra, London: Hutchinson, ISBN 0-374-10417-4 (British edition)\nLowman, David D. (2000), Magic: The Untold Story, Athena Press, ISBN 0-9602736-1-1\nSmith, M. (2000), The Emperor's Codes, Bantam Books, ISBN 0-553-81320-X","title":"Sources"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-297-77279-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-297-77279-1"},{"link_name":"Farago, Ladislas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladislas_Farago"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-39441789-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-39441789-9"},{"link_name":"\"PURPLE Revealed: Simulation and Computer-aided Cryptanalysis of Angooki Taipu B\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//cryptocellar.org/pubs/PurpleRevealed.pdf"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-55750-324-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55750-324-9"},{"link_name":"Kahn, D.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Kahn_(writer)"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-684-83130-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-83130-9"}],"text":"Clark, R.W. (1977), The Man Who Broke PURPLE, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, ISBN 0-297-77279-1\nFarago, Ladislas (1967). The Broken Seal: \"Operation Magic\" and the Secret Road to Pearl Harbor. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0-39441789-9.\nFreeman, Wes; Sullivan, Geoff; Weierud, Frode. \"PURPLE Revealed: Simulation and Computer-aided Cryptanalysis of Angooki Taipu B\" (PDF).\nHolmes, W.J. (1998) [1979], Double-edged Secrets: U.S. Naval Intelligence Operations in the Pacific During World War II, Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, ISBN 1-55750-324-9\nKahn, D. (1996) [1967], \"The Scrutable Orientals\", The Codebreakers, New York: Scribner, pp. 561–613, ISBN 0-684-83130-9","title":"Further reading"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"Japanese army and diplomatic codes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_army_and_diplomatic_codes"},{"title":"Japanese naval codes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_naval_codes"},{"title":"Ultra (cryptography)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultra_(cryptography)"}]
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[{"reference":"Friedman, William F. \"Certain Aspects of MAGIC in the Cryptological Background of the Various Official Investigations into the Attack on Pearl Harbor (SRH-125)\". pp. 45–47.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/PTO/Magic/SRH-125/SRH-125-4.html","url_text":"\"Certain Aspects of MAGIC in the Cryptological Background of the Various Official Investigations into the Attack on Pearl Harbor (SRH-125)\""}]},{"reference":"Friedman, William F. (October 14, 1940). \"Preliminary Historical Report of the Solution of the \"B\" Machine\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on April 4, 2013 – via Cryptocellar.web.cern.ch.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130404171310/http://cryptocellar.web.cern.ch/cryptocellar/PURPLE_History.pdf","url_text":"\"Preliminary Historical Report of the Solution of the \"B\" Machine\""},{"url":"http://cryptocellar.web.cern.ch/cryptocellar/PURPLE_History.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Asahina, R. (2007), Just Americans: How Japanese Americans Won a War at Home and Abroad, Gotham Books, ISBN 978-1-59240-300-4","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/justamericanshow00robe","url_text":"Just Americans: How Japanese Americans Won a War at Home and Abroad"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59240-300-4","url_text":"978-1-59240-300-4"}]},{"reference":"Galantin, I.J. (1988), Take Her Deep!, New York: Pocket Books, ISBN 0-671-73651-5","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-671-73651-5","url_text":"0-671-73651-5"}]},{"reference":"Kernan, A. (1994), Crossing the Line: A Bluejacket's World War II Odyssey, Annapolis: Naval Institute Press; Blue Jacket Books Press, ISBN 1-55750-455-5","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55750-455-5","url_text":"1-55750-455-5"}]},{"reference":"Lewin, Ronald (1982), The American Magic: Codes, Ciphers and the defeat of Japan, New York: Farrar Straus Giroux, ISBN 0-374-10417-4","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Lewin","url_text":"Lewin, Ronald"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/americanmagiccod00lewi","url_text":"The American Magic: Codes, Ciphers and the defeat of Japan"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-374-10417-4","url_text":"0-374-10417-4"}]},{"reference":"Lewin, Ronald (1982), The Other Ultra, London: Hutchinson, ISBN 0-374-10417-4","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Lewin","url_text":"Lewin, Ronald"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-374-10417-4","url_text":"0-374-10417-4"}]},{"reference":"Lowman, David D. (2000), Magic: The Untold Story, Athena Press, ISBN 0-9602736-1-1","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9602736-1-1","url_text":"0-9602736-1-1"}]},{"reference":"Smith, M. (2000), The Emperor's Codes, Bantam Books, ISBN 0-553-81320-X","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-553-81320-X","url_text":"0-553-81320-X"}]},{"reference":"Clark, R.W. (1977), The Man Who Broke PURPLE, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, ISBN 0-297-77279-1","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-297-77279-1","url_text":"0-297-77279-1"}]},{"reference":"Farago, Ladislas (1967). The Broken Seal: \"Operation Magic\" and the Secret Road to Pearl Harbor. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0-39441789-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladislas_Farago","url_text":"Farago, Ladislas"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-39441789-9","url_text":"978-0-39441789-9"}]},{"reference":"Freeman, Wes; Sullivan, Geoff; Weierud, Frode. \"PURPLE Revealed: Simulation and Computer-aided Cryptanalysis of Angooki Taipu B\" (PDF).","urls":[{"url":"http://cryptocellar.org/pubs/PurpleRevealed.pdf","url_text":"\"PURPLE Revealed: Simulation and Computer-aided Cryptanalysis of Angooki Taipu B\""}]},{"reference":"Holmes, W.J. (1998) [1979], Double-edged Secrets: U.S. Naval Intelligence Operations in the Pacific During World War II, Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, ISBN 1-55750-324-9","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55750-324-9","url_text":"1-55750-324-9"}]},{"reference":"Kahn, D. (1996) [1967], \"The Scrutable Orientals\", The Codebreakers, New York: Scribner, pp. 561–613, ISBN 0-684-83130-9","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Kahn_(writer)","url_text":"Kahn, D."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-83130-9","url_text":"0-684-83130-9"}]}]
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delhi_High_Court
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Delhi High Court
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["1 History","2 Chief Justice of the Delhi High Court","3 Judges of the Delhi High Court","4 Original Side Civil Jurisdiction","5 Backlog","6 Former Chief Justices","7 District Courts","8 See also","9 References","10 External links"]
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Coordinates: 28°36′32″N 77°14′10″E / 28.6090°N 77.2361°E / 28.6090; 77.2361High Court for NCT of Delhi
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Delhi High Court28°36′32″N 77°14′10″E / 28.6090°N 77.2361°E / 28.6090; 77.2361Established31 October 1966; 57 years ago (1966-10-31)JurisdictionDelhiLocationShershah Road, Justice SB Marg, New DelhiCoordinates28°36′32″N 77°14′10″E / 28.6090°N 77.2361°E / 28.6090; 77.2361Composition methodPresidential with confirmation of Chief Justice of IndiaWebsitedelhihighcourt.nic.inChief Justice of the Delhi High CourtCurrentlyManmohan (acting) Since9 November 2023
The High Court of Delhi (Hindi: दिल्ली उच्च न्यायालय; IAST: dillī uchcha nyāyālaya) was established on 31 October 1966, through the Delhi High Court Act, 1966. It is the highest court performing judicial functions in the NCT of Delhi at the State level. Below it are the Subordinate Courts, functioning for 9 Judicial Districts namely (1) Central (2) New Delhi (3) South (4) South-West (5) North (6) North-West (7) West (8) North-East (9) East. It gets its powers from Chapter V in Part VI of the Constitution of India.
History
Initially, the High Court of Judicature at Lahore, which was established by a Letters Patent dated 21 March 1919, exercised jurisdiction over the then provinces of the Punjab and Delhi. This position continued till the Indian Independence Act, 1947 when the dominions of India and Pakistan were created.
The High Courts (Punjab) Order, 1947 established a new High Court for the territory of what was then called the East Punjab with effect from 15 August 1947. The India (Adaptation of Existing Indian Laws) Order, 1947 provided that any reference in an existing Indian law to the High Court of Judicature at Lahore, be replaced by a reference to the High Court of East Punjab.
The High Court of East Punjab started functioning from Shimla in a building called "Peterhoff". This building burnt down in January, 1981.
When the Secretariat of the Punjab Government shifted to Chandigarh in 1954-55, the High Court also shifted to Chandigarh. The High Court of Punjab, as it is later came to be called, exercised jurisdiction over Delhi through a Circuit Bench which dealt with the cases pertaining to the Union Territory of Delhi and the Delhi Administration.
In view of the importance of Delhi, its population and other considerations, Indian Parliament thought it was necessary to establish a new High Court of Delhi. This was achieved by enacting the Delhi High Court Act, 1966 on 5 September 1966.
The High Court of Delhi initially exercised jurisdiction not only over the Union Territory of Delhi, but also Himachal Pradesh. The High Court of Delhi had a Himachal Pradesh Bench at Shimla in a building called Ravenswood. The High Court of Delhi continued to exercise jurisdiction over Himachal Pradesh until the State of Himachal Pradesh Act, 1970 was enforced on 25 January 1971.
Chief Justice of the Delhi High Court
The Chief Justice of the High Court of Delhi is appointed by the President of India, in consultation with the Chief Justice of India. During the appointment, the Chief Justice of India is required to consult with two senior-most judges of the Supreme Court. For all other High Courts in India, The Chief Justices are appointed by the President of India, as provided under Article 217 of the Constitution, in consultation with the Chief Justice of India and the Governor of the State. The Chief Justice is the senior-most sitting judge of the High Court in a State. Besides performing judicial functions, he/she also exercises administrative powers, as provided under Article 229 of the Constitution of India.
Current acting Chief Justice of the Delhi High Court is Justice Manmohan. He was appointed in this position on 9 November 2023.
Judges of the Delhi High Court
The Judges of High Court of Delhi (other than the Chief Justice of the Delhi High Court) are appointed by the President by warrant under his hand and seal after consultation with the Chief Justice of India, and on the recommendation of the Chief Justice of the High Court of Delhi. The Chief Justice of India is required to consult with two senior-most judges of the Supreme Court. The Chief Justice of the High Court is also required to consult his two senior-most puisne Judges before recommending a name for appointment to the High Court. The Judges of the Delhi High Court are guided by the code of ethics as stated in ‘Restatement of Values of Judicial Life’ adopted by the Supreme Court of India, vide its resolution dated 7 May 1997.
Currently, the sanctioned strength of Judges of the High Court of Delhi is 45 permanent Judges and 15 Additional Judges. Following is the list of sitting Judges of the High Court of Delhi:
Sr. No.
Designation
Name
2
Justice
Rajiv Shakdher
3
Justice
Suresh Kumar Kait
4
Justice
Mukta Gupta
5
Justice
Najmi Waziri
6
Justice
Sanjeev Sachdeva
7
Justice
Vibhu Bakhru
8
Justice
V. Kameswar Rao
9
Justice
Yashwant Varma
10
Justice
Anu Malhotra
11
Justice
Yogesh Khanna
12
Justice
Rekha Palli
13
Justice
Prathiba M. Singh
14
Justice
Navin Chawla
15
Justice
C. Hari Shankar
16
Justice
Chandra Dhari Singh
17
Justice
Subramonium Prasad
18
Justice
Jyoti Singh
19
Justice
Prateek Jalan
20
Justice
Anup Jairam Bhambhani
21
Justice
Sanjeev Narula
22
Justice
Manoj Kumar Ohri
23
Justice
Talwant Singh
24
Justice
Rajnish Bhatnagar
25
Justice
Jasmeet Singh
26
Justice
Amit Bansal
27
Justice
Purushaindra Kumar Kaurav
28
Justice
Neena Bansal Krishna
29
Justice
Dinesh Kumar Sharma
30
Justice
Anoop Kumar Mendiratta
31
Justice
Sudhir Kumar Jain
32
Justice
Swarana Kanta Sharma
33
Justice
Tara Vitasta Ganju
34
Justice
Mini Pushkarna
35
Justice
Vikas Mahajan
36
Justice
Tushar Rao Gedela
37
Justice
Manmeet Pritam Singh Arora
38
Justice
Sachin Datta
39
Justice
Amit Mahajan
40
Justice
Gaurang Kanth
41
Justice
Saurabh Banerjee
42
Justice
Anish Dayal
43
Justice
Amit Sharma
Original Side Civil Jurisdiction
The High Court of Delhi is territory. This means that civil cases can be filed directly in the High Court, whereas the High Court generally only has appellate civil jurisdiction otherwise. The other High Courts which have original side jurisdiction are Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, and Himachal Pradesh.
Backlog
As per the report released on 2006–08, Delhi High court has a long list of pending cases. The backlog is such that it would take 466 years to resolve them. In a bid to restore public trust and confidence, Delhi court spent 5 minutes per case and disposed of 94,000 cases in 2008–10.
Former Chief Justices
#
Chief Justices
Tenure
Start
End
1
K. S. Hegde
31 Oct 1966
16 Jul 1967
-
M K M Ismail (acting)
17 Jul 1967
13 Nov 1967
2
I. D. Dua
14 Nov 1967
01 Aug 1969
3
H. R. Khanna
01 Aug 1969
22 Sep 1970
4
Hardayal Hardy
22 Sep 1971
15 May 1972
5
Narain Andley
15 May 1972
04 Jun 1974
6
T. V. R. Tatachari
04 Jun 1974
16 Oct 1978
7
V. S. Deshpande
16 Oct 1978
27 Mar 1980
8
Prakash Narain
08 Jan 1981
06 Aug 1985
9
Rajinder Sachar
06 Aug 1985
22 Dec 1985
10
D. K. Kapur
22 Dec 1985
20 Aug 1986
11
T.P.S. Chawla
20 Aug 1986
16 Aug 1987
-
R. N. Aggarwal (acting)
16 Aug 1987
21 Aug 1987
12
Yogeshwar Dayal
21 Aug 1987
18 Mar 1988
13
Rabindranath Pyne
18 Mar 1988
28 Sep 1990
14
Milap Chand Jain
28 Nov 1990
21 Jul 1991
15
G. C. Mittal
05 Aug 1991
04 Mar 1994
16
M. Jagannadha Rao
12 Apr 1994
21 Mar 1997
17
Mahinder Narain
21 Mar 1997
30 Dec 1999
18
Sam Nariman Variava
31 Dec 1999
15 Mar 2000
19
Arijit Pasayat
10 May 2000
19 Oct 2001
20
S.B. Sinha
26 Nov 2001
01 Oct 2002
21
B. C. Patel
05 Mar 2003
07 Aug 2005
22
Markandey Katju
12 Oct 2005
10 Apr 2006
23
Mukundakam Sharma
04 Dec 2006
09 Apr 2008
24
Ajit Prakash Shah
11 May 2008
12 Feb 2010
25
Dipak Misra
24 May 2010
10 Oct 2011
26
D Murugesan
26 Sep 2012
10 Jun 2013
-
Badar Durrez Ahmed (acting)
10 Jun 2013
01 Sept 2013
27
N. V. Ramana
02 Sep 2013
16 Feb 2014
-
Badar Durrez Ahmed (acting)
17 Feb 2014
20 Apr 2014
28
Gorla Rohini
21 Apr 2014
13 Apr 2017
-
Gita Mittal (acting)
14 Apr 2017
10 Aug 2018
29
Rajendra Menon
11 Aug 2018
06 Jun 2019
30
Dhirubhai Naranbhai Patel
07 Jun 2019
12 Mar 2022
-
Vipin Sanghi (acting)
13 Mar 2022
27 Jun 2022
31
Satish Chandra Sharma
28 Jun 2022
08 Nov 2023
-
Justice Manmohan (acting)
09 Nov 2023
District Courts
Main article: Courts in Delhi
The National Capital Territory of Delhi has 7 District Courts Complex that function under the High Court of Delhi. These 7 are physical locations of the district courts, whereas actually there are 11 district courts headed by individual District Judges. The Tis Hazari complex, Rohini complex and Saket complex hosts 2 Districts each, while the Karkardooma complex hosts 3 Districts and the remaining 3 complexes (Patiala, Dwarka and Rouse Avenue) host 1 District each.
The list of 7 District Courts Complex in Delhi is as follows:
S.No.
Year of establishment
Districts
Name of Court
1
1958
Central Delhi and West Delhi
Tis Hazari Courts Complex
2
1977
New Delhi
Patiala House Courts Complex
3
1993
East Delhi, North-East Delhi and Shahdara
Karkardooma Courts Complex
4
2005
North Delhi and North-West Delhi
Rohini Courts Complex
5
2008
South-West Delhi
Dwarka Courts Complex
6
2010
South Delhi and South-East Delhi
Saket Courts Complex
7
2019
Central Delhi and CBI Courts or labour Court.
Rouse Avenue Courts Complex
See also
Subordinate Courts Of Delhi High Court
High courts of India
University of Oxford v. Rameshwari Photocopy Service
References
^ "Delhi High Court Judges". Sudhir Rao. 1 January 2024. Retrieved 21 January 2024.
^ "History of the High Court of Delhi". The High Court of Delhi. 21 January 2024. Retrieved 21 January 2024.
^ "FAQs: what is the judicial hierarchy of the NCT of Delhi?". The High Court of Delhi. 21 January 2024. Retrieved 21 January 2024.
^ "FAQs: what is the sources of powers of a High Court?". The High Court of Delhi. 21 January 2024. Retrieved 21 January 2024.
^ "History of the Delhi High Court". The High Court of Delhi. 21 January 2024. Retrieved 21 January 2024.
^ "FAQs: How are Chief Justices of High Courts appointed?". The High Court of Delhi. 21 January 2024. Retrieved 21 January 2024.
^ "FAQs: What is the role of the Chief Justice of the High Court". The High Court of Delhi. 21 January 2024. Retrieved 21 January 2024.
^ "Chief Justice (CJ) and Sitting Judges". The High Court of Delhi. 21 January 2024. Retrieved 21 January 2024.
^ "FAQs: How are judges appointed to the High Court of Delhi?". The High Court of Delhi. 21 January 2024. Retrieved 21 January 2024.
^ "FAQs: Is there a code of ethics for the High Court Judges?". The High Court of Delhi. 21 January 2024. Retrieved 21 January 2024.
^ "FAQs: How many judges, other than the Chief Justice, does the High Court of Delhi have?". The High Court of Delhi. 21 January 2024. Retrieved 21 January 2024.
^ "Chief Justice and sitting Judges of Delhi HC". High Court of Delhi.
^ "Delhi High Court (Original Side) Rules, 2018" (PDF). Delhi High Court.
^ "Indian Courts". Daksh. Retrieved 4 May 2020.
^ "At 5 minutes per case, Delhi high court clears 94,000 in 2 years". The Times of India. 30 May 2012.
^ "Rouse Avenue court complex opens today". The Times of India. 9 April 2019.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Delhi High Court.
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|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hindi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindi_language"},{"link_name":"IAST","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IAST"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"NCT of Delhi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delhi"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Constitution of India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_India"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"High Court for NCT of DelhiThe High Court of Delhi (Hindi: दिल्ली उच्च न्यायालय; IAST: dillī uchcha nyāyālaya) was established on 31 October 1966, through the Delhi High Court Act, 1966.[2] It is the highest court performing judicial functions in the NCT of Delhi at the State level. Below it are the Subordinate Courts, functioning for 9 Judicial Districts namely (1) Central (2) New Delhi (3) South (4) South-West (5) North (6) North-West (7) West (8) North-East (9) East.[3] It gets its powers from Chapter V in Part VI of the Constitution of India.[4]","title":"Delhi High Court"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Punjab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjab,_India"},{"link_name":"Delhi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delhi"},{"link_name":"Indian Independence Act, 1947","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Independence_Act_1947"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"Pakistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"Shimla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shimla"},{"link_name":"Peterhoff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peterhoff,_Shimla"},{"link_name":"Chandigarh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandigarh"},{"link_name":"Chandigarh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandigarh"},{"link_name":"jurisdiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurisdiction"},{"link_name":"Delhi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delhi"},{"link_name":"Union Territory of Delhi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delhi"},{"link_name":"Delhi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delhi"},{"link_name":"Indian Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_India"},{"link_name":"Union Territory of Delhi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delhi"},{"link_name":"Himachal Pradesh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himachal_Pradesh"},{"link_name":"Shimla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shimla"},{"link_name":"Himachal Pradesh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himachal_Pradesh"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Initially, the High Court of Judicature at Lahore, which was established by a Letters Patent dated 21 March 1919, exercised jurisdiction over the then provinces of the Punjab and Delhi. This position continued till the Indian Independence Act, 1947 when the dominions of India and Pakistan were created.The High Courts (Punjab) Order, 1947 established a new High Court for the territory of what was then called the East Punjab with effect from 15 August 1947. The India (Adaptation of Existing Indian Laws) Order, 1947 provided that any reference in an existing Indian law to the High Court of Judicature at Lahore, be replaced by a reference to the High Court of East Punjab.The High Court of East Punjab started functioning from Shimla in a building called \"Peterhoff\". This building burnt down in January, 1981.When the Secretariat of the Punjab Government shifted to Chandigarh in 1954-55, the High Court also shifted to Chandigarh. The High Court of Punjab, as it is later came to be called, exercised jurisdiction over Delhi through a Circuit Bench which dealt with the cases pertaining to the Union Territory of Delhi and the Delhi Administration.In view of the importance of Delhi, its population and other considerations, Indian Parliament thought it was necessary to establish a new High Court of Delhi. This was achieved by enacting the Delhi High Court Act, 1966 on 5 September 1966.The High Court of Delhi initially exercised jurisdiction not only over the Union Territory of Delhi, but also Himachal Pradesh. The High Court of Delhi had a Himachal Pradesh Bench at Shimla in a building called Ravenswood. The High Court of Delhi continued to exercise jurisdiction over Himachal Pradesh until the State of Himachal Pradesh Act, 1970 was enforced on 25 January 1971.[5]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"President of India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India"},{"link_name":"Chief Justice of India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_India"},{"link_name":"Chief Justice of India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_India"},{"link_name":"President of India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India"},{"link_name":"Chief Justice of India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_India"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Constitution of India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_India"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"The Chief Justice of the High Court of Delhi is appointed by the President of India, in consultation with the Chief Justice of India. During the appointment, the Chief Justice of India is required to consult with two senior-most judges of the Supreme Court. For all other High Courts in India, The Chief Justices are appointed by the President of India, as provided under Article 217 of the Constitution, in consultation with the Chief Justice of India and the Governor of the State.[6] The Chief Justice is the senior-most sitting judge of the High Court in a State. Besides performing judicial functions, he/she also exercises administrative powers, as provided under Article 229 of the Constitution of India.[7]Current acting Chief Justice of the Delhi High Court is Justice Manmohan. He was appointed in this position on 9 November 2023.[8]","title":"Chief Justice of the Delhi High Court"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"President","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India"},{"link_name":"Chief Justice of India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_India"},{"link_name":"Chief Justice of India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_India"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"the Supreme Court of India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_India"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"The Judges of High Court of Delhi (other than the Chief Justice of the Delhi High Court) are appointed by the President by warrant under his hand and seal after consultation with the Chief Justice of India, and on the recommendation of the Chief Justice of the High Court of Delhi. The Chief Justice of India is required to consult with two senior-most judges of the Supreme Court. The Chief Justice of the High Court is also required to consult his two senior-most puisne Judges before recommending a name for appointment to the High Court.[9] The Judges of the Delhi High Court are guided by the code of ethics as stated in ‘Restatement of Values of Judicial Life’ adopted by the Supreme Court of India, vide its resolution dated 7 May 1997.[10]Currently, the sanctioned strength of Judges of the High Court of Delhi is 45 permanent Judges and 15 Additional Judges.[11] Following is the list of sitting Judges of the High Court of Delhi:[12]","title":"Judges of the Delhi High Court"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"civil cases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_law_(common_law)"},{"link_name":"appellate civil jurisdiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appellate_jurisdiction"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"The High Court of Delhi is territory.[13] This means that civil cases can be filed directly in the High Court, whereas the High Court generally only has appellate civil jurisdiction otherwise. The other High Courts which have original side jurisdiction are Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, and Himachal Pradesh.[14]","title":"Original Side Civil Jurisdiction"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"As per the report released on 2006–08, Delhi High court has a long list of pending cases. The backlog is such that it would take 466 years to resolve them. In a bid to restore public trust and confidence, Delhi court spent 5 minutes per case and disposed of 94,000 cases in 2008–10.[15]","title":"Backlog"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Former Chief Justices"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"National Capital Territory of Delhi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Capital_Territory_of_Delhi"}],"text":"The National Capital Territory of Delhi has 7 District Courts Complex that function under the High Court of Delhi. These 7 are physical locations of the district courts, whereas actually there are 11 district courts headed by individual District Judges. The Tis Hazari complex, Rohini complex and Saket complex hosts 2 Districts each, while the Karkardooma complex hosts 3 Districts and the remaining 3 complexes (Patiala, Dwarka and Rouse Avenue) host 1 District each.The list of 7 District Courts Complex in Delhi is as follows:","title":"District Courts"}]
|
[]
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[{"title":"Subordinate Courts Of Delhi High Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subordinate_Courts_Of_Delhi_High_Court"},{"title":"High courts of India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_courts_of_India"},{"title":"University of Oxford v. Rameshwari Photocopy Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Oxford_v._Rameshwari_Photocopy_Service"}]
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska_Interior
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Interior Alaska
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["1 Climate","2 Alaska Natives","3 Notes","4 References"]
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Coordinates: 65°N 152°W / 65°N 152°W / 65; -152Geographic region
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Interior Alaska.
Fall in Interior Alaska.
Interior Alaska is the central region of Alaska's territory, roughly bounded by the Alaska Range to the south and the Brooks Range to the north. It is largely wilderness. Mountains include Denali in the Alaska Range, the Wrangell Mountains, and the Ray Mountains. The native people of the interior are Alaskan Athabaskans. The largest city in the interior is Fairbanks, Alaska's second-largest city, in the Tanana Valley. Other towns include North Pole, just southeast of Fairbanks, Eagle, Tok, Glennallen, Delta Junction, Nenana, Anderson, Healy and Cantwell. The interior region has an estimated population of 113,154.
Climate
Northern Lights and Big Dipper at Fairbanks, AK during September.
Interior Alaska experiences extreme seasonal temperature variability. Winter temperatures in Fairbanks average −12 °F (−24 °C) and summer temperatures average +62 °F (+17 °C). Temperatures there have been recorded as low as −65 °F (−54 °C) in mid-winter, and as high as +99 °F (+37 °C) in summer. Both the highest and lowest temperature records for the state were set in the Interior, with 100 °F (38 °C) in Fort Yukon and −80 °F (−62 °C) in Prospect Creek. Temperatures within a given winter are highly variable as well; extended cold snaps of forty below zero can be followed by unseasonable warmth with temperatures above freezing due to chinook wind effects.
Summers can be warm and dry for extended periods creating ideal fire weather conditions. Weak thunderstorms produce mostly dry lightning, sparking wildfires that are mostly left to burn themselves out as they are often far from populated areas. The 2004 season set a new record with over 6,600,000 acres (27,000 km2) burned.
Lakes and peaks of the Alaska Range seen from the Denali Highway
The average annual precipitation in Fairbanks is 11.3 inches (287 mm). Most of this comes in the form of snow during the winter. Most storms in the interior of Alaska originate in the Gulf of Alaska, south of the state, though these storms often have limited precipitation due to a rain shadow effect caused by the Alaska Range.
On clear winter nights, the aurora borealis can often be seen in the sky. Like all subarctic regions, the months from May to July in the summer have no night, only a twilight during the night hours. The months of November to January have little daylight. Fairbanks receives an average 21 hours of daylight between May 10 and August 2 each summer, and an average of less than four hours of daylight between November 18 and January 24 each winter.
The interior of Alaska is largely underlined by discontinuous permafrost, which grades to continuous permafrost as the Arctic Circle is approached.
Summer 2009 Fires (outlined in red)
Fires in Interior Alaska from July 7, 2009.
The thick pall of smoke the fires were creating (August 2, 2009).
Visible, short wave and near-infrared image showing burned areas (brick red) and unburned vegetation (bright green) (August 2, 2009).
Climate data for Fairbanks International Airport, Alaska (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1904–present)
Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year
Record high °F (°C)
52(11)
50(10)
56(13)
76(24)
90(32)
96(36)
99(37)
93(34)
84(29)
72(22)
54(12)
58(14)
99(37)
Mean maximum °F (°C)
29.7(−1.3)
35.4(1.9)
45.1(7.3)
61.9(16.6)
76.6(24.8)
85.1(29.5)
85.0(29.4)
80.0(26.7)
69.3(20.7)
54.8(12.7)
32.7(0.4)
32.2(0.1)
87.5(30.8)
Mean daily maximum °F (°C)
0.6(−17.4)
11.6(−11.3)
24.9(−3.9)
45.6(7.6)
62.1(16.7)
71.8(22.1)
72.7(22.6)
66.4(19.1)
55.3(12.9)
34.1(1.2)
12.3(−10.9)
4.3(−15.4)
38.5(3.6)
Daily mean °F (°C)
−8.3(−22.4)
0.2(−17.7)
10.7(−11.8)
33.7(0.9)
50.3(10.2)
61.0(16.1)
62.9(17.2)
57.0(13.9)
45.8(7.7)
26.2(−3.2)
4.1(−15.5)
−4.3(−20.2)
28.3(−2.1)
Mean daily minimum °F (°C)
−17.2(−27.3)
−11.2(−24.0)
−3.4(−19.7)
21.7(−5.7)
38.6(3.7)
50.2(10.1)
53.1(11.7)
47.6(8.7)
36.2(2.3)
18.4(−7.6)
−4.1(−20.1)
−13.0(−25.0)
18.1(−7.7)
Mean minimum °F (°C)
−43.2(−41.8)
−36.0(−37.8)
−27.3(−32.9)
−2.4(−19.1)
26.2(−3.2)
40.2(4.6)
44.2(6.8)
36.1(2.3)
23.4(−4.8)
−2.9(−19.4)
−25.9(−32.2)
−36.5(−38.1)
−45.8(−43.2)
Record low °F (°C)
−66(−54)
−58(−50)
−56(−49)
−32(−36)
−1(−18)
28(−2)
30(−1)
21(−6)
3(−16)
−28(−33)
−54(−48)
−62(−52)
−66(−54)
Average precipitation inches (mm)
0.61(15)
0.52(13)
0.40(10)
0.34(8.6)
0.54(14)
1.48(38)
2.26(57)
2.10(53)
1.35(34)
0.76(19)
0.74(19)
0.57(14)
11.67(296)
Average snowfall inches (cm)
10.2(26)
10.0(25)
6.5(17)
3.1(7.9)
0.9(2.3)
0.0(0.0)
0.0(0.0)
0.0(0.0)
2.3(5.8)
8.2(21)
12.5(32)
10.9(28)
64.6(164)
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.01 in)
8.7
6.9
5.7
3.7
6.2
10.8
12.8
13.5
10.7
9.8
9.5
8.8
107.1
Average snowy days (≥ 0.1 in)
10.2
8.3
6.7
2.6
0.6
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.3
8.3
11.2
10.4
59.6
Average relative humidity (%)
69.3
65.5
60.4
56.2
50.2
56.6
64.2
70.8
68.9
74.1
72.8
71.3
65.0
Average dew point °F (°C)
−17.0(−27.2)
−11.9(−24.4)
−0.2(−17.9)
16.2(−8.8)
29.7(−1.3)
42.6(5.9)
48.7(9.3)
46.0(7.8)
34.5(1.4)
17.4(−8.1)
−3.8(−19.9)
−13.2(−25.1)
15.8(−9.0)
Mean monthly sunshine hours
54
120
224
302
319
334
274
164
122
85
71
36
2,105
Source 1: NOAA (relative humidity 1961–1990)
Source 2: Danish Meteorological Institute (sun, 1931–1960)
Alaska Natives
While the vast majority of indigenous Native people of Interior Alaska are Athabaskan Indians, large Yup'ik and Iñupiaq populations reside in Fairbanks.
The federally recognized tribes of Interior Alaska:
Council of Athabascan Tribal Governments (CATG): Beaver Village, Birch Creek Tribe, Circle Native Community, Native Village of Fort Yukon, Native Village of Venetie Tribal Government (also known as Arctic Village and Village of Venetie).
Tanana Chiefs Conference (TCC): Allakaket Village, Alatna Village, Village of Anaktuvuk Pass, Chalkyitsik Village, Village of Dot Lake, Native Village of Eagle, Evansville Village (also known as Bettles Field), Galena Village (also known as Louden Village), Healy Lake Village, Hughes Village, Huslia Village, Village of Kaltag, Koyukuk Native Village, Manley Hot Springs Village, Native Village of Minto, Nenana Native Association, Nikolai Village (Edzeno’ Native Council), Northway Village, Nulato Village, Rampart Village, Native Village of Ruby, Native Village of Stevens, Native Village of Tanacross, Telida Village, Native Village of Tetlin.
Tanana Tribal Council: Native Village of Tanana.
Other places in the Interior Service Area not Federally Recognized as Tribes: Alcan, Anderson, Big Delta, Canyon Village, Central, Chatanika, Chicken, Clear, Delta Junction, Fairbanks, Fox, Indian River, Kokrines, Lake Minchumina, Medfra, North Pole, Salcha, Tok, Toklat, Tolovana, Wiseman, Wood River.
Notes
^ Mean monthly maxima and minima (i.e. the highest and lowest temperature readings during an entire month or year) calculated based on data at said location from 1991 to 2020.
^ Records for Fairbanks have been kept at the Fairbanks International Airport since December 1929 and at an undisclosed location from September 1904 to November 1929. For more information, see ThreadEx
References
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Alaska Interior.
^ "State Extremes". Western Regional Climate Center, Desert Research Institute. Archived from the original on 5 January 2007. Retrieved 2007-01-03.
^ Shulski, p. 155
^ Alaska Climate Research Center. "Fairbanks International Airport, AK" Archived January 11, 2013, at the Wayback Machine, climate.gi.alaska.edu. Accessed October 4, 2009.
^ "NOWData - NOAA Online Weather Data". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved May 8, 2021.
^ "Station: FAIRBANKS INTL AP, AK". U.S. Climate Normals 2020: U.S. Monthly Climate Normals (1991-2020). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on May 9, 2023. Retrieved May 8, 2021.
^ "WMO Climate Normals for FAIRBANKS/INTL, AK 1961–1990". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on May 9, 2023. Retrieved August 31, 2020.
^ "Northern Alaska Climate (Contains high temperature records for July 28, 1919)". National Weather Service. Archived from the original on July 30, 2023. Retrieved July 30, 2023.
^ Cappelen, John; Jensen, Jens. "USA - Fairbanks, Alaska" (PDF). Climate Data for Selected Stations (1931-1960) (in Danish). Danish Meteorological Institute. p. 303. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 27, 2013. Retrieved March 14, 2016.
^ a b ihs.gov: Interior Alaska Service Area
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65°N 152°W / 65°N 152°W / 65; -152
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Interior_Alaska_Stub.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Interior_fall.jpg"},{"link_name":"Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska"},{"link_name":"Alaska Range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska_Range"},{"link_name":"Brooks Range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brooks_Range"},{"link_name":"wilderness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilderness"},{"link_name":"Denali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denali"},{"link_name":"Alaska Range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska_Range"},{"link_name":"Wrangell Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrangell_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Ray Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_Mountains"},{"link_name":"native people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska_Natives"},{"link_name":"Alaskan Athabaskans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaskan_Athabaskans"},{"link_name":"Fairbanks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairbanks,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska"},{"link_name":"Tanana Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanana_Valley"},{"link_name":"North Pole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Pole,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Eagle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eagle,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Tok","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tok,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Glennallen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glennallen,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Delta Junction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_Junction,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Nenana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nenana,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Anderson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anderson,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Healy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healy,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Cantwell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cantwell,_Alaska"}],"text":"Geographic regionInterior Alaska.Fall in Interior Alaska.Interior Alaska is the central region of Alaska's territory, roughly bounded by the Alaska Range to the south and the Brooks Range to the north. It is largely wilderness. Mountains include Denali in the Alaska Range, the Wrangell Mountains, and the Ray Mountains. The native people of the interior are Alaskan Athabaskans. The largest city in the interior is Fairbanks, Alaska's second-largest city, in the Tanana Valley. Other towns include North Pole, just southeast of Fairbanks, Eagle, Tok, Glennallen, Delta Junction, Nenana, Anderson, Healy and Cantwell. The interior region has an estimated population of 113,154.","title":"Interior Alaska"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Big_Dipper_and_Aurora.jpg"},{"link_name":"F","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fahrenheit"},{"link_name":"C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celsius"},{"link_name":"Fort Yukon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Yukon,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Prospect Creek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prospect_Creek,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DRI-1"},{"link_name":"chinook wind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinook_wind"},{"link_name":"2004 season","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Alaska_fire_season"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lakesalaskarange.JPG"},{"link_name":"Denali Highway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denali_Highway"},{"link_name":"Gulf of Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Alaska"},{"link_name":"rain shadow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rain_shadow"},{"link_name":"Alaska Range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska_Range"},{"link_name":"aurora borealis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurora_borealis"},{"link_name":"permafrost","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permafrost"},{"link_name":"Arctic Circle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_Circle"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fires_in_Interior_Alaska.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hundreds_of_Thousands_of_Acres_Burning_in_Interior_Alaska_(natural).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hundreds_of_Thousands_of_Acres_Burning_in_Interior_Alaska.jpg"},{"link_name":"infrared","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared"},{"link_name":"Fairbanks International Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairbanks_International_Airport"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"precipitation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precipitation"},{"link_name":"relative humidity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_humidity"},{"link_name":"dew point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dew_point"},{"link_name":"sunshine hours","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunshine_duration"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"NOAA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NOAA"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NWS_Fairbanks,_AK_(PAFG)-6"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NCDC_txt_PAFA-7"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NOAA_RH-8"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JulyRecordHigh-9"},{"link_name":"Danish Meteorological Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_Meteorological_Institute"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DMI-10"}],"text":"Northern Lights and Big Dipper at Fairbanks, AK during September.Interior Alaska experiences extreme seasonal temperature variability. Winter temperatures in Fairbanks average −12 °F (−24 °C) and summer temperatures average +62 °F (+17 °C). Temperatures there have been recorded as low as −65 °F (−54 °C) in mid-winter, and as high as +99 °F (+37 °C) in summer. Both the highest and lowest temperature records for the state were set in the Interior, with 100 °F (38 °C) in Fort Yukon and −80 °F (−62 °C) in Prospect Creek.[1] Temperatures within a given winter are highly variable as well; extended cold snaps of forty below zero can be followed by unseasonable warmth with temperatures above freezing due to chinook wind effects.Summers can be warm and dry for extended periods creating ideal fire weather conditions. Weak thunderstorms produce mostly dry lightning, sparking wildfires that are mostly left to burn themselves out as they are often far from populated areas. The 2004 season set a new record with over 6,600,000 acres (27,000 km2) burned.Lakes and peaks of the Alaska Range seen from the Denali HighwayThe average annual precipitation in Fairbanks is 11.3 inches (287 mm). Most of this comes in the form of snow during the winter. Most storms in the interior of Alaska originate in the Gulf of Alaska, south of the state, though these storms often have limited precipitation due to a rain shadow effect caused by the Alaska Range.On clear winter nights, the aurora borealis can often be seen in the sky. Like all subarctic regions, the months from May to July in the summer have no night, only a twilight during the night hours. The months of November to January have little daylight. Fairbanks receives an average 21 hours of daylight between May 10 and August 2 each summer, and an average of less than four hours of daylight between November 18 and January 24 each winter.The interior of Alaska is largely underlined by discontinuous permafrost, which grades to continuous permafrost as the Arctic Circle is approached.Summer 2009 Fires (outlined in red)\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tFires in Interior Alaska from July 7, 2009.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe thick pall of smoke the fires were creating (August 2, 2009).\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tVisible, short wave and near-infrared image showing burned areas (brick red) and unburned vegetation (bright green) (August 2, 2009).Climate data for Fairbanks International Airport, Alaska (1991–2020 normals,[a] extremes 1904–present[b])\n\n\nMonth\n\nJan\n\nFeb\n\nMar\n\nApr\n\nMay\n\nJun\n\nJul\n\nAug\n\nSep\n\nOct\n\nNov\n\nDec\n\nYear\n\n\nRecord high °F (°C)\n\n52(11)\n\n50(10)\n\n56(13)\n\n76(24)\n\n90(32)\n\n96(36)\n\n99(37)\n\n93(34)\n\n84(29)\n\n72(22)\n\n54(12)\n\n58(14)\n\n99(37)\n\n\nMean maximum °F (°C)\n\n29.7(−1.3)\n\n35.4(1.9)\n\n45.1(7.3)\n\n61.9(16.6)\n\n76.6(24.8)\n\n85.1(29.5)\n\n85.0(29.4)\n\n80.0(26.7)\n\n69.3(20.7)\n\n54.8(12.7)\n\n32.7(0.4)\n\n32.2(0.1)\n\n87.5(30.8)\n\n\nMean daily maximum °F (°C)\n\n0.6(−17.4)\n\n11.6(−11.3)\n\n24.9(−3.9)\n\n45.6(7.6)\n\n62.1(16.7)\n\n71.8(22.1)\n\n72.7(22.6)\n\n66.4(19.1)\n\n55.3(12.9)\n\n34.1(1.2)\n\n12.3(−10.9)\n\n4.3(−15.4)\n\n38.5(3.6)\n\n\nDaily mean °F (°C)\n\n−8.3(−22.4)\n\n0.2(−17.7)\n\n10.7(−11.8)\n\n33.7(0.9)\n\n50.3(10.2)\n\n61.0(16.1)\n\n62.9(17.2)\n\n57.0(13.9)\n\n45.8(7.7)\n\n26.2(−3.2)\n\n4.1(−15.5)\n\n−4.3(−20.2)\n\n28.3(−2.1)\n\n\nMean daily minimum °F (°C)\n\n−17.2(−27.3)\n\n−11.2(−24.0)\n\n−3.4(−19.7)\n\n21.7(−5.7)\n\n38.6(3.7)\n\n50.2(10.1)\n\n53.1(11.7)\n\n47.6(8.7)\n\n36.2(2.3)\n\n18.4(−7.6)\n\n−4.1(−20.1)\n\n−13.0(−25.0)\n\n18.1(−7.7)\n\n\nMean minimum °F (°C)\n\n−43.2(−41.8)\n\n−36.0(−37.8)\n\n−27.3(−32.9)\n\n−2.4(−19.1)\n\n26.2(−3.2)\n\n40.2(4.6)\n\n44.2(6.8)\n\n36.1(2.3)\n\n23.4(−4.8)\n\n−2.9(−19.4)\n\n−25.9(−32.2)\n\n−36.5(−38.1)\n\n−45.8(−43.2)\n\n\nRecord low °F (°C)\n\n−66(−54)\n\n−58(−50)\n\n−56(−49)\n\n−32(−36)\n\n−1(−18)\n\n28(−2)\n\n30(−1)\n\n21(−6)\n\n3(−16)\n\n−28(−33)\n\n−54(−48)\n\n−62(−52)\n\n−66(−54)\n\n\nAverage precipitation inches (mm)\n\n0.61(15)\n\n0.52(13)\n\n0.40(10)\n\n0.34(8.6)\n\n0.54(14)\n\n1.48(38)\n\n2.26(57)\n\n2.10(53)\n\n1.35(34)\n\n0.76(19)\n\n0.74(19)\n\n0.57(14)\n\n11.67(296)\n\n\nAverage snowfall inches (cm)\n\n10.2(26)\n\n10.0(25)\n\n6.5(17)\n\n3.1(7.9)\n\n0.9(2.3)\n\n0.0(0.0)\n\n0.0(0.0)\n\n0.0(0.0)\n\n2.3(5.8)\n\n8.2(21)\n\n12.5(32)\n\n10.9(28)\n\n64.6(164)\n\n\nAverage precipitation days (≥ 0.01 in)\n\n8.7\n\n6.9\n\n5.7\n\n3.7\n\n6.2\n\n10.8\n\n12.8\n\n13.5\n\n10.7\n\n9.8\n\n9.5\n\n8.8\n\n107.1\n\n\nAverage snowy days (≥ 0.1 in)\n\n10.2\n\n8.3\n\n6.7\n\n2.6\n\n0.6\n\n0.0\n\n0.0\n\n0.0\n\n1.3\n\n8.3\n\n11.2\n\n10.4\n\n59.6\n\n\nAverage relative humidity (%)\n\n69.3\n\n65.5\n\n60.4\n\n56.2\n\n50.2\n\n56.6\n\n64.2\n\n70.8\n\n68.9\n\n74.1\n\n72.8\n\n71.3\n\n65.0\n\n\nAverage dew point °F (°C)\n\n−17.0(−27.2)\n\n−11.9(−24.4)\n\n−0.2(−17.9)\n\n16.2(−8.8)\n\n29.7(−1.3)\n\n42.6(5.9)\n\n48.7(9.3)\n\n46.0(7.8)\n\n34.5(1.4)\n\n17.4(−8.1)\n\n−3.8(−19.9)\n\n−13.2(−25.1)\n\n15.8(−9.0)\n\n\nMean monthly sunshine hours\n\n54\n\n120\n\n224\n\n302\n\n319\n\n334\n\n274\n\n164\n\n122\n\n85\n\n71\n\n36\n\n2,105\n\n\nSource 1: [2][3] NOAA (relative humidity 1961–1990)[4][5][6][7]\n\n\nSource 2: Danish Meteorological Institute (sun, 1931–1960)[8]","title":"Climate"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Native","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska_Natives"},{"link_name":"Athabaskan Indians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaskan_Athabaskans"},{"link_name":"Yup'ik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yup%27ik"},{"link_name":"Iñupiaq","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C3%B1upiaq"},{"link_name":"Fairbanks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairbanks,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Interiorservice-11"},{"link_name":"federally recognized tribes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Alaska_Native_tribal_entities"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Interiorservice-11"},{"link_name":"Council of Athabascan Tribal Governments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Council_of_Athabascan_Tribal_Governments&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Beaver Village","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Beaver_Village&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Birch Creek Tribe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birch_Creek_Tribe"},{"link_name":"Circle Native Community","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circle_Native_Community"},{"link_name":"Native Village of Fort Yukon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Village_of_Fort_Yukon"},{"link_name":"Native Village of Venetie Tribal Government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Village_of_Venetie_Tribal_Government"},{"link_name":"Tanana Chiefs Conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanana_Chiefs_Conference"},{"link_name":"Allakaket Village","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allakaket_Village"},{"link_name":"Alatna Village","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alatna_Village"},{"link_name":"Village of Anaktuvuk Pass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Village_of_Anaktuvuk_Pass"},{"link_name":"Chalkyitsik Village","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalkyitsik_Village"},{"link_name":"Village of Dot Lake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Village_of_Dot_Lake"},{"link_name":"Native Village of Eagle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Village_of_Eagle"},{"link_name":"Evansville Village","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Evansville_Village&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Galena Village","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Galena_Village&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Healy Lake Village","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Healy_Lake_Village&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Hughes Village","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hughes_Village&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Huslia Village","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Huslia_Village&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Village of Kaltag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Village_of_Kaltag&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Koyukuk Native Village","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Koyukuk_Native_Village&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Manley Hot Springs Village","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manley_Hot_Springs_Village&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Native Village of Minto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Native_Village_of_Minto&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Nenana Native Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nenana_Native_Association"},{"link_name":"Nikolai Village","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nikolai_Village&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Northway Village","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northway_Village"},{"link_name":"Nulato Village","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nulato_Village&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Rampart Village","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rampart_Village&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Native Village of Ruby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Native_Village_of_Ruby&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Native Village of Stevens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Native_Village_of_Stevens&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Native Village of Tanacross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Native_Village_of_Tanacross&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Telida Village","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telida_Village&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Native Village of Tetlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Village_of_Tetlin"},{"link_name":"Tanana Tribal Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tanana_Tribal_Council&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Native Village of Tanana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Native_Village_of_Tanana&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Tribes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribe_(Native_American)"},{"link_name":"Alcan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcan_Border,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Anderson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anderson,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Big Delta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Delta,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Canyon Village","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Canyon_Village,_Alaska&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Central","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Chatanika","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chatanika,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Chicken","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicken,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Clear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clear,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Delta Junction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_Junction,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Fairbanks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairbanks,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Fox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fox,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Indian River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indian_River,_Alaska&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Kokrines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kokrines,_Alaska&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Lake Minchumina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Minchumina,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Medfra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medfra,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"North Pole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Pole,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Salcha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salcha,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Tok","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tok,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Toklat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Toklat,_Alaska&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Tolovana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tolovana,_Alaska&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Wiseman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiseman,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Wood River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wood_River,_Alaska&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"text":"While the vast majority of indigenous Native people of Interior Alaska are Athabaskan Indians, large Yup'ik and Iñupiaq populations reside in Fairbanks.[9]The federally recognized tribes of Interior Alaska:[9]Council of Athabascan Tribal Governments (CATG): Beaver Village, Birch Creek Tribe, Circle Native Community, Native Village of Fort Yukon, Native Village of Venetie Tribal Government (also known as Arctic Village and Village of Venetie).\nTanana Chiefs Conference (TCC): Allakaket Village, Alatna Village, Village of Anaktuvuk Pass, Chalkyitsik Village, Village of Dot Lake, Native Village of Eagle, Evansville Village (also known as Bettles Field), Galena Village (also known as Louden Village), Healy Lake Village, Hughes Village, Huslia Village, Village of Kaltag, Koyukuk Native Village, Manley Hot Springs Village, Native Village of Minto, Nenana Native Association, Nikolai Village (Edzeno’ Native Council), Northway Village, Nulato Village, Rampart Village, Native Village of Ruby, Native Village of Stevens, Native Village of Tanacross, Telida Village, Native Village of Tetlin.\nTanana Tribal Council: Native Village of Tanana.\nOther places in the Interior Service Area not Federally Recognized as Tribes: Alcan, Anderson, Big Delta, Canyon Village, Central, Chatanika, Chicken, Clear, Delta Junction, Fairbanks, Fox, Indian River, Kokrines, Lake Minchumina, Medfra, North Pole, Salcha, Tok, Toklat, Tolovana, Wiseman, Wood River.","title":"Alaska Natives"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"ThreadEx","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//threadex.rcc-acis.org/"}],"text":"^ Mean monthly maxima and minima (i.e. the highest and lowest temperature readings during an entire month or year) calculated based on data at said location from 1991 to 2020.\n\n^ Records for Fairbanks have been kept at the Fairbanks International Airport since December 1929 and at an undisclosed location from September 1904 to November 1929. For more information, see ThreadEx","title":"Notes"}]
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[{"image_text":"Interior Alaska.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Interior_Alaska_Stub.png/220px-Interior_Alaska_Stub.png"},{"image_text":"Fall in Interior Alaska.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Interior_fall.jpg/220px-Interior_fall.jpg"},{"image_text":"Northern Lights and Big Dipper at Fairbanks, AK during September.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Big_Dipper_and_Aurora.jpg/220px-Big_Dipper_and_Aurora.jpg"},{"image_text":"Lakes and peaks of the Alaska Range seen from the Denali Highway","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Lakesalaskarange.JPG/220px-Lakesalaskarange.JPG"}]
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[{"reference":"\"State Extremes\". Western Regional Climate Center, Desert Research Institute. Archived from the original on 5 January 2007. Retrieved 2007-01-03.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/htmlfiles/state.extremes.html","url_text":"\"State Extremes\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desert_Research_Institute","url_text":"Desert Research Institute"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070105015744/http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/htmlfiles/state.extremes.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"NOWData - NOAA Online Weather Data\". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved May 8, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.weather.gov/wrh/climate?wfo=afg","url_text":"\"NOWData - NOAA Online Weather Data\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration","url_text":"National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration"}]},{"reference":"\"Station: FAIRBANKS INTL AP, AK\". U.S. Climate Normals 2020: U.S. Monthly Climate Normals (1991-2020). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on May 9, 2023. Retrieved May 8, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230509054622/https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/services/data/v1?dataset=normals-monthly-1991-2020&startDate=0001-01-01&endDate=9996-12-31&stations=USW00026411&format=pdf","url_text":"\"Station: FAIRBANKS INTL AP, AK\""},{"url":"https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/services/data/v1?dataset=normals-monthly-1991-2020&startDate=0001-01-01&endDate=9996-12-31&stations=USW00026411&format=pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"WMO Climate Normals for FAIRBANKS/INTL, AK 1961–1990\". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on May 9, 2023. Retrieved August 31, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230509054600/ftp://ftp.atdd.noaa.gov/pub/GCOS/WMO-Normals/TABLES/REG_IV/US/GROUP1/70261.TXT","url_text":"\"WMO Climate Normals for FAIRBANKS/INTL, AK 1961–1990\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgftp//ftp.atdd.noaa.gov/pub/GCOS/WMO-Normals/TABLES/REG_IV/US/GROUP1/70261.TXT","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Northern Alaska Climate (Contains high temperature records for July 28, 1919)\". National Weather Service. Archived from the original on July 30, 2023. Retrieved July 30, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230730115427/https://www.weather.gov/afg/localClimate","url_text":"\"Northern Alaska Climate (Contains high temperature records for July 28, 1919)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Weather_Service","url_text":"National Weather Service"},{"url":"https://www.weather.gov/afg/localClimate","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Cappelen, John; Jensen, Jens. \"USA - Fairbanks, Alaska\" (PDF). Climate Data for Selected Stations (1931-1960) (in Danish). Danish Meteorological Institute. p. 303. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 27, 2013. Retrieved March 14, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130427173827/http://www.dmi.dk/dmi/tr01-17.pdf","url_text":"\"USA - Fairbanks, Alaska\""},{"url":"http://www.dmi.dk/dmi/tr01-17.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Leaphorn
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Joe Leaphorn
|
["1 Character biography","1.1 Personal life and education","1.2 Professional life","2 Reception","3 Bibliography","4 References"]
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Fictional character
Joe LeaphornThe Leaphorn and Chee series characterFirst appearanceThe Blessing WayLast appearanceThe Shape ShifterCreated byTony HillermanPortrayed byFred WardWes StudiZahn McClarnonIn-universe informationGenderMaleOccupationNavajo tribal police officerNationalityNative-American
Lieutenant Joe Leaphorn is a fictional character created by the twentieth-century American mystery writer Tony Hillerman. He is one of the two officers of the Navajo Tribal Police who are featured in a number of Hillerman's novels. The other officer is Jim Chee.
Character biography
Personal life and education
The mother of Joe Leaphorn was Anna Gorman. His maternal grandfather was Hosteen Klee Thlumie, called as Hosteen Klee by young Leaphorn. As a child, Leaphorn was told the stories of the Navajo way of life (Listening Woman) by Thlumie. He was educated in the lower grades near home on the reservation, but sent to boarding school for the higher grades. He attended college at Arizona State University, where he completed a master's degree in anthropology, writing a thesis paper (Dance Hall of the Dead). In addition to anthropology, he has a lifelong interest in the many religions of American Indians and peoples of the world. In the earlier books of the series, Leaphorn is married to the love of his life, Emma. They have no children.
Later, Leaphorn becomes attracted to an anthropologist named Louisa Bourebonette, whom he meets while working on a case in Coyote Waits. Leaphorn is always in love with Emma, but he enjoys Louisa's sharp mind and her company.
Leaphorn lives in the Navajo capital of Window Rock, Arizona.
Professional life
Joe Leaphorn is a member of the Navajo Tribal Police (now Navajo Nation Police)
Educated in assimilationist Indian boarding schools operated by the Bureau of Indian Affairs, he is not as well versed in Navajo rituals, though he has attended the usual ceremonies. He is fluent in Navajo and in English. In the first three novels of the series, he has no staff; he reports to Captain Largo in the Navajo Tribal Police and works with officers of other tribes and often with federal investigative agencies. Leaphorn's approach to his cases is informed by some Navajo, or Diné, tradition, but also by Anglo-European logic.
Leaphorn holds a Navajo world view, with no expectation of heaven in the afterlife, instead a need to find his place in this life and lead his life well. He follows the rules of courtesy of the Navajo as to the ebb and flow of conversations, and his ability to handle demanding characters from the white world around him. In Talking God, the year following the death of his wife, Leaphorn has a Blessing Way ceremony done for him by Jim Chee, an event that both find beneficial.
In his career he works in a number of locations, including a brief stint training at the FBI headquarters in Washington, D.C. Five months before The Fallen Man, Leaphorn retires, and as part of the plot he gets a commission as a private investigator.
Reception
Several reviewers have praised Hillerman's culturally sensitive depiction of the Leaphorn character. Kirkus Reviews noted the "quiet, wise presence of Leaphorn himself, unselfconsciously drawing on the best of two clashing cultures." Another Kirkus review praised "Hillerman's anything but wooden Indians and the way in which he informs their way of life with affection and dignity." Greg Herren wrote, "what makes Skinwalkers so outstanding, for me, is that it takes the reader inside the world of the Navajo reservation".
Bibliography
Joe Leaphorn appears in the following novels:
The Blessing Way (1970) ISBN 0-06-100001-9
Dance Hall of the Dead (1973) ISBN 0-06-100002-7
Listening Woman (1978) ISBN 0-06-100029-9
In the three novels published between 1978 and 1986, the stories focus on the younger Jim Chee.
In each of the following Leaphorn and Jim Chee work together:
Skinwalkers (1986) ISBN 0-06-100017-5
A Thief of Time (1988) ISBN 0-06-100004-3
Talking God (1989) ISBN 0-06-109918-X
Coyote Waits (1990) ISBN 0-06-109932-5
Sacred Clowns (1993) ISBN 0-06-109260-6
The Fallen Man (1996) ISBN 0-06-109288-6
The First Eagle (1998) ISBN 0-06-109785-3
Hunting Badger (1999) ISBN 0-06-109786-1
The Wailing Wind (2002) ISBN 0-06-019444-8
The Sinister Pig (2003) ISBN 0-06-019443-X
Skeleton Man (2004) ISBN 0-06-056344-3
The Shape Shifter (2006) ISBN 0-06-056345-1
Spider Woman's Daughter (October 2013) (written by Anne Hillerman) HarperCollins ISBN 9780062270481
Rock With Wings (May 2015) (written by Anne Hillerman) HarperCollins ISBN 9780062270511
Song of the Lion (April 2017) (written by Anne Hillerman)
Skinwalkers, A Thief of Time and Coyote Waits were each adapted for television as part of the American Mystery! series by the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS)
References
^ George N. Dove and Earl F. Bargainnier (eds), Cops and Constables: American and British Fictional Policemen, Popular Press, 1986, pp. 98–113, ISBN 0879723343.
^ "Listening Woman". Kirkus Reviews (April 1, 1978 ed.). April 4, 2012. Retrieved May 28, 2014.
^ "Dance Hall of the Dead". Kirkus Reviews (October 1, 1973 ed.). April 4, 2012. Retrieved 20 May 2014.
^ Herren, Greg (February 2003). "Skinwalkers". Reviewing the Evidence, Reviews. Retrieved March 7, 2012.
vteWorks by Tony HillermanJoe Leaphorn / Jim CheeNavajo Tribal Police novels
The Blessing Way
Dance Hall of the Dead
Listening Woman
People of Darkness
The Dark Wind
The Ghostway
Skinwalkers
A Thief of Time
Talking God
Coyote Waits
Sacred Clowns
The Fallen Man
The First Eagle
Hunting Badger
The Wailing Wind
The Sinister Pig
Skeleton Man
The Shape Shifter
Other novels
The Fly on the Wall (1971)
Finding Moon
The Boy Who Made Dragonfly (for children) (1972)
Buster Mesquite's Cowboy Band (for children) (1973)
Nonfiction
Seldom Disappointed
The Great Taos Bank Robbery
The Spell of New Mexico
Indian Country
Talking Mysteries (with Ernie Bulow)
The Tony Hillerman Companion: A Comprehensive Guide to His Life and Work
Canyon De Chelly
Kilroy Was There: A Gi's War in Photographs
Hillerman Country
Indian Country: America's Sacred Land with Bela Kalman
Rio Grande with Robert Reynolds
New Mexico with David Muench
Anthologies
The Best of the West: An Anthology of Classic Writing from the American West (1991)
The Oxford Book of American Detective Stories (1996)
Best American Mysteries of the Century (2000)
New Omnibus of Crime (2005)
The Mysterious West
Adaptations from novels
The Dark Wind
Skinwalkers
Coyote Waits (2003)
A Thief of Time (2004)
Dark Winds (2022 TV Series)
Related articles
Joe Leaphorn
Jim Chee
Authority control databases: National
Israel
United States
|
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He is one of the two officers of the Navajo Tribal Police who are featured in a number of Hillerman's novels.[1] The other officer is Jim Chee.","title":"Joe Leaphorn"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Character biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Listening Woman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listening_Woman"},{"link_name":"Arizona State University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arizona_State_University"},{"link_name":"Dance Hall of the Dead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dance_Hall_of_the_Dead"},{"link_name":"anthropologist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropologist"},{"link_name":"Coyote Waits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coyote_Waits"},{"link_name":"Window Rock, Arizona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Window_Rock,_Arizona"}],"sub_title":"Personal life and education","text":"The mother of Joe Leaphorn was Anna Gorman. His maternal grandfather was Hosteen Klee Thlumie, called as Hosteen Klee by young Leaphorn. As a child, Leaphorn was told the stories of the Navajo way of life (Listening Woman) by Thlumie. He was educated in the lower grades near home on the reservation, but sent to boarding school for the higher grades. He attended college at Arizona State University, where he completed a master's degree in anthropology, writing a thesis paper (Dance Hall of the Dead). In addition to anthropology, he has a lifelong interest in the many religions of American Indians and peoples of the world. In the earlier books of the series, Leaphorn is married to the love of his life, Emma. They have no children.Later, Leaphorn becomes attracted to an anthropologist named Louisa Bourebonette, whom he meets while working on a case in Coyote Waits. Leaphorn is always in love with Emma, but he enjoys Louisa's sharp mind and her company.Leaphorn lives in the Navajo capital of Window Rock, Arizona.","title":"Character biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Navajo_Police_Chevrolet_Tahoe.jpg"},{"link_name":"Navajo Nation Police","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navajo_Nation_Police"},{"link_name":"Indian boarding schools","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_boarding_schools"},{"link_name":"Bureau of Indian Affairs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureau_of_Indian_Affairs"},{"link_name":"Diné","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navajo_Nation"},{"link_name":"Talking God","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talking_God"},{"link_name":"Washington, D.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_D.C."},{"link_name":"The Fallen Man","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Fallen_Man"}],"sub_title":"Professional life","text":"Joe Leaphorn is a member of the Navajo Tribal Police (now Navajo Nation Police)Educated in assimilationist Indian boarding schools operated by the Bureau of Indian Affairs, he is not as well versed in Navajo rituals, though he has attended the usual ceremonies. He is fluent in Navajo and in English. In the first three novels of the series, he has no staff; he reports to Captain Largo in the Navajo Tribal Police and works with officers of other tribes and often with federal investigative agencies. Leaphorn's approach to his cases is informed by some Navajo, or Diné, tradition, but also by Anglo-European logic.Leaphorn holds a Navajo world view, with no expectation of heaven in the afterlife, instead a need to find his place in this life and lead his life well. He follows the rules of courtesy of the Navajo as to the ebb and flow of conversations, and his ability to handle demanding characters from the white world around him. In Talking God, the year following the death of his wife, Leaphorn has a Blessing Way ceremony done for him by Jim Chee, an event that both find beneficial.In his career he works in a number of locations, including a brief stint training at the FBI headquarters in Washington, D.C. Five months before The Fallen Man, Leaphorn retires, and as part of the plot he gets a commission as a private investigator.","title":"Character biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kirkus-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Navajo reservation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navajo_reservation"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rte-4"}],"text":"Several reviewers have praised Hillerman's culturally sensitive depiction of the Leaphorn character. Kirkus Reviews noted the \"quiet, wise presence of Leaphorn himself, unselfconsciously drawing on the best of two clashing cultures.\"[2] Another Kirkus review praised \"Hillerman's anything but wooden Indians and the way in which he informs their way of life with affection and dignity.\"[3] Greg Herren wrote, \"what makes Skinwalkers so outstanding, for me, is that it takes the reader inside the world of the Navajo reservation\".[4]","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Blessing Way","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Blessing_Way"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-06-100001-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-100001-9"},{"link_name":"Dance Hall of the 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Clowns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacred_Clowns"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-06-109260-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-109260-6"},{"link_name":"The Fallen Man","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Fallen_Man"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-06-109288-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-109288-6"},{"link_name":"The First Eagle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_First_Eagle"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-06-109785-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-109785-3"},{"link_name":"Hunting 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Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_Broadcasting_Service"}],"text":"Joe Leaphorn appears in the following novels:The Blessing Way (1970) ISBN 0-06-100001-9\nDance Hall of the Dead (1973) ISBN 0-06-100002-7\nListening Woman (1978) ISBN 0-06-100029-9In the three novels published between 1978 and 1986, the stories focus on the younger Jim Chee.In each of the following Leaphorn and Jim Chee work together:Skinwalkers (1986) ISBN 0-06-100017-5\nA Thief of Time (1988) ISBN 0-06-100004-3\nTalking God (1989) ISBN 0-06-109918-X\nCoyote Waits (1990) ISBN 0-06-109932-5\nSacred Clowns (1993) ISBN 0-06-109260-6\nThe Fallen Man (1996) ISBN 0-06-109288-6\nThe First Eagle (1998) ISBN 0-06-109785-3\nHunting Badger (1999) ISBN 0-06-109786-1\nThe Wailing Wind (2002) ISBN 0-06-019444-8\nThe Sinister Pig (2003) ISBN 0-06-019443-X\nSkeleton Man (2004) ISBN 0-06-056344-3\nThe Shape Shifter (2006) ISBN 0-06-056345-1\nSpider Woman's Daughter (October 2013) (written by Anne Hillerman) HarperCollins ISBN 9780062270481\nRock With Wings (May 2015) (written by Anne Hillerman) HarperCollins ISBN 9780062270511\nSong of the Lion (April 2017) (written by Anne Hillerman)Skinwalkers, A Thief of Time and Coyote Waits were each adapted for television as part of the American Mystery! series by the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS)","title":"Bibliography"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Listening Woman\". Kirkus Reviews (April 1, 1978 ed.). April 4, 2012. Retrieved May 28, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/tony-hillerman/listening-woman/","url_text":"\"Listening Woman\""}]},{"reference":"\"Dance Hall of the Dead\". Kirkus Reviews (October 1, 1973 ed.). April 4, 2012. Retrieved 20 May 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/tony-hillerman/dance-hall-of-the-dead/","url_text":"\"Dance Hall of the Dead\""}]},{"reference":"Herren, Greg (February 2003). \"Skinwalkers\". Reviewing the Evidence, Reviews. Retrieved March 7, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.reviewingtheevidence.com/review.html?id=2407","url_text":"\"Skinwalkers\""}]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=G6vilUbhLQEC&pg=PA98","external_links_name":"pp. 98–113"},{"Link":"https://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/tony-hillerman/listening-woman/","external_links_name":"\"Listening Woman\""},{"Link":"https://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/tony-hillerman/dance-hall-of-the-dead/","external_links_name":"\"Dance Hall of the Dead\""},{"Link":"http://www.reviewingtheevidence.com/review.html?id=2407","external_links_name":"\"Skinwalkers\""},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007546304705171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh89002525","external_links_name":"United States"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Quad
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Tom Quad
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["1 Description","2 Mercury fountain","3 Gallery","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]
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Coordinates: 51°45′01″N 1°15′21″W / 51.75028°N 1.25583°W / 51.75028; -1.25583One of the quadrangles of Christ Church, Oxford, England
View of Tom Quad (1525–1529), including Tom Tower (1681–1682)
The Mercury fountain
The Great Quadrangle, more popularly known as Tom Quad, is one of the quadrangles of Christ Church, Oxford, England. It is the largest college quad in Oxford, measuring 264 by 261 feet. Although it was begun by Cardinal Wolsey in 1525–1529, he was unable to complete it before his fall from power.
Wolsey planned a cloister, but only the starts of the arches on the walls, and of the supports jutting into the lawn were done; these can still be seen around the quadrangle. The main entrance was also left incomplete, and it is not known how the gatehouse was planned to look. After some 150 years, the gatehouse was completed in 1681–1682 with Tom Tower, designed by Sir Christopher Wren, when John Fell was Dean. A statue of Queen Anne on Tom Tower overlooks the main entrance to the Quad. The quad is listed Grade I on the National Heritage List for England.
Description
The funds for the building of Tom Quad were found from the suppression of three Norbertine abbeys. It is dominated to the west by Tom Tower, designed by Sir Christopher Wren. On the east side is the entrance to Christ Church Cathedral and at the south-east corner is the entrance to the college dining hall. The north contains the homes of the canons of Christ Church, and much of the east side is taken up with the Deanery, in which the Dean of the college lives. On the north-east side, the quad leads, via Kilcannon, to Peckwater Quadrangle and the college library. In the north-west part of the quad is the Junior Common Room ("JCR"). Parts of the quad are still lived in by undergraduates, including the staircase above the Porter's lodge, known as "Bachelors' Row", to the left of the quadrangle when entered via Tom Gate. Bachelors' Row was only inhabited by first year male undergraduates until 2014, when the first female first year undergraduates took up residence there.
Mercury fountain
In the centre of the quad, there is an ornamental pond with a statue of Mercury. In the past, it was traditional for "hearties" (sporty students) to throw "aesthetes" (more artistic students) into this pond. Currently, entrance to Mercury carries a heavy fine for undergraduates. The pond also contains a large koi carp apparently worth a hefty sum, and donated by the Empress of Japan. The base of the fountain was designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens, the architect who designed much of India's modern capital New Delhi.
Lady Gwendolyn Cecil, in the biography of her father (the last Victorian Prime Minister Lord Salisbury), recounts how as a student in the 1840s, he rescued his bookish friends from being dunked in the fountains, by infiltrating the hearties and tipping off his friends about the time of the planned raid, and arranging with them a counter-ambush:
Late that night the intended victim sat in full view of his window, apparently solitary and absorbed in a book. But when his opponents approached the room, flushed with wine and encouraged by the certainty of victory by the unsported oak before them and by the silence that reigned around, they were suddenly startled by a yell from the dark abyss of the staircase above and at the same moment overborne by a tumultuously rushing descent. A minute later, entirely demoralized, they were flying around the quad pursued by a dozen of the most sober, respectable, and peace-loving of the reading men in the college... The next day their opponents were the laughing-stock of the college, and for some time to come a man at Christ Church might read as much and drink as little as he pleased with complete impunity'.
Gallery
Winter view of Tom Quad in the snow.
Print of 1675, before Wren's additions, David Loggan, Oxonia Illustrata
Spire of the cathedral in centre, hall at right
The entrance to Tom Quad
A view looking towards Tom Tower, from the entrance to the hall
Tom Tower and Tom Quad. View on a warm winter evening.
See also
Peckwater Quadrangle
Blue Boar Quadrangle
Meadow Building
Christ Church Library
Dunster House at Harvard
51°45′01″N 1°15′21″W / 51.75028°N 1.25583°W / 51.75028; -1.25583
References
^ "Tom Quad". Christ Church, Oxford. Archived from the original on 10 June 2020. Retrieved 9 June 2020.
^ Historic England, "Christchurch, The Great Quadrangle (or Tom Quadrangle) (1198760)", National Heritage List for England, retrieved 9 June 2020
^ Guides (Firm), Rough (2003). The Rough Guide to Europe 2004. Rough Guides. ISBN 978-1-84353-108-1.
^ Brooke, Christopher; Brooke, Christopher Nugent Lawrence; Highfield, Roger; Brooke, Dixie Professor Emeritus of Ecclesiastical History Christopher N. L. (26 May 1988). Oxford and Cambridge. CUP Archive. ISBN 978-0-521-30139-8.
^ a b Tyack, Geoffrey (1998). Oxford: An Architectural Guide. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-817423-3.
^ Fraser, David (1 December 2011). Wars and Shadows: Memoirs of General Sir David Fraser. A&C Black. ISBN 978-1-4482-0771-8.
^ Sullivan, Paul (1 August 2013). The Secret History of Oxford. The History Press. ISBN 978-0-7509-5301-6.
^ Jebb, Miles (1992). The Colleges of Oxford. Constable. p. 64. ISBN 978-0-09-476160-5.
^ Lady Gwendolyn Cecil, Life of Robert Marquis of Salisbury, (Hodder & Stoughton, 1921) Vol.1, pp.23-24.
External links
Media related to Christ Church Great Quadrangle at Wikimedia Commons
Portals: Architecture University of Oxford
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[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tom_Quad,_Christ_Church,_Oxford.jpg"},{"link_name":"Tom Tower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Tower"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tom_Quad,_Christ_Church_College,_Oxford.jpg"},{"link_name":"Christ Church, Oxford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christ_Church,_Oxford"},{"link_name":"quad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrangle_(architecture)"},{"link_name":"Oxford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford"},{"link_name":"Cardinal Wolsey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal_Wolsey"},{"link_name":"cloister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloister"},{"link_name":"Tom Tower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Tower"},{"link_name":"Sir Christopher Wren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Christopher_Wren"},{"link_name":"John Fell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Fell_(clergyman)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ChrisOx-1"},{"link_name":"listed Grade I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listed_building#England_and_Wales"},{"link_name":"National Heritage List for England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Heritage_List_for_England"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NHLE-2"}],"text":"One of the quadrangles of Christ Church, Oxford, EnglandView of Tom Quad (1525–1529), including Tom Tower (1681–1682)The Mercury fountainThe Great Quadrangle, more popularly known as Tom Quad, is one of the quadrangles of Christ Church, Oxford, England. It is the largest college quad in Oxford, measuring 264 by 261 feet. Although it was begun by Cardinal Wolsey in 1525–1529, he was unable to complete it before his fall from power.Wolsey planned a cloister, but only the starts of the arches on the walls, and of the supports jutting into the lawn were done; these can still be seen around the quadrangle. The main entrance was also left incomplete, and it is not known how the gatehouse was planned to look. After some 150 years, the gatehouse was completed in 1681–1682 with Tom Tower, designed by Sir Christopher Wren, when John Fell was Dean. A statue of Queen Anne on Tom Tower overlooks the main entrance to the Quad.[1] The quad is listed Grade I on the National Heritage List for England.[2]","title":"Tom Quad"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Norbertine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norbertine"},{"link_name":"Tom Tower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Tower"},{"link_name":"Sir Christopher Wren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Christopher_Wren"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Christ Church Cathedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christ_Church_Cathedral,_Oxford"},{"link_name":"dining hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dining_hall"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"canons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_(priest)"},{"link_name":"Deanery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deanery"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-5"},{"link_name":"Peckwater Quadrangle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peckwater_Quadrangle"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-5"},{"link_name":"Junior Common Room","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junior_Common_Room"}],"text":"The funds for the building of Tom Quad were found from the suppression of three Norbertine abbeys. It is dominated to the west by Tom Tower, designed by Sir Christopher Wren.[3] On the east side is the entrance to Christ Church Cathedral and at the south-east corner is the entrance to the college dining hall.[4] The north contains the homes of the canons of Christ Church, and much of the east side is taken up with the Deanery, in which the Dean of the college lives.[5] On the north-east side, the quad leads, via Kilcannon, to Peckwater Quadrangle and the college library.[5] In the north-west part of the quad is the Junior Common Room (\"JCR\"). Parts of the quad are still lived in by undergraduates, including the staircase above the Porter's lodge, known as \"Bachelors' Row\", to the left of the quadrangle when entered via Tom Gate. Bachelors' Row was only inhabited by first year male undergraduates until 2014, when the first female first year undergraduates took up residence there.","title":"Description"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mercury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"hearties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearties"},{"link_name":"aesthetes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetes"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"koi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koi"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Edwin Lutyens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_Lutyens"},{"link_name":"New Delhi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Delhi"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Lady Gwendolyn Cecil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_Gwendolen_Gascoyne-Cecil"},{"link_name":"Lord Salisbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Salisbury"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"In the centre of the quad, there is an ornamental pond with a statue of Mercury. In the past, it was traditional for \"hearties\" (sporty students) to throw \"aesthetes\" (more artistic students) into this pond.[6] Currently, entrance to Mercury carries a heavy fine for undergraduates. The pond also contains a large koi carp apparently worth a hefty sum, and donated by the Empress of Japan.[7] The base of the fountain was designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens, the architect who designed much of India's modern capital New Delhi.[8]Lady Gwendolyn Cecil, in the biography of her father (the last Victorian Prime Minister Lord Salisbury), recounts how as a student in the 1840s, he rescued his bookish friends from being dunked in the fountains, by infiltrating the hearties and tipping off his friends about the time of the planned raid, and arranging with them a counter-ambush:Late that night the intended victim sat in full view of his window, apparently solitary and absorbed in a book. But when his opponents approached the room, flushed with wine and encouraged by the certainty of victory by the unsported oak before them and by the silence that reigned around, they were suddenly startled by a yell from the dark abyss of the staircase above and at the same moment overborne by a tumultuously rushing descent. A minute later, entirely demoralized, they were flying around the quad pursued by a dozen of the most sober, respectable, and peace-loving of the reading men in the college... The next day their opponents were the laughing-stock of the college, and for some time to come a man at Christ Church might read as much and drink as little as he pleased with complete impunity'.[9]","title":"Mercury fountain"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tom_Quad,_Christ_Church_2004-01-21.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:David_Loggan_-_Oxonia_Illustrata,_1675_-_Christ_Church_College_(BL_128.h.10).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christ_Church_Oxford_Tom_Quad_view_2011.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Entrance_to_Christchurch_College,_Oxford_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1138645.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tom_Quad,_Christ_Church_-_geograph.org.uk_-_556746.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tom_quad_Tom_tower_by_Pavel_Kliuiev.jpg"}],"text":"Winter view of Tom Quad in the snow.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tPrint of 1675, before Wren's additions, David Loggan, Oxonia Illustrata\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSpire of the cathedral in centre, hall at right\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe entrance to Tom Quad\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tA view looking towards Tom Tower, from the entrance to the hall\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTom Tower and Tom Quad. View on a warm winter evening.","title":"Gallery"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Nebo
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Mount Nebo
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["1 Religious significance","2 Archaeology","3 History of the modern Memorial of Moses","4 Exhibited mosaics","5 Gallery","6 See also","7 References","8 Further reading","9 External links"]
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Coordinates: 31°46.0′N 35°43.5′E / 31.7667°N 35.7250°E / 31.7667; 35.7250Abrahamic holy site in Jordan
For other places with the same name, see Mount Nebo (disambiguation).
Mount Neboجَبَل نِيبُوהַר נְבוֹMount Nebo seen from the eastHighest pointElevation700 metres (2,297 ft)Coordinates31°46.0′N 35°43.5′E / 31.7667°N 35.7250°E / 31.7667; 35.7250NamingNative nameجَبَل نِيبُو (Arabic)GeographyMount NeboLocation
LocationJordanRegionMadaba Governorate
Mount Nebo (Arabic: جَبَل نِيبُو, romanized: Jabal Nībū; Hebrew: הַר נְבוֹ, romanized: Har Nəḇō) is an elevated ridge located in Jordan, approximately 700 metres (2,300 ft) above sea level. Part of the Abarim mountain range, Mount Nebo is mentioned in the Bible as the place where Moses was granted a view of the Promised Land before his death. The view from the summit provides a panorama of the West Bank across the Jordan River valley. The city of Jericho is usually visible from the summit, as is Jerusalem on a very clear day. The biblical town of Nebo, now known as Khirbet al-Mukhayyat, is located 3.5 km away.
Religious significance
The Brazen Serpent sculpture and view towards the Promised Land–Dead Sea and Jerusalem
According to the Bible (Deuteronomy), Moses ascended Mount Nebo, in the land of Moab (today in Jordan), and from there he saw the Land of Canaan (the Promised Land), which God had said he would not enter; Moses then died there. The Bible (Deuteronomy 34:6) says Moses' burial place was unknown. A monument atop Mount Nebo commemorates Moses' death after seeing Canaan, across the Jordan valley. A purported grave of Moses is located at Maqam El-Nabi Musa, in the West Bank, 11 km (6.8 mi) south of Jericho and 20 km (12 mi) east of Jerusalem.
Mount Nebo is then mentioned again in 2 Maccabees (2:4–7), when the prophet Jeremiah hid the tabernacle and the Ark of the Covenant in a cave there.
A Christian church from Byzantine times stands on the top of Mount Nebo.
On March 20, 2000, Pope John Paul II visited the summit of Mount Nebo during his pilgrimage to the Holy Land. During his visit, he planted an olive tree next to the Byzantine chapel, as a symbol of peace. Pope Benedict XVI visited the site in 2009, gave a speech, and looked out from the top of the mountain in the direction of Jerusalem.
A serpentine cross sculpture atop Mount Nebo was created by Italian artist Gian Paolo Fantoni. It is symbolic of the miracle of the bronze serpent invoked by Moses in the wilderness (Numbers 21:4–9) and the cross upon which Jesus was crucified (John 3:14).
Archaeology
Further information: Early Byzantine mosaics in the Middle East § Mount Nebo
Mosaic floor in the diaconicon-baptistery
Systematic exploration begun by Sylvester J. Saller O.F.M. was continued in 1933 by Jerome Mihaic of the Studium Biblicum Franciscanum. On the highest point of the mountain, Syagha, the remains of a Byzantine church and monastery were discovered in 1933. The church was first constructed in the second half of the 4th century to commemorate the place of Moses' death. The church design follows a typical basilica pattern. It was enlarged in the late fifth century AD and rebuilt in AD 597. The church is first mentioned in an account of a pilgrimage made by a lady Aetheria in AD 394. Six tombs have been found hollowed from the natural rock beneath the mosaic-covered floor of the church.
Bellarmino Bagatti worked on the site in 1935. Virgilio Canio Corbo later excavated the interior of the basilica.
History of the modern Memorial of Moses
The ancient church, a pilgrimage destination since the 4th century, was excavated between 1933 and 1938 by Sylvester Saller, bringing to light the basilica with its chapels and the annexes of the monastery. The exquisite mosaics were then covered back with soil for protection. In 1963, the Custody of the Holy Land decided to restore the mosaic floors and Virgilio Corbo was put in charge of the project. A metal shelter designed in Oxford was erected over the ruins, but work was interrupted by the 1967 Arab-Israeli war. Renewed work ensued between 1976-1984, when a new mosaic was discovered in the diaconicon-baptistery. By 1984 the consolidation work was completed, and as a result, the basilica could be used both for liturgical purposes, as well as for displaying the restored mosaics, either in situ or mounted on the walls. After renewed plans drawn in 1989 and geological surveys and assessments of the ancient and modern structures made a decade later, a new shelter, basically a complete basilica was built over the ancient church between December 2007 and the reopening day on 15 October 2016. Not even the sudden death of Michelle Piccirillo, a key figure in the project, in October 2008, led to a break in the work.
Exhibited mosaics
In the modern chapel presbytery, built to protect the site and provide worship space, remnants of mosaic floors from different periods can be seen. The earliest of these is a panel with a braided cross presently placed on the east end of the south wall.
Gallery
Stone marker at the entrance
Stone marker next to the building
Plaque showing the distance from Mount Nebo to various locations
Old (pre-2017) structure protecting the excavated church remains
Old (pre-2017) structure
Theotokos chapel: apse with altar and mosaic
Baptismal font
Mosaic floor in the diaconicon-baptistery
Mosaic: peacock
Mosaic: zebu (humped ox)
Mosaic inscription ("Offering of Caesarion, at the time of Alexios and Theophilos priests")
The Brazen Serpent sculpture, Mount Nebo
Detail of Brazen Serpent statue
View from Mount Nebo
See also
Jordan portal
Mount Nebo, Utah
Mount Pisgah (Bible)
Nabau
Nabi Musa
Michele Piccirillo (archaeologist) (1944–2008), active at Mount Nebo and buried there
References
^ Deuteronomy 34:1–6
^ Amelia Thomas; Michael Kohn; Miriam Raphael; Dan Savery Raz (2010). Israel & the Palestinian Territories. Lonely Planet. pp. 319. ISBN 9781741044560.
^ "Pope speaks of 'inseparable' bond between Christians, Jews". Associated Press. May 9, 2009 – via www.ynetnews.com.
^ Piccirillo, Michele (2009). Mount Nebo (Studium Biblicum Franciscanum Guide Books, 2) p. 107.
^ "Pope Benedict begins his pilgrimage on Mt. Nebo". Catholic News Agency.
^ Also found as "Siyagha" the peak is (710 metres), while the south eastern peak "el-Mukhayyat" is 790 metres. Piccirillo, Michele (2009). Mount Nebo. p. 17.
^ "Complete compendium of Mount Nebo". Madain Project. Retrieved 2 April 2018.
^ Piccirillo, Michele (2009) Mount Nebo (Studium Biblicum Franciscanum Guide Books, 2) pp. 14–15. Extract from Sylvester Saller The Memorial of Moses on Mount Nebo Jerusalem 1941, pp. 15–18.
^ "Chronology of Mount Nebo". Madain Project. Retrieved 2 April 2018.
^ a b c d e f g Pappalardo, Carmelo (2017). Michaelides, Demetrios; Guimier-Sorbets, Anne-Marie (eds.). The Memorial of Moses on Mount Nebo, Jordan. A new shelter for the monument and the restoration of the mosaics: the ongoing project and new perspectives. Florence: EDIFIR-Edizioni Firenze. pp. 377–384. ISBN 978-88-7970-844-9. Retrieved 25 November 2021. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
^ "Theotokos Chapel (Mount Nebo)". Archived from the original on 13 April 2020.
Further reading
Mount Nebo: New Archaeological Excavations: 1967–1997, Michele Piccirillo and Eugenio Alliata
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mount Nebo.
Franciscans at Mount Nebo
Archaeology and Art – photographs of excavations in Jordan
Pictures from Mount Nebo 1
"Nebo, Mount" . New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
Photos of Mount Nebo at the American Center of Research
Photos of Mount Nebo at the Manar al-Athar photo archive
Authority control databases International
VIAF
National
France
BnF data
Germany
Israel
United States
Geographic
Pleiades
Other
IdRef
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mount Nebo (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Nebo_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Arabic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_language"},{"link_name":"romanized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic"},{"link_name":"Hebrew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_language"},{"link_name":"romanized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Hebrew"},{"link_name":"ridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ridge"},{"link_name":"Jordan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan"},{"link_name":"above sea level","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Height_above_sea_level"},{"link_name":"Abarim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abarim"},{"link_name":"Bible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible"},{"link_name":"Moses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moses"},{"link_name":"Promised Land","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promised_Land"},{"link_name":"West Bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Bank"},{"link_name":"Jordan River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan_River"},{"link_name":"Jericho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jericho"},{"link_name":"Jerusalem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalem"},{"link_name":"Khirbet al-Mukhayyat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khirbet_al-Mukhayyat"}],"text":"Abrahamic holy site in JordanFor other places with the same name, see Mount Nebo (disambiguation).Mount Nebo (Arabic: جَبَل نِيبُو, romanized: Jabal Nībū; Hebrew: הַר נְבוֹ, romanized: Har Nəḇō) is an elevated ridge located in Jordan, approximately 700 metres (2,300 ft) above sea level. Part of the Abarim mountain range, Mount Nebo is mentioned in the Bible as the place where Moses was granted a view of the Promised Land before his death. The view from the summit provides a panorama of the West Bank across the Jordan River valley. The city of Jericho is usually visible from the summit, as is Jerusalem on a very clear day. The biblical town of Nebo, now known as Khirbet al-Mukhayyat, is located 3.5 km away.","title":"Mount Nebo"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nebo04(js).jpg"},{"link_name":"Bible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible"},{"link_name":"Deuteronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Deuteronomy"},{"link_name":"Moab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moab"},{"link_name":"Jordan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan"},{"link_name":"Land of Canaan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canaan"},{"link_name":"Promised Land","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promised_Land"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Deuteronomy 34:6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//bible.oremus.org/?passage=Deuteronomy%2034:6&version=nrsv"},{"link_name":"Maqam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maqam_(shrine)"},{"link_name":"Nabi Musa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabi_Musa"},{"link_name":"West Bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Bank"},{"link_name":"Jericho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jericho"},{"link_name":"Jerusalem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalem"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"2 Maccabees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2_Maccabees"},{"link_name":"2:4–7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//bible.oremus.org/?passage=2%20Maccabees%202:4%E2%80%937&version=nrsvae"},{"link_name":"Jeremiah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremiah"},{"link_name":"Ark of the Covenant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ark_of_the_Covenant"},{"link_name":"Byzantine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire"},{"link_name":"Pope John Paul II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"olive tree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olive"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Pope Benedict XVI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XVI"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Numbers 21:4–9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//bible.oremus.org/?passage=Numbers%2021:4%E2%80%939&version=nrsv"},{"link_name":"John 3:14","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//bible.oremus.org/?passage=John%203:14&version=nrsv"}],"text":"The Brazen Serpent sculpture and view towards the Promised Land–Dead Sea and JerusalemAccording to the Bible (Deuteronomy), Moses ascended Mount Nebo, in the land of Moab (today in Jordan), and from there he saw the Land of Canaan (the Promised Land), which God had said he would not enter; Moses then died there.[1] The Bible (Deuteronomy 34:6) says Moses' burial place was unknown. A monument atop Mount Nebo commemorates Moses' death after seeing Canaan, across the Jordan valley. A purported grave of Moses is located at Maqam El-Nabi Musa, in the West Bank, 11 km (6.8 mi) south of Jericho and 20 km (12 mi) east of Jerusalem.[2]Mount Nebo is then mentioned again in 2 Maccabees (2:4–7), when the prophet Jeremiah hid the tabernacle and the Ark of the Covenant in a cave there.A Christian church from Byzantine times stands on the top of Mount Nebo.On March 20, 2000, Pope John Paul II visited the summit of Mount Nebo during his pilgrimage to the Holy Land.[3] During his visit, he planted an olive tree next to the Byzantine chapel, as a symbol of peace.[4] Pope Benedict XVI visited the site in 2009, gave a speech, and looked out from the top of the mountain in the direction of Jerusalem.[5]A serpentine cross sculpture atop Mount Nebo was created by Italian artist Gian Paolo Fantoni. It is symbolic of the miracle of the bronze serpent invoked by Moses in the wilderness (Numbers 21:4–9) and the cross upon which Jesus was crucified (John 3:14).","title":"Religious significance"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Early Byzantine mosaics in the Middle East § Mount Nebo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Byzantine_mosaics_in_the_Middle_East#Mount_Nebo"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nebo05(js).jpg"},{"link_name":"Studium Biblicum Franciscanum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Studium_Biblicum_Franciscanum"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-madainnebo-7"},{"link_name":"monastery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monastery"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"basilica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilica"},{"link_name":"pilgrimage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilgrimage"},{"link_name":"Aetheria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egeria_(pilgrim)"},{"link_name":"mosaic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosaic"},{"link_name":"Bellarmino Bagatti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bellarmino_Bagatti"},{"link_name":"Virgilio Canio Corbo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgilio_Canio_Corbo"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-madainchronology-9"}],"text":"Further information: Early Byzantine mosaics in the Middle East § Mount NeboMosaic floor in the diaconicon-baptisterySystematic exploration begun by Sylvester J. Saller O.F.M. was continued in 1933 by Jerome Mihaic of the Studium Biblicum Franciscanum. On the highest point of the mountain, Syagha,[6] the remains of a Byzantine church[7] and monastery were discovered in 1933.[8] The church was first constructed in the second half of the 4th century to commemorate the place of Moses' death. The church design follows a typical basilica pattern. It was enlarged in the late fifth century AD and rebuilt in AD 597. The church is first mentioned in an account of a pilgrimage made by a lady Aetheria in AD 394. Six tombs have been found hollowed from the natural rock beneath the mosaic-covered floor of the church.Bellarmino Bagatti worked on the site in 1935. Virgilio Canio Corbo later excavated the interior of the basilica.[9]","title":"Archaeology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-shelter-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-shelter-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-shelter-10"},{"link_name":"1967 Arab-Israeli war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1967_Arab-Israeli_war"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-shelter-10"},{"link_name":"diaconicon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diaconicon"},{"link_name":"baptistery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptistery"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-shelter-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-shelter-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-shelter-10"}],"text":"The ancient church, a pilgrimage destination since the 4th century, was excavated between 1933 and 1938 by Sylvester Saller, bringing to light the basilica with its chapels and the annexes of the monastery.[10] The exquisite mosaics were then covered back with soil for protection.[10] In 1963, the Custody of the Holy Land decided to restore the mosaic floors and Virgilio Corbo was put in charge of the project.[10] A metal shelter designed in Oxford was erected over the ruins, but work was interrupted by the 1967 Arab-Israeli war.[10] Renewed work ensued between 1976-1984, when a new mosaic was discovered in the diaconicon-baptistery.[10] By 1984 the consolidation work was completed, and as a result, the basilica could be used both for liturgical purposes, as well as for displaying the restored mosaics, either in situ or mounted on the walls.[10] After renewed plans drawn in 1989 and geological surveys and assessments of the ancient and modern structures made a decade later, a new shelter, basically a complete basilica was built over the ancient church between December 2007 and the reopening day on 15 October 2016. Not even the sudden death of Michelle Piccirillo, a key figure in the project, in October 2008, led to a break in the work.[10]","title":"History of the modern Memorial of Moses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"presbytery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presbytery_(architecture)"},{"link_name":"braided","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Braid"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"In the modern chapel presbytery, built to protect the site and provide worship space, remnants of mosaic floors from different periods can be seen. The earliest of these is a panel with a braided cross presently placed on the east end of the south wall.[citation needed]","title":"Exhibited mosaics"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mount_Nebo-Siyagha,_Jordan_(2009).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Memorial_of_Moses_Stone.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mount_Nebo_Distances.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Couple_in_Front_of_Church.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nebo02(js).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mosaic_at_MountNebo.jpg"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-madaintheotokos-11"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MtNeboBaptismal.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mt_Nebo_Mosaic.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nebo07(js).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nebo09(js).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Prosphora_Nebo.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Brazen_Serpent,_Mount_Nebo.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BrazenSerpent.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mount_Nebo_(2007-05-826)_(1330156315).jpg"}],"text":"Stone marker at the entrance\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tStone marker next to the building\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tPlaque showing the distance from Mount Nebo to various locations\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tOld (pre-2017) structure protecting the excavated church remains\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tOld (pre-2017) structure\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTheotokos chapel: apse with altar and mosaic[11]\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tBaptismal font\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tMosaic floor in the diaconicon-baptistery\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tMosaic: peacock\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tMosaic: zebu (humped ox)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tMosaic inscription (\"Offering of Caesarion, at the time of Alexios and Theophilos priests\")\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe Brazen Serpent sculpture, Mount Nebo\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tDetail of Brazen Serpent statue\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tView from Mount Nebo","title":"Gallery"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mount Nebo: New Archaeological Excavations: 1967–1997","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20131229072334/http://www.christusrex.org/www1/ofm/fai/FAIeval.html"}],"text":"Mount Nebo: New Archaeological Excavations: 1967–1997, Michele Piccirillo and Eugenio Alliata","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"The Brazen Serpent sculpture and view towards the Promised Land–Dead Sea and Jerusalem","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Nebo04%28js%29.jpg/220px-Nebo04%28js%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Mosaic floor in the diaconicon-baptistery","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Nebo05%28js%29.jpg/220px-Nebo05%28js%29.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Jordan portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Jordan"},{"title":"Mount Nebo, Utah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Nebo_(Utah)"},{"title":"Mount Pisgah (Bible)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Pisgah_(Bible)"},{"title":"Nabau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabau"},{"title":"Nabi Musa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabi_Musa"},{"title":"Michele Piccirillo (archaeologist)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michele_Piccirillo_(archaeologist)"}]
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[{"reference":"Amelia Thomas; Michael Kohn; Miriam Raphael; Dan Savery Raz (2010). Israel & the Palestinian Territories. Lonely Planet. pp. 319. ISBN 9781741044560.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/lonelyplanetisra00mich","url_text":"Israel & the Palestinian Territories"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/lonelyplanetisra00mich/page/319","url_text":"319"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781741044560","url_text":"9781741044560"}]},{"reference":"\"Pope speaks of 'inseparable' bond between Christians, Jews\". Associated Press. May 9, 2009 – via www.ynetnews.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3713020,00.html","url_text":"\"Pope speaks of 'inseparable' bond between Christians, Jews\""}]},{"reference":"\"Pope Benedict begins his pilgrimage on Mt. Nebo\". Catholic News Agency.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/15929/pope-benedict-begins-his-pilgrimage-on-mt-nebo","url_text":"\"Pope Benedict begins his pilgrimage on Mt. Nebo\""}]},{"reference":"\"Complete compendium of Mount Nebo\". Madain Project. Retrieved 2 April 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://madainproject.com/mount_nebo","url_text":"\"Complete compendium of Mount Nebo\""}]},{"reference":"\"Chronology of Mount Nebo\". Madain Project. Retrieved 2 April 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://madainproject.com/mount_nebo_chronology","url_text":"\"Chronology of Mount Nebo\""}]},{"reference":"Pappalardo, Carmelo (2017). Michaelides, Demetrios; Guimier-Sorbets, Anne-Marie (eds.). The Memorial of Moses on Mount Nebo, Jordan. A new shelter for the monument and the restoration of the mosaics: the ongoing project and new perspectives. Florence: EDIFIR-Edizioni Firenze. pp. 377–384. ISBN 978-88-7970-844-9. Retrieved 25 November 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.academia.edu/30905691","url_text":"The Memorial of Moses on Mount Nebo, Jordan. A new shelter for the monument and the restoration of the mosaics: the ongoing project and new perspectives"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-7970-844-9","url_text":"978-88-7970-844-9"}]},{"reference":"\"Theotokos Chapel (Mount Nebo)\". Archived from the original on 13 April 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://madainproject.com/theotokos_chapel_(mount_nebo)","url_text":"\"Theotokos Chapel (Mount Nebo)\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200413051312/https://madainproject.com/theotokos_chapel_(mount_nebo)","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Nebo, Mount\" . New International Encyclopedia. 1905.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_International_Encyclop%C3%A6dia/Nebo,_Mount","url_text":"\"Nebo, Mount\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_International_Encyclopedia","url_text":"New International Encyclopedia"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miller_test
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Miller test
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["1 History and details","2 Criticism","2.1 Miller test may lead to greater censorship","2.2 Problem of jurisdiction in the Internet age","3 See also","4 Notes","5 References"]
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Obscenity test in U.S. law
For the algorithm in computer science, see Miller–Rabin primality test. For the graduate school entrance exam, see Miller Analogies Test.
The Miller test, also called the three-prong obscenity test, is the United States Supreme Court's test for determining whether speech or expression can be labeled obscene, in which case it is not protected by the First Amendment to the United States Constitution and can be prohibited.
History and details
The Miller test was developed in the 1973 case Miller v. California. It has three parts:
Whether "the average person, applying contemporary community standards", would find that the work, taken as a whole, appeals to the prurient interest,
Whether the work depicts or describes, in a patently offensive way, sexual conduct or excretory functions specifically defined by applicable state law,
Whether the work, taken as a whole, lacks serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value.
The work is considered obscene only if all three conditions are satisfied.
The first two prongs of the Miller test are held to the standards of the community, and the third prong is based on "whether a reasonable person would find such value in the material, taken as a whole".
For legal scholars, several issues are important. One is that the test allows for community standards rather than a national standard. What offends the average person in one community may differ from what offends the average person in another community.
Another important issue is that the Miller test asks for an interpretation of what the "average" person finds offensive, rather than what the more sensitive persons in the community are offended by, as obscenity was defined by the previous test, the Hicklin test, stemming from the English precedent.
In practice, pornography showing genitalia and sexual acts is not ipso facto obscene according to the Miller test. For instance, in 2000, a jury in Provo, Utah, took only a few minutes to clear Larry Peterman, owner of a Movie Buffs video store, in Utah County, Utah. He had been charged with distributing obscene material for renting pornographic videos that were displayed in a screened-off area of the store clearly marked as adults-only. The Utah County region had often boasted of being one of the most socially conservative areas in the United States. However, researchers had shown that guests at the local Marriott Hotel were disproportionately large consumers of pay-per-view pornographic material, accessing far more material than the store was distributing.
Criticism
Miller test may lead to greater censorship
Because it allows for community standards and demands "serious" value, Justice Douglas worried in his dissent that this test would make it easier to suppress speech and expression. Miller replaced a previous test asking whether the speech or expression was "utterly without redeeming social value". As used, however, the test generally makes it difficult to outlaw any form of expression. Many works decried as pornographic have been successfully argued to have some artistic or literary value, most publicly in the context of the National Endowment for the Arts in the 1990s.
The first two prongs of the Miller test – that material appeal to the prurient interest and be patently offensive – have been said to require the impossible: "They require the audience to be turned on and grossed out at the same time".
Problem of jurisdiction in the Internet age
The advent of the Internet has made the "community standards" part of the test even more difficult to judge; as material published on a web server in one place can be read by a person residing anywhere else, there is a question as to which jurisdiction should apply. In United States v. Extreme Associates, a pornography distributor from North Hollywood, California, was judged to be held accountable to the community standards applying in western Pennsylvania, where the Third Circuit made its ruling, because the materials were available via Internet in that area. The United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit has ruled in United States v. Kilbride that a "national community standard" should be used for the Internet, but this has yet to be upheld at the national level.
See also
Artistic freedom
Artistic merit
Dost test
I know it when I see it
Literary merit
Nitke v. Gonzales – a case involving Barbara Nitke and the National Coalition for Sexual Freedom regarding Internet obscenity
Jack Thompson
United States v. Extreme Associates, Inc.
Notes
^ This is also known as the (S)LAPS test- Literary, Artistic, Political, Scientific.
References
^ "Three Prong Obscenity Test", Professionalism in Computing, Virginia Tech, archived from the original on February 9, 2012, retrieved June 28, 2010
^ Metcalf, J. Todd (1 January 1996). "Obscenity Prosecutions in Cyberspace: The Miller Test Cannot 'Go Where No Has Gone Before'". Washington University Law Review. 74 (2): 481–523.
^ Text of the decision and dissents, from findlaw.com
^ The syllabus of the case mentions only sexual conduct, but excretory functions are explicitly mentioned on page 25 of the majority opinion.
^ Pope v. Illinois, 481 U.S. 497, 500-501 (1987).
^ Godwin, Mike (October 2001). "Standards Issue – The Supreme Court, "community standards," and the Internet". Reason Foundation. Retrieved 11 October 2012.
^ United States Department of Justice. (2021, November 9). Citizen's Guide to U.S. federal law on obscenity. Citizen's Guide to U.S. Federal Law on Obscenity, at Par. 1. Retrieved February 13, 2022, from https://www.justice.gov/criminal-ceos/citizens-guide-us-federal-law-obscenity Archived:https://web.archive.org/web/20220213222619/https://www.justice.gov/criminal-ceos/citizens-guide-us-federal-law-obscenity
^ Egan, Timothy; Gary Ruskin (24 October 2000). "Wall Street Meets Pornography". The New York Times.
^ Roth v. United States, 1957.
^ "Public Funding of Controversial Art". The First Amendment Center. February 1996. Archived from the original on 2014-04-08. Retrieved 2011-11-16.
^ Sullivan, Kathleen (September 28, 1992). "The First Amendment Wars", The New Republic, vol. 207, no. 14, pp. 35–38.
^ "3rd Circuit ruling in Extreme obscenity case praised by director of Reagan porn commission, now ADF CEO". Alliance Defending Freedom. December 8, 2005. Retrieved May 31, 2019.
^ "584 F.3d 1240 (2009) / UNITED STATES of America, Plaintiff-Appellee, v. Jeffrey A. KILBRIDE, Defendant-Appellant. United States of America, Plaintiff-Appellee, v. James Robert Schaffer, Defendant-Appellant". Court of Appeals, Ninth Circuit. 8 June 2009. Retrieved 8 March 2011.
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For the graduate school entrance exam, see Miller Analogies Test.The Miller test, also called the three-prong obscenity test, is the United States Supreme Court's test for determining whether speech or expression can be labeled obscene, in which case it is not protected by the First Amendment to the United States Constitution and can be prohibited.[1][2]","title":"Miller test"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Miller v. 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California.[3] It has three parts:Whether \"the average person, applying contemporary community standards\", would find that the work, taken as a whole, appeals to the prurient interest,\nWhether the work depicts or describes, in a patently offensive way, sexual conduct or excretory functions[4] specifically defined by applicable state law,\nWhether the work, taken as a whole, lacks serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value.[note 1]The work is considered obscene only if all three conditions are satisfied.[citation needed]The first two prongs of the Miller test are held to the standards of the community, and the third prong is based on \"whether a reasonable person would find such value in the material, taken as a whole\".[5]For legal scholars, several issues are important. One is that the test allows for community standards rather than a national standard. What offends the average person in one community may differ from what offends the average person in another community.[6]Another important issue is that the Miller test asks for an interpretation of what the \"average\" person finds offensive, rather than what the more sensitive persons in the community are offended by, as obscenity was defined by the previous test, the Hicklin test, stemming from the English precedent.[7]In practice, pornography showing genitalia and sexual acts is not ipso facto obscene according to the Miller test. [why?] For instance, in 2000, a jury in Provo, Utah, took only a few minutes to clear Larry Peterman, owner of a Movie Buffs video store, in Utah County, Utah. He had been charged with distributing obscene material for renting pornographic videos that were displayed in a screened-off area of the store clearly marked as adults-only. The Utah County region had often boasted of being one of the most socially conservative areas in the United States. 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Miller replaced a previous test asking whether the speech or expression was \"utterly without redeeming social value\".[9] As used, however, the test generally makes it difficult to outlaw any form of expression. Many works decried as pornographic have been successfully argued to have some artistic or literary value, most publicly in the context of the National Endowment for the Arts in the 1990s.[10]The first two prongs of the Miller test – that material appeal to the prurient interest and be patently offensive – have been said to require the impossible: \"They require the audience to be turned on and grossed out at the same time\".[11]","title":"Criticism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Internet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet"},{"link_name":"web server","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_server"},{"link_name":"United States v. 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[]
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[{"reference":"\"Three Prong Obscenity Test\", Professionalism in Computing, Virginia Tech, archived from the original on February 9, 2012, retrieved June 28, 2010","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120209202626/http://courses.cs.vt.edu/cs3604/lib/Censorship/3-prong-test.html","url_text":"\"Three Prong Obscenity Test\""},{"url":"http://courses.cs.vt.edu/cs3604/lib/Censorship/3-prong-test.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Metcalf, J. Todd (1 January 1996). \"Obscenity Prosecutions in Cyberspace: The Miller Test Cannot 'Go Where No [Porn] Has Gone Before'\". Washington University Law Review. 74 (2): 481–523.","urls":[{"url":"https://openscholarship.wustl.edu/law_lawreview/vol74/iss2/9/","url_text":"\"Obscenity Prosecutions in Cyberspace: The Miller Test Cannot 'Go Where No [Porn] Has Gone Before'\""}]},{"reference":"Godwin, Mike (October 2001). \"Standards Issue – The Supreme Court, \"community standards,\" and the Internet\". Reason Foundation. Retrieved 11 October 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Godwin","url_text":"Godwin, Mike"},{"url":"http://reason.com/archives/2001/10/01/standards-issue","url_text":"\"Standards Issue – The Supreme Court, \"community standards,\" and the Internet\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reason_Foundation","url_text":"Reason Foundation"}]},{"reference":"Egan, Timothy; Gary Ruskin (24 October 2000). \"Wall Street Meets Pornography\". The New York Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2000/10/23/technology/23PORN.html","url_text":"\"Wall Street Meets Pornography\""}]},{"reference":"\"Public Funding of Controversial Art\". The First Amendment Center. February 1996. Archived from the original on 2014-04-08. Retrieved 2011-11-16.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140408110145/http://www.firstamendmentcenter.org/public-funding-of-controversial-art","url_text":"\"Public Funding of Controversial Art\""},{"url":"http://www.firstamendmentcenter.org/public-funding-of-controversial-art","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"3rd Circuit ruling in Extreme obscenity case praised by director of Reagan porn commission, now ADF CEO\". Alliance Defending Freedom. December 8, 2005. Retrieved May 31, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://adflegal.org/detailspages/press-release-details","url_text":"\"3rd Circuit ruling in Extreme obscenity case praised by director of Reagan porn commission, now ADF CEO\""}]},{"reference":"\"584 F.3d 1240 (2009) / UNITED STATES of America, Plaintiff-Appellee, v. Jeffrey A. KILBRIDE, Defendant-Appellant. United States of America, Plaintiff-Appellee, v. James Robert Schaffer, Defendant-Appellant\". Court of Appeals, Ninth Circuit. 8 June 2009. Retrieved 8 March 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=17927549797826193178","url_text":"\"584 F.3d 1240 (2009) / UNITED STATES of America, Plaintiff-Appellee, v. Jeffrey A. KILBRIDE, Defendant-Appellant. United States of America, Plaintiff-Appellee, v. James Robert Schaffer, Defendant-Appellant\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vardar
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Vardar
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["1 Etymology","2 Geography","3 Project to construct the Danube-Vardar-Aegean Canal","4 Vardaris wind","5 Gallery","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"]
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Coordinates: 40°30′27″N 22°43′3″E / 40.50750°N 22.71750°E / 40.50750; 22.71750River in North Macedonia and Greece
For other uses, see Vardar (disambiguation).
VardarВардарVardar in SkopjeNative nameВардар (Macedonian)Vardari (Albanian)Αξιός (Greek)LocationCountriesNorth Macedonia and GreecePhysical characteristicsSource • locationVrutok, near Gostivar
Mouth • locationAegean Sea, near Thessaloniki • coordinates40°30′27″N 22°43′3″E / 40.50750°N 22.71750°E / 40.50750; 22.71750Length388 km (241 mi)
The Vardar (/ˈvɑːrdɑːr/; Macedonian: Вардарⓘ, Albanian: Vardar/-i, Turkish: Vardar) or Axios (Greek: Αξιός, romanized: Aksiós, Albanian: Asi (historically)) is the longest river in North Macedonia and a major river in Greece, where it reaches the Aegean Sea at Thessaloniki. It is 388 km (241 mi) long, out of which 76 km (47 mi) are in Greece, and drains an area of around 25,000 km2 (9,653 sq mi). The maximum depth of the river is 4 m (13 ft).
Etymology
The name Vardar for the river may have been derived from Thracian, although Dardanian, Paeonian, Ancient Macedonian and Ancient Greek were also spoken in the lands drained by the river.
The modern Vardar is thought to derive from an earlier *Vardários, which may ultimately derive from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) *(s)wordo-wori- "black water". The name Vardários (Βαρδάριος) was sometimes used by the Ancient Greeks in the 3rd century BC. The same name was widely used in the Byzantine era.
Vardar/Vardarios may be a translation of (or otherwise have a similar meaning as) Axios, which may be Thracian and may have meant "not-shining" from PIE *n.-sk(e)i (cf. Avestan axšaēna "dark-coloured"). The oldest known name of the river, Axios, is mentioned by Homer (Il. 21.141, Il. 2.849) as the home of the Paeonians allies of Troy. Pjetër Bogdani would use the form Asi, an earlier Albanian-language name for the river.
This same hypothetical Thracian Axio- meaning "dark, not-shining" is theorized to be found in the name of a city at the mouth of the Danube, called Axiopolis in Greek and Axíopa (perhaps again meaning just "dark water") in Thracian, which may later have been translated into Slavic as Cernavodă, also meaning "black water".
Geography
Vardar in Skopje: the Stone Bridge
The river rises at Vrutok, a few kilometers southwest of Gostivar in North Macedonia. It passes through Gostivar, Skopje and into Veles, crosses the Greek border near Gevgelija, Polykastro and Axioupoli ("town on the Axiós"), before emptying into the Aegean Sea in Central Macedonia, west of Thessaloniki in northern Greece.
The Vardar basin comprises two-thirds of the territory of North Macedonia. The valley features fertile lands in the Polog region, around Gevgelija and in the Thessaloniki regional unit. The river is surrounded by mountains elsewhere. The superhighways Greek National Road 1 in Greece and M1 and E75 run within the valley along the river's entire length to near Skopje.
The river was very famous during the Ottoman Empire and remains so in modern-day Turkey as the inspiration for many folk songs, of which the most famous is Vardar Ovasi. It has also been depicted on the coat of arms of Skopje, which in turn is incorporated in the city's flag.
Project to construct the Danube-Vardar-Aegean Canal
Main article: Morava-Vardar Canal
A proposal to construct a canal connecting the Morava river valley with the Vardar, and hence linking the Danube to the Aegean Canal, has been a dream for a long time. Le Figaro published a project of Athens and Belgrade on 28.08.2017. The Greek-Serbian proposal made in Beijing is Pharaonic: 651 km. A project worth 17 billion.
Vardaris wind
The Vardaris or Vardarec is a powerful prevailing northerly ravine wind which blows across the river valley in Greece as well as in North Macedonia. At first it descends along the "canal" of the Vardar valley, usually as a breeze. When it encounters the high mountains that separate Greece from North Macedonia, it descends the other side, gathering a tremendous momentum and bringing cold conditions to the city of Thessaloniki and the Axios delta. Somewhat similar to the mistral wind of France, it occurs when atmospheric pressure over eastern Europe is higher than over the Aegean Sea, as is often the case in winter.
Gallery
Map of the northwestern part of North Macedonia including the source of the Vardar
Axios/Vardar river map
Veles Gorge
River Vardar near Gradsko
River Vardar near Gradsko (2)
Vardar (Axios) river in Greece
Longitudinal hidrographic profile of the flow of river Vardar
See also
Great Morava
Pčinja River
References
^ a b Arapi, Ina (17 December 2014). "Konferenca për Eposin e Kreshnikëve, Pjetër Bogdani dhe Dardania në gusht 2014 (rreth vendlindjes së arqipeshkvit Pjetër Bogdani)". Epoka e Re: 6.
^ a b "The rivers – Axios Delta National Park". axiosdelta.gr. Retrieved 2020-08-05.
^ Orel, Vladimir. A Handbook of Germanic Etymology. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2003: 392.
^ Mallory, J. P. and D. Q. Adams. Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. London: Fitzroy and Dearborn, 1997: 147.
^ a b Katičic', Radoslav. Ancient Languages of the Balkans. Paris: Mouton, 1976: 149.
^ Mallory, J. P. and D. Q. Adams. Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. London: Fitzroy and Dearborn, 1997: 146.
^ Axios, Georg Autenrieth, A Homeric Dictionary, at Perseus
^ Official portal of the city of Skopje: City symbols Archived 2014-09-29 at the Wayback Machine. – Retrieved on 13 May 2009.
^ The Project to Construct the Danube-Aegean Canal(2013)
^ The Greek-Serbian proposal made in Beijing
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Vardar.
Proceedings of the 1st Axios Catchment Consortium Meeting Archived 2011-07-22 at the Wayback Machine by the European Commission—DG Research
PIM "Ivan Milutinović", Belgrade, Serbia; Morava - Vardar (Axios) Navigation Route—About 1,200 km shorter route (three days shorter time of navigation) from Belgrade to Port of Thessaloniki than across Danube, Black Sea and Aegean Sea. Electric power production, improvement of water quality and regulation of flooding wave.
Morava—Vardar (Axios) Navigation Route map
Hydropower and navigation system "Morava"—Concepts of regulation of rivers Great Morava and South Morava for navigation and hydropower production
Authority control databases International
VIAF
National
Germany
Czech Republic
Geographic
Pleiades
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Vardar (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vardar_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"/ˈvɑːrdɑːr/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"Macedonian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonian_language"},{"link_name":"Вардар","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/be/Mk-Vardar.ogg/Mk-Vardar.ogg.mp3"},{"link_name":"ⓘ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mk-Vardar.ogg"},{"link_name":"Albanian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albanian_language"},{"link_name":"Turkish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_language"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"romanized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Greek"},{"link_name":"Albanian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albanian_language"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-1"},{"link_name":"river","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River"},{"link_name":"North Macedonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Macedonia"},{"link_name":"Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece"},{"link_name":"Aegean Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegean_Sea"},{"link_name":"Thessaloniki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thessaloniki"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"}],"text":"River in North Macedonia and GreeceFor other uses, see Vardar (disambiguation).The Vardar (/ˈvɑːrdɑːr/; Macedonian: Вардарⓘ, Albanian: Vardar/-i, Turkish: Vardar) or Axios (Greek: Αξιός, romanized: Aksiós, Albanian: Asi (historically)[1]) is the longest river in North Macedonia and a major river in Greece, where it reaches the Aegean Sea at Thessaloniki.[2] It is 388 km (241 mi) long, out of which 76 km (47 mi) are in Greece,[2] and drains an area of around 25,000 km2 (9,653 sq mi). The maximum depth of the river is 4 m (13 ft).","title":"Vardar"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Thracian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thracian_language"},{"link_name":"Dardanian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dardani"},{"link_name":"Paeonian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paeonian_language"},{"link_name":"Ancient Macedonian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_language"},{"link_name":"Ancient Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language"},{"link_name":"Proto-Indo-European","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-European"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Ancient Greeks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greeks"},{"link_name":"Byzantine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Homer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homer"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Paeonians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paeonians"},{"link_name":"Troy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troy"},{"link_name":"Pjetër Bogdani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pjet%C3%ABr_Bogdani"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-1"},{"link_name":"Cernavodă","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cernavod%C4%83"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-5"}],"text":"The name Vardar for the river may have been derived from Thracian, although Dardanian, Paeonian, Ancient Macedonian and Ancient Greek were also spoken in the lands drained by the river.The modern Vardar is thought to derive from an earlier *Vardários, which may ultimately derive from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) *(s)wordo-wori- \"black water\".[3][4] The name Vardários (Βαρδάριος) was sometimes used by the Ancient Greeks in the 3rd century BC. The same name was widely used in the Byzantine era.[5]Vardar/Vardarios may be a translation of (or otherwise have a similar meaning as) Axios, which may be Thracian and may have meant \"not-shining\" from PIE *n.-sk(e)i (cf. Avestan axšaēna \"dark-coloured\").[6] The oldest known name of the river, Axios, is mentioned by Homer (Il. 21.141, Il. 2.849)[7] as the home of the Paeonians allies of Troy. Pjetër Bogdani would use the form Asi, an earlier Albanian-language name for the river.[1]This same hypothetical Thracian Axio- meaning \"dark, not-shining\" is theorized to be found in the name of a city at the mouth of the Danube, called Axiopolis in Greek and Axíopa (perhaps again meaning just \"dark water\") in Thracian, which may later have been translated into Slavic as Cernavodă, also meaning \"black water\".[5]","title":"Etymology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vardar_Stone_Bridge_Skopje.jpg"},{"link_name":"Skopje","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skopje"},{"link_name":"Stone Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stone_Bridge_(Skopje)"},{"link_name":"Vrutok","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vrutok"},{"link_name":"Gostivar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gostivar"},{"link_name":"Gostivar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gostivar"},{"link_name":"Skopje","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skopje"},{"link_name":"Veles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veles_(city)"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece"},{"link_name":"Gevgelija","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gevgelija"},{"link_name":"Polykastro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polykastro"},{"link_name":"Axioupoli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axioupoli"},{"link_name":"Aegean Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegean_Sea"},{"link_name":"Central Macedonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Macedonia"},{"link_name":"Thessaloniki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thessaloniki"},{"link_name":"territory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Territory"},{"link_name":"North Macedonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Macedonia"},{"link_name":"Polog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polog"},{"link_name":"Gevgelija","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gevgelija"},{"link_name":"Thessaloniki regional unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thessaloniki_(regional_unit)"},{"link_name":"Greek National Road 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_National_Road_1"},{"link_name":"Ottoman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Turkey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"Vardar in Skopje: the Stone BridgeThe river rises at Vrutok, a few kilometers southwest of Gostivar in North Macedonia. It passes through Gostivar, Skopje and into Veles, crosses the Greek border near Gevgelija, Polykastro and Axioupoli (\"town on the Axiós\"), before emptying into the Aegean Sea in Central Macedonia, west of Thessaloniki in northern Greece.The Vardar basin comprises two-thirds of the territory of North Macedonia. The valley features fertile lands in the Polog region, around Gevgelija and in the Thessaloniki regional unit. The river is surrounded by mountains elsewhere. The superhighways Greek National Road 1 in Greece and M1 and E75 run within the valley along the river's entire length to near Skopje.The river was very famous during the Ottoman Empire and remains so in modern-day Turkey as the inspiration for many folk songs, of which the most famous is Vardar Ovasi. It has also been depicted on the coat of arms of Skopje, which in turn is incorporated in the city's flag.[8]","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"A proposal to construct a canal connecting the Morava river valley with the Vardar, and hence linking the Danube to the Aegean Canal, has been a dream for a long time.[9] Le Figaro published a project of Athens and Belgrade on 28.08.2017. The Greek-Serbian proposal made in Beijing is Pharaonic: 651 km. A project worth 17 billion.[10]","title":"Project to construct the Danube-Vardar-Aegean Canal"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"prevailing northerly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geostrophic_wind"},{"link_name":"ravine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ravine"},{"link_name":"Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece"},{"link_name":"North Macedonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Macedonia"},{"link_name":"Thessaloniki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thessaloniki"},{"link_name":"mistral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mistral_(wind)"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"},{"link_name":"Aegean Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegean_Sea"}],"text":"The Vardaris or Vardarec is a powerful prevailing northerly ravine wind which blows across the river valley in Greece as well as in North Macedonia. At first it descends along the \"canal\" of the Vardar valley, usually as a breeze. When it encounters the high mountains that separate Greece from North Macedonia, it descends the other side, gathering a tremendous momentum and bringing cold conditions to the city of Thessaloniki and the Axios delta. Somewhat similar to the mistral wind of France, it occurs when atmospheric pressure over eastern Europe is higher than over the Aegean Sea, as is often the case in winter.","title":"Vardaris wind"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Northwestern_Macedonia.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Axios-Vardar_river_map.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Veles_Gorge_Vardar_Macedonia.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:River_Vardar_(2).JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:River_Vardar_(1).JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Axios_river.jpg"},{"link_name":"Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80.jpg"}],"text":"Map of the northwestern part of North Macedonia including the source of the Vardar\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tAxios/Vardar river map\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tVeles Gorge\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tRiver Vardar near Gradsko\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tRiver Vardar near Gradsko (2)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tVardar (Axios) river in Greece\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tLongitudinal hidrographic profile of the flow of river Vardar","title":"Gallery"}]
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[{"image_text":"Vardar in Skopje: the Stone Bridge","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Vardar_Stone_Bridge_Skopje.jpg/240px-Vardar_Stone_Bridge_Skopje.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Great Morava","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Morava"},{"title":"Pčinja River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C4%8Dinja_River"}]
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[{"reference":"Arapi, Ina (17 December 2014). \"Konferenca për Eposin e Kreshnikëve, Pjetër Bogdani dhe Dardania në gusht 2014 (rreth vendlindjes së arqipeshkvit Pjetër Bogdani)\". Epoka e Re: 6.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.academia.edu/40609685","url_text":"\"Konferenca për Eposin e Kreshnikëve, Pjetër Bogdani dhe Dardania në gusht 2014 (rreth vendlindjes së arqipeshkvit Pjetër Bogdani)\""}]},{"reference":"\"The rivers – Axios Delta National Park\". axiosdelta.gr. Retrieved 2020-08-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://axiosdelta.gr/en/national-park/protected-area/rivers/","url_text":"\"The rivers – Axios Delta National Park\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Adam_Beck_Hydroelectric_Generating_Stations
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Sir Adam Beck Hydroelectric Generating Stations
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["1 Adam Beck I","2 Adam Beck II","3 Water diversion","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]
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Coordinates: 43°08′51″N 79°02′41″W / 43.14750°N 79.04472°W / 43.14750; -79.04472Hydroelectric dam in Ontario, Canada
Sir Adam Beck Hydroelectric Generating StationsThe Adam Beck stations as seen from the air; the northern dam (nearest) is Adam Beck I and the southern is Adam Beck II.CountryCanadaLocationNiagara Falls, OntarioCoordinates43°08′51″N 79°02′41″W / 43.14750°N 79.04472°W / 43.14750; -79.04472StatusOperationalCommission dateAdam Beck I 1922,Adam Beck II 1954
National Historic Site of CanadaOfficial nameQueenston-Chippawa Hydro-Electric Development National Historic Site of CanadaDesignated1990
Owner(s)Ontario Power GenerationOperator(s)Ontario Power GenerationPower generation
Units operational26 (Adam Beck I 10,Adam Beck II 16)Nameplate capacity1,962 MWExternal linksWebsitewww.opg.comCommonsRelated media on Commons
Sir Adam Beck Hydroelectric Generating Stations are two hydroelectric generating stations in Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada. Sir Adam Beck Generating Station I, Sir Adam Beck Generating Station II and the Sir Adam Beck Pump Generating Station are all owned by Ontario Power Generation. Following the development of several smaller generating stations around Niagara Falls in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Province of Ontario authorized the construction of the first major publicly owned generating station in the province. At the time it was built, it was the largest hydroelectric generating station in the world.
The stations divert water from the Niagara and Welland rivers above Niagara Falls which is then released into the lower portion of the Niagara River, and together produce up to 1,962 MW (2,631,000 hp).
Adam Beck I
Control room, 1944
Adam Beck I contains 10 generators and first produced power in 1922. It was originally called the Queenston-Chippawa Hydroelectric Plant and was renamed after Adam Beck in 1950 on the twenty-fifth anniversary of his death. The water is diverted through the Chippawa-Queenston Power Canal from the Welland River.
As the first large-scale hydroelectric generation project in the world, Adam Beck I was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1990.
Adam Beck II
The Chippawa-Queenston Power Canal in 1921; it was the first of three sources to provide water to the Generating Stations
Adam Beck II contains 16 generators and first produced power in 1954. The water was first diverted from the Niagara River by two five-mile (8 km) tunnels under the city of Niagara Falls, Ontario, that start above the falls. A reservoir was created that permits the holding of water, diverted during the night, for use during the day.
Between 2007 and 2013, Adam Beck II underwent major civil engineering projects with the addition of a major underground water supply tunnel built by the Niagara Tunnel Project in order to improve its generation output. Water delivered by the major new tunnel complemented other upgrades to the Sir Adam Beck generating complex, resulting in a significant increase to the efficient use of the Niagara River's hydro power.
The project's new 12.7-metre (42 ft) diameter, 10.2 km (6.3 mi) long tunnel was officially placed into service on 21 March 2013, helping to increase the generating complex's nameplate capacity by 150 MW, able to provide the power for about 160,000 homes. A CAD 60 million refurbishment of the Pump Generating Station reservoir, built in 1957, was started in 2016.
The major 1965 Northeast Blackout of Ontario and several U.S. states occurred on 9 November, after maintenance personnel incorrectly set a protective relay on one of the transmission lines from the Sir Adam Beck Station No. II. The faulty relay later tripped open causing a major blackout created by a series of cascading failures which affected over 30 million people for up to 12 hours.
Water diversion
The open cut Chippawa-Queenston Power Canal diverts water from the Welland River to the stations. Upstream of the International Control Dam there are three tunnel intakes which run under Niagara Falls, Ontario, and surface 2 km (1.2 mi) upstream of the Sir Adam Beck Generating Stations. All three tunnel intakes are upstream of the Control Dam, however one of the three tunnels is unseen, under the water, located directly in front of the Control Dam, Control Tower. The open cut canal and the tunnel canal cross at the "Cross Over" where there is a third channel feeding the 174 MW pump generating station 43°08′40″N 79°03′36″W / 43.14444°N 79.06000°W / 43.14444; -79.06000 (Sir Adam Beck Pump Generating Station) which pumps water up into the man-made reservoir at night and generates electricity during the day, feeding the water back to the Sir Adam Beck Generating Complex.
The International Control Dam, operated by Ontario Power Generation, controls the water diversions from the Niagara River and dispatches the water between the New York Power Authority and Ontario Power Generation in accordance with the terms of the 1950 Niagara Treaty.
The Adam Beck dams are at the left, and the Robert Moses Station is on the right of the image
This treaty, designed to ensure an "unbroken curtain of water" is flowing over the falls, states that during daylight time during the tourist season (1 April to 31 October) there must be 2,832 m3/s (100,000 cu ft/s) of water flowing over the falls, and during the night and off-tourist season there must be 1,416 m3/s (50,000 cu ft/s) of water flowing over the falls. This treaty is monitored by the International Niagara Board of Control.
See also
Canada portalRenewable energy portalEnergy portal
Robert Moses Niagara Power Plant
List of largest power stations in Canada
List of energy storage projects
List of Niagara Falls hydroelectric generating plants
References
^ "Our story > OPG's Sir Adam Beck I hydro station celebrates a century of clean power - OPG". Ontario Power Generation. 29 August 2022. Archived from the original on 29 August 2022. Retrieved 31 July 2023.
^ "Niagara Falls History of Power". Archived from the original on 23 May 2012. Retrieved 6 October 2016.
^ "Queenston-Chippawa Hydro-Electric Development". National Historic Site of Canada. Retrieved 6 February 2016.
^ "Niagara Power Goes Under Ground" Popular Mechanics, April 1952, p. 115.
^ Niagara Tunnel Project Technical Facts, NiagaraFrontier.com website, updated November 2012.
^ Cassell, Barry (8 June 2016). "Ontario Power Kicks Off C$60M Project to Rehab Pumped Storage Reservoir". Renewable Energy World. Retrieved 12 November 2022.
^ "Sir Adam Beck Pump Generating Station". Ontario Power. Retrieved 3 October 2010.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sir Adam Beck Dam.
Images of Sir Adam Beck 1 Power Plant Niagara Falls Public Library (Ont.)
Images of Sir Adam Beck 2 Power Plant Niagara Falls Public Library (Ont.)
International Niagara Board of Control
Images of the Queenston-Chippawa Power Canal Niagara Falls Public Library (Ont.)
Air Curtain Fences Blast, Popular Mechanics, August 1954, pp. 96–97, the delicate controlled blast in 1954 to connect the two reservoirs.
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Following the development of several smaller generating stations around Niagara Falls in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Province of Ontario authorized the construction of the first major publicly owned generating station in the province.[2] At the time it was built, it was the largest hydroelectric generating station in the world.The stations divert water from the Niagara and Welland rivers above Niagara Falls which is then released into the lower portion of the Niagara River, and together produce up to 1,962 MW (2,631,000 hp).","title":"Sir Adam Beck Hydroelectric Generating Stations"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Control_room_of_the_Queenston_power_generating_plant.jpg"},{"link_name":"Adam Beck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Beck"},{"link_name":"Welland River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welland_River"},{"link_name":"National Historic Site of Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Historic_Sites_of_Canada"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"Control room, 1944Adam Beck I contains 10 generators and first produced power in 1922. It was originally called the Queenston-Chippawa Hydroelectric Plant and was renamed after Adam Beck in 1950 on the twenty-fifth anniversary of his death. The water is diverted through the Chippawa-Queenston Power Canal from the Welland River.As the first large-scale hydroelectric generation project in the world, Adam Beck I was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1990.[3]","title":"Adam Beck I"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queenston-Chippawa_Power_Canal_near_Niagara_Falls,_Ontario.jpg"},{"link_name":"Niagara River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niagara_River"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Niagara Tunnel Project","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niagara_Tunnel_Project"},{"link_name":"Niagara River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niagara_River"},{"link_name":"nameplate capacity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nameplate_capacity"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NiagaraFrontier-TechFacts-5"},{"link_name":"CAD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_dollar"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Northeast Blackout","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northeast_Blackout_of_1965"},{"link_name":"cascading failures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cascading_failure"}],"text":"The Chippawa-Queenston Power Canal in 1921; it was the first of three sources to provide water to the Generating StationsAdam Beck II contains 16 generators and first produced power in 1954. The water was first diverted from the Niagara River by two five-mile (8 km) tunnels under the city of Niagara Falls, Ontario, that start above the falls.[4] A reservoir was created that permits the holding of water, diverted during the night, for use during the day.Between 2007 and 2013, Adam Beck II underwent major civil engineering projects with the addition of a major underground water supply tunnel built by the Niagara Tunnel Project in order to improve its generation output. Water delivered by the major new tunnel complemented other upgrades to the Sir Adam Beck generating complex, resulting in a significant increase to the efficient use of the Niagara River's hydro power.The project's new 12.7-metre (42 ft) diameter, 10.2 km (6.3 mi) long tunnel was officially placed into service on 21 March 2013, helping to increase the generating complex's nameplate capacity by 150 MW, able to provide the power for about 160,000 homes.[5] A CAD 60 million refurbishment of the Pump Generating Station reservoir, built in 1957, was started in 2016.[6]The major 1965 Northeast Blackout of Ontario and several U.S. states occurred on 9 November, after maintenance personnel incorrectly set a protective relay on one of the transmission lines from the Sir Adam Beck Station No. II. The faulty relay later tripped open causing a major blackout created by a series of cascading failures which affected over 30 million people for up to 12 hours.","title":"Adam Beck II"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Welland River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welland_River"},{"link_name":"International Control Dam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Control_Dam"},{"link_name":"43°08′40″N 79°03′36″W / 43.14444°N 79.06000°W / 43.14444; -79.06000 (Sir Adam Beck Pump Generating Station)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Sir_Adam_Beck_Hydroelectric_Generating_Stations¶ms=43_08_40_N_79_03_36_W_&title=Sir+Adam+Beck+Pump+Generating+Station"},{"link_name":"pumps water","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pumped_storage"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Ontario Power Generation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontario_Power_Generation"},{"link_name":"1950 Niagara Treaty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Control_Dam"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Adam_Beck_and_Robert_Moses.jpg"}],"text":"The open cut Chippawa-Queenston Power Canal diverts water from the Welland River to the stations. Upstream of the International Control Dam there are three tunnel intakes which run under Niagara Falls, Ontario, and surface 2 km (1.2 mi) upstream of the Sir Adam Beck Generating Stations. All three tunnel intakes are upstream of the Control Dam, however one of the three tunnels is unseen, under the water, located directly in front of the Control Dam, Control Tower. The open cut canal and the tunnel canal cross at the \"Cross Over\" where there is a third channel feeding the 174 MW pump generating station 43°08′40″N 79°03′36″W / 43.14444°N 79.06000°W / 43.14444; -79.06000 (Sir Adam Beck Pump Generating Station) which pumps water up into the man-made reservoir at night and generates electricity during the day, feeding the water back to the Sir Adam Beck Generating Complex.[7]The International Control Dam, operated by Ontario Power Generation, controls the water diversions from the Niagara River and dispatches the water between the New York Power Authority and Ontario Power Generation in accordance with the terms of the 1950 Niagara Treaty.The Adam Beck dams are at the left, and the Robert Moses Station is on the right of the imageThis treaty, designed to ensure an \"unbroken curtain of water\" is flowing over the falls, states that during daylight time during the tourist season (1 April to 31 October) there must be 2,832 m3/s (100,000 cu ft/s) of water flowing over the falls, and during the night and off-tourist season there must be 1,416 m3/s (50,000 cu ft/s) of water flowing over the falls. This treaty is monitored by the International Niagara Board of Control.","title":"Water diversion"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Our story > OPG's Sir Adam Beck I hydro station celebrates a century of clean power - OPG\". Ontario Power Generation. 29 August 2022. Archived from the original on 29 August 2022. Retrieved 31 July 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220829202435/https://www.opg.com/stories/opgs-sir-adam-beck-i-hydro-station-celebrates-a-century-of-clean-power/","url_text":"\"Our story > OPG's Sir Adam Beck I hydro station celebrates a century of clean power - OPG\""},{"url":"https://www.opg.com/stories/opgs-sir-adam-beck-i-hydro-station-celebrates-a-century-of-clean-power/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Niagara Falls History of Power\". Archived from the original on 23 May 2012. Retrieved 6 October 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.niagarafrontier.com/power.html","url_text":"\"Niagara Falls History of Power\""},{"url":"https://archive.today/20120523225341/http://www.niagarafrontier.com/power.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Queenston-Chippawa Hydro-Electric Development\". National Historic Site of Canada. Retrieved 6 February 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.historicplaces.ca/en/rep-reg/place-lieu.aspx?id=17706","url_text":"\"Queenston-Chippawa Hydro-Electric Development\""}]},{"reference":"Cassell, Barry (8 June 2016). \"Ontario Power Kicks Off C$60M Project to Rehab Pumped Storage Reservoir\". Renewable Energy World. Retrieved 12 November 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.renewableenergyworld.com/storage/ontario-power-kicks-off-c-60m-project-to-rehab-pumped-storage-reservoir/","url_text":"\"Ontario Power Kicks Off C$60M Project to Rehab Pumped Storage Reservoir\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sir Adam Beck Pump Generating Station\". Ontario Power. Retrieved 3 October 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.opg.com/generating-power/hydro/southwest-ontario/Pages/sir-adam-beck-pgs.aspx","url_text":"\"Sir Adam Beck Pump Generating Station\""}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Sir_Adam_Beck_Hydroelectric_Generating_Stations¶ms=43_08_51_N_79_02_41_W_type:landmark_region:CA","external_links_name":"43°08′51″N 79°02′41″W / 43.14750°N 79.04472°W / 43.14750; -79.04472"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Sir_Adam_Beck_Hydroelectric_Generating_Stations¶ms=43_08_51_N_79_02_41_W_type:landmark_region:CA","external_links_name":"43°08′51″N 79°02′41″W / 43.14750°N 79.04472°W / 43.14750; -79.04472"},{"Link":"https://www.opg.com/","external_links_name":"www.opg.com"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Sir_Adam_Beck_Hydroelectric_Generating_Stations¶ms=43_08_40_N_79_03_36_W_&title=Sir+Adam+Beck+Pump+Generating+Station","external_links_name":"43°08′40″N 79°03′36″W / 43.14444°N 79.06000°W / 43.14444; -79.06000 (Sir Adam Beck Pump Generating Station)"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220829202435/https://www.opg.com/stories/opgs-sir-adam-beck-i-hydro-station-celebrates-a-century-of-clean-power/","external_links_name":"\"Our story > OPG's Sir Adam Beck I hydro station celebrates a century of clean power - OPG\""},{"Link":"https://www.opg.com/stories/opgs-sir-adam-beck-i-hydro-station-celebrates-a-century-of-clean-power/","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.niagarafrontier.com/power.html","external_links_name":"\"Niagara Falls History of Power\""},{"Link":"https://archive.today/20120523225341/http://www.niagarafrontier.com/power.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.historicplaces.ca/en/rep-reg/place-lieu.aspx?id=17706","external_links_name":"\"Queenston-Chippawa Hydro-Electric Development\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ytwDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA115","external_links_name":"\"Niagara Power Goes Under Ground\""},{"Link":"http://www.niagarafrontier.com/tunneltechnical.html","external_links_name":"Niagara Tunnel Project Technical Facts"},{"Link":"https://www.renewableenergyworld.com/storage/ontario-power-kicks-off-c-60m-project-to-rehab-pumped-storage-reservoir/","external_links_name":"\"Ontario Power Kicks Off C$60M Project to Rehab Pumped Storage Reservoir\""},{"Link":"http://www.opg.com/generating-power/hydro/southwest-ontario/Pages/sir-adam-beck-pgs.aspx","external_links_name":"\"Sir Adam Beck Pump Generating Station\""},{"Link":"http://www.nflibrary.ca/nfplindex/results.asp?action=browse&q=295&key=369","external_links_name":"Images of Sir Adam Beck 1 Power Plant"},{"Link":"http://www.nflibrary.ca/nfplindex/results.asp?action=browse&q=295&key=249","external_links_name":"Images of Sir Adam Beck 2 Power Plant"},{"Link":"https://ijc.org/en/nbc","external_links_name":"International Niagara Board of Control"},{"Link":"http://www.nflibrary.ca/nfplindex/results.asp?action=browse&q=295&key=156","external_links_name":"Images of the Queenston-Chippawa Power Canal"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=AeADAAAAMBAJ&dq=1954+Popular+Mechanics+January&pg=PA96","external_links_name":"Air Curtain Fences Blast"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernet
|
Supernetwork
|
["1 Overview","2 Protocol requirements","3 Examples","4 Risks","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]
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Aggregation of Internet Protocol networks
"Supernet" redirects here. For the broadband network in the province of Alberta, see Alberta SuperNet.
An example of route aggregation as a part of CIDR
A supernetwork, or supernet, is an Internet Protocol (IP) network that is formed by aggregation of multiple networks (or subnets) into a larger network. The new routing prefix for the aggregate network represents the constituent networks in a single routing table entry. The process of forming a supernet is called supernetting, prefix aggregation, route aggregation, or route summarization.
Supernetting within the Internet serves as a strategy to avoid fragmentation of the IP address space by using a hierarchical allocation system that delegates control of segments of address space to regional Internet registries. This method facilitates regional route aggregation.
The benefits of supernetting are efficiencies gained in routers in terms of memory storage of route information and processing overhead when matching routes. Supernetting, however, can introduce interoperability issues and other risks.
Overview
In IP networking terminology, a supernet is a block of contiguous subnetworks addressed as a single subnet from the perspective of the larger network. Supernets are always larger than their component networks. Supernetting is the process of aggregating routes to multiple smaller networks, thus saving storage space in the routing table, simplifying routing decisions and reducing route advertisements to neighboring gateways. Supernetting has helped address the increasing size of routing tables as the Internet has expanded.
Supernetting in large, complex networks can isolate topology changes from other routers. This can improve the stability of the network by limiting the propagation of routing changes in the event of a network link failure. If a router only advertises a summary route to the next router, then it does not need to advertise any changes to specific subnets within the summarized range. This can significantly reduce any unnecessary routing updates following a topology change. Hence, it increases the speed of convergence resulting in a more stable environment.
Protocol requirements
Supernetting requires the use of routing protocols that support Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR). Interior Gateway Routing Protocol, Exterior Gateway Protocol and version 1 of the Routing Information Protocol (RIPv1) assume classful addressing, and therefore cannot transmit the subnet mask information required for supernetting.
Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP) supports CIDR. By default, EIGRP summarizes the routes within the routing table and forwards these summarized routes to its peers. Other routing protocols with CIDR support include RIPv2, Open Shortest Path First, EIGRP, IS-IS and Border Gateway Protocol.
Examples
A company that operates 150 accounting services in each of 50 districts has a router in each office connected with a Frame Relay link to its corporate headquarters. Without supernetting, the routing table on any given router might have to account for 150 routers in each of the 50 districts, or 7500 different networks. However, if a hierarchical addressing system is implemented with supernetting, then each district has a centralized site as an interconnection point. Each route is summarized before being advertised to other districts. Each router now only recognizes its own subnet and the other 49 summarized routes.
The determination of the summary route on a router involves the recognition of the number of highest-order bits that match all addresses. The summary route is calculated as follows. A router has the following networks in its routing table:
192.168.98.0
192.168.99.0
192.168.100.0
192.168.101.0
192.168.102.0
192.168.105.0
Firstly, the addresses are converted to binary format and aligned in a list:
Address
First Octet
Second Octet
Third Octet
Fourth Octet
192.168.98.0
11000000
10101000
01100010
00000000
192.168.99.0
11000000
10101000
01100011
00000000
192.168.100.0
11000000
10101000
01100100
00000000
192.168.101.0
11000000
10101000
01100101
00000000
192.168.102.0
11000000
10101000
01100110
00000000
192.168.105.0
11000000
10101000
01101001
00000000
Secondly, the bits at which the common pattern of digits ends are located. These common bits are shown in red. Lastly, the number of common bits is counted. The summary route is found by setting the remaining bits to zero, as shown below. It is followed by a slash and then the number of common bits.
First Octet
Second Octet
Third Octet
Fourth Octet
Address
Netmask
11000000
10101000
01100000
00000000
192.168.96.0
/20
The summarized route is 192.168.96.0/20. The subnet mask is 255.255.240.0. This summarized route also contains networks that were not in the summarized group, namely, 192.168.96.0, 192.168.97.0, 192.168.103.0, 192.168.104.0, 192.168.106.0, 192.168.107.0, 192.168.108.0, 192.168.109.0, 192.168.110.0, and 192.168.111.0. It must be assured that the missing networks do not exist outside of this route.
In another example, an ISP is assigned a block of IP addresses by a regional Internet registry (RIR) of 172.1.0.0 to 172.1.255.255. The ISP might then assign subnetworks to each of their downstream clients, e.g., Customer A will have the range 172.1.1.0 to 172.1.1.255, Customer B would receive the range 172.1.2.0 to 172.1.2.255 and Customer C would receive the range 172.1.3.0 to 172.1.3.255, and so on. Instead of an entry for each of the subnets 172.1.1.x and 172.1.2.x, etc., the ISP could aggregate the entire 172.1.x.x address range and advertise the network 172.1.0.0/16, which would reduce the number of entries in the global routing table.
Risks
The following supernetting risks have been identified:
Supernetting is implemented in different ways on different routers.
Supernetting on one router interface can influence how routes are advertised on other interfaces of the same router.
In the presence of supernetting, detecting a persistent routing loop becomes a difficult problem.
Adverse impact in heterogeneous routing environments with discontiguous subnets
See also
Provider-aggregatable address space
Provider-independent address space
References
Notes
^ RFC 1338, Supernetting: an Address Assignment and Aggregation Strategy, V. Fuller, T. Li, J. Yu, K. Varadhan (June 1992)
^ a b Franck Le; Geoffrey G. Xie; Hui Zhang (2011). "On Route Aggregation" (PDF). ACM. Retrieved 2013-01-10.
^ Antonio Maciá (13 February 2012). "EIGRP Summarization Issues". Retrieved 2020-07-31.
Bibliography
Comer, Douglas E. (2006). Internetworking with TCP/IP, 5, Prentice Hall: Upper Saddle River, NJ.
External links
The Supernetting/CIDR Chart
IP Address Subnetting Tutorial
Supernet Examples and How to Calculate Supernets
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Alberta SuperNet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alberta_SuperNet"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Route_Aggreation_example-en.svg"},{"link_name":"Internet Protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Protocol"},{"link_name":"subnets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subnetwork"},{"link_name":"routing prefix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routing_prefix"},{"link_name":"routing table","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routing_table"},{"link_name":"Internet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet"},{"link_name":"IP address","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_address"},{"link_name":"regional Internet registries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regional_Internet_registry"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"routers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Router_(computing)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le2011-2"}],"text":"\"Supernet\" redirects here. For the broadband network in the province of Alberta, see Alberta SuperNet.An example of route aggregation as a part of CIDRA supernetwork, or supernet, is an Internet Protocol (IP) network that is formed by aggregation of multiple networks (or subnets) into a larger network. The new routing prefix for the aggregate network represents the constituent networks in a single routing table entry. The process of forming a supernet is called supernetting, prefix aggregation, route aggregation, or route summarization.Supernetting within the Internet serves as a strategy to avoid fragmentation of the IP address space by using a hierarchical allocation system that delegates control of segments of address space to regional Internet registries.[1] This method facilitates regional route aggregation.The benefits of supernetting are efficiencies gained in routers in terms of memory storage of route information and processing overhead when matching routes. Supernetting, however, can introduce interoperability issues and other risks.[2]","title":"Supernetwork"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"subnetworks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subnetwork"},{"link_name":"convergence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convergence_(routing)"}],"text":"In IP networking terminology, a supernet is a block of contiguous subnetworks addressed as a single subnet from the perspective of the larger network. Supernets are always larger than their component networks. Supernetting is the process of aggregating routes to multiple smaller networks, thus saving storage space in the routing table, simplifying routing decisions and reducing route advertisements to neighboring gateways. Supernetting has helped address the increasing size of routing tables as the Internet has expanded.Supernetting in large, complex networks can isolate topology changes from other routers. This can improve the stability of the network by limiting the propagation of routing changes in the event of a network link failure. If a router only advertises a summary route to the next router, then it does not need to advertise any changes to specific subnets within the summarized range. This can significantly reduce any unnecessary routing updates following a topology change. Hence, it increases the speed of convergence resulting in a more stable environment.","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Classless Inter-Domain Routing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classless_Inter-Domain_Routing"},{"link_name":"Interior Gateway Routing Protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interior_Gateway_Routing_Protocol"},{"link_name":"Exterior Gateway Protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exterior_Gateway_Protocol"},{"link_name":"Routing Information Protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routing_Information_Protocol"},{"link_name":"classful addressing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classful_addressing"},{"link_name":"Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enhanced_Interior_Gateway_Routing_Protocol"},{"link_name":"Open Shortest Path First","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Shortest_Path_First"},{"link_name":"Border Gateway Protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Border_Gateway_Protocol"}],"text":"Supernetting requires the use of routing protocols that support Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR). Interior Gateway Routing Protocol, Exterior Gateway Protocol and version 1 of the Routing Information Protocol (RIPv1) assume classful addressing, and therefore cannot transmit the subnet mask information required for supernetting.Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP) supports CIDR. By default, EIGRP summarizes the routes within the routing table and forwards these summarized routes to its peers. Other routing protocols with CIDR support include RIPv2, Open Shortest Path First, EIGRP, IS-IS and Border Gateway Protocol.","title":"Protocol requirements"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Frame Relay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frame_Relay"},{"link_name":"IP addresses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_address"}],"text":"A company that operates 150 accounting services in each of 50 districts has a router in each office connected with a Frame Relay link to its corporate headquarters. Without supernetting, the routing table on any given router might have to account for 150 routers in each of the 50 districts, or 7500 different networks. However, if a hierarchical addressing system is implemented with supernetting, then each district has a centralized site as an interconnection point. Each route is summarized before being advertised to other districts. Each router now only recognizes its own subnet and the other 49 summarized routes.The determination of the summary route on a router involves the recognition of the number of highest-order bits that match all addresses. The summary route is calculated as follows. A router has the following networks in its routing table:192.168.98.0\n 192.168.99.0\n 192.168.100.0\n 192.168.101.0\n 192.168.102.0\n 192.168.105.0Firstly, the addresses are converted to binary format and aligned in a list:Secondly, the bits at which the common pattern of digits ends are located. These common bits are shown in red. Lastly, the number of common bits is counted. The summary route is found by setting the remaining bits to zero, as shown below. It is followed by a slash and then the number of common bits.The summarized route is 192.168.96.0/20. The subnet mask is 255.255.240.0. This summarized route also contains networks that were not in the summarized group, namely, 192.168.96.0, 192.168.97.0, 192.168.103.0, 192.168.104.0, 192.168.106.0, 192.168.107.0, 192.168.108.0, 192.168.109.0, 192.168.110.0, and 192.168.111.0. It must be assured that the missing networks do not exist outside of this route.In another example, an ISP is assigned a block of IP addresses by a regional Internet registry (RIR) of 172.1.0.0 to 172.1.255.255. The ISP might then assign subnetworks to each of their downstream clients, e.g., Customer A will have the range 172.1.1.0 to 172.1.1.255, Customer B would receive the range 172.1.2.0 to 172.1.2.255 and Customer C would receive the range 172.1.3.0 to 172.1.3.255, and so on. Instead of an entry for each of the subnets 172.1.1.x and 172.1.2.x, etc., the ISP could aggregate the entire 172.1.x.x address range and advertise the network 172.1.0.0/16, which would reduce the number of entries in the global routing table.","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le2011-2"},{"link_name":"persistent routing loop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_routing_loop"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"The following supernetting risks have been identified:[2]Supernetting is implemented in different ways on different routers.\nSupernetting on one router interface can influence how routes are advertised on other interfaces of the same router.\nIn the presence of supernetting, detecting a persistent routing loop becomes a difficult problem.\nAdverse impact in heterogeneous routing environments with discontiguous subnets[3]","title":"Risks"}]
|
[{"image_text":"An example of route aggregation as a part of CIDR","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Route_Aggreation_example-en.svg/500px-Route_Aggreation_example-en.svg.png"}]
|
[{"title":"Provider-aggregatable address space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provider-aggregatable_address_space"},{"title":"Provider-independent address space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provider-independent_address_space"}]
|
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|
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Oaks_Elementary_School_(Houston)
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River Oaks Elementary School (Houston)
|
["1 History","1.1 Early history","1.2 Vanguard and neighborhood program controversy","1.3 Post-controversy","2 Campus","3 Demographics","4 Academics and gifted and talented designation","5 Attendance boundary and feeder patterns","6 Notable alumni","7 References","8 Notes","9 See also","10 External links"]
|
Coordinates: 29°44′51″N 95°25′11″W / 29.747422°N 95.419608°W / 29.747422; -95.419608Public school in Houston, Texas, United StatesRiver Oaks Elementary SchoolAddress2008 Kirby DriveHouston, Texas 77019United StatesCoordinates29°44′51″N 95°25′11″W / 29.747422°N 95.419608°W / 29.747422; -95.419608InformationTypePublicMottoWhere learning is elementaryEstablished1929; 95 years ago (1929)School districtHouston ISDPrincipalBrett GalliniTeaching staff37.00 (FTE (2018–19)GradesK-5Enrollment675 (2018–19)Student to teacher ratio18.24∶1 (2018–19)CampusUrbanColor(s)Green, White MascotRoadrunnersCommunities servedRiver Oaks, Avalon Place, Oak Estates, and Royden OaksWebsitewww.houstonisd.org/riveroakseib
River Oaks Elementary School is a magnet school, and neighborhood school, part of the Houston Independent School District. It is located in the River Oaks neighborhood of Houston, Texas, United States As of 2022, Brett Gallini is the principal.
It houses one of several gifted and talented programs, referred to as "Vanguard" programs, in Houston ISD. The school's motto is "Where discovery is elementary". Its mascot is the roadrunner.
River Oaks Elementary School has an accelerated multidisciplinary curriculum. It became one of the first three elementary schools in Texas to get authorization for the International Baccalaureate Primary Years Programme (the primary school division of the IB program) during the 2002 - 2003 school year, and the curriculum was changed accordingly during the same school year.
History
Early history
River Oaks Elementary was designed by architect Harry D. Payne, who, in 1926, arrived in Houston after being hired by the Houston Independent School District to design the school. Payne gave the same floor plan to River Oaks, Briscoe, Field, Henderson, Poe, and Wharton elementaries. He insisted on giving each school a unique exterior. Payne said that River Oaks' design was one of his favorite designs. Landscaping architect William M. Anderson created the landscaping plans. The River Oaks Corporation provided the land that the school was built on, which was worth $50,000; the corporation wanted the school to be built as soon as possible, so it sold the land at half price to HISD.
Ima Hogg, Mrs. Agnese Carter Nelms, and Mrs. Pat Houstoun originally considered founding a private school, but after they approved of the philosophy of HISD superintendent Edison Oberholtzer, they supported his efforts. Since HISD distributed most of its funds to junior and high schools, the "Supplementary Aids committee" founded by Hogg and the other women funded a furnished library for River Oaks. Hogg, HISD officials, and a group of mothers selected Eva Margaret Davis as the school's first principal. Estelle Sharp, Hugh Potter, and the Hoggs created a telephone campaign which had River Oaks mothers make telephone calls to persuade Edison E. Oberholtzer, the HISD superintendent, into modeling the school's education program after John Dewey's ideals. River Oaks opened in 1929.
As the school grew, more classrooms were added. First permanent additions were built. Later temporary buildings were set up on the school grounds. In 1974 most of River Oaks was assigned to River Oaks Elementary School.
River Oaks Elementary was originally an all-White school; it was desegregated in 1970. The "ESG" (Elementary School for the Gifted) program was established shortly afterwards. It was not the first magnet program in Houston, as High School for the Performing and Visual Arts (HSPVA) was the first.
Prior to desegregation, River Oaks Elementary had around 800 children. After desegregation, many parents removed their children from River Oaks Elementary, and the school was far below capacity. River Oaks became exclusively a public magnet school in 1986; during the previous school year a total of 60 students were residents of the River Oaks neighborhood. At the time River Oaks had mainly older families. At the time the remaining families who did have children had the money to send their children to private school and preferred to do so.
From 1986 to 1995, up to 50% of the houses in River Oaks had changed ownership. By 1995 River Oaks Elementary had a waiting list, and it became one of the most prestigious public elementary schools in Houston. By that year several new families had established themselves in River Oaks and many of them were interested in sending their children to public school.
Vanguard and neighborhood program controversy
On March 2, 1995, HISD board trustee Ron Franklin introduced a request by the River Oaks neighborhood to have a neighborhood school at the board table. Parents from River Oaks pressured the school into adding back a neighborhood program. Some Vanguard parents felt concern with the proposal, because they liked the Vanguard program and feared that introducing neighborhood children would adulterate the Vanguard program, believing that River Oaks parents would use political influence and money to have underqualified children admitted to the Vanguard program. Some parents believed that the River Oaks neighborhood program would reduce racial diversity at the school. In 1995 the school had about 500 students, with 40% White, 30% Black, 28% Hispanic, and 1% Asian. Large numbers of parents who were White, Black, and Hispanic protested against the proposal. Donald R. McAdams, a former HISD trustee and the author of Fighting to Save Our Urban Schools-- and Winning!: Lessons from Houston, stated that Vanguard parents were afraid of having to give up complete control over the school and share power with neighborhood parents.
During that year, the HISD school board voted on a proposal to open the school to neighborhood parents. The four White board members voted in favor, while the five non-White board members voted against it. Lana Shadwick, an assistant attorney of the Harris County government, campaigned for the HISD board to allow neighborhood enrollment at River Oaks. Two board members, Esther Campos and Robert Jefferson, said that an entity, through intermediaries at the request of Shadwick, offered $50,000 in board election campaign contributions if they would change their votes, and threatened to rally a group of parents to campaign for their opponents if they did not change their votes. Jose Salazar, the intermediary who contacted Campos, said that no such offer had ever been made. McAdams stated that the controversy caused public attention to focus on the HISD board and its racial makeup.
In an editorial, the Houston Chronicle staff argued that "Until there is another vote, HISD should continue its work to improve all of HISD's neighborhood schools to lessen concerns that a child must qualify for some kind of magnet program and be bussed across town to be assured a quality education," and that the voting was done out of decentralization and not racial reasons, and so the perception that it was racial "helps to give the issue a racial tinge it does not deserve, which only serves to aggravate an already tense situation."
Laurie Bricker, a white HISD board member, introduced a new plan that allowed parents of Vanguard students to include their non-Vanguard children in the neighborhood classes along with River Oaks neighborhood students. Bricker had the neighborhood program as a phase-in to appease Vanguard parents but some minority HISD trustees did not like that aspect of her program. On March 21, 1996, the board voted in favor of Bricker's program 5–2, with 2 abstaining. Many neighborhood parents accepted the plan. Some Vanguard parents had objected. McAdams said that this vote ended the River Oaks controversy.
In the 1996–1997 school year, River Oaks Elementary introduced the neighborhood program, with for grades kindergarten through 2 admitted immediately. Grades 3 through 5 were grandfathered into the system. Prior to the rezoning, parts of the River Oaks neighborhood were zoned to Wilson Elementary School (now Baker Montessori School) in Neartown, while other parts were zoned to Will Rogers Elementary School (which closed after the 2005–2006 school year), and other parts were zoned to Poe Elementary School in Boulevard Oaks.
Post-controversy
In 2001 Lisa Gray of the Houston Press described River Oaks as having the "most popular" elementary-level Vanguard program in HISD.
River Oaks Elementary celebrated its 75th anniversary in the 2003–2004 school year. Jeff Bezos, a River Oaks alumnus, spoke at a luncheon during this event.
A new addition, which replaced temporary buildings, began construction during winter 2005 and was completed in summer 2007. The lead architect was Joiner Partnership, Incorporated, and the lead project manager was Heery International.
Campus
The campus is located at Kirby Drive and San Felipe Road, in proximity to the River Oaks Country Club. As of November 2008 the school building has 7,570 square feet (703 m2) of space, and its site is 15-acre (6.1 ha). The school, which has a color like that of sand, has a Colonial Revival/French colonial architectural style. The design, using natural slate, a Texas limestone exterior, and a light buff stucco, received inspiration from smaller French chateaux and buildings in New Orleans.
The original building was in an "H" shape, with the auditorium in the back. The original plan situated that 5 acres (2.0 ha) would be dedicated to a play area with three playgrounds, with one for younger children of both sexes, one for older boys, and one for older girls, as well as a basketball court, a baseball diamond for students of both sexes, gymnastic equipment, jumping pits, a track, sand boxes, swings for smaller children, and a volleyball court. The playground for smaller children was to be located in the center of the play area tract, the playground for older boys was to be located on the south side of the play tract, and the playground for older girls was to be located on the north side of the play tract. The plan called for trees to be planted parallel to sidewalks along Avalon Road, Kirby Drive, and San Felipe Road. The auditorium was built square-shaped.
Its kindergarten area once housed a fireplace, which, along with its chimney, was given to the school by Ima Hogg. In 2005 the fireplace was moved to the teacher's lounge during renovations, and it was later placed in the attic. As of 2010 there were efforts to restore the fireplace, with donations being the source of funding. Azalea flowers, used in the landscaping of various Houston landmarks, have been present in the landscaping of this school.
In November 2008 the alumni of River Oaks Elementary started a campaign to raise $3.4 million ($4811499.23 when adjusted for inflation) to build a new library. They had already received a $1 million ($1415146.83 when adjusted for inflation) gift. The plans for the library included a reading area with 16,500 books, a technology center with 32 computers, and a courtyard. Jennifer Radcliffe of the McClatchy - Tribune Business News said "The addition would put the River Oaks library -- which already has one of the largest collections in HISD -- head and shoulders above other campuses." Barry Bishop, a director of library information at the Spring Branch Independent School District, said that the expansion of the River Oaks Elementary library "kind of shakes the equity issue" but because schools with poorer pupils have access to federal funds, foundation funds, and grants inaccessible to schools with wealthier student bodies, "If you actually look at the money spent per student, at least from the library perspective, it kind of balances out." A neighborhood activist from Sunnyside, Alice Pradia, argued that HISD did not do enough to bolster libraries of school campuses.
River Oaks Elementary has a "nature center", which opened in 1990, which has various plants as well as several insects and smaller animals in it.
Demographics
As of the 2011–2012 school year, River Oaks Elementary had 717 students. 50% were White, 20% were Asian or Pacific Islander, 16% were Hispanic, 7% were black, and less than 1% were Native American. 8% of students qualified for free and reduced lunch.
As of 2014 about 56% of the elementary school-aged students living in the River Oaks Elementary attendance boundary attended River Oaks Elementary, according to HISD estimates.
Donald R. McAdams wrote that in 1995, at the time of the political turf battle involving River Oaks Elementary and neighborhood students, River Oaks was a "middle class school." The student mix was 40% White, 30% Black, 28% Hispanic, and 1% Asian. 9% of students qualified for free and reduced lunch. According to HISD standards, all of the students were gifted and talented. McAdams wrote that most of the minority children classified as gifted and talented by HISD came from middle class households. In 1995, the largest group of River Oaks Elementary School parents resided in the City of West University Place and nearby neighborhoods.
McAdams wrote that in 1995 White parents liked the demographics because there was a "high-cost, first class education in an almost perfect ethnic mix, and all this with ethnic harmony." McAdams wrote that the demographics made the school attractive to River Oaks parents who wanted to send their children there.
Academics and gifted and talented designation
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (November 2013)
Donald R. McAdams wrote that in 1995 River Oaks was "not really full of gifted children". He cited the fact that, at the time, HISD put ethnic balances on the gifted and talented roster, with no more than 35% White and Asian and at least 65% Black and Hispanic overall, leading many White and Asian children to be excluded. In addition McAdams cited the mechanisms for gifted testing at the time. As of 1995, under Texas state law a gifted child was defined as one in the 95th percentile. Testing for gifted and talented status took place at Kindergarten. McAdams wrote that many children identified as gifted under this formula were simply well-educated by their parents and that this became apparent in the third grade. However a school would not dismiss a child already identified as gifted at that point. In 1997 HISD removed the ethnic guidelines to Vanguard enrollment after a reverse discrimination lawsuit was filed in a federal court.
McAdams wrote that in 1995, compared to other Vanguard programs River Oaks test scores were on the "low" side. McAdams stated that eight neighborhood schools in trustee district 5, his district, had higher average test scores than River Oaks. Those schools had minority enrollments from 27% to 52%.
Attendance boundary and feeder patterns
All students who are zoned to River Oaks are also zoned to Lanier Middle School, and Lamar High School.
One condominium complex zoned to River Oaks Elementary is The Huntingdon.
Notable alumni
Jeff Bezos, former richest man in the world, founder and CEO of Amazon.com
Linda Ellerbee
Adrian Garcia (member of the Houston City Council)
John Gray, author of Men Are From Mars, Women Are From Venus
Fred Hofheinz (former Mayor of Houston)
References
Ferguson, Cheryl Caldwell. Highland Park and River Oaks: The Origins of Garden Suburban Community Planning in Texas. University of Texas Press, 2014. ISBN 0292759371, 9780292759374.
Kirkland, Kate Sayen. The Hogg Family and Houston: Philanthropy and the Civic Ideal. University of Texas Press, September 21, 2012. ISBN 0292748469, 9780292748460.
McAdams, Donald R. Fighting to Save Our Urban Schools-- and Winning!: Lessons from Houston. Teachers College Press, 2000. ISBN 0807770353, 9780807770351.
Ulmer, Francita Stuart. "Introduction." In: Becker, Ann Dunphy (contributor: George Murray). Houston's River Oaks. Arcadia Publishing, April 29, 2013. ISBN 0738596698, 9780738596693.
Notes
^ a b c
"Search for Public Schools - RIVER OAKS EL (482364002567)". National Center for Education Statistics. Institute of Education Sciences. Retrieved October 28, 2020.
^ a b "Vanguard Magnet Programs". Houston Independent School District. Retrieved 2022-05-30. - River Oaks elementary is listed to the right.
^ a b "River Oaks Elementary School Attendance Zone" (PDF). Houston Independent School District. Retrieved 2022-05-31.
^ "River Oaks Elementary School Attendance Boundary Archived 2007-11-28 at the Wayback Machine," Houston Independent School District. Retrieved May 23, 2008.
^ "Map Archived July 5, 2008, at the Wayback Machine." River Oaks Property Owners Association. Retrieved on December 4, 2008.
^ "April 2005 Archived 2008-07-24 at the Wayback Machine." Southgate News. Retrieved on April 15, 2009.
^ a b c d Ewing, Betty. "River Oaks grads, you can relive those good old days." Houston Chronicle. Monday November 29, 1976. Section 2. Page 1 ().
^ a b c d "Landscaping Plan For River Oaks School - Drawn by Anderson" (). Houston Post-Dispatch. Sunday Morning, December 1, 1929.
^ a b Kirkland, p. 137.
^ a b c d e f Ferguson, page unknown (sometime before Google Books PT364, see search result, check index to see where page is: PT198 says River Oaks Elementary is mentioned on pages 220 and 223-224. Quote: "and the new River Oaks Elementary School. Designed by Harry D. Payne, who was a consultant to the Houston Independent School District and had designed
^ Ulmer, p. 8.
^ "So You Want To Buy A House?" Texas Monthly. Emmis Communications, November 1974. Vol. 2, No. 11, ISSN 0148-7736. Start: p. 69. CITED: p. 73. "Prices in River Oaks have doubled since 1969, even in the section zoned out of River Oaks Elementary School."
^ Gore, Elaine Clift (2007). Talent Knows No Color: The History of an Arts Magnet High School. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing, Inc. (IAP). ISBN 1593117612, 9781593117610. p. 15.
^ a b c d e f Markley, Melanie. "Winds of change alarm River Oaks Vanguard parents." Houston Chronicle. Sunday April 2, 1995. A33. Retrieved on October 22, 2012. Available on NewsBank, accessible with a Houston Public Library card.
^ a b c d Berryhill, Michael. "Class War." Houston Press. April 13, 1995. 1. Retrieved on September 8, 2009.
^ a b c McAdams, p. 168.
^ Markley, Melanie. "Regardless of where they live, parents ask same question: How good are the schools?" (). Houston Chronicle. October 13, 1996. Accessed July 12, 2008.
^ a b c d e McAdams, p. 171.
^ Williams, John. "Two HISD trustees say funds offered to alter vote." Houston Chronicle. Thursday July 13, 1995. A1. Retrieved on October 22, 2012.
^ McAdams, Donald R. "Lessons from Houston." In: Ravitch, Diane (editor). Brookings Papers on Education Policy: 1999. Brookings Institution Press, 1 February 1999. ISBN 0815791666, 9780815791669. Start: 129. CITED: p. 147.
^ Staff. "RIVER OAKS; Good reasons to let school be, but fairness overrides." Houston Chronicle. Thursday July 20, 1995. SECTION: a; Editorials; Pg. 28. Available on LexisNexis.
^ McAdams, p. 192.
^ McAdams, p. 193.
^ "1996-1997 HISD ATTENDANCE BOUNDARIES." () Houston Independent School District. June 30, 1997. Retrieved on September 8, 2009. "To create boundaries for River Oaks ES, Kindergarten to 2nd grade "
^ a b Feser, Catherine. "River Oaks still most prestigious." Houston Chronicle. Sunday August 7, 1994. Business 6. Retrieved on April 15, 2009.
^ Gray, Lisa (2001-04-12). "Secrets of a Vanguard Parent". Houston Press. Retrieved 2017-04-27.
^ a b c d e Hodge, Shelby (2004-03-01). "River Oaks fun is elementary". Houston Chronicle. p. Houston Section, Page 1. Archived from the original on 2011-05-21. Retrieved 2009-04-15.
^ a b c d Radcliffe, Jennifer. "River Oaks Elementary Alumni aim for new library." Tribune Business News. November 1, 2008. Available on ProQuest.
^ Payne, Harry D. A.I.A. "Six New Elementary School Buildings for the Houston Independent School District." American School & University, Volume 2. Educational Division of North American Publishing Company, 1930. p. 84-88. CITED: p. 87 (PDF p. 4/5) - See: page 37 of Volume II.
^ Reed, Michael (2010-01-12). "A hearth away from home". Houston Chronicle. Retrieved 2017-03-02.
^ Becker, Charles Dain and Joan Blaffer Johnson with Ann Dunphy Becker. Houston's River Oaks. Arcadia Publishing, 2016. ISBN 146711734X, 9781467117340. p. 82-83.
^ "Nature Center History." River Oaks Elementary School. October 10, 1997. Retrieved on November 11, 2017. This was ROE's official website URL in the 1990s.
^ "Nature Center." River Oaks Elementary School. October 10, 1997. Retrieved on November 11, 2017. This was ROE's official website URL in the 1990s
^ "River Oaks Elementary School Archived 2013-11-05 at the Wayback Machine" (Profile). Houston Independent School District. Retrieved on November 5, 2013.
^ Radcliffe, Jennifer (2014-02-10). "White enrollment inches up in HISD". Houston Chronicle. Archived from the original on 2017-01-09. Retrieved 2017-01-09.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) ()
^ a b c d e McAdams, p. 170.
^ McAdams, p. 175.
^ "Lanier Middle School Attendance Zon" (PDF). Houston Independent School District. Retrieved 2022-05-31.
^ "Lamar Middle School Attendance Zon" (PDF). Houston Independent School District. Retrieved 2022-05-31.
^ Guillen, Darla (2015-08-25). "Impressive River Oaks/Upper Kirby high-rise listed at $3.9M". Houston Chronicle. Retrieved 2022-10-22. 2121 Kirby - The address of The Huntington, to compare with school boundary maps.
^ Bayers, Chip (March 1990). "The Inner Bezos". Wired News. Vol. 7, no. 3. Retrieved 2006-07-05.
^ "Distinguished HISD Alumni Archived May 15, 2012, at the Wayback Machine." Houston Independent School District. Retrieved on April 15, 2009.
https://www.houstonisd.org/domain/12283
See also
Texas portalSchools portal
External links
Official website
River Oaks Elementary School (es.houstonisd.org/riveroakses/) at the Wayback Machine (archive index)
River Oaks Elementary School (riveroaks.hal-pc.org) at the Wayback Machine (archive index)
River Oaks Parent Teacher Organization
River Oaks Alumni
Article on River Oaks' IB status
Houston Press Class War
vteRiver Oaks, HoustonEducationPrimary and secondary schools
Houston Independent School District
River Oaks Elementary School
Lamar High School
St. John's School
River Oaks Baptist School
Other education
Houston Public Library
Houston Community College
OtherLandmarks
River Oaks Country Club
River Oaks District
River Oaks Garden Club Forum of Civics
River Oaks Shopping Center
River Oaks Theatre
Works
Highland Park and River Oaks
Culture
ROCO (River Oaks Chamber Orchestra)
This list is incomplete.
vteHouston Independent School District (campuses)K–12 schools
T. H. Rogers (alternative, magnet)
6–12 schools
Jane Long Academy (middle school zoned, high school not zoned)
Leland (alt.)
Sharpstown Int'l (alt.)
Y.W.C.P.A. (alt.)
High schools
Austin
Bellaire
Chávez
Furr
Heights (ex-Reagan)
Sam Houston
Kashmere
Lamar
Madison
Milby
North Forest
Northside (ex-Davis)
Scarborough
Sharpstown
Sterling
Waltrip
Washington
Westbury
Westside
Wheatley
Wisdom (ex-Lee)
Worthing
Yates
Alternative andmagnethigh schools
Carnegie Vanguard
Challenge Early College
DeBakey
East Early College
Eastwood Academy
Energy Institute
H.A.I.S.
H.S.E.P.
H.S.P.V.A.
Jones Futures Academy
Barbara Jordan
H.S.L.J.
Liberty (Newcomer)
Mount Carmel Acad.
North Houston Early College
South Early College
K–8 schools
Baker (formerly Woodrow Wilson)
Gregory-Lincoln
Wharton
Mandarin Immersion (magnet only)
The Rice School (magnet only)
Middle schools
Key
Lanier
Pershing
BCM Academy at Ryan (magnet)
Las Américas Newcomer School (alternative)
Others
Elementary schools
Cage
Cornelius
Harvard
Kashmere Gardens
Lantrip
Poe
River Oaks
Travis
Walnut Bend
Arabic Immersion (magnet only)
Others
Former alt. K-12/6–12 schools
C.L.C.
Kay On-Going
Leader's Acad.
Pro-Vision Academy (no longer affiliated with HISD, still in operation)
V Prep
Former high schools
San Jacinto
Carter Career Center (alternative)
DeVry Advantage Academy (alternative)
Gulf Coast Trades Center (no longer affiliated with HISD, still in operation)
Middle College (magnet)
Former middle and K-8 schools
Edgar M. Gregory K-8
Ryan MS
The Lawson Academy (no longer affiliated with HISD, still in operation)
Athletics
Delmar Fieldhouse
Delmar Stadium
Literature
Brown, Not White
Make Haste Slowly
Superintendents
Edison E. Oberholtzer
Billy Reagan
Joan Raymond
Frank Petruzielo
Yvonne Gonzalez (interim)
Rod Paige
Abelardo Saavedra
Terry Grier
Richard A. Carranza
Mike Miles
|
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It is located in the River Oaks neighborhood of Houston, Texas, United States[4][5] As of 2022[update], Brett Gallini is the principal.It houses one of several gifted and talented programs, referred to as \"Vanguard\" programs, in Houston ISD.[2] The school's motto is \"Where discovery is elementary\".[citation needed] Its mascot is the roadrunner.River Oaks Elementary School has an accelerated multidisciplinary curriculum. 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Payne, who, in 1926, arrived in Houston after being hired by the Houston Independent School District to design the school. Payne gave the same floor plan to River Oaks, Briscoe, Field, Henderson, Poe, and Wharton elementaries. He insisted on giving each school a unique exterior. Payne said that River Oaks' design was one of his favorite designs.[7] Landscaping architect William M. Anderson created the landscaping plans.[8] The River Oaks Corporation provided the land that the school was built on,[9] which was worth $50,000; the corporation wanted the school to be built as soon as possible, so it sold the land at half price to HISD.[10]Ima Hogg, Mrs. Agnese Carter Nelms, and Mrs. Pat Houstoun originally considered founding a private school, but after they approved of the philosophy of HISD superintendent Edison Oberholtzer, they supported his efforts. Since HISD distributed most of its funds to junior and high schools, the \"Supplementary Aids committee\" founded by Hogg and the other women funded a furnished library for River Oaks.[7] Hogg, HISD officials, and a group of mothers selected Eva Margaret Davis as the school's first principal.[11] Estelle Sharp, Hugh Potter, and the Hoggs created a telephone campaign which had River Oaks mothers make telephone calls to persuade Edison E. Oberholtzer, the HISD superintendent, into modeling the school's education program after John Dewey's ideals.[9] River Oaks opened in 1929.[8]As the school grew, more classrooms were added. First permanent additions were built. Later temporary buildings were set up on the school grounds.[citation needed] In 1974 most of River Oaks was assigned to River Oaks Elementary School.[12]River Oaks Elementary was originally an all-White school; it was desegregated in 1970. The \"ESG\" (Elementary School for the Gifted) program was established shortly afterwards.[citation needed] It was not the first magnet program in Houston, as High School for the Performing and Visual Arts (HSPVA) was the first.[13]Prior to desegregation, River Oaks Elementary had around 800 children. After desegregation, many parents removed their children from River Oaks Elementary, and the school was far below capacity.[14] River Oaks became exclusively a public magnet school in 1986; during the previous school year a total of 60 students were residents of the River Oaks neighborhood.[15] At the time River Oaks had mainly older families. At the time the remaining families who did have children had the money to send their children to private school and preferred to do so.[16]From 1986 to 1995, up to 50% of the houses in River Oaks had changed ownership. By 1995 River Oaks Elementary had a waiting list, and it became one of the most prestigious public elementary schools in Houston.[14] By that year several new families had established themselves in River Oaks and many of them were interested in sending their children to public school.[16]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McAdamsp168-16"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Berryhill1-15"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MarkleyWinds-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Berryhill1-15"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MarkleyWinds-14"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McAdamsp171-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Houston Chronicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston_Chronicle"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"grandfathered","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grandfather_clause"},{"link_name":"Baker Montessori School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baker_Montessori_School"},{"link_name":"Neartown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neartown,_Houston"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RiverOaksStillMost-25"},{"link_name":"Will Rogers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Will_Rogers"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RiverOaksStillMost-25"},{"link_name":"Poe Elementary School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poe_Elementary_School_(Houston)"},{"link_name":"Boulevard Oaks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boulevard_Oaks,_Houston"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MarkleyWinds-14"}],"sub_title":"Vanguard and neighborhood program controversy","text":"On March 2, 1995, HISD board trustee Ron Franklin introduced a request by the River Oaks neighborhood to have a neighborhood school at the board table.[16] Parents from River Oaks pressured the school into adding back a neighborhood program.[15] Some Vanguard parents felt concern with the proposal, because they liked the Vanguard program and feared that introducing neighborhood children would adulterate the Vanguard program, believing that River Oaks parents would use political influence and money to have underqualified children admitted to the Vanguard program.[14] Some parents believed that the River Oaks neighborhood program would reduce racial diversity at the school.[15] In 1995 the school had about 500 students, with 40% White, 30% Black, 28% Hispanic, and 1% Asian.[14] Large numbers of parents who were White, Black, and Hispanic protested against the proposal.[17] Donald R. McAdams, a former HISD trustee and the author of Fighting to Save Our Urban Schools-- and Winning!: Lessons from Houston, stated that Vanguard parents were afraid of having to give up complete control over the school and share power with neighborhood parents.[18]During that year, the HISD school board voted on a proposal to open the school to neighborhood parents. The four White board members voted in favor, while the five non-White board members voted against it. Lana Shadwick, an assistant attorney of the Harris County government, campaigned for the HISD board to allow neighborhood enrollment at River Oaks. Two board members, Esther Campos and Robert Jefferson, said that an entity, through intermediaries at the request of Shadwick, offered $50,000 in board election campaign contributions if they would change their votes, and threatened to rally a group of parents to campaign for their opponents if they did not change their votes. Jose Salazar, the intermediary who contacted Campos, said that no such offer had ever been made.[19] McAdams stated that the controversy caused public attention to focus on the HISD board and its racial makeup.[20]In an editorial, the Houston Chronicle staff argued that \"Until there is another vote, HISD should continue its work to improve all of HISD's neighborhood schools to lessen concerns that a child must qualify for some kind of magnet program and be bussed across town to be assured a quality education,\" and that the voting was done out of decentralization and not racial reasons, and so the perception that it was racial \"helps to give the issue a racial tinge it does not deserve, which only serves to aggravate an already tense situation.\"[21]Laurie Bricker, a white HISD board member, introduced a new plan that allowed parents of Vanguard students to include their non-Vanguard children in the neighborhood classes along with River Oaks neighborhood students.[22] Bricker had the neighborhood program as a phase-in to appease Vanguard parents but some minority HISD trustees did not like that aspect of her program. On March 21, 1996, the board voted in favor of Bricker's program 5–2, with 2 abstaining. Many neighborhood parents accepted the plan. Some Vanguard parents had objected. McAdams said that this vote ended the River Oaks controversy.[23]In the 1996–1997 school year, River Oaks Elementary introduced the neighborhood program, with for grades kindergarten through 2 admitted immediately.[24] Grades 3 through 5 were grandfathered into the system. Prior to the rezoning, parts of the River Oaks neighborhood were zoned to Wilson Elementary School (now Baker Montessori School) in Neartown,[25] while other parts were zoned to Will Rogers Elementary School (which closed after the 2005–2006 school year),[25] and other parts were zoned to Poe Elementary School in Boulevard Oaks.[14]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Houston Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston_Press"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HodgeROEElem-27"},{"link_name":"Heery International","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heery_International"}],"sub_title":"Post-controversy","text":"In 2001 Lisa Gray of the Houston Press described River Oaks as having the \"most popular\" elementary-level Vanguard program in HISD.[26]River Oaks Elementary celebrated its 75th anniversary in the 2003–2004 school year. Jeff Bezos, a River Oaks alumnus, spoke at a luncheon during this event.[27]A new addition, which replaced temporary buildings, began construction during winter 2005 and was completed in summer 2007. The lead architect was Joiner Partnership, Incorporated, and the lead project manager was Heery International.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FergusonROE-10"},{"link_name":"River Oaks Country Club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Oaks_Country_Club"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ROE1929-8"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RadcliffeAimfornew-28"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FergusonROE-10"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MarkleyWinds-14"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FergusonROE-10"},{"link_name":"French colonial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_colonial_architecture"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ewing1-7"},{"link_name":"Texas limestone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Texas_limestone&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"New Orleans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Orleans"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Paynep37-29"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FergusonROE-10"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ROE1929-8"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FergusonROE-10"},{"link_name":"fireplace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fireplace"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ewing1-7"},{"link_name":"Ima Hogg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima_Hogg"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Azalea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azalea"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"McClatchy - Tribune Business News","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McClatchy_-_Tribune_Business_News"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RadcliffeAimfornew-28"},{"link_name":"Spring Branch Independent School District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spring_Branch_Independent_School_District"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RadcliffeAimfornew-28"},{"link_name":"Sunnyside","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunnyside,_Houston"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RadcliffeAimfornew-28"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"}],"text":"The campus is located at Kirby Drive and San Felipe Road,[10] in proximity to the River Oaks Country Club.[8] As of November 2008 the school building has 7,570 square feet (703 m2) of space,[28] and its site is 15-acre (6.1 ha).[10] The school, which has a color like that of sand,[14] has a Colonial Revival[10]/French colonial architectural style.[7] The design, using natural slate, a Texas limestone exterior, and a light buff stucco, received inspiration from smaller French chateaux and buildings in New Orleans.[29]The original building was in an \"H\" shape, with the auditorium in the back.[10] The original plan situated that 5 acres (2.0 ha) would be dedicated to a play area with three playgrounds, with one for younger children of both sexes, one for older boys, and one for older girls, as well as a basketball court, a baseball diamond for students of both sexes, gymnastic equipment, jumping pits, a track, sand boxes, swings for smaller children, and a volleyball court. The playground for smaller children was to be located in the center of the play area tract, the playground for older boys was to be located on the south side of the play tract, and the playground for older girls was to be located on the north side of the play tract. The plan called for trees to be planted parallel to sidewalks along Avalon Road, Kirby Drive, and San Felipe Road.[8] The auditorium was built square-shaped.[10]Its kindergarten area once housed a fireplace,[7] which, along with its chimney, was given to the school by Ima Hogg. In 2005 the fireplace was moved to the teacher's lounge during renovations, and it was later placed in the attic. As of 2010 there were efforts to restore the fireplace, with donations being the source of funding.[30] Azalea flowers, used in the landscaping of various Houston landmarks, have been present in the landscaping of this school.[31]In November 2008 the alumni of River Oaks Elementary started a campaign to raise $3.4 million ($4811499.23 when adjusted for inflation) to build a new library. They had already received a $1 million ($1415146.83 when adjusted for inflation) gift. The plans for the library included a reading area with 16,500 books, a technology center with 32 computers, and a courtyard. Jennifer Radcliffe of the McClatchy - Tribune Business News said \"The addition would put the River Oaks library -- which already has one of the largest collections in HISD -- head and shoulders above other campuses.\"[28] Barry Bishop, a director of library information at the Spring Branch Independent School District, said that the expansion of the River Oaks Elementary library \"kind of shakes the equity issue\" but because schools with poorer pupils have access to federal funds, foundation funds, and grants inaccessible to schools with wealthier student bodies, \"If you actually look at the money spent per student, at least from the library perspective, it kind of balances out.\"[28] A neighborhood activist from Sunnyside, Alice Pradia, argued that HISD did not do enough to bolster libraries of school campuses.[28]River Oaks Elementary has a \"nature center\", which opened in 1990,[32] which has various plants as well as several insects and smaller animals in it.[33]","title":"Campus"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=River_Oaks_Elementary_School_(Houston)&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McAdamsp170-36"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McAdamsp170-36"},{"link_name":"City of West University Place","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_University_Place,_Texas"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Berryhill1-15"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McAdamsp170-36"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McAdamsp170-36"}],"text":"As of the 2011–2012 school year, River Oaks Elementary had 717 students. 50% were White, 20% were Asian or Pacific Islander, 16% were Hispanic, 7% were black, and less than 1% were Native American. 8% of students qualified for free and reduced lunch.[34]As of 2014[update] about 56% of the elementary school-aged students living in the River Oaks Elementary attendance boundary attended River Oaks Elementary, according to HISD estimates.[35]Donald R. McAdams wrote that in 1995, at the time of the political turf battle involving River Oaks Elementary and neighborhood students, River Oaks was a \"middle class school.\"[36] The student mix was 40% White, 30% Black, 28% Hispanic, and 1% Asian. 9% of students qualified for free and reduced lunch. According to HISD standards, all of the students were gifted and talented. McAdams wrote that most of the minority children classified as gifted and talented by HISD came from middle class households.[36] In 1995, the largest group of River Oaks Elementary School parents resided in the City of West University Place and nearby neighborhoods.[15]McAdams wrote that in 1995 White parents liked the demographics because there was a \"high-cost, first class education in an almost perfect ethnic mix, and all this with ethnic harmony.\"[36] McAdams wrote that the demographics made the school attractive to River Oaks parents who wanted to send their children there.[36]","title":"Demographics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McAdamsp171-18"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McAdamsp171-18"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McAdamsp170-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McAdamsp171-18"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McAdamsp171-18"}],"text":"Donald R. McAdams wrote that in 1995 River Oaks was \"not really full of gifted children\".[18] He cited the fact that, at the time, HISD put ethnic balances on the gifted and talented roster, with no more than 35% White and Asian and at least 65% Black and Hispanic overall, leading many White and Asian children to be excluded. In addition McAdams cited the mechanisms for gifted testing at the time.[18] As of 1995, under Texas state law a gifted child was defined as one in the 95th percentile. Testing for gifted and talented status took place at Kindergarten. McAdams wrote that many children identified as gifted under this formula were simply well-educated by their parents and that this became apparent in the third grade. However a school would not dismiss a child already identified as gifted at that point.[36] In 1997 HISD removed the ethnic guidelines to Vanguard enrollment after a reverse discrimination lawsuit was filed in a federal court.[37]McAdams wrote that in 1995, compared to other Vanguard programs River Oaks test scores were on the \"low\" side.[18] McAdams stated that eight neighborhood schools in trustee district 5, his district, had higher average test scores than River Oaks. Those schools had minority enrollments from 27% to 52%.[18]","title":"Academics and gifted and talented designation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ROEBound-3"},{"link_name":"Lanier Middle School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lanier_Middle_School_(Houston)"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Lamar High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamar_High_School_(Houston)"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"The Huntingdon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Huntingdon"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"}],"text":"All students who are zoned to River Oaks[3] are also zoned to Lanier Middle School,[38] and Lamar High School.[39]One condominium complex zoned to River Oaks Elementary is The Huntingdon.[40]","title":"Attendance boundary and feeder patterns"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jeff 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District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston_Independent_School_District"},{"link_name":"https://www.houstonisd.org/domain/12283","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.houstonisd.org/domain/12283"}],"text":"^ a b c \n\"Search for Public Schools - RIVER OAKS EL (482364002567)\". National Center for Education Statistics. Institute of Education Sciences. Retrieved October 28, 2020.\n\n^ a b \"Vanguard Magnet Programs\". Houston Independent School District. Retrieved 2022-05-30. - River Oaks elementary is listed to the right.\n\n^ a b \"River Oaks Elementary School Attendance Zone\" (PDF). Houston Independent School District. Retrieved 2022-05-31.\n\n^ \"River Oaks Elementary School Attendance Boundary Archived 2007-11-28 at the Wayback Machine,\" Houston Independent School District. Retrieved May 23, 2008.\n\n^ \"Map Archived July 5, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.\" River Oaks Property Owners Association. Retrieved on December 4, 2008.\n\n^ \"April 2005 Archived 2008-07-24 at the Wayback Machine.\" Southgate News. Retrieved on April 15, 2009.\n\n^ a b c d Ewing, Betty. \"River Oaks grads, you can relive those good old days.\" Houston Chronicle. Monday November 29, 1976. Section 2. Page 1 ().\n\n^ a b c d \"Landscaping Plan For River Oaks School - Drawn by Anderson\" (). Houston Post-Dispatch. Sunday Morning, December 1, 1929.\n\n^ a b Kirkland, p. 137.\n\n^ a b c d e f Ferguson, page unknown (sometime before Google Books PT364, see search result, check index to see where page is: PT198 says River Oaks Elementary is mentioned on pages 220 and 223-224. Quote: \"[...]and the new River Oaks Elementary School. Designed by Harry D. Payne, who was a consultant to the Houston Independent School District and had designed[...]\n\n^ Ulmer, p. 8.\n\n^ \"So You Want To Buy A House?\" Texas Monthly. Emmis Communications, November 1974. Vol. 2, No. 11, ISSN 0148-7736. Start: p. 69. CITED: p. 73. \"Prices in River Oaks have doubled since 1969, even in the section zoned out of River Oaks Elementary School.\"\n\n^ Gore, Elaine Clift (2007). Talent Knows No Color: The History of an Arts Magnet High School. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing, Inc. (IAP). ISBN 1593117612, 9781593117610. p. 15.\n\n^ a b c d e f Markley, Melanie. \"Winds of change alarm River Oaks Vanguard parents.\"[dead link] Houston Chronicle. Sunday April 2, 1995. A33. Retrieved on October 22, 2012. Available on NewsBank, accessible with a Houston Public Library card.\n\n^ a b c d Berryhill, Michael. \"Class War.\" Houston Press. April 13, 1995. 1. Retrieved on September 8, 2009.\n\n^ a b c McAdams, p. 168.\n\n^ Markley, Melanie. \"Regardless of where they live, parents ask same question: How good are the schools?\" (). Houston Chronicle. October 13, 1996. Accessed July 12, 2008.\n\n^ a b c d e McAdams, p. 171.\n\n^ Williams, John. \"Two HISD trustees say funds offered to alter vote.\" Houston Chronicle. Thursday July 13, 1995. A1. Retrieved on October 22, 2012.\n\n^ McAdams, Donald R. \"Lessons from Houston.\" In: Ravitch, Diane (editor). Brookings Papers on Education Policy: 1999. Brookings Institution Press, 1 February 1999. ISBN 0815791666, 9780815791669. Start: 129. CITED: p. 147.\n\n^ Staff. \"RIVER OAKS; Good reasons to let school be, but fairness overrides.\" Houston Chronicle. Thursday July 20, 1995. SECTION: a; Editorials; Pg. 28. Available on LexisNexis.\n\n^ McAdams, p. 192.\n\n^ McAdams, p. 193.\n\n^ \"1996-1997 HISD ATTENDANCE BOUNDARIES.\" () Houston Independent School District. June 30, 1997. Retrieved on September 8, 2009. \"To create boundaries for River Oaks ES, Kindergarten to 2nd grade \"\n\n^ a b Feser, Catherine. \"River Oaks still most prestigious.\" Houston Chronicle. Sunday August 7, 1994. Business 6. Retrieved on April 15, 2009.\n\n^ Gray, Lisa (2001-04-12). \"Secrets of a Vanguard Parent\". Houston Press. Retrieved 2017-04-27.\n\n^ a b c d e Hodge, Shelby (2004-03-01). \"River Oaks fun is elementary\". Houston Chronicle. p. Houston Section, Page 1. Archived from the original on 2011-05-21. Retrieved 2009-04-15.\n\n^ a b c d Radcliffe, Jennifer. \"River Oaks Elementary Alumni aim for new library.\" Tribune Business News. November 1, 2008. Available on ProQuest.\n\n^ Payne, Harry D. A.I.A. \"Six New Elementary School Buildings for the Houston Independent School District.\" American School & University, Volume 2. Educational Division of North American Publishing Company, 1930. p. 84-88. CITED: p. 87 (PDF p. 4/5) - See: page 37 of Volume II.\n\n^ Reed, Michael (2010-01-12). \"A hearth away from home\". Houston Chronicle. Retrieved 2017-03-02.\n\n^ Becker, Charles Dain and Joan Blaffer Johnson with Ann Dunphy Becker. Houston's River Oaks. Arcadia Publishing, 2016. ISBN 146711734X, 9781467117340. p. 82-83.\n\n^ \"Nature Center History.\" River Oaks Elementary School. October 10, 1997. Retrieved on November 11, 2017. This was ROE's official website URL in the 1990s.\n\n^ \"Nature Center.\" River Oaks Elementary School. October 10, 1997. Retrieved on November 11, 2017. This was ROE's official website URL in the 1990s\n\n^ \"River Oaks Elementary School Archived 2013-11-05 at the Wayback Machine\" (Profile). Houston Independent School District. Retrieved on November 5, 2013.\n\n^ Radcliffe, Jennifer (2014-02-10). \"White enrollment inches up in HISD\". Houston Chronicle. Archived from the original on 2017-01-09. Retrieved 2017-01-09.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) ()\n\n^ a b c d e McAdams, p. 170.\n\n^ McAdams, p. 175.\n\n^ \"Lanier Middle School Attendance Zon\" (PDF). Houston Independent School District. Retrieved 2022-05-31.\n\n^ \"Lamar Middle School Attendance Zon\" (PDF). Houston Independent School District. Retrieved 2022-05-31.\n\n^ Guillen, Darla (2015-08-25). \"Impressive River Oaks/Upper Kirby high-rise listed at $3.9M\". Houston Chronicle. Retrieved 2022-10-22. 2121 Kirby - The address of The Huntington, to compare with school boundary maps.\n\n^ Bayers, Chip (March 1990). \"The Inner Bezos\". Wired News. Vol. 7, no. 3. Retrieved 2006-07-05.\n\n^ \"Distinguished HISD Alumni Archived May 15, 2012, at the Wayback Machine.\" Houston Independent School District. Retrieved on April 15, 2009.https://www.houstonisd.org/domain/12283","title":"Notes"}]
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[]
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parents"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110615031048/http://www.houstonpress.com/1995-04-13/news/class-war/","external_links_name":"1"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=4eY4cg07-CAC&dq=%22The+issue+that+publicly+split+the+board+was+the+vote+on+River+Oaks+Elementary%22&pg=PA168","external_links_name":"168"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110522010228/http://www.chron.com/CDA/archives/archive.mpl?id=1996_1371111","external_links_name":"Regardless of where they live, parents ask same question: How good are the schools?"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=4eY4cg07-CAC&dq=%22gifted+child+in+an+enriched+educational+program+that+his+or+her+child+was+not+gifted+after+all%22&pg=PA171","external_links_name":"171"},{"Link":"http://www.chron.com/CDA/archives/archive.mpl/1995_1285534/two-hisd-trustees-say-funds-offered-to-alter-vote.html","external_links_name":"Two HISD trustees say funds offered to alter vote"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=qVmiycRJimQC&pg=PA129","external_links_name":"129"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=qVmiycRJimQC&pg=PA147","external_links_name":"147"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=4eY4cg07-CAC&dq=%22Laurie%2C+a+white+woman+in+her+early+40s%22&pg=PA192","external_links_name":"192"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=4eY4cg07-CAC&dq=%22On+February+28%2C+the+board+met+for+a+short+planning+retreat%22&pg=PA193","external_links_name":"193"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/19970630192140/http://www.houston.isd.tenet.edu/MAX.HTM","external_links_name":"1996-1997 HISD ATTENDANCE BOUNDARIES"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110521221319/http://www.chron.com/CDA/archives/archive.mpl?id=1994_1218502","external_links_name":"River Oaks still most prestigious"},{"Link":"http://www.houstonpress.com/news/secrets-of-a-vanguard-parent-6562623","external_links_name":"\"Secrets of a Vanguard 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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Tinker
|
Microsoft Tinker
|
["1 Gameplay","2 Achievement glitch (Live)","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]
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2008 video gameTinkerDeveloper(s)Fuel IndustriesPublisher(s)MicrosoftPlatform(s)Windows XP SP2, SP3Windows VistaWindows 7ReleaseSeptember 23, 2008; 15 years ago (2008-09-23)Genre(s)PuzzleMode(s)Single-player
Tinker, also known as Microsoft Tinker, is a puzzle video game developed by Fuel Industries in which the player controls a robot through various mazes and obstacle courses. It was originally released on September 23, 2008, as part of Windows Ultimate Extras, and contained 60 levels, including a 20-level tutorial. A free map editor (level builder) was also released; however, it is not compatible with the Games for Windows – Live version of Tinker. It is only compatible with the Windows Ultimate Extras version.
On December 15, 2009, an expanded Live-enabled version of the game was released on the Games for Windows – Live client. The game is available for Windows XP, Windows Vista and Windows 7, including users who do not have access to Windows Vista Ultimate Extras in other Windows Vista editions, and contains 160 levels, including the tutorial. This version also has 15 Achievements worth 200G, similar to many Xbox Live Arcade games. Like every Games for Windows – Live game, it requires the user to sign in using a Gamertag assigned to a Windows Live ID; however, the Windows Vista Ultimate Extras version did not have this requirement.
Gameplay
Tinker is a spatial/environmental puzzle game. Players must guide a robot to an end point by moving objects, activating switches, and traversing obstacles. The playing field is a square board divided into a checkerboard pattern. The robot is given a limited number of moves it can make before it runs out of energy, so the player must guide it to the goal marker without expiring all their motions. Essentially any action the robot makes counts as a move, including taking a step, activating a switch, and turning around. Players must carefully plan their actions through a stage so as not to waste moves.
Players can replenish the robot's energy by collecting batteries and thus extend the possible number of moves they are allowed to make. Players can earn an achievement star for a level by completing the course on or under par for time, energy, and cog collection, should any cogs exist on that level.
Obstacles and objects present in levels include:
Batteries, which give the robot additional energy required to make moves. These come in small and large varieties, with the larger versions providing more energy.
Cogs, which award the player an achievement star if every one is collected on a level.
The exit, which is a swirling red and white circle similar in appearance to a peppermint candy. It can be moved if it rests on top of a movable block, and can be covered up by an object to be made inaccessible until the object is removed.
Switches, or de-activate laser guns, magnets, conveyor belts, and barriers; destroy bombs; and turn mirrors.
Switches, including flip switches, which must by activated by the robot, and pressure switches, which are only active when an object rests on top of them. These manipulate objects of the same color when activated. Gray objects are always active and cannot be affected by switches. Switches can activate Laser guns, which when activated fire beams in a straight line. The beam can destroy the robot, pick-up items, ice blocks, flip switches, magnets, and other laser guns.
Targets, which act as switches that are active when hit by a laser beam.
Mirrors, which redirect the path of a laser beam in a 90-degree angle.
Conveyor belts, which can move the robot or any object. While the robot is on a conveyor belt, it can turn but not take any steps. If the end of a conveyor belt is blocked by an object, the robot is free to move once reaching the object.
Gray blocks and dice blocks, which can be pushed by the robot and differ only in appearance. If anything is on top of the block, it will also move when pushed.
Colored blocks, which can by pushed by the robot and can activate special square-shaped pressure switches of the same color.
Metal blocks, which cannot by pushed by the robot but can be moved by magnets.
Ice blocks, which are similar to gray blocks but can be destroyed by bombs and laser beams.
Magnets, which pull metal blocks towards them. If a metal block is in the path of multiple activated magnets, only the closest magnet will affect the metal block.
Barriers, which appear similar to dominoes and block access to an area. If a barrier is activated while an object rests on top of it, the barrier will not rise until the object is moved.
Bombs, which can be moved by the robot, destroy any adjacent pick-up items, ice blocks, flip switches, magnets, laser guns, targets, and mirrors when activated. Blocks and the robot itself will be moved away by one space if adjacent to an explosion. Bombs can be triggered by switches, laser beams, the explosion of an adjacent bomb, or the robot standing on top of the bomb. Any objects that can be destroyed by a bomb can also be destroyed by the robot falling onto it from above.
Teleporters, which are circular and numbered, transport any object including the robot to the teleporter of the same number located elsewhere in the level. If an object is already present on the destination teleporter when activated, the objects on both teleporters will switch places.
Lifts, which look like clothing buttons, can move the robot or an object up or down by one level. Lifts are activated by an increase in pressure; if the robot or an object moves onto a lowered lift, it will raise by one level. If the robot or an object moves onto a raised lift, it will lower by one level. Raised lifts cannot be lowered at their base and become immovable obstacles at ground level.
Movable objects can only be pushed, not pulled, and two or more objects in a row cannot be pushed, even if they are all movable. Objects stacked on top of each other can be pushed if the bottom object is movable (e.g., a tower consisting of two dice blocks and a metal block can be moved only if one of the dice blocks is on the bottom). Attempting to push an immovable object or row of objects will result in a wasted move, though attempting to walk into an obstacle will not waste a move.
The robot can be destroyed or rendered inoperable by being hit by a laser beam, falling from a height greater than two blocks, or running out of energy. If any of the hazards destroy the robot in the process of reaching the exit (e.g., the robot walks into a laser beam which crosses through the exit square), the hazard trumps the exit and the robot is destroyed; however, the level will be completed if the exit is reached with zero energy.
Achievement glitch (Live)
In the Live-enabled version of Tinker, it was not previously possible to earn an achievement star on Set 07 Level 19 due to the energy par value being -1. Because of this, the player could not unlock the "Perfection Achieved" achievement, thus only being able to obtain 175 achievement points out of 200. Fuel Industries game developer Nick Iannitti mentioned in Tinker blog that a fix had been sent to GFWL on March 7, 2010. The fix was up for a few hours but was removed due to a bug in auto-update code that required an unnecessary reboot. The update was then officially released on April 10, 2010, making the "Perfection Achieved" achievement obtainable.
See also
List of games included with Windows
References
^ "Description of Software Update Services and Windows Server Update Services changes in content for 2008". Support. Microsoft. March 5, 2009. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
^ "Tinker Set 07 Level 19 - Games for Windows Live (Forum)". Games for Windows. December 19, 2009. Archived from the original on January 18, 2010. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
^ Iannitti, Nick (October 3, 2008). "Tinker!". Fuelindustries.com. Archived from the original on March 3, 2016. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
^ "Tinker Patch Now Live, Full 200G Obtainable". Trueachievements.com. April 10, 2010. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
External links
Microsoft Tinker - How to Play -
Microsoft Tinker - Play Your Game
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It was originally released on September 23, 2008, as part of Windows Ultimate Extras, and contained 60 levels, including a 20-level tutorial. A free map editor (level builder) was also released; however, it is not compatible with the Games for Windows – Live version of Tinker. It is only compatible with the Windows Ultimate Extras version.On December 15, 2009, an expanded Live-enabled version of the game was released on the Games for Windows – Live client. The game is available for Windows XP, Windows Vista and Windows 7, including users who do not have access to Windows Vista Ultimate Extras in other Windows Vista editions, and contains 160 levels, including the tutorial. This version also has 15 Achievements worth 200G, similar to many Xbox Live Arcade games. Like every Games for Windows – Live game, it requires the user to sign in using a Gamertag assigned to a Windows Live ID; however, the Windows Vista Ultimate Extras version did not have this requirement.","title":"Microsoft Tinker"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"checkerboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Checkerboard"},{"link_name":"dominoes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominoes"}],"text":"Tinker is a spatial/environmental puzzle game. Players must guide a robot to an end point by moving objects, activating switches, and traversing obstacles. The playing field is a square board divided into a checkerboard pattern. The robot is given a limited number of moves it can make before it runs out of energy, so the player must guide it to the goal marker without expiring all their motions. Essentially any action the robot makes counts as a move, including taking a step, activating a switch, and turning around. Players must carefully plan their actions through a stage so as not to waste moves.Players can replenish the robot's energy by collecting batteries and thus extend the possible number of moves they are allowed to make. Players can earn an achievement star for a level by completing the course on or under par for time, energy, and cog collection, should any cogs exist on that level.Obstacles and objects present in levels include:Batteries, which give the robot additional energy required to make moves. These come in small and large varieties, with the larger versions providing more energy.\nCogs, which award the player an achievement star if every one is collected on a level.\nThe exit, which is a swirling red and white circle similar in appearance to a peppermint candy. It can be moved if it rests on top of a movable block, and can be covered up by an object to be made inaccessible until the object is removed.\nSwitches, or de-activate laser guns, magnets, conveyor belts, and barriers; destroy bombs; and turn mirrors.\nSwitches, including flip switches, which must by activated by the robot, and pressure switches, which are only active when an object rests on top of them. These manipulate objects of the same color when activated. Gray objects are always active and cannot be affected by switches. Switches can activate Laser guns, which when activated fire beams in a straight line. The beam can destroy the robot, pick-up items, ice blocks, flip switches, magnets, and other laser guns.\nTargets, which act as switches that are active when hit by a laser beam.\nMirrors, which redirect the path of a laser beam in a 90-degree angle.\nConveyor belts, which can move the robot or any object. While the robot is on a conveyor belt, it can turn but not take any steps. If the end of a conveyor belt is blocked by an object, the robot is free to move once reaching the object.\nGray blocks and dice blocks, which can be pushed by the robot and differ only in appearance. If anything is on top of the block, it will also move when pushed.\nColored blocks, which can by pushed by the robot and can activate special square-shaped pressure switches of the same color.\nMetal blocks, which cannot by pushed by the robot but can be moved by magnets.\nIce blocks, which are similar to gray blocks but can be destroyed by bombs and laser beams.\nMagnets, which pull metal blocks towards them. If a metal block is in the path of multiple activated magnets, only the closest magnet will affect the metal block.\nBarriers, which appear similar to dominoes and block access to an area. If a barrier is activated while an object rests on top of it, the barrier will not rise until the object is moved.\nBombs, which can be moved by the robot, destroy any adjacent pick-up items, ice blocks, flip switches, magnets, laser guns, targets, and mirrors when activated. Blocks and the robot itself will be moved away by one space if adjacent to an explosion. Bombs can be triggered by switches, laser beams, the explosion of an adjacent bomb, or the robot standing on top of the bomb. Any objects that can be destroyed by a bomb can also be destroyed by the robot falling onto it from above.\nTeleporters, which are circular and numbered, transport any object including the robot to the teleporter of the same number located elsewhere in the level. If an object is already present on the destination teleporter when activated, the objects on both teleporters will switch places.\nLifts, which look like clothing buttons, can move the robot or an object up or down by one level. Lifts are activated by an increase in pressure; if the robot or an object moves onto a lowered lift, it will raise by one level. If the robot or an object moves onto a raised lift, it will lower by one level. Raised lifts cannot be lowered at their base and become immovable obstacles at ground level.Movable objects can only be pushed, not pulled, and two or more objects in a row cannot be pushed, even if they are all movable. Objects stacked on top of each other can be pushed if the bottom object is movable (e.g., a tower consisting of two dice blocks and a metal block can be moved only if one of the dice blocks is on the bottom). Attempting to push an immovable object or row of objects will result in a wasted move, though attempting to walk into an obstacle will not waste a move.The robot can be destroyed or rendered inoperable by being hit by a laser beam, falling from a height greater than two blocks, or running out of energy. If any of the hazards destroy the robot in the process of reaching the exit (e.g., the robot walks into a laser beam which crosses through the exit square), the hazard trumps the exit and the robot is destroyed; however, the level will be completed if the exit is reached with zero energy.","title":"Gameplay"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"In the Live-enabled version of Tinker, it was not previously possible to earn an achievement star on Set 07 Level 19 due to the energy par value being -1.[2] Because of this, the player could not unlock the \"Perfection Achieved\" achievement, thus only being able to obtain 175 achievement points out of 200. Fuel Industries game developer Nick Iannitti mentioned in Tinker blog that a fix had been sent to GFWL on March 7, 2010. The fix was up for a few hours but was removed due to a bug in auto-update code that required an unnecessary reboot.[3] The update was then officially released on April 10, 2010, making the \"Perfection Achieved\" achievement obtainable.[4]","title":"Achievement glitch (Live)"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"List of games included with Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_games_included_with_Windows"}]
|
[{"reference":"\"Description of Software Update Services and Windows Server Update Services changes in content for 2008\". Support. Microsoft. March 5, 2009. Retrieved August 22, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://support.microsoft.com/kb/961825","url_text":"\"Description of Software Update Services and Windows Server Update Services changes in content for 2008\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft","url_text":"Microsoft"}]},{"reference":"\"Tinker Set 07 Level 19 - Games for Windows Live (Forum)\". Games for Windows. December 19, 2009. Archived from the original on January 18, 2010. Retrieved August 22, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100118031500/http://forums.gamesforwindows.com/t/9512.aspx","url_text":"\"Tinker Set 07 Level 19 - Games for Windows Live (Forum)\""},{"url":"http://forums.gamesforwindows.com/t/9512.aspx","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Iannitti, Nick (October 3, 2008). \"Tinker!\". Fuelindustries.com. Archived from the original on March 3, 2016. Retrieved August 22, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160303191452/http://www.fuelindustries.com/blogs/2008-10-03/tinker/","url_text":"\"Tinker!\""},{"url":"http://www.fuelindustries.com/blogs/2008-10-03/tinker/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Tinker Patch Now Live, Full 200G Obtainable\". Trueachievements.com. April 10, 2010. Retrieved August 22, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.trueachievements.com/n1233/tinker-patch-now-live-full-200g-obtainable.htm","url_text":"\"Tinker Patch Now Live, Full 200G Obtainable\""}]}]
|
[{"Link":"http://support.microsoft.com/kb/961825","external_links_name":"\"Description of Software Update Services and Windows Server Update Services changes in content for 2008\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100118031500/http://forums.gamesforwindows.com/t/9512.aspx","external_links_name":"\"Tinker Set 07 Level 19 - Games for Windows Live (Forum)\""},{"Link":"http://forums.gamesforwindows.com/t/9512.aspx","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160303191452/http://www.fuelindustries.com/blogs/2008-10-03/tinker/","external_links_name":"\"Tinker!\""},{"Link":"http://www.fuelindustries.com/blogs/2008-10-03/tinker/","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.trueachievements.com/n1233/tinker-patch-now-live-full-200g-obtainable.htm","external_links_name":"\"Tinker Patch Now Live, Full 200G Obtainable\""},{"Link":"http://windowshelp.microsoft.com/Windows/en-US/Help/629c52bd-257b-4d5b-a53a-c04d41262ee51033.mspx","external_links_name":"Microsoft Tinker - How to Play"},{"Link":"http://www.microsoft.com/games/playyourgame/","external_links_name":"Microsoft Tinker - Play Your Game"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebecca_Betensky
|
Rebecca Betensky
|
["1 Education and career","2 Awards and honors","3 References","4 External links"]
|
American statistician
Rebecca A. Betensky is a professor of biostatistics and chair of the department of biostatistics at New York University's School of Global Public Health. Previously, she was a professor of biostatistics at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, where she directed the biostatistics program for the Harvard Clinical and Translational Science Center. She was also a biostatistician for Massachusetts General Hospital, where she directed the biostatistics core of the Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center.
Education and career
Betensky studied mathematics as an undergraduate in Harvard College, graduating in 1987. She completed a doctorate in statistics at Stanford University in 1992. Her dissertation, supervised by David Siegmund, was A Study of Sequential Procedures for Comparing Three Treatments.
After postdoctoral studies at Stanford, she joined the faculty of Northwestern University in 1993. She returned to Harvard as a faculty member in 1994, recruited as part of a large National Institutes of Health-funded contract for Harvard to perform statistics for the AIDS Clinical Trials Group. She became associated with Mass General in 2007.
In 2018, she joined the faculty of New York University's School of Global Public Health as professor and chair of the department of biostatistics.
Awards and honors
Betensky has been a fellow of the American Statistical Association since 2003, and an elected member of the International Statistical Institute since 2007. She won the Mortimer Spiegelman Award of the American Public Health Association in 2005.
References
^ Rebecca A Betensky, New York University School of Global Public Health, retrieved 2021-07-11
^ a b c d e f Curriculum vitae (PDF), retrieved 2017-10-19
^ Rebecca Betensky, Stanford Department of Statistics, retrieved 2017-10-19
^ Rebecca Betensky at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
^ Laird, Nan; Zelen, Marvin (2012), "Harvard University Department of Biostatistics", in Agresti, Alan; Meng, Xiao-Li (eds.), Strength in Numbers: The Rising of Academic Statistics Departments in the U. S., Springer, pp. 77–90, doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-3649-2_7, ISBN 9781461436492. See especially pp. 84–85.
^ New Faculty: Dr Rebecca Betensky, New York University School of Global Public Health, retrieved 2021-07-11
External links
Faculty profile
Authority control databases: Academics
MathSciNet
Mathematics Genealogy Project
ORCID
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"biostatistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biostatistics"},{"link_name":"New York University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_University"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyu-1"},{"link_name":"Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_T.H._Chan_School_of_Public_Health"},{"link_name":"Massachusetts General Hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_General_Hospital"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cv-2"}],"text":"Rebecca A. Betensky is a professor of biostatistics and chair of the department of biostatistics at New York University's School of Global Public Health.[1] Previously, she was a professor of biostatistics at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, where she directed the biostatistics program for the Harvard Clinical and Translational Science Center. She was also a biostatistician for Massachusetts General Hospital, where she directed the biostatistics core of the Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center.[2]","title":"Rebecca Betensky"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Harvard College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_College"},{"link_name":"Stanford University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_University"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cv-2"},{"link_name":"David Siegmund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Siegmund"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-stan-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mgp-4"},{"link_name":"Northwestern University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwestern_University"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cv-2"},{"link_name":"National Institutes of Health","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health"},{"link_name":"AIDS Clinical Trials Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIDS_Clinical_Trials_Group"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cv-2"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sin-5"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cv-2"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyu-announce-6"}],"text":"Betensky studied mathematics as an undergraduate in Harvard College, graduating in 1987. She completed a doctorate in statistics at Stanford University in 1992.[2] Her dissertation, supervised by David Siegmund, was A Study of Sequential Procedures for Comparing Three Treatments.[3][4]After postdoctoral studies at Stanford, she joined the faculty of Northwestern University in 1993.[2] She returned to Harvard as a faculty member in 1994, recruited as part of a large National Institutes of Health-funded contract for Harvard to perform statistics for the AIDS Clinical Trials Group.[2][5] She became associated with Mass General in 2007.[2]In 2018, she joined the faculty of New York University's School of Global Public Health as professor and chair of the department of biostatistics.[6]","title":"Education and career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"fellow of the American Statistical Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellow_of_the_American_Statistical_Association"},{"link_name":"International Statistical Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Statistical_Institute"},{"link_name":"American Public Health Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Public_Health_Association"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cv-2"}],"text":"Betensky has been a fellow of the American Statistical Association since 2003, and an elected member of the International Statistical Institute since 2007. She won the Mortimer Spiegelman Award of the American Public Health Association in 2005.[2]","title":"Awards and honors"}]
|
[]
| null |
[{"reference":"Rebecca A Betensky, New York University School of Global Public Health, retrieved 2021-07-11","urls":[{"url":"https://publichealth.nyu.edu/faculty/rebecca-betensky","url_text":"Rebecca A Betensky"}]},{"reference":"Curriculum vitae (PDF), retrieved 2017-10-19","urls":[{"url":"https://cdn1.sph.harvard.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/532/2012/08/cv2.pdf","url_text":"Curriculum vitae"}]},{"reference":"Rebecca Betensky, Stanford Department of Statistics, retrieved 2017-10-19","urls":[{"url":"https://statistics.stanford.edu/people/rebecca-betensky","url_text":"Rebecca Betensky"}]},{"reference":"Laird, Nan; Zelen, Marvin (2012), \"Harvard University Department of Biostatistics\", in Agresti, Alan; Meng, Xiao-Li (eds.), Strength in Numbers: The Rising of Academic Statistics Departments in the U. S., Springer, pp. 77–90, doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-3649-2_7, ISBN 9781461436492","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4614-3649-2_7","url_text":"10.1007/978-1-4614-3649-2_7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781461436492","url_text":"9781461436492"}]},{"reference":"New Faculty: Dr Rebecca Betensky, New York University School of Global Public Health, retrieved 2021-07-11","urls":[{"url":"https://publichealth.nyu.edu/events-news/news/2018/10/05/new-faculty-dr-rebecca-betensky","url_text":"New Faculty: Dr Rebecca Betensky"}]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://publichealth.nyu.edu/faculty/rebecca-betensky","external_links_name":"Rebecca A Betensky"},{"Link":"https://cdn1.sph.harvard.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/532/2012/08/cv2.pdf","external_links_name":"Curriculum vitae"},{"Link":"https://statistics.stanford.edu/people/rebecca-betensky","external_links_name":"Rebecca Betensky"},{"Link":"https://mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=40957","external_links_name":"Rebecca Betensky"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4614-3649-2_7","external_links_name":"10.1007/978-1-4614-3649-2_7"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=kPGJUiUCJZkC&pg=PA84","external_links_name":"pp. 84–85"},{"Link":"https://publichealth.nyu.edu/events-news/news/2018/10/05/new-faculty-dr-rebecca-betensky","external_links_name":"New Faculty: Dr Rebecca Betensky"},{"Link":"https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/rebecca-betensky/","external_links_name":"Faculty profile"},{"Link":"https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet/MRAuthorID/612590","external_links_name":"MathSciNet"},{"Link":"https://www.mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=40957","external_links_name":"Mathematics Genealogy Project"},{"Link":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3793-1437","external_links_name":"ORCID"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_C._Roper
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Daniel C. Roper
|
["1 Biography","2 Secretary of Commerce","3 Later career","4 References","5 External links"]
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American politician
Daniel Roper5th United States Ambassador to CanadaIn officeMay 19, 1939 – August 20, 1939PresidentFranklin D. RooseveltPreceded byNorman ArmourSucceeded byJames H. R. Cromwell7th United States Secretary of CommerceIn officeMarch 4, 1933 – December 23, 1938PresidentFranklin D. RooseveltPreceded byRoy D. ChapinSucceeded byHarry Hopkins21st Commissioner of Internal RevenueIn officeSeptember 26, 1917 – March 31, 1920PresidentWoodrow WilsonPreceded byWilliam H. OsbornSucceeded byWilliam M. WilliamsVice Chairman of the United States Tariff CommissionIn officeMarch 22, 1917 – September 25, 1917Preceded byposition establishedSucceeded byThomas W. PageMember of the South Carolina House of Representatives from Marlboro CountyIn officeNovember 22, 1892 – November 27, 1894Preceded bymulti-member districtSucceeded bymulti-member district
Personal detailsBornDaniel Calhoun Roper(1867-04-01)April 1, 1867near Bennettsville, South Carolina, U.S.DiedApril 11, 1943(1943-04-11) (aged 76)Washington, D.C., U.S.Political partyDemocraticSpouse
Lou McKenzie (m. 1889)Children7, including JohnEducationWofford CollegeDuke University (BA)National University (LLB)
Daniel Calhoun Roper (April 1, 1867 – April 11, 1943) was an American politician and lawyer who served as the seventh United States secretary of commerce under President Franklin D. Roosevelt, and was the fifth United States ambassador to Canada from May 19, 1939, until August 20, 1939.
Biography
Daniel Calhoun Roper was born near Bennettsville, South Carolina to John Wesley Roper who was the leader of the 18th Regiment of North Carolina troops in the Confederate Army. After two years at Wofford College Roper attended Duke University (then called "Trinity College") and received an A.B. in 1888, and he received his bachelor of laws degree from National University in 1901.
On December 25, 1889, Roper married Lou McKenzie. They had seven children: Margaret May, James Hunter, Daniel Calhoun Jr., Grace Henrietta, John Wesley Roper II (future Vice admiral), Harry McKenzie (future Major general) and Richard Frederick Roper.
Roper taught school for four years and then, in 1892 at the age of 25, was elected to the South Carolina House of Representatives where he served for two years. He moved to Washington and worked as a clerk for the U.S. Senate Committee on Interstate Commerce. From 1900 to 1910, he worked for the Census Bureau, and then served as the clerk of the Committee on Ways and Means in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1911 to 1913.
Immediately following and through 1916, he served as first assistant postmaster general, and was chairman of Woodrow Wilson's reelection campaign in 1916. He was the chairman of the 1917 U.S. Tariff Commission and served as commissioner of Internal Revenue from 1917 to 1920. He was a member of the District of Columbia Board of Education in 1931–32.
Secretary of Commerce
Roper was the U.S. secretary of commerce from 1933 until 1938, during which time he played a major role in the rollout of the New Deal. The National Recovery Administration (NRA) was a part of his portfolio until it was struck down by the Supreme Court in 1935.
Later career
Roper was the Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary (Canada), from May 19, 1939, until August 20, 1939.
Roper's Letter of Credence was accepted personally by George VI, King of Canada, at La Citadelle in Quebec City, on May 17, 1939. It was the King's first official duty as King of Canada on Canadian soil.
In 1941, and he published his autobiography entitled Fifty Years of Public Life.
He died on April 11, 1943, at his home in Washington, D.C., at the age of 76 from leukemia. Roper was interred at the Rock Creek Cemetery in Washington, D.C. In 1966, the District of Columbia Public School system named a middle school in Deanwood for him, but in 1997 they renamed it for Ronald Brown, who was also a Commerce Secretary. That school was closed in 2013 but reopened as Ron Brown College Preparatory High School in 2016.
References
^ Journal of the executive proceedings of the Senate of the United States of America v.52:1
^ William Galbraith (1989). "Fiftieth Anniversary of the 1939 Royal Visit". Canadian Parliamentary Review. Vol. 12, no. 3. Archived from the original on December 5, 2012. Retrieved June 10, 2021.
^ "Daniel C. Roper Dies in Capital". The Daily Mail. Hagerstown, Maryland. April 12, 1943. Retrieved May 23, 2016.
^ Ronald H. Brown Building
Designation Act of 1997 http://www.openlims.org/public/L12-84.pdf Archived 2016-08-06 at the Wayback Machine
^ Ron Brown Middle School 2013 scorecard http://profiles.dcps.dc.gov/pdf/ron-brown2012.pdf
^ Helm, Joe (August 22, 2016). "The country's newest all-boys public high school opens its doors". Retrieved June 1, 2017.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Daniel C. Roper.
Works by or about Daniel C. Roper at Internet Archive
Works by Daniel C. Roper at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Political offices
Preceded byRoy D. Chapin
U.S. Secretary of CommerceServed under: Franklin D. Roosevelt March 4, 1933 – December 23, 1938
Succeeded byHarry L. Hopkins
Diplomatic posts
Preceded byNorman Armour
U.S. Ambassador to Canada 1939
Succeeded byJames H.R. Cromwell
vteUnited States Secretaries of CommerceSecretaries of Commerce and Labor
Cortelyou
Metcalf
Straus
Nagel
Secretaries of Commerce
Redfield
Alexander
Hoover
Whiting
Lamont
Chapin
Roper
Hopkins
Jones
Wallace
Harriman
Sawyer
Weeks
Strauss
Mueller
Hodges
Connor
Trowbridge
Smith
Stans
Peterson
Dent
Morton
Richardson
Kreps
Klutznick
Baldrige
Verity
Mosbacher
Franklin
Brown
Kantor
Daley
Mineta
Evans
Gutierrez
Locke
Bryson
Pritzker
Ross
Raimondo
vteCabinet of President Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933–1945)Vice President
John Nance Garner (1933–1941)
Henry A. Wallace (1941–1945)
Harry S. Truman (1945)
Secretary of State
Cordell Hull (1933–1944)
Edward Stettinius Jr. (1944–1945)
Secretary of the Treasury
William H. Woodin (1933)
Henry Morgenthau Jr. (1934–1945)
Secretary of War
George Dern (1933–1936)
Harry Hines Woodring (1936–1940)
Henry L. Stimson (1940–1945)
Attorney General
Homer Stille Cummings (1933–1939)
Frank Murphy (1939–1940)
Robert H. Jackson (1940–1941)
Francis Biddle (1941–1945)
Postmaster General
James Farley (1933–1940)
Frank C. Walker (1940–1945)
Secretary of the Navy
Claude A. Swanson (1933–1939)
Charles Edison (1939–1940)
Frank Knox (1940–1944)
James Forrestal (1944–1945)
Secretary of the Interior
Harold L. Ickes (1933–1945)
Secretary of Agriculture
Henry A. Wallace (1933–1940)
Claude R. Wickard (1940–1945)
Secretary of Commerce
Daniel C. Roper (1933–1938)
Harry Hopkins (1938–1940)
Jesse H. Jones (1940–1945)
Henry A. Wallace (1945)
Secretary of Labor
Frances Perkins (1933–1945)
vte United States Ambassadors to Canada
Phillips
MacNider
Robbins
Armour
Roper
Cromwell
Moffat
Atherton
Steinhardt
Woodward
Stuart
Merchant
Wigglesworth
Merchant
Butterworth
Linder
Schmidt
Porter
Enders
Curtis
Robinson
Niles
Ney
Teeley
Blanchard
Giffin
Cellucci
Wilkins
Jacobson
Heyman
Craft
Cohen
Category
Commons
Authority control databases International
FAST
ISNI
VIAF
WorldCat
National
France
BnF data
United States
Netherlands
Academics
CiNii
Other
NARA
SNAC
|
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Roper"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bennettsville, South Carolina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bennettsville,_South_Carolina"},{"link_name":"Confederate Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederate_Army"},{"link_name":"Wofford College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wofford_College"},{"link_name":"Duke University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_University"},{"link_name":"National University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_University_School_of_Law"},{"link_name":"John Wesley Roper II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_W._Roper"},{"link_name":"Harry McKenzie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Harry_M._Roper&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"South Carolina House of Representatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Carolina_House_of_Representatives"},{"link_name":"U.S. Senate Committee on Interstate Commerce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Senate_Committee_on_Interstate_Commerce"},{"link_name":"Census Bureau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Census_Bureau"},{"link_name":"Committee on Ways and Means","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_on_Ways_and_Means"},{"link_name":"U.S. House of Representatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._House_of_Representatives"},{"link_name":"Woodrow Wilson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson"},{"link_name":"U.S. Tariff Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Tariff_Commission"},{"link_name":"commissioner of Internal Revenue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commissioner_of_Internal_Revenue"}],"text":"Daniel Calhoun Roper was born near Bennettsville, South Carolina to John Wesley Roper who was the leader of the 18th Regiment of North Carolina troops in the Confederate Army. After two years at Wofford College Roper attended Duke University (then called \"Trinity College\") and received an A.B. in 1888, and he received his bachelor of laws degree from National University in 1901.On December 25, 1889, Roper married Lou McKenzie. They had seven children: Margaret May, James Hunter, Daniel Calhoun Jr., Grace Henrietta, John Wesley Roper II (future Vice admiral), Harry McKenzie (future Major general) and Richard Frederick Roper.Roper taught school for four years and then, in 1892 at the age of 25, was elected to the South Carolina House of Representatives where he served for two years. He moved to Washington and worked as a clerk for the U.S. Senate Committee on Interstate Commerce. From 1900 to 1910, he worked for the Census Bureau, and then served as the clerk of the Committee on Ways and Means in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1911 to 1913.Immediately following and through 1916, he served as first assistant postmaster general, and was chairman of Woodrow Wilson's reelection campaign in 1916. He was the chairman of the 1917 U.S. Tariff Commission and served as commissioner of Internal Revenue from 1917 to 1920. He was a member of the District of Columbia Board of Education in 1931–32.","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"U.S. secretary of commerce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._secretary_of_commerce"}],"text":"Roper was the U.S. secretary of commerce from 1933 until 1938, during which time he played a major role in the rollout of the New Deal. The National Recovery Administration (NRA) was a part of his portfolio until it was struck down by the Supreme Court in 1935.","title":"Secretary of Commerce"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary (Canada)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_Ambassadors_to_Canada"},{"link_name":"Letter of Credence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_of_Credence"},{"link_name":"George VI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_VI"},{"link_name":"King of Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarchy_of_Canada"},{"link_name":"La Citadelle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Citadelle"},{"link_name":"Quebec City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quebec_City"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Washington, D.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_D.C."},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Washington, D.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_D.C."},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Roper was the Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary (Canada), from May 19, 1939, until August 20, 1939.Roper's Letter of Credence was accepted personally by George VI, King of Canada, at La Citadelle in Quebec City, on May 17, 1939. It was the King's first official duty as King of Canada on Canadian soil.[2]In 1941, and he published his autobiography entitled Fifty Years of Public Life.He died on April 11, 1943, at his home in Washington, D.C., at the age of 76 from leukemia.[3] Roper was interred at the Rock Creek Cemetery in Washington, D.C. In 1966, the District of Columbia Public School system named a middle school in Deanwood for him, but in 1997 they renamed it for Ronald Brown, who was also a Commerce Secretary.[4] That school was closed in 2013 but reopened as Ron Brown College Preparatory High School in 2016.[5][6]","title":"Later career"}]
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[{"reference":"William Galbraith (1989). \"Fiftieth Anniversary of the 1939 Royal Visit\". Canadian Parliamentary Review. Vol. 12, no. 3. Archived from the original on December 5, 2012. Retrieved June 10, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.revparl.ca/english/issue.asp","url_text":"\"Fiftieth Anniversary of the 1939 Royal Visit\""},{"url":"https://archive.today/20121205052132/http://www.revparl.ca/english/issue.asp?art=820¶m=130","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Daniel C. Roper Dies in Capital\". The Daily Mail. Hagerstown, Maryland. April 12, 1943. Retrieved May 23, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/image/21926208/","url_text":"\"Daniel C. Roper Dies in Capital\""}]},{"reference":"Helm, Joe (August 22, 2016). \"The country's newest all-boys public high school opens its doors\". Retrieved June 1, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/education/the-countrys-newest-all-boys-public-high-school-opens-its-doors/2016/08/22/a09a78e6-688d-11e6-99bf-f0cf3a6449a6_story.html","url_text":"\"The country's newest all-boys public high school opens its doors\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Moran_(author)
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Richard Moran (author)
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["1 Biography","2 Writing","3 References","4 External links"]
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Richard A. MoranBorn1950NationalityAmericanAlma materRutgers College, Indiana University, Miami UniversityOccupation(s)Author, CEO, Venture CapitalistNotable workNever Confuse a Memo with Reality, Sins and CEOsWebsitehttp://richardmoran.com/
Richard A. Moran is a San Francisco based speaker, investor, venture capitalist, author and president emeritus of Menlo College. He is known for his series of business books beginning with, Never Confuse a Memo with Reality that established the genre of "Business Bullet Books."
Biography
Raised in Rahway, New Jersey, Moran graduated in 1968 from Rahway High School.
Moran is General Partner at Tonic Bioventures https://tonicbioventures.com/ and founding partner of Blue Book Ventures. Investments include: RightRice, SiSaf, PopChips, Warehouse Exchange and AxoProtego, as well as a variety of start-ups in media and entertainment. He serves on the Board of Directors of Charli.ai https://charli.ai/ and as an advisor to Craft.co https://craft.co/, OROS https://www.orosapparel.com/pages/oros-technology and LBA Realty https://lbarealty.com/. He hosts the weekly show "In the Workplace" on KCBS Radio. https://www.audacy.com/kcbsradio
Moran was the tenth president of Menlo College, a private four year college located in Silicon Valley. He is the first former president there given the "Emeritus" status for his contributions. Moran previously served as CEO and vice chairman at Accretive Solutions, a national professional services firm with a focus on accounting, information technology and outsourcing. Accretive Solutions was sold in December 2017 to Resources Global Professionals.
Prior to Accretive Solutions, Moran was a partner at Venrock, chairman of the board at Portal Software which was sold to Oracle for $220M.
The Moran Family owns and operates a vineyard and winery in Knights Valley in Sonoma County. Moran chronicles the development of the vineyard and restoring an old house in his column "In the Country" which has been running in wine country newspapers since 1997. The column received third place in journalism at the 2018 California Journalism Awards.
Writing
Moran has written ten business books. His latest book is Never Say Whatever, How Small Decisions Make A Big Difference, 2023, McGraw Hill, ISBN 978-126476-9643. His work has been translated into eight languages.
Other works include:
Trump@Work, 2020, ISBN 978-0-367-27354-5
The Thing About Work: Showing Up and Other Important Matters: A Worker's Manual was released in October 2016.
Navigating Tweets, Feats, and Deletes: Lessons for the New Workplace (2014)(ISBN 978-0-9904012-1-6)
Sins and CEOs: Lessons from Leaders and Losers That Will Change Your Career (2011)
Nuts Bolts & Jolts: Fundamental Business and Life Lessons You Must Know (2006) (ISBN 978-1600080159)
Fear No Yellow Stickies: More Business Wisdom Too Simple Not to Know (1998) (ISBN 978-0684852195)
Cancel the Meeting, Keep the Doughnuts: And Other New Morsels of Business Wisdom (1995) (ISBN 978-0887307300)
Beware Those Who Ask For Feedback: And Other Organizational Constants (1994) (ISBN 978-0887307102)
Never Confuse A Memo with Reality: And Other Business Lessons Too Simple Not to Know (1993) (ISBN 978-0887306693)
References
^ Pender, Kathleen (Jan 24, 1994). "BOOK OFFERS BUSINESS ETIQUETTE". Sun Sentinel. p. 27. Retrieved 11 August 2012.
^ Jennings, Duffy. "Meet Richard Moran, Menlo College", Joint Venture Silicon Valley, April 2015. Accessed May 24, 2021. "Moran grew up in a traditional Irish Catholic family in the southern New Jersey town of Rahway, best known, he quickly points out, for the state penitentiary there."
^ Featured Alumni, Rahway High. Accessed May 24, 2021. "Richard A. Moran, (RHS 68) President of Menlo College."
^ Leuty, Ron (8 July 2014). "Menlo College taps Accretive Solutions CEO as new president". San Francisco Business Times. Retrieved 2019-05-14.
^ Choi, Calvin (23 May 2017). "DR. RICHARD MORAN TO RETIRE FROM MENLO COLLEGE | Menlo College". Retrieved 2019-05-14.
^ "RGP Acquires Professional Services Firm Accretive Solutions, Inc". Retrieved 5 November 2018.
^ "Oracle Buys Portal Software". Retrieved 5 November 2018.
^ Country, RICHARD A. MORAN In the. "In the Wine Country: Are you feeling lucky?". Napa Valley Register. Retrieved 2019-05-14.
^ STONEBERG, DAVID. "St. Helena Star wins top awards in journalism competition". Napa Valley Register. Retrieved 2019-05-17.
^ "Sitting down with Irish Author Rich Moran". Irish Technology Leadership Group. Retrieved 2019-05-14.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Richard Moran.
Richard Moran
https://www.bluebookventures.com/
https://axoprotego.com/
https://cavogene.com/
https://www.warehouseexchange.com/
Irish Technology Capital
Red Room writers
Authority control databases International
ISNI
VIAF
WorldCat
National
France
BnF data
Belgium
United States
Other
SNAC
IdRef
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"San Francisco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Menlo College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menlo_College"}],"text":"Richard A. Moran is a San Francisco based speaker, investor, venture capitalist, author[1] and president emeritus of Menlo College. He is known for his series of business books beginning with, Never Confuse a Memo with Reality that established the genre of \"Business Bullet Books.\"","title":"Richard Moran (author)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rahway, New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rahway,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Rahway High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rahway_High_School"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"https://tonicbioventures.com/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//tonicbioventures.com/"},{"link_name":"https://charli.ai/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//charli.ai/"},{"link_name":"https://craft.co/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//craft.co/"},{"link_name":"https://www.orosapparel.com/pages/oros-technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.orosapparel.com/pages/oros-technology"},{"link_name":"https://lbarealty.com/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//lbarealty.com/"},{"link_name":"https://www.audacy.com/kcbsradio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.audacy.com/kcbsradio"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Venrock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venrock"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"Raised in Rahway, New Jersey,[2] Moran graduated in 1968 from Rahway High School.[3]Moran is General Partner at Tonic Bioventures https://tonicbioventures.com/ and founding partner of Blue Book Ventures. Investments include: RightRice, SiSaf, PopChips, Warehouse Exchange and AxoProtego, as well as a variety of start-ups in media and entertainment. He serves on the Board of Directors of Charli.ai https://charli.ai/ and as an advisor to Craft.co https://craft.co/, OROS https://www.orosapparel.com/pages/oros-technology and LBA Realty https://lbarealty.com/. He hosts the weekly show \"In the Workplace\" on KCBS Radio. https://www.audacy.com/kcbsradioMoran was the tenth president of Menlo College,[4] a private four year college located in Silicon Valley. He is the first former president there given the \"Emeritus\" status for his contributions.[5] Moran previously served as CEO and vice chairman at Accretive Solutions, a national professional services firm with a focus on accounting, information technology and outsourcing. Accretive Solutions was sold in December 2017 to Resources Global Professionals.[6]Prior to Accretive Solutions, Moran was a partner at Venrock, chairman of the board at Portal Software which was sold to Oracle for $220M.[7]The Moran Family owns and operates a vineyard and winery in Knights Valley in Sonoma County. Moran chronicles the development of the vineyard and restoring an old house in his column \"In the Country\" which has been running in wine country newspapers since 1997.[8] The column received third place in journalism at the 2018 California Journalism Awards.[9]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-126476-9643","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-126476-9643"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-367-27354-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-367-27354-5"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-9904012-1-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9904012-1-6"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1600080159","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1600080159"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0684852195","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0684852195"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0887307300","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0887307300"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0887307102","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0887307102"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0887306693","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0887306693"}],"text":"Moran has written ten business books. His latest book is Never Say Whatever, How Small Decisions Make A Big Difference, 2023, McGraw Hill, ISBN 978-126476-9643. His work has been translated into eight languages.Other works include:Trump@Work, 2020, ISBN 978-0-367-27354-5\nThe Thing About Work: Showing Up and Other Important Matters: A Worker's Manual was released in October 2016.[10]\nNavigating Tweets, Feats, and Deletes: Lessons for the New Workplace (2014)(ISBN 978-0-9904012-1-6)\nSins and CEOs: Lessons from Leaders and Losers That Will Change Your Career (2011)\nNuts Bolts & Jolts: Fundamental Business and Life Lessons You Must Know (2006) (ISBN 978-1600080159)\nFear No Yellow Stickies: More Business Wisdom Too Simple Not to Know (1998) (ISBN 978-0684852195)\nCancel the Meeting, Keep the Doughnuts: And Other New Morsels of Business Wisdom (1995) (ISBN 978-0887307300)\nBeware Those Who Ask For Feedback: And Other Organizational Constants (1994) (ISBN 978-0887307102)\nNever Confuse A Memo with Reality: And Other Business Lessons Too Simple Not to Know (1993) (ISBN 978-0887306693)","title":"Writing"}]
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[]
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[{"reference":"Pender, Kathleen (Jan 24, 1994). \"BOOK OFFERS BUSINESS ETIQUETTE\". Sun Sentinel. p. 27. Retrieved 11 August 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sun_sentinel/access/86285372.html?dids=86285372:86285372&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Jan+24%2C+1994&author=KATHLEEN+PENDER+San+Francisco+Chronicle&pub=South+Florida+Sun+-+Sentinel&desc=BOOK+OFFERS+BUSINESS+ETIQUETTE&pqatl=google","url_text":"\"BOOK OFFERS BUSINESS ETIQUETTE\""}]},{"reference":"Leuty, Ron (8 July 2014). \"Menlo College taps Accretive Solutions CEO as new president\". San Francisco Business Times. Retrieved 2019-05-14.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bizjournals.com/sanfrancisco/blog/2014/07/menlo-college-business-richard-moran.html","url_text":"\"Menlo College taps Accretive Solutions CEO as new president\""}]},{"reference":"Choi, Calvin (23 May 2017). \"DR. RICHARD MORAN TO RETIRE FROM MENLO COLLEGE | Menlo College\". Retrieved 2019-05-14.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.menlo.edu/news/dr-richard-moran-to-retire-from-menlo-college/","url_text":"\"DR. RICHARD MORAN TO RETIRE FROM MENLO COLLEGE | Menlo College\""}]},{"reference":"\"RGP Acquires Professional Services Firm Accretive Solutions, Inc\". Retrieved 5 November 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://ir.rgp.com/news-releases/news-release-details/rgp-acquires-professional-services-firm-accretive-solutions-inc","url_text":"\"RGP Acquires Professional Services Firm Accretive Solutions, Inc\""}]},{"reference":"\"Oracle Buys Portal Software\". Retrieved 5 November 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.oracle.com/us/corporate/press/016639_EN","url_text":"\"Oracle Buys Portal Software\""}]},{"reference":"Country, RICHARD A. MORAN In the. \"In the Wine Country: Are you feeling lucky?\". Napa Valley Register. Retrieved 2019-05-14.","urls":[{"url":"https://napavalleyregister.com/community/star/opinion/in-the-wine-country-are-you-feeling-lucky/article_8531a452-d9f5-5ca4-bc6a-9dfeb508bf99.html","url_text":"\"In the Wine Country: Are you feeling lucky?\""}]},{"reference":"STONEBERG, DAVID. \"St. Helena Star wins top awards in journalism competition\". Napa Valley Register. Retrieved 2019-05-17.","urls":[{"url":"https://napavalleyregister.com/community/star/news/st-helena-star-wins-top-awards-in-journalism-competition/article_08d6ee61-78d1-5df0-b870-9183420bf3d5.html","url_text":"\"St. Helena Star wins top awards in journalism competition\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sitting down with Irish Author Rich Moran\". Irish Technology Leadership Group. Retrieved 2019-05-14.","urls":[{"url":"http://itlg.org/rich-moran/2016/11/21/interview-with-itlg-member-and-author-rich-moran","url_text":"\"Sitting down with Irish Author Rich Moran\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Cesk%C3%BD_T%C4%9B%C5%A1%C3%ADn
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Český Těšín
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["1 Administrative parts","2 Geography","3 History","3.1 Jewish community","4 Demographics","4.1 Religion","5 Economy","6 Culture","7 Education","8 Sights","9 Notable people","10 Twin towns – sister cities","11 Gallery","12 References","13 External links"]
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Coordinates: 49°44′46″N 18°37′34″E / 49.74611°N 18.62611°E / 49.74611; 18.62611
Town in Moravian-Silesian, Czech RepublicČeský Těšín
Czeski CieszynTownTown hall
FlagCoat of armsČeský TěšínLocation in the Czech RepublicCoordinates: 49°44′46″N 18°37′34″E / 49.74611°N 18.62611°E / 49.74611; 18.62611Country Czech RepublicRegionMoravian-SilesianDistrictKarvináFirst mentioned1155Government • MayorKarel KulaArea • Total33.79 km2 (13.05 sq mi)Elevation270 m (890 ft)Population (2024-01-01) • Total23,282 • Density690/km2 (1,800/sq mi)Time zoneUTC+1 (CET) • Summer (DST)UTC+2 (CEST)Postal codes735 62, 737 01Websitewww.tesin.cz
Český Těšín (Czech: ⓘ; Polish: Czeski Cieszyn; German: Tschechisch-Teschen) is a town in Karviná District in the Moravian-Silesian Region of the Czech Republic. It has about 23,000 inhabitants.
Český Těšín lies on the west bank of the Olza river, in the heart of the historical region of Cieszyn Silesia. Until the 1920 division of the region between Poland and Czechoslovakia it was just a western suburb of the town of Teschen, which after the division fell to Poland as Cieszyn. The combined population of the Czech and Polish parts of the town is around 57,000 (23,500 in Český Těšín, 33,500 in Cieszyn).
The historic centre in Český Těšín is well preserved and is protected by law as an urban monument zone.
Administrative parts
The town parts and villages of Dolní Žukov, Horní Žukov, Koňákov, Mistřovice, Mosty and Stanislavice are administrative parts of Český Těšín.
Geography
Český Těšín (right), Cieszyn (left) and the Olza River (centre)
Český Těšín is located about 12 kilometres (7 mi) south of Karviná and 23 km (14 mi) east of Ostrava. It lies on the border with Poland in the historical region of Cieszyn Silesia and is a twin city with the Polish city of Cieszyn. The town is situated in the Moravian-Silesian Foothills, on the left bank of the Olza River. The highest point is the hill Šachta at 427 m (1,401 ft) above sea level.
History
Main article: History of Cieszyn
The first written mention of Těšín is from 1155, when a castle called Tescin was mentioned in a deed of Pope Adrian IV. In 1290, the settlement was first referred to as a town.
The area was originally a small western suburb of the town of Cieszyn, the capital of the Duchy of Cieszyn, which was established in 1290, during the fragmentation of Poland into smaller duchies. It was ruled by the Piast dynasty until 1653, and by the Habsburg dynasty afterwards. Under Austrian rule, it was known under its Germanized name Teschen. It was known for its national and cultural diversity, consisting mostly of German, Polish, Jewish and Czech communities. In 1849, the western part of Teschen was home to only 14.9% of the town's total population: in 1880 24% and in 1910 33.4%. There was also a small but lively Hungarian community in the town, mostly officers and administrative workers.
From 1870 (when the Košice–Bohumín Railway was put into operation) until 1914, there was a construction boom and the districts that forms the today's Český Těšín were built.
According to the Austrian census of 1910, Teschen had 22,489 inhabitants, 13,254 (61.5%) of them were German-speaking, 6,832 (31.7%) were Polish-speaking and 1,437 (6.6%) were Czech-speaking. The most populous religious groups were Roman Catholics with 15,138 (67.3%) followed by Protestants with 5,174 (23%) and the Jews with 2,112 (9.4%).
Following the fall of Austria-Hungary, Czech and Polish local governments were established. Both of them claimed that the whole of Cieszyn Silesia belonged to Czechoslovakia or Poland respectively. To calm down the friction which developed, the local governments concluded an interim agreement on division of the area running along ethnic lines. The division line imposed by the interim agreement was seen as unacceptable by the central Czechoslovak government, mainly because the crucial railway connecting the Czech lands with eastern Slovakia was controlled by Poland, and access to that railway was vital for Czechoslovakia at that time.
Despite the division being only interim, Poland decided to organize elections to the Sejm (Polish parliament) in the area. To prevent this, Czechoslovakia decided to attack the Polish part of the region on 23 January 1919. After the Polish–Czechoslovak War, Czechoslovakia forced Poland, which was at that time at war also with the West Ukrainian National Republic, to withdraw from the larger part of the area. After a ceasefire, the entire area was divided by the decision of the Spa Conference from July 1920, thus in practice creating the Trans-Olza area, leaving a sizable Polish minority on the Czech side and dividing the town of Cieszyn between the two states.
Polish Army entering Český Těšín in October 1938
Český Těšín was then the centre of Český Těšín District, existing in the years 1920–1938 and 1945–1960.
In 1938, following the Munich Agreement allowing the German annexation of the Sudetenland, Poland coerced Czechoslovakia to surrender the region of Trans-Olza (including Český Těšín). Following negotiations with Czech authorities, Polish troops and authorities entered it on 2 October 1938, and the territory was annexed by Poland and again joined to Cieszyn. After the German invasion of Poland in 1939, the entire territory was annexed by Nazi Germany. In 1941, Nazi Germany established the Stalag VIII-D prisoner-of-war camp for Polish, French, Belgian, British and Serbian POWs, which in September 1942 was converted into a subcamp of the Stalag VIII-B camp. After the war, the sizeable German-speaking community was expelled in accordance with the Potsdam Agreement, and the 1920 borders were restored.
Jewish community
Former Schomre Schabos synagogue
The first Jews in the area of Český Těšín were first documented in the early 18th century. The oldest Jewish prayer houses had existed in Český Těšín since the early 20th century. It was run by the Schomre Schabos (Guardians of Shabbat) society. After 1869 the Jewish minority increased rapidly and in 1914 they made up 40% of the Těšín population. They significantly contributed to the establishment, development and maintenance of trade contacts with neighbouring countries.
After the division of Teschen in 1920, there were no synagogues and cemetery in the Czech part of the town, and new ones had to be established. The Jewish Community of Český Těšín was established in 1923.
In 1938, there was a sizeable Jewish minority in the town, about 1,500 in Cieszyn and 1,300 in Český Těšín. Nearly all of them were killed by Nazi Germany in concentration camps. Most of the synagogues were destroyed. Today, only one synagogue still stands in the town, used as a Polish cultural centre.
Demographics
As of 2021, the Poles make up 14.3% of the town's population,. The town is an important cultural and educational centre of the Polish minority in the Czech Republic. The number of Poles is however decreasing as a result of continuing assimilation. Although a border town, there is no longer any real ethnic tension between Czechs and Poles.
Historical populationYearPop.±%18695,423— 18807,439+37.2%18908,492+14.2%190010,656+25.5%191013,214+24.0%YearPop.±%192114,559+10.2%193017,620+21.0%195017,036−3.3%196118,462+8.4%197018,549+0.5%YearPop.±%198022,155+19.4%199127,721+25.1%200126,429−4.7%201124,394−7.7%202123,130−5.2%Source: Censuses
Religion
Church of the Sacred Heart of Jesus
The diversity of the town is not only ethnic, but also religious. Many Christian denominations are present in the town. In the past a large Jewish community lived there. According to the 2021 census, 31.6% of the population is religious, out of whom 34.4% are Roman Catholics, and 3.7% are Czech Brethren.
Economy
The largest industrial employer based in the town is Kovona System, which is engaged in production of metal products. It employs about 800 people. The second notable industrial company is Finidr, one of the biggest producers of hardback and paperback books in Central Europe with about 600 employers.
Culture
Těšín Theatre has Czech and Polish ensembles, where plays are presented in both the Czech and Polish languages. It is one of the few theatres outside Poland which has a professional Polish ensemble.
Education
Alongside several Czech primary schools and one gymnasium, the town has both a Polish primary school and a gymnasium. The Pedagogical Centre for Polish National Education in Český Těšín takes care of the needs of schools with the Polish teaching language in the Czech Republic.
Sights
Lutheran church
There is six church buildings in the town. The oldest is the Neo-Gothic Catholic Church of the Sacred Heart of Jesus, built by architect Ludwig Satzky in 1893–1894.
After the division of Teschen in 1920, there were no Lutheran churches in Český Těšín. In 1927 the local German population built a Lutheran church in the town, and in 1932 the second Lutheran church was built. The church of the Evangelical Church of Czech Brethren was constructed in 1929.
In 1928–1929 the Jewish community built a new synagogue on Breitegasse Street, which is to date the only synagogue in the town which still stands. It was the only synagogue not destroyed by Nazis due to its proximity to other residential buildings. In 1967 the building was bought by the Polish Cultural and Educational Union. It is not protected as a cultural monument. Together with fragment of the Jewish cemetery, which was established in 1926, it is the only Jewish monument in the town.
The railway station was built in the Neo-Renaissance style in 1889 and belongs to the most valuable railway station buildings in the country.
The town hall is the landmark of the town square. The 54 metres (177 ft)-long building was built in 1928.
Český Těšín is home to the Museum of Cieszyn Silesia, founded in 1948.
Notable people
See also: Category:People from Český Těšín
Jiří Třanovský (1592–1637), Protestant scholar and poet
Simon R. Blatteis (1876–1968), New York pathologist
Viktor Ullmann (1898–1944), Jewish composer and musician
Ludvík Aškenazy (1921–1986), Jewish writer
Terry Haass (1923–2016), French painter
František Vláčil (1924–1999), film director
Jaromír Hanzlík (born 1948), actor
Jiří Drahoš (born 1949), chemist and politician
Jaromír Nohavica (born 1953), musician; lived here
Luděk Čajka (1963–1990), ice hockey player
Twin towns – sister cities
See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in the Czech Republic
Český Těšín is twinned with:
Cieszyn, Poland
Rožňava, Slovakia
Gallery
Bilingual signs at town limits
Český Těšín
Cemetery
Fragment of abandoned Jewish cemetery
Memorial dedicated to World War II resistance fighters
Polish primary school and gymnasium
Railway station
Těšín printing works
References
^ "Population of Municipalities – 1 January 2024". Czech Statistical Office. 17 May 2024.
^ a b c d "Historie města" (in Czech). Tourist Information Centre Český Těšín. Retrieved 7 January 2022.
^ a b Wawreczka, Henryk; Janusz Spyra; Mariusz Makowski (1999). Těšín, Český Těšín na starých pohlednicích a fotografiích / Cieszyn, Czeski Cieszyn na starych widokówkach i fotografiach (in Czech and Polish). Nebory, Třinec: Wart. pp. 10–13. ISBN 80-238-4804-6.
^ Ludwig Patryn (ed): Die Ergebnisse der Volkszählung vom 31. Dezember 1910 in Schlesien, Troppau 1912.
^ Žáček, Rudolf (2004). Dějiny Slezska v datech (in Czech). Praha: Libri. p. 314. ISBN 80-7277-172-8.
^ Januszek, Tomáš (23 January 2019). "Sedmidenní válka – konflikt, který určil hranice, ale vyhrotil nevraživost". Moravskoslezský deník (in Czech). Retrieved 7 January 2022.
^ Megargee, Geoffrey P.; Overmans, Rüdiger; Vogt, Wolfgang (2022). The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos 1933–1945. Volume IV. Indiana University Press, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. pp. 450–451. ISBN 978-0-253-06089-1.
^ a b c "Židovské památky" (in Czech). Tourist Information Centre Český Těšín. Retrieved 7 January 2022.
^ Spyra, Janusz (1999). "Zarys dziejów ludności żydowskiej w Cieszynie i okolicach, Żydowskie zabytki Cieszyna i Czeskiego Cieszyna".
^ "Population Census 2021: Population by selected ethnicity and municipalities of selected district". Public database. Czech Statistical Office. 27 March 2021.
^ "Těšín: přátelsky rozdělené město" (in Czech). Czech Radio. 22 December 2020. Retrieved 7 January 2022.
^ "Historický lexikon obcí České republiky 1869–2011 – Okres Karviná" (in Czech). Czech Statistical Office. 21 December 2015. pp. 1–2.
^ "Population Census 2021: Population by sex". Public Database. Czech Statistical Office. 27 March 2021.
^ "Population Census 2021: Population by religious belief". Public database. Czech Statistical Office. 27 March 2021.
^ "About us". KOVONA SYSTEM, a.s. Retrieved 29 December 2022.
^ "Home". FINIDR, s.r.o. Retrieved 29 December 2022.
^ Zahradnik, Stanisław; Ryczkowski, Marek (1992). Korzenie Zaolzia. Warsaw, Prague, Třinec: PAI-press. p. 147. OCLC 177389723.
^ "Polské národnostní školství v Moravskoslezském kraji" (in Czech). Moravian-Silesian Region. Retrieved 3 May 2022.
^ a b "Kostely" (in Czech). Tourist Information Centre Český Těšín. Retrieved 7 January 2022.
^ a b "Památky" (in Czech). Tourist Information Centre Český Těšín. Retrieved 7 January 2022.
^ "Homepage: Partnerská města" (in Czech). Město Český Těšín. Retrieved 7 January 2022.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Český Těšín.
Official website
History of Cieszyn during the World War II (in Polish)
vteČeský Těšín
Dolní Žukov
Horní Žukov
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vteTowns and villages of Karviná District
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partially in the region:
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Related articles
Cieszyn Silesia Euroregion
Cieszyn Silesian dialect
Duchy of Teschen
Olza (river)
Trans-Olza
vteMunicipalities in Trans-Olza with significant Polish population
Albrechtice (Olbrachcice)
Bocanovice (Boconowice)
Bukovec (Bukowiec)
Bystřice (Bystrzyca)
Český Těšín (Czeski Cieszyn)
Chotěbuz (Kocobędz)
Dolní Lomná (Łomna Dolna)
Hnojník (Gnojnik)
Horní Lomná (Łomna Górna)
Horní Suchá (Sucha Górna)
Hrádek (Gródek)
Jablunkov (Jabłonków)
Komorní Lhotka (Ligotka Kameralna)
Košařiska (Koszarzyska)
Milíkov (Milików)
Mosty u Jablunkova (Mosty koło Jabłonkowa)
Návsí (Nawsie)
Nýdek (Nydek)
Písečná (Pioseczna)
Písek (Piosek)
Řeka (Rzeka)
Ropice (Ropica)
Smilovice (Śmiłowice)
Stonava (Stonawa)
Střítež (Trzycież)
Třanovice (Trzanowice)
Třinec (Trzyniec)
Vělopolí (Wielopole)
Vendryně (Wędrynia)
* More than 10% of total population; 2021 census data.
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Czech Republic
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[ˈtʃɛskiː ˈcɛʃiːn]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Czech"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/97/Cesky_Tesin.ogg/Cesky_Tesin.ogg.mp3"},{"link_name":"ⓘ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cesky_Tesin.ogg"},{"link_name":"Polish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_language"},{"link_name":"German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language"},{"link_name":"Karviná District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karvin%C3%A1_District"},{"link_name":"Moravian-Silesian Region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moravian-Silesian_Region"},{"link_name":"Czech Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_Republic"},{"link_name":"Olza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olza_(river)"},{"link_name":"Cieszyn Silesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cieszyn_Silesia"},{"link_name":"Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland"},{"link_name":"Czechoslovakia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czechoslovakia"},{"link_name":"Cieszyn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cieszyn"},{"link_name":"urban monument zone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_monument_(Czech_Republic)#Monument_zones"}],"text":"Town in Moravian-Silesian, Czech RepublicČeský Těšín (Czech: [ˈtʃɛskiː ˈcɛʃiːn] ⓘ; Polish: Czeski Cieszyn; German: Tschechisch-Teschen) is a town in Karviná District in the Moravian-Silesian Region of the Czech Republic. It has about 23,000 inhabitants.Český Těšín lies on the west bank of the Olza river, in the heart of the historical region of Cieszyn Silesia. Until the 1920 division of the region between Poland and Czechoslovakia it was just a western suburb of the town of Teschen, which after the division fell to Poland as Cieszyn. The combined population of the Czech and Polish parts of the town is around 57,000 (23,500 in Český Těšín, 33,500 in Cieszyn).The historic centre in Český Těšín is well preserved and is protected by law as an urban monument zone.","title":"Český Těšín"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dolní Žukov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doln%C3%AD_%C5%BDukov"},{"link_name":"Horní Žukov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horn%C3%AD_%C5%BDukov"},{"link_name":"Koňákov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ko%C5%88%C3%A1kov"},{"link_name":"Mistřovice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mist%C5%99ovice"},{"link_name":"Mosty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosty_(%C4%8Cesk%C3%BD_T%C4%9B%C5%A1%C3%ADn)"},{"link_name":"Stanislavice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanislavice"}],"text":"The town parts and villages of Dolní Žukov, Horní Žukov, Koňákov, Mistřovice, Mosty and Stanislavice are administrative parts of Český Těšín.","title":"Administrative parts"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ciesz_olza_czciesz_355.jpg"},{"link_name":"Karviná","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karvin%C3%A1"},{"link_name":"Ostrava","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostrava"},{"link_name":"Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland"},{"link_name":"Cieszyn Silesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cieszyn_Silesia"},{"link_name":"twin city","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twin_cities"},{"link_name":"Cieszyn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cieszyn"},{"link_name":"Moravian-Silesian Foothills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moravian-Silesian_Foothills"},{"link_name":"Olza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olza_(river)"}],"text":"Český Těšín (right), Cieszyn (left) and the Olza River (centre)Český Těšín is located about 12 kilometres (7 mi) south of Karviná and 23 km (14 mi) east of Ostrava. It lies on the border with Poland in the historical region of Cieszyn Silesia and is a twin city with the Polish city of Cieszyn. The town is situated in the Moravian-Silesian Foothills, on the left bank of the Olza River. The highest point is the hill Šachta at 427 m (1,401 ft) above sea level.","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pope Adrian IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Adrian_IV"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-2"},{"link_name":"Cieszyn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cieszyn"},{"link_name":"Duchy of Cieszyn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Cieszyn"},{"link_name":"Piast dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piast_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Habsburg dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habsburg_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Hungarian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_people"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-waw1999-3"},{"link_name":"Košice–Bohumín Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ko%C5%A1ice%E2%80%93Bohum%C3%ADn_Railway"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-2"},{"link_name":"Austrian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria-Hungary"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Czech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czechs"},{"link_name":"Polish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_people"},{"link_name":"Cieszyn Silesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cieszyn_Silesia"},{"link_name":"Czechoslovakia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czechoslovakia"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Sejm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejm"},{"link_name":"Polish–Czechoslovak War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Czechoslovak_War"},{"link_name":"West Ukrainian National Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Ukrainian_National_Republic"},{"link_name":"Spa Conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spa_Conference_of_1920"},{"link_name":"Trans-Olza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-Olza"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wojska_pancerne_podczas_defilady_widoczny_czo%C5%82g_lekki_7_TP._Z_lewej_m%C4%99%C5%BCczyzna_z_r%C4%99czn%C4%85_kamer%C4%85_filmow%C4%85.jpg"},{"link_name":"Polish Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_Armed_Forces"},{"link_name":"Český Těšín District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Cesk%C3%BD_T%C4%9B%C5%A1%C3%ADn_District"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-2"},{"link_name":"Munich Agreement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munich_Agreement"},{"link_name":"Sudetenland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudetenland"},{"link_name":"German invasion of Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_invasion_of_Poland"},{"link_name":"Nazi Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Germany"},{"link_name":"Stalag VIII-D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stalag_VIII-D"},{"link_name":"prisoner-of-war camp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_prisoner-of-war_camps_in_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_prisoners_of_war_in_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Stalag VIII-B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stalag_VIII-B"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"expelled","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expulsion_of_Germans_after_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Potsdam Agreement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potsdam_Agreement"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-2"}],"text":"The first written mention of Těšín is from 1155, when a castle called Tescin was mentioned in a deed of Pope Adrian IV. In 1290, the settlement was first referred to as a town.[2]The area was originally a small western suburb of the town of Cieszyn, the capital of the Duchy of Cieszyn, which was established in 1290, during the fragmentation of Poland into smaller duchies. It was ruled by the Piast dynasty until 1653, and by the Habsburg dynasty afterwards. Under Austrian rule, it was known under its Germanized name Teschen. It was known for its national and cultural diversity, consisting mostly of German, Polish, Jewish and Czech communities. In 1849, the western part of Teschen was home to only 14.9% of the town's total population: in 1880 24% and in 1910 33.4%. There was also a small but lively Hungarian community in the town, mostly officers and administrative workers.[3]From 1870 (when the Košice–Bohumín Railway was put into operation) until 1914, there was a construction boom and the districts that forms the today's Český Těšín were built.[2]According to the Austrian census of 1910, Teschen had 22,489 inhabitants, 13,254 (61.5%) of them were German-speaking, 6,832 (31.7%) were Polish-speaking and 1,437 (6.6%) were Czech-speaking. The most populous religious groups were Roman Catholics with 15,138 (67.3%) followed by Protestants with 5,174 (23%) and the Jews with 2,112 (9.4%).[4]Following the fall of Austria-Hungary, Czech and Polish local governments were established. Both of them claimed that the whole of Cieszyn Silesia belonged to Czechoslovakia or Poland respectively. To calm down the friction which developed, the local governments concluded an interim agreement on division of the area running along ethnic lines. The division line imposed by the interim agreement was seen as unacceptable by the central Czechoslovak government, mainly because the crucial railway connecting the Czech lands with eastern Slovakia was controlled by Poland, and access to that railway was vital for Czechoslovakia at that time.[5]Despite the division being only interim, Poland decided to organize elections to the Sejm (Polish parliament) in the area. To prevent this, Czechoslovakia decided to attack the Polish part of the region on 23 January 1919. After the Polish–Czechoslovak War, Czechoslovakia forced Poland, which was at that time at war also with the West Ukrainian National Republic, to withdraw from the larger part of the area. After a ceasefire, the entire area was divided by the decision of the Spa Conference from July 1920, thus in practice creating the Trans-Olza area, leaving a sizable Polish minority on the Czech side and dividing the town of Cieszyn between the two states.[6]Polish Army entering Český Těšín in October 1938Český Těšín was then the centre of Český Těšín District, existing in the years 1920–1938 and 1945–1960.[2]In 1938, following the Munich Agreement allowing the German annexation of the Sudetenland, Poland coerced Czechoslovakia to surrender the region of Trans-Olza (including Český Těšín). Following negotiations with Czech authorities, Polish troops and authorities entered it on 2 October 1938, and the territory was annexed by Poland and again joined to Cieszyn. After the German invasion of Poland in 1939, the entire territory was annexed by Nazi Germany. In 1941, Nazi Germany established the Stalag VIII-D prisoner-of-war camp for Polish, French, Belgian, British and Serbian POWs, which in September 1942 was converted into a subcamp of the Stalag VIII-B camp.[7] After the war, the sizeable German-speaking community was expelled in accordance with the Potsdam Agreement, and the 1920 borders were restored.[2]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:B%C3%BDval%C3%A1_synagoga.jpg"},{"link_name":"Shabbat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shabbat"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jew-8"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jew-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"concentration camps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-waw1999-3"}],"sub_title":"Jewish community","text":"Former Schomre Schabos synagogueThe first Jews in the area of Český Těšín were first documented in the early 18th century. The oldest Jewish prayer houses had existed in Český Těšín since the early 20th century. It was run by the Schomre Schabos (Guardians of Shabbat) society. After 1869 the Jewish minority increased rapidly and in 1914 they made up 40% of the Těšín population. They significantly contributed to the establishment, development and maintenance of trade contacts with neighbouring countries.[8]After the division of Teschen in 1920, there were no synagogues and cemetery in the Czech part of the town, and new ones had to be established. The Jewish Community of Český Těšín was established in 1923.[8]In 1938, there was a sizeable Jewish minority in the town, about 1,500 in Cieszyn and 1,300 in Český Těšín.[9] Nearly all of them were killed by Nazi Germany in concentration camps.[3] Most of the synagogues were destroyed. Today, only one synagogue still stands in the town, used as a Polish cultural centre.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Polish minority in the Czech Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_minority_in_the_Czech_Republic"},{"link_name":"assimilation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_assimilation"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"As of 2021, the Poles make up 14.3% of the town's population,.[10] The town is an important cultural and educational centre of the Polish minority in the Czech Republic. The number of Poles is however decreasing as a result of continuing assimilation. Although a border town, there is no longer any real ethnic tension between Czechs and Poles.[11]","title":"Demographics"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ko%C5%9Bci%C3%B3%C5%82_Naj%C5%9Bwi%C4%99tszego_Serca_Pana_Jezusa_w_Czeskim_Cieszynie_2.JPG"},{"link_name":"Christian denominations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_denominations"},{"link_name":"Czech Brethren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelical_Church_of_Czech_Brethren"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"sub_title":"Religion","text":"Church of the Sacred Heart of JesusThe diversity of the town is not only ethnic, but also religious. Many Christian denominations are present in the town. In the past a large Jewish community lived there. According to the 2021 census, 31.6% of the population is religious, out of whom 34.4% are Roman Catholics, and 3.7% are Czech Brethren.[14]","title":"Demographics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Finidr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finidr"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"text":"The largest industrial employer based in the town is Kovona System, which is engaged in production of metal products. It employs about 800 people.[15] The second notable industrial company is Finidr, one of the biggest producers of hardback and paperback books in Central Europe with about 600 employers.[16]","title":"Economy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Těšín Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C4%9B%C5%A1%C3%ADn_Theatre"},{"link_name":"Czech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_language"},{"link_name":"Polish languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_language"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"text":"Těšín Theatre has Czech and Polish ensembles, where plays are presented in both the Czech and Polish languages. It is one of the few theatres outside Poland which has a professional Polish ensemble.[17]","title":"Culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"gymnasium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gymnasium_(school)"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"text":"Alongside several Czech primary schools and one gymnasium, the town has both a Polish primary school and a gymnasium. The Pedagogical Centre for Polish National Education in Český Těšín takes care of the needs of schools with the Polish teaching language in the Czech Republic.[18]","title":"Education"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:C._Tesin_SCEAV_kostel.JPG"},{"link_name":"Neo-Gothic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Gothic_architecture"},{"link_name":"Sacred Heart of Jesus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacred_Heart"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-church-19"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-church-19"},{"link_name":"Nazis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazis"},{"link_name":"Polish Cultural and Educational Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_Cultural_and_Educational_Union"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jew-8"},{"link_name":"Neo-Renaissance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_Revival_architecture"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sights-20"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sights-20"},{"link_name":"Museum of Cieszyn Silesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muzeum_T%C4%9B%C5%A1%C3%ADnska"}],"text":"Lutheran churchThere is six church buildings in the town. The oldest is the Neo-Gothic Catholic Church of the Sacred Heart of Jesus, built by architect Ludwig Satzky in 1893–1894.[19]After the division of Teschen in 1920, there were no Lutheran churches in Český Těšín. In 1927 the local German population built a Lutheran church in the town, and in 1932 the second Lutheran church was built. The church of the Evangelical Church of Czech Brethren was constructed in 1929.[19]In 1928–1929 the Jewish community built a new synagogue on Breitegasse Street, which is to date the only synagogue in the town which still stands. It was the only synagogue not destroyed by Nazis due to its proximity to other residential buildings. In 1967 the building was bought by the Polish Cultural and Educational Union. It is not protected as a cultural monument. Together with fragment of the Jewish cemetery, which was established in 1926, it is the only Jewish monument in the town.[8]The railway station was built in the Neo-Renaissance style in 1889 and belongs to the most valuable railway station buildings in the country.[20]The town hall is the landmark of the town square. The 54 metres (177 ft)-long building was built in 1928.[20]Český Těšín is home to the Museum of Cieszyn Silesia, founded in 1948.","title":"Sights"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Category:People from Český Těšín","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:People_from_%C4%8Cesk%C3%BD_T%C4%9B%C5%A1%C3%ADn"},{"link_name":"Jiří Třanovský","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ji%C5%99%C3%AD_T%C5%99anovsk%C3%BD"},{"link_name":"Simon R. Blatteis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_R._Blatteis"},{"link_name":"Viktor Ullmann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktor_Ullmann"},{"link_name":"Ludvík Aškenazy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludv%C3%ADk_A%C5%A1kenazy"},{"link_name":"Terry Haass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terry_Haass"},{"link_name":"František Vláčil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franti%C5%A1ek_Vl%C3%A1%C4%8Dil"},{"link_name":"Jaromír Hanzlík","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jarom%C3%ADr_Hanzl%C3%ADk"},{"link_name":"Jiří Drahoš","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ji%C5%99%C3%AD_Draho%C5%A1"},{"link_name":"Jaromír Nohavica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jarom%C3%ADr_Nohavica"},{"link_name":"Luděk Čajka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lud%C4%9Bk_%C4%8Cajka"}],"text":"See also: Category:People from Český TěšínJiří Třanovský (1592–1637), Protestant scholar and poet\nSimon R. Blatteis (1876–1968), New York pathologist\nViktor Ullmann (1898–1944), Jewish composer and musician\nLudvík Aškenazy (1921–1986), Jewish writer\nTerry Haass (1923–2016), French painter\nFrantišek Vláčil (1924–1999), film director\nJaromír Hanzlík (born 1948), actor\nJiří Drahoš (born 1949), chemist and politician\nJaromír Nohavica (born 1953), musician; lived here\nLuděk Čajka (1963–1990), ice hockey player","title":"Notable people"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of twin towns and sister cities in the Czech Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_twin_towns_and_sister_cities_in_the_Czech_Republic"},{"link_name":"twinned","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sister_city"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland"},{"link_name":"Cieszyn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cieszyn"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovakia"},{"link_name":"Rožňava","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ro%C5%BE%C5%88ava"}],"text":"See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in the Czech RepublicČeský Těšín is twinned with:[21]Cieszyn, Poland\n Rožňava, Slovakia","title":"Twin towns – sister cities"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Czeski_cieszyn_wita.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Czciesz_356.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Czciesz_cem_279.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Czciesz_jud_268.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Czciesz_res_337.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Czciesz_podstawowka_565.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Czciesz_win_811.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:T%C4%9B%C5%A1%C3%ADnsk%C3%A1_tisk%C3%A1rna.jpg"}],"text":"Bilingual signs at town limits\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tČeský Těšín\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tCemetery\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tFragment of abandoned Jewish cemetery\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tMemorial dedicated to World War II resistance fighters\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tPolish primary school and gymnasium\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tRailway station\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTěšín printing works","title":"Gallery"}]
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[{"image_text":"Český Těšín (right), Cieszyn (left) and the Olza River (centre)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Ciesz_olza_czciesz_355.jpg/220px-Ciesz_olza_czciesz_355.jpg"},{"image_text":"Polish Army entering Český Těšín in October 1938","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Wojska_pancerne_podczas_defilady_widoczny_czo%C5%82g_lekki_7_TP._Z_lewej_m%C4%99%C5%BCczyzna_z_r%C4%99czn%C4%85_kamer%C4%85_filmow%C4%85.jpg/220px-Wojska_pancerne_podczas_defilady_widoczny_czo%C5%82g_lekki_7_TP._Z_lewej_m%C4%99%C5%BCczyzna_z_r%C4%99czn%C4%85_kamer%C4%85_filmow%C4%85.jpg"},{"image_text":"Former Schomre Schabos synagogue","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/B%C3%BDval%C3%A1_synagoga.jpg/160px-B%C3%BDval%C3%A1_synagoga.jpg"},{"image_text":"Church of the Sacred Heart of Jesus","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Ko%C5%9Bci%C3%B3%C5%82_Naj%C5%9Bwi%C4%99tszego_Serca_Pana_Jezusa_w_Czeskim_Cieszynie_2.JPG/160px-Ko%C5%9Bci%C3%B3%C5%82_Naj%C5%9Bwi%C4%99tszego_Serca_Pana_Jezusa_w_Czeskim_Cieszynie_2.JPG"},{"image_text":"Lutheran church","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/C._Tesin_SCEAV_kostel.JPG/160px-C._Tesin_SCEAV_kostel.JPG"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Dux_Tessinensis_Wernigeroder_Wappenbuch.jpg/50px-Dux_Tessinensis_Wernigeroder_Wappenbuch.jpg"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Cieszyn_Piast_dynasty_COA.png/50px-Cieszyn_Piast_dynasty_COA.png"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Population of Municipalities – 1 January 2024\". Czech Statistical Office. 17 May 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.czso.cz/csu/czso/population-of-municipalities-qexb0dqr2d","url_text":"\"Population of Municipalities – 1 January 2024\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_Statistical_Office","url_text":"Czech Statistical Office"}]},{"reference":"\"Historie města\" (in Czech). Tourist Information Centre Český Těšín. Retrieved 7 January 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ic-tesin.cz/historie%2Dmesta/d-1001/p1=1178","url_text":"\"Historie města\""}]},{"reference":"Wawreczka, Henryk; Janusz Spyra; Mariusz Makowski (1999). Těšín, Český Těšín na starých pohlednicích a fotografiích / Cieszyn, Czeski Cieszyn na starych widokówkach i fotografiach (in Czech and Polish). Nebory, Třinec: Wart. pp. 10–13. ISBN 80-238-4804-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/80-238-4804-6","url_text":"80-238-4804-6"}]},{"reference":"Žáček, Rudolf (2004). Dějiny Slezska v datech (in Czech). Praha: Libri. p. 314. ISBN 80-7277-172-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/80-7277-172-8","url_text":"80-7277-172-8"}]},{"reference":"Januszek, Tomáš (23 January 2019). \"Sedmidenní válka – konflikt, který určil hranice, ale vyhrotil nevraživost\". Moravskoslezský deník (in Czech). Retrieved 7 January 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://moravskoslezsky.denik.cz/z-regionu/sedmidenni-valka-konflikt-ktery-urcil-hranice-ale-vyhrotil-nevrazivost-20190123.html","url_text":"\"Sedmidenní válka – konflikt, který určil hranice, ale vyhrotil nevraživost\""}]},{"reference":"Megargee, Geoffrey P.; Overmans, Rüdiger; Vogt, Wolfgang (2022). The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos 1933–1945. Volume IV. Indiana University Press, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. pp. 450–451. ISBN 978-0-253-06089-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-06089-1","url_text":"978-0-253-06089-1"}]},{"reference":"\"Židovské památky\" (in Czech). Tourist Information Centre Český Těšín. Retrieved 7 January 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ic-tesin.cz/zidovske-pamatky/d-1029","url_text":"\"Židovské památky\""}]},{"reference":"Spyra, Janusz (1999). \"Zarys dziejów ludności żydowskiej w Cieszynie i okolicach, Żydowskie zabytki Cieszyna i Czeskiego Cieszyna\".","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janusz_Spyra","url_text":"Spyra, Janusz"},{"url":"https://www.visitcieszyn.com/cs/id","url_text":"\"Zarys dziejów ludności żydowskiej w Cieszynie i okolicach, Żydowskie zabytki Cieszyna i Czeskiego Cieszyna\""}]},{"reference":"\"Population Census 2021: Population by selected ethnicity and municipalities of selected district\". Public database. Czech Statistical Office. 27 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://vdb.czso.cz/vdbvo2/faces/en/index.jsf?page=vystup-objekt&pvo=SLD210082-OB-OK&z=T&f=TABULKA&skupId=4293&katalog=33522&pvo=SLD210082-OB-OK&pvokc=101&pvoch=40886&evo=v202_!_SLD21F1008-H2_1","url_text":"\"Population Census 2021: Population by selected ethnicity and municipalities of selected district\""}]},{"reference":"\"Těšín: přátelsky rozdělené město\" (in Czech). Czech Radio. 22 December 2020. Retrieved 7 January 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://cesky.radio.cz/tesin-pratelsky-rozdelene-mesto-8703371","url_text":"\"Těšín: přátelsky rozdělené město\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_Radio","url_text":"Czech Radio"}]},{"reference":"\"Historický lexikon obcí České republiky 1869–2011 – Okres Karviná\" (in Czech). Czech Statistical Office. 21 December 2015. pp. 1–2.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.czso.cz/documents/10180/20537734/130084150803.pdf/cfac30ee-6133-4f79-a034-fb0a8335af5e?version=1.2","url_text":"\"Historický lexikon obcí České republiky 1869–2011 – Okres Karviná\""}]},{"reference":"\"Population Census 2021: Population by sex\". Public Database. Czech Statistical Office. 27 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://vdb.czso.cz/vdbvo2/faces/en/index.jsf?page=vystup-objekt-parametry&z=T&f=TABULKA&sp=A&skupId=4429&katalog=33515&pvo=SLD21001-OB-OK","url_text":"\"Population Census 2021: Population by sex\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_Statistical_Office","url_text":"Czech Statistical Office"}]},{"reference":"\"Population Census 2021: Population by religious belief\". Public database. Czech Statistical Office. 27 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://vdb.czso.cz/vdbvo2/faces/en/index.jsf?page=vystup-objekt-parametry&z=T&f=TABULKA&sp=A&skupId=4294&katalog=33525&pvo=SLD210092-OB-OK","url_text":"\"Population Census 2021: Population by religious belief\""}]},{"reference":"\"About us\". KOVONA SYSTEM, a.s. Retrieved 29 December 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://kovona.cz/en/o-spolecnosti/","url_text":"\"About us\""}]},{"reference":"\"Home\". FINIDR, s.r.o. Retrieved 29 December 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.finidr.com/","url_text":"\"Home\""}]},{"reference":"Zahradnik, Stanisław; Ryczkowski, Marek (1992). Korzenie Zaolzia. Warsaw, Prague, Třinec: PAI-press. p. 147. OCLC 177389723.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Zahradnik","url_text":"Zahradnik, Stanisław"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/177389723","url_text":"177389723"}]},{"reference":"\"Polské národnostní školství v Moravskoslezském kraji\" (in Czech). Moravian-Silesian Region. Retrieved 3 May 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.msk.cz/temata/skolstvi/polske_skolstvi.html","url_text":"\"Polské národnostní školství v Moravskoslezském kraji\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moravian-Silesian_Region","url_text":"Moravian-Silesian Region"}]},{"reference":"\"Kostely\" (in Czech). Tourist Information Centre Český Těšín. Retrieved 7 January 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ic-tesin.cz/kostely%2Dkaple/ds-1022/p1=1482","url_text":"\"Kostely\""}]},{"reference":"\"Památky\" (in Czech). Tourist Information Centre Český Těšín. Retrieved 7 January 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ic-tesin.cz/pamatky%2Dceskeho%2Dtesina/ds-1001/p1=1180","url_text":"\"Památky\""}]},{"reference":"\"Homepage: Partnerská města\" (in Czech). Město Český Těšín. Retrieved 7 January 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tesin.cz/","url_text":"\"Homepage: Partnerská města\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicken_Soup_for_the_Soul_Entertainment
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Chicken Soup for the Soul
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["1 History","1.1 Books","1.2 Expansion from books","1.3 Entertainment","1.4 Decline","2 Awards","3 See also","4 Notes","5 External links"]
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American self-help, consumer goods and media company
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Chicken Soup for the Soul Entertainment, Inc.Company typePublicTraded asNasdaq: CSSEIndustryPublishingLicensing InternetConsumer packaged goods EntertainmentFoundedJune 28, 1993; 30 years ago (1993-06-28)FoundersJack Canfield and Mark Victor HansenHeadquartersCos Cob, Connecticut, U.S.Area servedWorldwideKey peopleWilliam J. Rouhana, Jr.(chairman & CEO)Amy Newmark(publisher)Subsidiaries
Halcyon Studios
Screen Media
Crackle
1091 Pictures
Redbox
Popcornflix
Websitecssentertainment.com
Chicken Soup for the Soul Entertainment, Inc. is an American self-help, consumer goods and media company based in Cos Cob, Connecticut. It is known for the Chicken Soup for the Soul book series. The first book, like most subsequent titles in the series, consisted of inspirational true stories about ordinary people's lives. The books are widely varied, each with a different theme. Today, Chicken Soup for the Soul Publishing, LLC continues to publish about twelve new books per year.
The company has branched out into other categories such as food, pet food, and television programming.
History
Books
Motivational speakers Jack Canfield and Mark Victor Hansen collaborated on the first Chicken Soup for the Soul book, compiling inspirational, true stories they had heard from their audience members. Many of the stories came from members of the audience of their inspirational talks. The book was rejected by major publishers in New York but accepted by a small, self-help publisher in Florida called HCI.
After the success of the first book, Canfield and Hansen, with HCI, published additional, similar Chicken Soup for the Soul titles. Later, they published Chicken Soup for the Soul books for specific demographics, such as Chicken Soup for the Teenage Soul, which came out in 1997 and was a major best-seller. New Chicken Soup for the Soul titles and sequels to existing books have been published on a regular basis since the first book came out in 1993. In 2009, author Adeline Lee Zhia Ern was found to have plagiarized the story "Happiness" by Sarah Provençal from Jack Canfield's Chicken Soup for the Teenage Soul IV.
A 19-episode anthology series made up of stories from the series was produced and aired in the 1999–2000 television season by PAX TV, the current-day Ion Television.
Expansion from books
In 2008, the founders, Jack Canfield and Mark Victor Hansen, sold the company to a new ownership group led by William J. Rouhana and Robert D. Jacobs. Since then all new titles have been published by Chicken Soup for the Soul Publishing, LLC and distributed by Simon & Schuster.
Under the new ownership group, Chicken Soup for the Soul has expanded into other products besides books. The company markets pet foods under the brand Chicken Soup for the Pet Lover's Soul and a line of soups, sauces and other prepared foods under the brand Chicken Soup for the Soul.
Entertainment
In 2013, the company announced plans to produce a television series and a film with Alcon Entertainment. Chicken Soup for the Soul has produced television programming with other partners, including PBS. In 2016, Chicken Soup for the Soul acquired a majority stake in the website A Plus.
Chicken Soup for the Soul Entertainment went public in 2017. Chicken Soup for the Soul Entertainment now owns Screen Media Ventures, LLC, an independent television and film distribution company, and Popcornflix, an ad-based online video service.
On March 28, 2019, it was announced that Sony Pictures Television would sell a majority stake of Sony Crackle to Chicken Soup for the Soul Entertainment, after which the service would revert to the "Crackle" name.
On November 5, 2019, it was announced that the Chicken Soup for the Soul Entertainment division would purchase foreign sales company Foresight Unlimited for the new Screen Media division.
On December 15, 2020, Sony traded its remaining shares in Crackle for a yet to be disclosed preferential stake to Chicken Soup for the Soul Entertainment effectively giving them control of the ad-supported streaming service. As of 2020, the series included more than 250 titles.
In April 2021, Chicken Soup for the Soul acquired the film and television catalogue of Sonar Entertainment. In return, Sonar will hold a 5 percent stake in a new AVOD network featuring its library. Through the acquisition, Chicken Soup now currently owns the North American rights to a majority of the Laurel & Hardy films and shorts, and most of the Our Gang library, as well as the holdings of the former RHI/Hallmark/Cabin Fever/Sonar outputs, and a majority of the Hal Roach library, all via their Halcyon Studios division.
On March 2, 2022, Chicken Soup for the Soul announced its acquisition of specialty film distributor, 1091 Pictures, for $15.55 million, in a mix of cash ($8 million) and stock (newly issued Series A preferred stock and Class A common stock). The deal included an estimated 4,000 movies and TV series from the 1091 catalog, as well as its portfolio of free, ad-supported networks and channels.
On May 11, 2022, Chicken Soup for the Soul announced its intention to acquire Redbox for $357 million ($36 million in stock and $321 million in assumed debt). The acquisition closed on August 11, 2022.
Decline
On April 1, 2024, Chicken Soup for the Soul received a delisting notice from Nasdaq, informing that the company's stock would be delisted from the Nasdaq after it had 180 days to return to compliance.
On April 23, 2024, Chicken Soup for the Soul announced a $636.6 million loss in 2023, and warned that without any options to generate additional financing, the company may be forced to liquidate or pause operations, and seek a potential Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection filing.
Awards
The original series held a spot on the New York Times Best Seller list continuously from 1994 to 1998.
Chicken Soup for the Soul: What I Learned From the Dog was named "Best Anthology" of 2010 by the Dog Writers Association of America.
See also
List of Chicken Soup for the Soul books
Notes
^ a b "What is Chicken Soup for the Soul?". chickensoup.com. February 6, 2014. Archived from the original on February 27, 2014. Retrieved February 23, 2015.
^ Jack Canfield biography Archived July 8, 2011, at the Wayback Machine at official website
^ Mark Victor Hansen biography Archived July 8, 2011, at the Wayback Machine at official website
^ Contact page Archived 2014-02-24 at the Wayback Machine at official website
^ William J. Rouhana, Jr. biography Archived 2013-10-29 at the Wayback Machine at official website
^ Amy Newmark biography Archived 2013-10-29 at the Wayback Machine at official website
^ "Amazon.com: chicken soup for the soul - Chicken Soup for the Soul / Paperback: Books". amazon.com. Archived from the original on March 24, 2020. Retrieved February 23, 2015.
^ Webley, Kayla (September 10, 2012). "Pop Chart". Time. Archived from the original on November 27, 2018. Retrieved February 23, 2015.
^ "Chicken Soup for the Soul". chickensoupforthepetloverssoul.com. Archived from the original on May 6, 2007. Retrieved February 23, 2015.
^ Alcon Entertainment (August 8, 2013). "Alcon Entertainment Prescribing 'Chicken Soup for the Soul' -- Los Angeles, Aug. 8, 2013 /PRNewswire/ --". prnewswire.com (Press release). Archived from the original on June 25, 2018. Retrieved February 23, 2015.
^ "Video: Chicken Soup for the Soul". PBS Video. Archived from the original on February 24, 2015. Retrieved February 23, 2015.
^ Canfield, Jack; Hansen, Mark Victor; Newmark, Amy (June 25, 2013). Chicken Soup for the Soul 20th Anniversary Edition: All Your Favorite Original Stories Plus 20 Bonus Stories for the Next 20 Years: Jack Canfield, Mark Victor Hansen, Amy Newmark: 9781611599138: Amazon.com: Books. Chicken Soup for the Soul. ISBN 978-1611599138.
^ a b "Results for 'chicken soup for the soul' ". worldcat.org. Retrieved February 23, 2015.
^ Chicken Soup for the Teenage Soul. OCLC 733779771 – via worldcat.org.
^ "Independents/Chain Bestseller List". The New York Times. Archived from the original on August 28, 2017. Retrieved February 23, 2015.
^ "Adeline Lee's apology on Silverfish Books website". Archived from the original on January 8, 2010.
^ Serving Up A New Chicken Soup Archived 2012-09-18 at the Wayback Machine, Publishers Weekly, 2 February 2002.
^ "How Chicken Soup For the Soul Started Selling Actual Soup". NBC News. March 28, 2014. Retrieved February 17, 2023.
^ "Chicken Soup for the Soul: Food & Family - August 2014 on PBS". YouTube. July 3, 2014. Archived from the original on March 6, 2019. Retrieved February 23, 2015.
^ Sheetz, Michael (August 18, 2017). "Chicken Soup for the Soul stock debuts on Nasdaq after crowdsourced IPO". CNBC. Retrieved June 22, 2019.
^ Hayes, Dade (March 28, 2019). "Sony Crackle Gets Reboot Via Chicken Soup For The Soul Joint Venture; Eric Berger To Depart After Deal Close". Deadline. Retrieved November 12, 2020.
^ "Sony Sells Crackle Majority Stake to Chicken Soup for the Soul | Hollywood Reporter". The Hollywood Reporter. March 28, 2019. Retrieved November 12, 2020.
^ Grater, Tom (November 5, 2019). "Chicken Soup For The Soul Entertainment Acquires Mark Damon's Production & Sales Outfit Foresight Unlimited". Deadline. Retrieved December 4, 2021.
^ "Sony Trades Crackle Equity For Stock; Full Control Of Streamer Goes To Chicken Soup For The Soul Entertainment". Deadline. December 15, 2020. Archived from the original on March 21, 2021. Retrieved December 15, 2020.
^ "Facts & Figures". chickensoup.com. September 16, 2013. Archived from the original on December 14, 2013. Retrieved February 23, 2015.
^ "Chicken Soup acquires Sonar's assets".
^ Hayes, Dade (March 2, 2022). "Screen Media Parent Chicken Soup For The Soul Entertainment Acquires 1091 Pictures In $15.6M Indie Combo". Deadline. Retrieved May 22, 2022.
^ Hayes, Dade (May 11, 2022). "Redbox To Be Acquired By Crackle Parent Chicken Soup For The Soul Entertainment In All-Stock Deal Focused On Value End Of Streaming Market". Deadline Hollywood.
^ Spangler, Todd (August 11, 2022). "Redbox Is Now Officially Part of Chicken Soup for the Soul Entertainment After $370 Million Deal Closes". Variety. Retrieved August 12, 2022.
^ "Chicken Soup For the Soul Receives Delisting Notification From Nasdaq". NextTV. April 1, 2024. Retrieved April 23, 2024.
^ "Chicken Soup Reports $637 Million Loss for 2023, Preps Investors for Bankruptcy". NextTV. April 23, 2024. Retrieved April 23, 2024.
^ a b "Chicken Soup for the Soul Awards, Announcements, and Recognition". Chicken Soup for the Soul. Archived from the original on March 12, 2018. Retrieved March 11, 2018.
External links
Official website
Business data for Chicken Soup for the Soul Entertainment, Inc.: BloombergGoogleReutersSEC filingsYahoo!
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"self-help","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-help"},{"link_name":"Cos Cob, Connecticut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cos_Cob,_Connecticut"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"Chicken Soup for the Soul Entertainment, Inc. is an American self-help, consumer goods and media company based in Cos Cob, Connecticut. It is known for the Chicken Soup for the Soul book series. The first book, like most subsequent titles in the series, consisted of inspirational true stories about ordinary people's lives. The books are widely varied, each with a different theme. Today, Chicken Soup for the Soul Publishing, LLC continues to publish about twelve[7] new books per year.The company has branched out into other categories such as food,[8] pet food,[9] and television programming.[10][11]","title":"Chicken Soup for the Soul"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Motivational speakers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivational_speaker"},{"link_name":"Jack Canfield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Canfield"},{"link_name":"Mark Victor Hansen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Victor_Hansen"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-worldcat.org-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-worldcat.org-13"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"anthology series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthology_series"},{"link_name":"Ion Television","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion_Television"}],"sub_title":"Books","text":"Motivational speakers Jack Canfield and Mark Victor Hansen collaborated on the first Chicken Soup for the Soul book, compiling inspirational, true stories they had heard from their audience members. Many of the stories came from members of the audience of their inspirational talks. The book was rejected by major publishers in New York but accepted by a small, self-help publisher in Florida called HCI.[12]After the success of the first book, Canfield and Hansen, with HCI, published additional, similar Chicken Soup for the Soul titles.[13] Later, they published Chicken Soup for the Soul books for specific demographics, such as Chicken Soup for the Teenage Soul, which came out in 1997[14] and was a major best-seller.[15] New Chicken Soup for the Soul titles and sequels to existing books have been published on a regular basis since the first book came out in 1993.[13] In 2009, author Adeline Lee Zhia Ern was found to have plagiarized the story \"Happiness\" by Sarah Provençal from Jack Canfield's Chicken Soup for the Teenage Soul IV.[16]A 19-episode anthology series made up of stories from the series was produced and aired in the 1999–2000 television season by PAX TV, the current-day Ion Television.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Simon & Schuster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chickensoup.com-1"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"sub_title":"Expansion from books","text":"In 2008, the founders, Jack Canfield and Mark Victor Hansen, sold the company to a new ownership group led by William J. Rouhana and Robert D. Jacobs.[17] Since then all new titles have been published by Chicken Soup for the Soul Publishing, LLC and distributed by Simon & Schuster.[1]Under the new ownership group, Chicken Soup for the Soul has expanded into other products besides books. The company markets pet foods under the brand Chicken Soup for the Pet Lover's Soul and a line of soups, sauces and other prepared foods under the brand Chicken Soup for the Soul.[18]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Alcon Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcon_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"PBS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PBS"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"A Plus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Plus_(aplus.com)"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Screen Media Ventures, LLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screen_Media"},{"link_name":"Popcornflix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popcornflix"},{"link_name":"Sony Pictures Television","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony_Pictures_Television"},{"link_name":"Sony Crackle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crackle_(service)"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Sonar Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonar_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Laurel & Hardy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurel_%26_Hardy"},{"link_name":"Our Gang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Our_Gang"},{"link_name":"Hal Roach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hal_Roach"},{"link_name":"Halcyon Studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halcyon_Studios"},{"link_name":"1091 Pictures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1091_Pictures"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Redbox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redbox"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"}],"sub_title":"Entertainment","text":"In 2013, the company announced plans to produce a television series and a film with Alcon Entertainment. Chicken Soup for the Soul has produced television programming with other partners, including PBS.[19] In 2016, Chicken Soup for the Soul acquired a majority stake in the website A Plus.Chicken Soup for the Soul Entertainment went public in 2017.[20] Chicken Soup for the Soul Entertainment now owns Screen Media Ventures, LLC, an independent television and film distribution company, and Popcornflix, an ad-based online video service.On March 28, 2019, it was announced that Sony Pictures Television would sell a majority stake of Sony Crackle to Chicken Soup for the Soul Entertainment, after which the service would revert to the \"Crackle\" name.[21][22]On November 5, 2019, it was announced that the Chicken Soup for the Soul Entertainment division would purchase foreign sales company Foresight Unlimited for the new Screen Media division.[23]On December 15, 2020, Sony traded its remaining shares in Crackle for a yet to be disclosed preferential stake to Chicken Soup for the Soul Entertainment effectively giving them control of the ad-supported streaming service.[24] As of 2020, the series included more than 250 titles.[25]In April 2021, Chicken Soup for the Soul acquired the film and television catalogue of Sonar Entertainment. In return, Sonar will hold a 5 percent stake in a new AVOD network featuring its library.[26] Through the acquisition, Chicken Soup now currently owns the North American rights to a majority of the Laurel & Hardy films and shorts, and most of the Our Gang library, as well as the holdings of the former RHI/Hallmark/Cabin Fever/Sonar outputs, and a majority of the Hal Roach library, all via their Halcyon Studios division.On March 2, 2022, Chicken Soup for the Soul announced its acquisition of specialty film distributor, 1091 Pictures, for $15.55 million, in a mix of cash ($8 million) and stock (newly issued Series A preferred stock and Class A common stock). The deal included an estimated 4,000 movies and TV series from the 1091 catalog, as well as its portfolio of free, ad-supported networks and channels.[27]On May 11, 2022, Chicken Soup for the Soul announced its intention to acquire Redbox for $357 million ($36 million in stock and $321 million in assumed debt).[28] The acquisition closed on August 11, 2022.[29]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Chapter 11 bankruptcy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chapter_11_bankruptcy"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"}],"sub_title":"Decline","text":"On April 1, 2024, Chicken Soup for the Soul received a delisting notice from Nasdaq, informing that the company's stock would be delisted from the Nasdaq after it had 180 days to return to compliance.[30]On April 23, 2024, Chicken Soup for the Soul announced a $636.6 million loss in 2023, and warned that without any options to generate additional financing, the company may be forced to liquidate or pause operations, and seek a potential Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection filing.[31]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"New York Times Best Seller list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times_Best_Seller_list"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-original.chickensoup.com-32"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-original.chickensoup.com-32"}],"text":"The original series held a spot on the New York Times Best Seller list continuously from 1994 to 1998.[32]Chicken Soup for the Soul: What I Learned From the Dog was named \"Best Anthology\" of 2010 by the Dog Writers Association of America.[32]","title":"Awards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-chickensoup.com_1-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-chickensoup.com_1-1"},{"link_name":"\"What is Chicken Soup for the Soul?\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.chickensoup.com/cs.asp?cid=about"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20140227005752/http://www.chickensoup.com/cs.asp?cid=about"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"Jack Canfield biography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.chickensoup.com/newsroom.asp?cid=new.bio.jc"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20110708144206/http://www.chickensoup.com/newsroom.asp?cid=new.bio.jc"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"Mark Victor Hansen biography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.chickensoup.com/newsroom.asp?cid=new.bio.mvh"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20110708144209/http://www.chickensoup.com/newsroom.asp?cid=new.bio.mvh"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"Contact page","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.chickensoup.com/cs.asp?cid=contact"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20140224004317/http://www.chickensoup.com/cs.asp?cid=contact"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"William J. 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Close\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//deadline.com/2019/03/sony-crackle-gets-reboot-via-chicken-soup-for-the-soul-joint-venture-eric-berger-to-depart-after-deal-close-1202584671/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-22"},{"link_name":"\"Sony Sells Crackle Majority Stake to Chicken Soup for the Soul | Hollywood Reporter\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/sony-sells-crackle-majority-stake-chicken-soup-soul-1197934"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-23"},{"link_name":"\"Chicken Soup For The Soul Entertainment Acquires Mark Damon's Production & Sales Outfit Foresight Unlimited\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//deadline.com/2019/11/chicken-soup-for-the-soul-entertainment-acquires-mark-damons-production-sales-outfit-foresight-unlimited-1202776972/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-24"},{"link_name":"\"Sony Trades Crackle Equity For Stock; Full Control Of Streamer 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assets\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//kidscreen.com/2021/04/09/chicken-soup-acquires-sonars-assets/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-27"},{"link_name":"\"Screen Media Parent Chicken Soup For The Soul Entertainment Acquires 1091 Pictures In $15.6M Indie Combo\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//deadline.com/2022/03/screen-media-parent-chicken-soup-for-the-soul-entertainment-acquires-1091-pictures-in-15-6m-indie-combo-1234968836/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-28"},{"link_name":"\"Redbox To Be Acquired By Crackle Parent Chicken Soup For The Soul Entertainment In All-Stock Deal Focused On Value End Of Streaming Market\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//deadline.com/2022/05/redbox-is-acquired-by-crackle-parent-chicken-soup-for-the-soul-entertainment-streaming-1235021010/"},{"link_name":"Deadline Hollywood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deadline_Hollywood"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-29"},{"link_name":"\"Redbox Is Now Officially Part of Chicken Soup for the Soul Entertainment After $370 Million Deal Closes\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//variety.com/2022/digital/news/redbox-deal-close-chicken-soup-for-the-soul-entertainment-1235338943/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-30"},{"link_name":"\"Chicken Soup For the Soul Receives Delisting Notification From Nasdaq\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.nexttv.com/news/chicken-soup-for-the-soul-delisted-by-the-nasdaq"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-31"},{"link_name":"\"Chicken Soup Reports $637 Million Loss for 2023, Preps Investors for Bankruptcy\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.nexttv.com/news/chicken-soup-reports-dollar637-million-loss-for-2023-preps-investors-for-bankruptcy"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-original.chickensoup.com_32-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-original.chickensoup.com_32-1"},{"link_name":"\"Chicken Soup for the Soul Awards, Announcements, and Recognition\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20180312143956/http://original.chickensoup.com/cs.asp?cid=awards"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//original.chickensoup.com/cs.asp?cid=awards"}],"text":"^ a b \"What is Chicken Soup for the Soul?\". chickensoup.com. February 6, 2014. Archived from the original on February 27, 2014. Retrieved February 23, 2015.\n\n^ Jack Canfield biography Archived July 8, 2011, at the Wayback Machine at official website\n\n^ Mark Victor Hansen biography Archived July 8, 2011, at the Wayback Machine at official website\n\n^ Contact page Archived 2014-02-24 at the Wayback Machine at official website\n\n^ William J. Rouhana, Jr. biography Archived 2013-10-29 at the Wayback Machine at official website\n\n^ Amy Newmark biography Archived 2013-10-29 at the Wayback Machine at official website\n\n^ \"Amazon.com: chicken soup for the soul - Chicken Soup for the Soul / Paperback: Books\". amazon.com. Archived from the original on March 24, 2020. Retrieved February 23, 2015.\n\n^ Webley, Kayla (September 10, 2012). \"Pop Chart\". Time. Archived from the original on November 27, 2018. Retrieved February 23, 2015.\n\n^ \"Chicken Soup for the Soul\". chickensoupforthepetloverssoul.com. Archived from the original on May 6, 2007. Retrieved February 23, 2015.\n\n^ Alcon Entertainment (August 8, 2013). \"Alcon Entertainment Prescribing 'Chicken Soup for the Soul' -- Los Angeles, Aug. 8, 2013 /PRNewswire/ --\". prnewswire.com (Press release). Archived from the original on June 25, 2018. Retrieved February 23, 2015.\n\n^ \"Video: Chicken Soup for the Soul\". PBS Video. Archived from the original on February 24, 2015. Retrieved February 23, 2015.\n\n^ Canfield, Jack; Hansen, Mark Victor; Newmark, Amy (June 25, 2013). Chicken Soup for the Soul 20th Anniversary Edition: All Your Favorite Original Stories Plus 20 Bonus Stories for the Next 20 Years: Jack Canfield, Mark Victor Hansen, Amy Newmark: 9781611599138: Amazon.com: Books. Chicken Soup for the Soul. ISBN 978-1611599138.\n\n^ a b \"Results for 'chicken soup for the soul' [WorldCat.org]\". worldcat.org. Retrieved February 23, 2015.\n\n^ Chicken Soup for the Teenage Soul. OCLC 733779771 – via worldcat.org.\n\n^ \"Independents/Chain Bestseller List\". The New York Times. Archived from the original on August 28, 2017. Retrieved February 23, 2015.\n\n^ \"Adeline Lee's apology on Silverfish Books website\". Archived from the original on January 8, 2010.\n\n^ Serving Up A New Chicken Soup Archived 2012-09-18 at the Wayback Machine, Publishers Weekly, 2 February 2002.\n\n^ \"How Chicken Soup For the Soul Started Selling Actual Soup\". NBC News. March 28, 2014. Retrieved February 17, 2023.\n\n^ \"Chicken Soup for the Soul: Food & Family - August 2014 on PBS\". YouTube. July 3, 2014. Archived from the original on March 6, 2019. Retrieved February 23, 2015.\n\n^ Sheetz, Michael (August 18, 2017). \"Chicken Soup for the Soul stock debuts on Nasdaq after crowdsourced IPO\". CNBC. Retrieved June 22, 2019.\n\n^ Hayes, Dade (March 28, 2019). \"Sony Crackle Gets Reboot Via Chicken Soup For The Soul Joint Venture; Eric Berger To Depart After Deal Close\". Deadline. Retrieved November 12, 2020.\n\n^ \"Sony Sells Crackle Majority Stake to Chicken Soup for the Soul | Hollywood Reporter\". The Hollywood Reporter. March 28, 2019. Retrieved November 12, 2020.\n\n^ Grater, Tom (November 5, 2019). \"Chicken Soup For The Soul Entertainment Acquires Mark Damon's Production & Sales Outfit Foresight Unlimited\". Deadline. Retrieved December 4, 2021.\n\n^ \"Sony Trades Crackle Equity For Stock; Full Control Of Streamer Goes To Chicken Soup For The Soul Entertainment\". Deadline. December 15, 2020. Archived from the original on March 21, 2021. Retrieved December 15, 2020.\n\n^ \"Facts & Figures\". chickensoup.com. September 16, 2013. Archived from the original on December 14, 2013. Retrieved February 23, 2015.\n\n^ \"Chicken Soup acquires Sonar's assets\".\n\n^ Hayes, Dade (March 2, 2022). \"Screen Media Parent Chicken Soup For The Soul Entertainment Acquires 1091 Pictures In $15.6M Indie Combo\". Deadline. Retrieved May 22, 2022.\n\n^ Hayes, Dade (May 11, 2022). \"Redbox To Be Acquired By Crackle Parent Chicken Soup For The Soul Entertainment In All-Stock Deal Focused On Value End Of Streaming Market\". Deadline Hollywood.\n\n^ Spangler, Todd (August 11, 2022). \"Redbox Is Now Officially Part of Chicken Soup for the Soul Entertainment After $370 Million Deal Closes\". Variety. Retrieved August 12, 2022.\n\n^ \"Chicken Soup For the Soul Receives Delisting Notification From Nasdaq\". NextTV. April 1, 2024. Retrieved April 23, 2024.\n\n^ \"Chicken Soup Reports $637 Million Loss for 2023, Preps Investors for Bankruptcy\". NextTV. April 23, 2024. Retrieved April 23, 2024.\n\n^ a b \"Chicken Soup for the Soul Awards, Announcements, and Recognition\". Chicken Soup for the Soul. Archived from the original on March 12, 2018. Retrieved March 11, 2018.","title":"Notes"}]
|
[]
|
[{"title":"List of Chicken Soup for the Soul books","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Chicken_Soup_for_the_Soul_books"}]
|
[{"reference":"\"What is Chicken Soup for the Soul?\". chickensoup.com. February 6, 2014. Archived from the original on February 27, 2014. Retrieved February 23, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.chickensoup.com/cs.asp?cid=about","url_text":"\"What is Chicken Soup for the Soul?\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140227005752/http://www.chickensoup.com/cs.asp?cid=about","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Amazon.com: chicken soup for the soul - Chicken Soup for the Soul / Paperback: Books\". amazon.com. Archived from the original on March 24, 2020. Retrieved February 23, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.amazon.com/s/ref=sr_pg_1?rh=n%3A283155%2Ck%3Achicken+soup+for+the+soul%2Cp_n_feature_browse-bin%3A2656022011%2Cp_lbr_books_series_browse-bin%3AChicken+Soup+for+the+Soul&sort=date-desc-rank&keywords=chicken+soup+for+the+soul&ie=UTF8&qid=1410307428","url_text":"\"Amazon.com: chicken soup for the soul - Chicken Soup for the Soul / Paperback: Books\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200324151719/https://www.amazon.com/s/ref=sr_pg_1?rh=n%3A283155%2Ck%3Achicken+soup+for+the+soul%2Cp_n_feature_browse-bin%3A2656022011%2Cp_lbr_books_series_browse-bin%3AChicken+Soup+for+the+Soul&sort=date-desc-rank&keywords=chicken+soup+for+the+soul&ie=UTF8&qid=1410307428","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Webley, Kayla (September 10, 2012). \"Pop Chart\". Time. Archived from the original on November 27, 2018. Retrieved February 23, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,2123304,00.html","url_text":"\"Pop Chart\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_(magazine)","url_text":"Time"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20181127174548/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,2123304,00.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Chicken Soup for the Soul\". chickensoupforthepetloverssoul.com. Archived from the original on May 6, 2007. Retrieved February 23, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.chickensoupforthepetloverssoul.com/","url_text":"\"Chicken Soup for the Soul\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070506092831/http://www.chickensoupforthepetloverssoul.com/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Alcon Entertainment (August 8, 2013). \"Alcon Entertainment Prescribing 'Chicken Soup for the Soul' -- Los Angeles, Aug. 8, 2013 /PRNewswire/ --\". prnewswire.com (Press release). Archived from the original on June 25, 2018. Retrieved February 23, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/alcon-entertainment-prescribing-chicken-soup-for-the-soul-218920141.html","url_text":"\"Alcon Entertainment Prescribing 'Chicken Soup for the Soul' -- Los Angeles, Aug. 8, 2013 /PRNewswire/ --\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180625053341/https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/alcon-entertainment-prescribing-chicken-soup-for-the-soul-218920141.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Video: Chicken Soup for the Soul\". PBS Video. Archived from the original on February 24, 2015. Retrieved February 23, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150224000939/http://video.pbs.org/video/2365301258/","url_text":"\"Video: Chicken Soup for the Soul\""},{"url":"http://video.pbs.org/video/2365301258/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Canfield, Jack; Hansen, Mark Victor; Newmark, Amy (June 25, 2013). Chicken Soup for the Soul 20th Anniversary Edition: All Your Favorite Original Stories Plus 20 Bonus Stories for the Next 20 Years: Jack Canfield, Mark Victor Hansen, Amy Newmark: 9781611599138: Amazon.com: Books. Chicken Soup for the Soul. ISBN 978-1611599138.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1611599138","url_text":"978-1611599138"}]},{"reference":"\"Results for 'chicken soup for the soul' [WorldCat.org]\". worldcat.org. Retrieved February 23, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.worldcat.org/search?qt=worldcat_org_all&q=chicken+soup+for+the+soul","url_text":"\"Results for 'chicken soup for the soul' [WorldCat.org]\""}]},{"reference":"Chicken Soup for the Teenage Soul. OCLC 733779771 – via worldcat.org.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/733779771","url_text":"733779771"}]},{"reference":"\"Independents/Chain Bestseller List\". The New York Times. Archived from the original on August 28, 2017. Retrieved February 23, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/books/99/08/22/bsp/paperadvicecompare.html","url_text":"\"Independents/Chain Bestseller List\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170828033212/http://www.nytimes.com/books/99/08/22/bsp/paperadvicecompare.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Adeline Lee's apology on Silverfish Books website\". Archived from the original on January 8, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100108110616/http://www.silverfishbooks.com/adeline_apology.html","url_text":"\"Adeline Lee's apology on Silverfish Books website\""},{"url":"http://www.silverfishbooks.com/adeline_apology.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"How Chicken Soup For the Soul Started Selling Actual Soup\". NBC News. March 28, 2014. Retrieved February 17, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna54805085","url_text":"\"How Chicken Soup For the Soul Started Selling Actual Soup\""}]},{"reference":"\"Chicken Soup for the Soul: Food & Family - August 2014 on PBS\". YouTube. July 3, 2014. Archived from the original on March 6, 2019. Retrieved February 23, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=egaOwgEH6OE","url_text":"\"Chicken Soup for the Soul: Food & Family - August 2014 on PBS\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190306045659/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=egaOwgEH6OE","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Sheetz, Michael (August 18, 2017). \"Chicken Soup for the Soul stock debuts on Nasdaq after crowdsourced IPO\". CNBC. Retrieved June 22, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cnbc.com/2017/08/18/chicken-soup-for-the-soul-entertainment-begins-trading-on-nasdaq.html","url_text":"\"Chicken Soup for the Soul stock debuts on Nasdaq after crowdsourced IPO\""}]},{"reference":"Hayes, Dade (March 28, 2019). \"Sony Crackle Gets Reboot Via Chicken Soup For The Soul Joint Venture; Eric Berger To Depart After Deal Close\". Deadline. Retrieved November 12, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://deadline.com/2019/03/sony-crackle-gets-reboot-via-chicken-soup-for-the-soul-joint-venture-eric-berger-to-depart-after-deal-close-1202584671/","url_text":"\"Sony Crackle Gets Reboot Via Chicken Soup For The Soul Joint Venture; Eric Berger To Depart After Deal Close\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sony Sells Crackle Majority Stake to Chicken Soup for the Soul | Hollywood Reporter\". The Hollywood Reporter. March 28, 2019. Retrieved November 12, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/sony-sells-crackle-majority-stake-chicken-soup-soul-1197934","url_text":"\"Sony Sells Crackle Majority Stake to Chicken Soup for the Soul | Hollywood Reporter\""}]},{"reference":"Grater, Tom (November 5, 2019). \"Chicken Soup For The Soul Entertainment Acquires Mark Damon's Production & Sales Outfit Foresight Unlimited\". Deadline. Retrieved December 4, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://deadline.com/2019/11/chicken-soup-for-the-soul-entertainment-acquires-mark-damons-production-sales-outfit-foresight-unlimited-1202776972/","url_text":"\"Chicken Soup For The Soul Entertainment Acquires Mark Damon's Production & Sales Outfit Foresight Unlimited\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sony Trades Crackle Equity For Stock; Full Control Of Streamer Goes To Chicken Soup For The Soul Entertainment\". Deadline. December 15, 2020. Archived from the original on March 21, 2021. Retrieved December 15, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://deadline.com/2020/12/sony-exits-crackle-streaming-full-control-chicken-soup-for-the-soul-entertainment-1234656734/amp/?__twitter_impression=true","url_text":"\"Sony Trades Crackle Equity For Stock; Full Control Of Streamer Goes To Chicken Soup For The Soul Entertainment\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210321212818/https://deadline.com/2020/12/sony-exits-crackle-streaming-full-control-chicken-soup-for-the-soul-entertainment-1234656734/amp/?__twitter_impression=true","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Facts & Figures\". chickensoup.com. September 16, 2013. Archived from the original on December 14, 2013. Retrieved February 23, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.chickensoup.com/newsroom.asp?cid=about.facts","url_text":"\"Facts & Figures\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131214213849/http://www.chickensoup.com/newsroom.asp?cid=about.facts","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Chicken Soup acquires Sonar's assets\".","urls":[{"url":"https://kidscreen.com/2021/04/09/chicken-soup-acquires-sonars-assets/","url_text":"\"Chicken Soup acquires Sonar's assets\""}]},{"reference":"Hayes, Dade (March 2, 2022). \"Screen Media Parent Chicken Soup For The Soul Entertainment Acquires 1091 Pictures In $15.6M Indie Combo\". Deadline. Retrieved May 22, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://deadline.com/2022/03/screen-media-parent-chicken-soup-for-the-soul-entertainment-acquires-1091-pictures-in-15-6m-indie-combo-1234968836/","url_text":"\"Screen Media Parent Chicken Soup For The Soul Entertainment Acquires 1091 Pictures In $15.6M Indie Combo\""}]},{"reference":"Hayes, Dade (May 11, 2022). \"Redbox To Be Acquired By Crackle Parent Chicken Soup For The Soul Entertainment In All-Stock Deal Focused On Value End Of Streaming Market\". Deadline Hollywood.","urls":[{"url":"https://deadline.com/2022/05/redbox-is-acquired-by-crackle-parent-chicken-soup-for-the-soul-entertainment-streaming-1235021010/","url_text":"\"Redbox To Be Acquired By Crackle Parent Chicken Soup For The Soul Entertainment In All-Stock Deal Focused On Value End Of Streaming Market\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deadline_Hollywood","url_text":"Deadline Hollywood"}]},{"reference":"Spangler, Todd (August 11, 2022). \"Redbox Is Now Officially Part of Chicken Soup for the Soul Entertainment After $370 Million Deal Closes\". Variety. Retrieved August 12, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://variety.com/2022/digital/news/redbox-deal-close-chicken-soup-for-the-soul-entertainment-1235338943/","url_text":"\"Redbox Is Now Officially Part of Chicken Soup for the Soul Entertainment After $370 Million Deal Closes\""}]},{"reference":"\"Chicken Soup For the Soul Receives Delisting Notification From Nasdaq\". NextTV. April 1, 2024. Retrieved April 23, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nexttv.com/news/chicken-soup-for-the-soul-delisted-by-the-nasdaq","url_text":"\"Chicken Soup For the Soul Receives Delisting Notification From Nasdaq\""}]},{"reference":"\"Chicken Soup Reports $637 Million Loss for 2023, Preps Investors for Bankruptcy\". NextTV. April 23, 2024. Retrieved April 23, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nexttv.com/news/chicken-soup-reports-dollar637-million-loss-for-2023-preps-investors-for-bankruptcy","url_text":"\"Chicken Soup Reports $637 Million Loss for 2023, Preps Investors for Bankruptcy\""}]},{"reference":"\"Chicken Soup for the Soul Awards, Announcements, and Recognition\". Chicken Soup for the Soul. Archived from the original on March 12, 2018. Retrieved March 11, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180312143956/http://original.chickensoup.com/cs.asp?cid=awards","url_text":"\"Chicken Soup for the Soul Awards, Announcements, and Recognition\""},{"url":"http://original.chickensoup.com/cs.asp?cid=awards","url_text":"the original"}]}]
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aero_Dynamics_Sparrow_Hawk
|
Aero Dynamics Sparrow Hawk
|
["1 Design and development","2 Operational history","3 Aircraft on display","4 Specifications","5 References"]
|
American homebuilt pusher aircraft
Aero Dynamics Sparrow Hawk
Sparrow Hawk (G-BOZU, not marked, arrived by road) at a fly-in at Wroughton Airfield in July 1992
Role
Kit aircraftType of aircraft
National origin
United States
Manufacturer
Aero Dynamics Limited
Designer
Charles "Chuck" Herbst
Introduction
1985
Number built
7
The Aero Dynamics Sparrow Hawk MK II is an American homebuilt, two seater, single-engine, pusher monoplane, manufactured by Aero Dynamics Limited. It was designed by former Boeing design engineer Charles "Chuck" Herbst.
Design and development
The Sparrow Hawk is a twin boom, twin fin, ultralight aircraft built with mixed construction materials most notably including Kevlar, carbon fiber and polyurethane foam. It uses a Rotax 532 two-stroke aircraft engine in pusher configuration. It employs a cantilever, shoulder wing, fixed landing gear and a two-seat enclosed cockpit.
In 2022, Sparrow Hawk Aviation Ltd announced that they had plans to redesign and improve the Sparrow Hawk, though no redesigns have been made to the aircraft design yet.
Operational history
The Sparrow Hawk had its official public debut in July 1985 at the EAA Annual Convention and Fly-In, as two Sparrow Hawks, registered as N5793F and N5832M, attended. The manufacturer and model of N5793F is recorded by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) as an "Ultralight Aircraft Ltd Sparrow Hawk Mk II", while N5832M is recorded as an "Aero Dynamics Ltd Sparrow Hawk MkII".
A Sparrow Hawk (registered N8728A) was displayed at the Air Display and Air Races event at Cranfield Aerodrome in the United Kingdom, on 20 September 1987. The same aircraft was exhibited at the SBAC-organized Farnborough Airshow in September 1988.
Aircraft on display
Oakland Aviation Museum - Sparrow Hawk N23SH.
Specifications
Data from AerofilesGeneral characteristics
Crew: one
Capacity: one passenger
Length: 17 ft 10 in (5.44 m)
Wingspan: 34 ft 5 in (10.49 m)
Powerplant: 1 × Rotax 532 four cylinder, liquid-cooled, two stroke aircraft engine, 64 hp (48 kW)
Performance
Maximum speed: 105–130 mph (169–209 km/h, 91–113 kn)
Cruise speed: 95–120 mph (153–193 km/h, 83–104 kn)
Stall speed: 36 mph (58 km/h, 31 kn)
References
^ "FAA Registry - Aircraft - Make / Model Inquiry". registry.faa.gov. Retrieved October 5, 2020.
^ a b c "American airplanes: Ab - Ak". www.aerofiles.com. Retrieved March 27, 2022.
^ ABPic Photo Library. "Search Results". abpic.co.uk. Retrieved March 28, 2022.
^ Gunston, Bill (2005). World Encyclopedia of Aircraft Manufacturers (2nd ed.). Phoenix Mill, Gloucestershire, ENG, UK: Sutton Publishing. p. 10. ISBN 0-7509-3981-8.
^ United Kingdom: Air League of the British Empire. 1985. pp. 429–430.
^ a b Chatfield, Chris (1986). "Oshkosh Concordiale". Air-Britain Digest. 38 (1): 12, 15.
^ "Aircraft N8707A Data". www.airport-data.com. Retrieved March 31, 2022.
^ "Homebuilts Under Development". homebuilt.org. Retrieved March 31, 2022.
^ "FAA Registry - Aircraft - N-number Enquiry (N5793F)". registry.faa.gov. Retrieved March 27, 2022.
^ "FAA Registry - Aircraft - N-number Enquiry (N5832M)". registry.faa.gov. Retrieved March 27, 2022.
^ "Display Reports". Air-Britain News: 492. November 1987.
^ "FAA Registry - Aircraft - N-number Enquiry (N8728A)". registry.faa.gov. Retrieved May 27, 2022.
^ "Show Reports Farnborough 1988". scramble.nl. Retrieved May 27, 2022.
^ "Aircraft Data N23SH". airport-data.com. Retrieved March 31, 2022.
^ "FAA Registry - Aircraft - N-number Enquiry (N23SH)". registry.faa.gov. Retrieved March 31, 2022.
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"homebuilt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homebuilt_aircraft"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"pusher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pusher_configuration"},{"link_name":"monoplane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoplane"},{"link_name":"Aero Dynamics Limited","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aero_Dynamics_Limited"},{"link_name":"Boeing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_Aircraft"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-aerofiles_aero_dynamics-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"The Aero Dynamics Sparrow Hawk MK II is an American homebuilt, two seater,[1] single-engine, pusher monoplane, manufactured by Aero Dynamics Limited. It was designed by former Boeing design engineer Charles \"Chuck\" Herbst.[2][3][4]","title":"Aero Dynamics Sparrow Hawk"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"twin boom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twin-boom_aircraft"},{"link_name":"twin fin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twin_fins"},{"link_name":"ultralight aircraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultralight_aviation"},{"link_name":"Kevlar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevlar"},{"link_name":"carbon fiber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-fiber-reinforced_polymers"},{"link_name":"polyurethane foam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyurethane_foam"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ABDigestJan86-6"},{"link_name":"Rotax 532","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotax_532"},{"link_name":"pusher configuration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pusher_configuration"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"shoulder wing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoulder_wing"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-aerofiles_aero_dynamics-2"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"The Sparrow Hawk is a twin boom, twin fin, ultralight aircraft built with mixed construction materials most notably including Kevlar, carbon fiber and polyurethane foam.[5][6] It uses a Rotax 532 two-stroke aircraft engine in pusher configuration.[7] It employs a cantilever, shoulder wing, fixed landing gear and a two-seat enclosed cockpit.[2]In 2022, Sparrow Hawk Aviation Ltd announced that they had plans to redesign and improve the Sparrow Hawk, though no redesigns have been made to the aircraft design yet.[8]","title":"Design and development"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"EAA Annual Convention and Fly-In","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EAA_Annual_Convention_and_Fly-In"},{"link_name":"registered","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_registration"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ABDigestJan86-6"},{"link_name":"Federal Aviation Administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Administration"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Cranfield Aerodrome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cranfield_Airport"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"SBAC-organized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_British_Aerospace_Companies"},{"link_name":"Farnborough Airshow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farnborough_Airshow"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"text":"The Sparrow Hawk had its official public debut in July 1985 at the EAA Annual Convention and Fly-In, as two Sparrow Hawks, registered as N5793F and N5832M, attended.[6] The manufacturer and model of N5793F is recorded by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) as an \"Ultralight Aircraft Ltd Sparrow Hawk Mk II\",[9] while N5832M is recorded as an \"Aero Dynamics Ltd Sparrow Hawk MkII\".[10]A Sparrow Hawk (registered N8728A) was displayed at the Air Display and Air Races event at Cranfield Aerodrome in the United Kingdom, on 20 September 1987.[11][12] The same aircraft was exhibited at the SBAC-organized Farnborough Airshow in September 1988.[13]","title":"Operational history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Oakland Aviation Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oakland_Aviation_Museum"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"Oakland Aviation Museum - Sparrow Hawk N23SH.[14][15]","title":"Aircraft on display"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-aerofiles_aero_dynamics-2"},{"link_name":"Rotax 532","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotax_532"},{"link_name":"two stroke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_stroke"},{"link_name":"aircraft engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_engine"}],"text":"Data from Aerofiles[2]General characteristicsCrew: one\nCapacity: one passenger\nLength: 17 ft 10 in (5.44 m)\nWingspan: 34 ft 5 in (10.49 m)\nPowerplant: 1 × Rotax 532 four cylinder, liquid-cooled, two stroke aircraft engine, 64 hp (48 kW)PerformanceMaximum speed: 105–130 mph (169–209 km/h, 91–113 kn)\nCruise speed: 95–120 mph (153–193 km/h, 83–104 kn)\nStall speed: 36 mph (58 km/h, 31 kn)","title":"Specifications"}]
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[]
| null |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Aspern-Essling
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Battle of Aspern-Essling
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["1 Background","2 Order of battle","3 Battle","3.1 First day","3.2 Second day","4 Aftermath","5 Accounts","6 Notes","7 References","8 Sources","9 External links"]
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Coordinates: 48°12′47″N 16°30′09″E / 48.21306°N 16.50250°E / 48.21306; 16.502501809 battle during the War of the Fifth Coalition
Battle of Aspern-EsslingPart of War of the Fifth CoalitionThe Archduke Charles at Aspernby Johann Peter Krafft.Date21–22 May 1809LocationLobau, Vienna48°12′47″N 16°30′09″E / 48.21306°N 16.50250°E / 48.21306; 16.50250Result
Austrian victoryBelligerents
Austria
FranceCommanders and leaders
Archduke Charles
Johann von Hiller
Heinrich von Bellegarde
Friedrich von Hohenzollern-Hechingen
Franz von Rosenberg
Johann I of Liechtenstein
Napoleon I
André Masséna
Jean Lannes †
Antoine Charles Louis de Lasalle
Jean-Baptiste Bessières
Jean-Louis-Brigitte Espagne
Louis-Vincent-Joseph Le Blond de Saint-Hilaire †
Gabriel Jean Joseph Molitor
Pierre Charles Pouzet †
Units involved
Hauptarmee
Army of GermanyStrength
98,260; 292 guns
80,130; 154 gunsCasualties and losses
22,285 to 22,900; 2 guns
19,980 to 24,001; 3 gunsclass=notpageimage| Location within Europe
vteWar of the Fifth Coalition
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Teugen-Hausen
Abensberg
Landshut
Eckmühl
Ratisbon
Neumarkt
Ebelsberg
Schwarze Lackenau
Linz-Urfahr
Aspern-Essling
Sankt Michael
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200km125miles
22
21
20
19
Wagram18
17
16
15
Aspern14
12
11
10
9
8
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5
4
3
2
1 current battle Napoleon in command Napoleon not in command
In the Battle of Aspern-Essling (21–22 May 1809), Napoleon crossed the Danube near Vienna, but the French and their allies were attacked and forced back across the river by the Austrians under Archduke Charles. It was the first time Napoleon had been personally defeated in a major battle, as well as his first battle defeat in 10 years since the Siege of Acre, and his first battle defeat as head of state.
Archduke Charles drove out the French but fell short of destroying their army. The Austrian artillery dominated the battlefield, firing 53,000 rounds compared to 24,300 French. The French lost over 20,000 men including one of Napoleon's ablest field commanders and closest friends, Marshal Jean Lannes.
Background
At the time of the battle Napoleon was in possession of Vienna, the bridges over the Danube had been broken, and the Archduke's army was near the Bisamberg, a hill near Korneuburg, on the left bank of the river. The French wanted to cross the Danube. A first crossing attempt on the Schwarze Lackenau on 13 May was repulsed with some 700 French losses. Lobau, one of the numerous islands that divided the river into minor channels, was selected as the next point of crossing. Careful preparations were made, and on the night of 19–20 May the French bridged all the channels on the right bank to Lobau and occupied the island. By the evening of the 20th many men had been collected there and the last arm of the Danube, between Lobau and the left bank, had been bridged. Masséna's corps at once crossed to the left bank and dislodged the Austrian outposts. Undeterred by the news of heavy attacks on his rear from Tyrol and from Bohemia, Napoleon ferried all available troops to the bridges, and by daybreak on the 21st, 25,000 men were collected on the Marchfeld, the broad plain of the left bank, which was also to be the scene of the Battle of Wagram.
The Archduke did not resist the passage. It was his intention, as soon as a large enough force had crossed, to attack it before the rest of the French army could come to its assistance. Napoleon had accepted the risk of such an attack, but he sought at the same time to minimize it by summoning every available battalion to the scene. His forces on the Marchfeld were drawn up in front of the bridges facing north, with their left in the village of Aspern (Gross-Aspern) and their right in Essling. Both places lay close to the Danube and could not therefore be turned; Aspern, indeed, is actually on the bank of one of the river channels. The French had to fill the gap between the villages, and also move forward to give room for the supporting units to form up.
The corps led by Johann von Hiller (VI), Heinrich Graf von Bellegarde (I) and Prince Friedrich of Hohenzollern-Hechingen (II) were to converge upon Aspern, while Prince Franz Seraph of Rosenberg-Orsini (IV) was to attack Essling. Prince Johann of Liechtenstein's Austrian reserve cavalry was in the center, ready to move out against any French cavalry attacking the heads of the columns. During the 21st the bridges became more and more unsafe, owing to the violence of the current, but the French crossed without intermission all day and during the night.
Order of battle
The Battle of Aspern-Essling, May 1809by Fernand Cormon
Kaiserlich-Königliche Hauptarmee, under the command of Charles of Austria:
1st Column (VI Corps), Hiller:
Vanguard: Nordmann
Div. Kottulinsky
Div. Vincent
2nd Column (I Corps), Bellegarde:
Div. Fresnel
Div. Vogelsang
Div. Ulm
Div. Notitz
3rd Column (II Corps), Hohenzollern-Hechingen:
Advance Guard
Div. Brady
Div. Weber
4th Column (IV Corps), Rosenberg/Dedovich:
Div. Klenau
Div. Dedovich
5th Column (a part of IV Corps), Rosenberg/Hohenlohe:
Vanguard: Rohan
Div. Hohenlohe
Reserve Corps, Liechtenstein:
Div. Hessen-Homburg
Div. Kienmayer
Div. of grenadiers, Lindenau
Div. of grenadiers, d'Aspre
Total: 99 000 men; 84 000 infantry, 14 250 cavalry, 288 guns
Armée d'Allemagne, under the command of Napoleon I:
Imperial Guard:
Div. 1 (Young Guard): Curial
Div. 2 (Old Guard): Dorsenne
Div. 3 (cavalry): Arrighi
II Corps, Lannes † :
Div. Tharreau
Div. Claparède
Div. Saint-Hilaire †
Div. of reserve, Demont (unengaged)
IV Corps, Masséna:
Div. Legrand
Div. Carra Saint-Cyr
Div. Molitor
Div. Boudet
Brig. Marulaz (cavalry)
Div. Lasalle (cavalry)
Cavalry Reserve Corps, Bessières:
Div. Nansouty
Div. Saint-Sulpice
Div. d'Espagne †
Total: 77 000 men; 67 000 infantry, 10 000 cavalry, 152 guns
Battle
First day
French (white) and Austrians (black) positions, 21 May 1809
Fighting in the streets of Essling. Beleaguered French infantry exchanges fire with Austrian troops in the distance.
The battle began at Aspern; Hiller carried the village at the first rush, but Masséna recaptured it, and held his ground with remarkable tenacity. The French infantry fought with the old stubborn bravery which it had failed to show in the earlier battles of the year. However, the Austrians also fought with fierceness and tenacity that surprised the French, including Napoleon himself.
The three Austrian columns were unable to capture more than half the village. The rest was still held by Masséna when night fell. Meanwhile, nearly all the French infantry between the two villages and in front of the bridges had been drawn into the fight on the flank. Napoleon therefore, to create a diversion, sent forward his center, now consisting only of cavalry, to charge the enemy's artillery, which was deployed in a long line and firing on Aspern. The first charge of the French was repulsed, but the second attempt was made by heavy masses of cuirassiers. The French horsemen drove off the Austrian gunners, rode round Hohenzollern's infantry squares, and resisted the cavalry of Lichtenstein, but they were unable to do more, and in the end they retired to their previous position.
Meanwhile, Essling had been the scene of fighting almost as desperate as that of Aspern. The French cuirassiers made heavy charges on the flank of Rosenberg's force, and delayed an assault. In the villages, Lannes with a single division resisted until night ended the battle. The two armies bivouacked, and in Aspern the French and Austrians lay within pistol shot of each other. The emperor was not discouraged, and renewed efforts to bring up every available man. All through the night more and more French troops came across.
Second day
In ferocious fighting, Austrian grenadiers attempt to storm the fortified granary in the village of Essling.
At early dawn of the 22nd the battle was resumed. Masséna swiftly cleared Aspern of the Austrians, but at the same time Rosenberg stormed Essling. Lannes, however, resisted desperately, and reinforced by St Hilaire's division, drove Rosenberg out. In Aspern, Masséna was driven out by a counter-attack of Hiller and Bellegarde.
Meanwhile, Napoleon had launched an attack on the Austrian center. The whole of the French center, with Lannes on the left and the cavalry in reserve, moved forward. The Austrian line was broken through, between Rosenberg's right and Hohenzollern's left, and the French squadrons poured into the gap. Victory was almost won when the Archduke brought up his last reserve, leading his soldiers with a colour in his hand. Lannes was checked, and with his repulse the impetus of the attack died out all along the line. Aspern had been lost, and graver news reached Napoleon at the critical moment. The Danube bridges, which had broken down once already, had been cut by heavy barges, which had been sent drifting down stream by the Austrians.
Napoleon at once suspended the attack. Essling now fell to another assault of Rosenberg, and the French drove him out again. Rosenberg then directed his efforts on the flank of the French center, slowly retiring on the bridges. The retirement was terribly costly, but Lannes stopped the French from being driven into the Danube. Complete exhaustion of both sides ended the fighting.
Aftermath
Marshal Lannes was mortally wounded at Essling. Painting by Paul-Émile Boutigny, 1894
The French lost over 20,000 men including one of Napoleon's ablest field commanders and closest friends, Marshal Jean Lannes, who died after being mortally wounded by an Austrian cannonball in an attack on Johann von Klenau's force at Aspern, which was backed up by 60 well-placed guns. French general Louis-Vincent-Joseph Le Blond de Saint-Hilaire also died as a result of injuries from the battle; his leg was torn off by a cannonball. The Austrians had also suffered similar casualties but had secured the first major victory against the French for over a decade. The victory demonstrated both the progress the Austrian army had made since the string of catastrophic defeats in 1800 and 1805, and the fact that Napoleon's army was in decline and could now be defeated in battle. This was Napoleon's first battle loss since losing at Acre, which coincidentally had occurred precisely ten years and one day before. The loss of Marshal Lannes was an especially severe blow to Napoleon, as he lost one of the few marshals who was capable of independent command, something that would haunt him dearly in the future.
The French forces were withdrawn to the island. On the night of the 22nd the last bridge was repaired, and the army awaited the arrival of reinforcements in Lobau. The Austrians, surprised by their victory, failed to capitalize on the situation, allowing the French to regroup. One month later, the French made a second attempt to cross the Danube where Napoleon gained a costly and decisive victory over the Austrians at the Battle of Wagram.
The Löwe von Aspern (Lion of Aspern), a large stone sculpture in front of St. Martin's Church, is a monument commemorating the battle.
Accounts
Patrick Rambaud, a French author, wrote a fictionalized account of the conflict entitled "The Battle" using many first-hand sources. Just looking from the French perspective, the novel provides a rather realistic description of combat in the Napoleonic era, as well as detailed depictions of famous commanders such as Napoleon, Massena, and Lannes. The concept and notes for the book originally came from noted French author Honoré de Balzac. Marcellin Marbot, one of Marshal Lannes aide-de-camps, wrote in his memoirs of the battle, in which he had to observe the last moments of his close friends, and describes the amount of bloodshed and sadness which came to the Grande Armée after the crossing of the Danube.
The army surgeon Dominique-Jean Larrey also described the battle in his memoirs and mentions how he fed the wounded at Lobau with a bouillon of horse meat seasoned with gunpowder. Larrey is quoted in French by Dr Béraud
Notes
^ 13 generals, 772 officers, c. 21,500 soldiers
^ 24 generals, 977 officers, c. 23,000 soldiers
References
^ Bodart 1908, p. 405.
^ a b c d e f Gill 2016, p. 251.
^ a b Novitsky et al. 1911.
^ Gill 2009, pp. 129–133.
^ a b c d e f g h Chisholm 1911, pp. 767–768.
^ a b Rothenberg 1995, pp. 242–245.
^ Parker 1983, p. 83.
^ Béraud 1841.
Sources
Bodart, Gaston (1908). Militär-historisches Kriegs-Lexikon (1618–1905). Retrieved 14 June 2021.
Chandler, David (1979). Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars. MacMillan.
Castle, Ian (1990). Aspern/Wagram (1809). Oxford: Osprey.
Gill, John H. (2009). 1809. Thunder on the Danube: Napoleon's Defeat of the Habsburgs. Volume II: The Fall of Vienna and the Battle of Aspern. London: Frontline Books.
Gill, John H. (2016). Leggiere, M. (ed.). Napoleon and the Operational Art of War. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-27034-3.
Chisholm, Hugh (1911). "Aspern-Essling, Battle of" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 767–768.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
Rothenberg, Gunther E. (1995). Napoleon's Great Adversary: Archduke Charles and the Austrian Army 1792–1814. Sarpedon. ISBN 1-885119-21-6.
Parker, Harold T. (1983). Three Napoleonic Battles (2nd ed.). Duke University Press. ISBN 9780822305477. It references Dominique-Jean Larrey, Mémoires de chirurgie militaire et campagnes, III 281, Paris, Smith.
Béraud, Dr. (1841). Études Hygiéniques de la chair de cheval comme aliment (in French).
Novitsky, Vasily F.; Schwartz, Aleksey V. von; Apushkin, Vladimir A.; Schoultz, Gustav K. von (1911). Военная энциклопедия Сытина (in Russian). Vol. III: Аральская флотилия – Афонское сражение. Moscow: Типография Т-ва И. Д. Сытина. pp. 180–182. Retrieved 16 September 2023.
External links
Battle of Aspern-Essling by David Johnson in journal Military History, April 2001.
Media related to Battle of Aspern at Wikimedia Commons
Preceded byBattle of Tarvis (1809)
Napoleonic WarsBattle of Aspern-Essling
Succeeded byBattle of Alcañiz
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Fifth_Coalition"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Fifth_Coalition"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Fifth_Coalition"},{"link_name":"War of the Fifth Coalition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_the_Fifth_Coalition"},{"link_name":"Teugen-Hausen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Teugen-Hausen"},{"link_name":"Abensberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Abensberg"},{"link_name":"Landshut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Landshut_(1809)"},{"link_name":"Eckmühl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Eckm%C3%BChl"},{"link_name":"Ratisbon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ratisbon"},{"link_name":"Neumarkt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Neumarkt-Sankt_Veit"},{"link_name":"Ebelsberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ebelsberg"},{"link_name":"Schwarze Lackenau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Schwarze_Lackenau"},{"link_name":"Linz-Urfahr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Linz-Urfahr"},{"link_name":"Aspern-Essling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Sankt Michael","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Sankt_Michael"},{"link_name":"Raab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Raab_(1809)"},{"link_name":"Graz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Graz"},{"link_name":"Wagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Wagram"},{"link_name":"Korneuburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combat_of_Korneuburg"},{"link_name":"Stockerau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combat_of_Stockerau"},{"link_name":"Hollabrunn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Hollabrunn_(1809)"},{"link_name":"Schöngrabern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combat_of_Sch%C3%B6ngrabern"},{"link_name":"Znaim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Znaim"},{"link_name":"Sacile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Sacile"},{"link_name":"Caldiero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Caldiero_(1809)"},{"link_name":"Piave River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Piave_River_(1809)"},{"link_name":"Tarvis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tarvis_(1809)"},{"link_name":"Austro-Polish War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austro-Polish_War"},{"link_name":"Raszyn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Raszyn_(1809)"},{"link_name":"Radzymin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Radzymin_(1809)"},{"link_name":"Dalmatian campaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalmatian_Campaign_(1809)"},{"link_name":"Walcheren campaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walcheren_campaign"},{"link_name":"Basque Roads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Basque_Roads"},{"link_name":"Gefrees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Gefrees"},{"link_name":"Halberstadt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Halberstadt"},{"link_name":"Ölper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_%C3%96lper_(1809)"},{"link_name":"Tyrolean Rebellion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyrolean_Rebellion"},{"link_name":"Bergisel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battles_of_Bergisel"},{"link_name":"Wörgl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_W%C3%B6rgl"},{"link_name":"1809 Gottscheer rebellion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1809_Gottscheer_rebellion"},{"link_name":"War of the Fifth Coalition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_the_Fifth_Coalition"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Map/5/47.5/13.5/en"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.openstreetmap.org/copyright"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Policy:Maps_Terms_of_Use"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armistice_of_Znaim"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Hollabrunn_(1809)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combat_of_Stockerau"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combat_of_Korneuburg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Wagram"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Graz"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Raab"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Sankt_Michael"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tarvis_(1809)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_W%C3%B6rgl"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Piave_River_(1809)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ebelsberg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Caldiero_(1809)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Neumarkt-Sankt_Veit"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ratisbon"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Eckm%C3%BChl"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Landshut_(1809)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Abensberg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Teugen-Hausen"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Sacile"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Map/6/47.5/13.5/en"},{"link_name":"Napoleon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_I_of_France"},{"link_name":"Danube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danube"},{"link_name":"Vienna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna"},{"link_name":"Austrians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austrian_Empire"},{"link_name":"Archduke Charles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduke_Charles,_Duke_of_Teschen"},{"link_name":"Siege of Acre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Acre_(1799)"},{"link_name":"Jean Lannes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Lannes"}],"text":"1809 battle during the War of the Fifth CoalitionvteWar of the Fifth Coalition\nGerman and Austrian campaign\nTeugen-Hausen\nAbensberg\nLandshut\nEckmühl\nRatisbon\nNeumarkt\nEbelsberg\nSchwarze Lackenau\nLinz-Urfahr\nAspern-Essling\nSankt Michael\nRaab\nGraz\nWagram\nKorneuburg\nStockerau\nHollabrunn\nSchöngrabern\nZnaim\nItalian campaign\nSacile\nCaldiero\nPiave River\nTarvis\nAustro-Polish War\nRaszyn\nRadzymin\nDalmatian campaign\n\nWalcheren campaign\n\nBasque Roads\nGefrees\nHalberstadt\nÖlper\nTyrolean Rebellion\nBergisel\nWörgl\n1809 Gottscheer rebellionWar of the Fifth Coalition\n\n200km125miles\n22\n21\n20\n19\nWagram18\n17\n16\n15\nAspern14\n12\n11\n10\n9\n8\n7\n6\n5\n4\n3\n\n2\n\n1 current battle Napoleon in command Napoleon not in commandIn the Battle of Aspern-Essling (21–22 May 1809), Napoleon crossed the Danube near Vienna, but the French and their allies were attacked and forced back across the river by the Austrians under Archduke Charles. It was the first time Napoleon had been personally defeated in a major battle, as well as his first battle defeat in 10 years since the Siege of Acre, and his first battle defeat as head of state.Archduke Charles drove out the French but fell short of destroying their army. The Austrian artillery dominated the battlefield, firing 53,000 rounds compared to 24,300 French. The French lost over 20,000 men including one of Napoleon's ablest field commanders and closest friends, Marshal Jean Lannes.","title":"Battle of Aspern-Essling"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Vienna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna"},{"link_name":"Danube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danube"},{"link_name":"Bisamberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bisamberg"},{"link_name":"Korneuburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korneuburg"},{"link_name":"Schwarze Lackenau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Schwarze_Lackenau"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGill2009129%E2%80%93133-6"},{"link_name":"Lobau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lobau"},{"link_name":"Masséna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Mass%C3%A9na"},{"link_name":"Tyrol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_of_Tyrol"},{"link_name":"Bohemia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohemia"},{"link_name":"Battle of Wagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Wagram"},{"link_name":"Aspern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspern"},{"link_name":"Essling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essling"},{"link_name":"Johann von Hiller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_von_Hiller"},{"link_name":"Heinrich Graf von Bellegarde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Graf_von_Bellegarde"},{"link_name":"Prince Friedrich of Hohenzollern-Hechingen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Franz_Xaver_Prince_of_Hohenzollern-Hechingen"},{"link_name":"Prince Franz Seraph of Rosenberg-Orsini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Franz_Seraph_of_Rosenberg-Orsini"},{"link_name":"Prince Johann of Liechtenstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_I_Joseph,_Prince_of_Liechtenstein"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911767%E2%80%93768-7"}],"text":"At the time of the battle Napoleon was in possession of Vienna, the bridges over the Danube had been broken, and the Archduke's army was near the Bisamberg, a hill near Korneuburg, on the left bank of the river. The French wanted to cross the Danube. A first crossing attempt on the Schwarze Lackenau on 13 May was repulsed with some 700 French losses.[4] Lobau, one of the numerous islands that divided the river into minor channels, was selected as the next point of crossing. Careful preparations were made, and on the night of 19–20 May the French bridged all the channels on the right bank to Lobau and occupied the island. By the evening of the 20th many men had been collected there and the last arm of the Danube, between Lobau and the left bank, had been bridged. Masséna's corps at once crossed to the left bank and dislodged the Austrian outposts. Undeterred by the news of heavy attacks on his rear from Tyrol and from Bohemia, Napoleon ferried all available troops to the bridges, and by daybreak on the 21st, 25,000 men were collected on the Marchfeld, the broad plain of the left bank, which was also to be the scene of the Battle of Wagram.The Archduke did not resist the passage. It was his intention, as soon as a large enough force had crossed, to attack it before the rest of the French army could come to its assistance. Napoleon had accepted the risk of such an attack, but he sought at the same time to minimize it by summoning every available battalion to the scene. His forces on the Marchfeld were drawn up in front of the bridges facing north, with their left in the village of Aspern (Gross-Aspern) and their right in Essling. Both places lay close to the Danube and could not therefore be turned; Aspern, indeed, is actually on the bank of one of the river channels. The French had to fill the gap between the villages, and also move forward to give room for the supporting units to form up.The corps led by Johann von Hiller (VI), Heinrich Graf von Bellegarde (I) and Prince Friedrich of Hohenzollern-Hechingen (II) were to converge upon Aspern, while Prince Franz Seraph of Rosenberg-Orsini (IV) was to attack Essling. Prince Johann of Liechtenstein's Austrian reserve cavalry was in the center, ready to move out against any French cavalry attacking the heads of the columns. During the 21st the bridges became more and more unsafe, owing to the violence of the current, but the French crossed without intermission all day and during the night.[5]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fernand_Cormon_005.jpg"},{"link_name":"Fernand Cormon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernand_Cormon"},{"link_name":"Charles of Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduke_Charles,_Duke_of_Teschen"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERothenberg1995242%E2%80%93245-8"},{"link_name":"Hiller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_von_Hiller"},{"link_name":"Nordmann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Armand_von_Nordmann"},{"link_name":"Vincent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_von_Vincent"},{"link_name":"Bellegarde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_von_Bellegarde"},{"link_name":"Hohenzollern-Hechingen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Friedrich_Franz_Xaver_of_Hohenzollern-Hechingen"},{"link_name":"Rosenberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Franz_Seraph_of_Rosenberg-Orsini"},{"link_name":"Klenau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_von_Klenau"},{"link_name":"Hohenlohe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Karl_Wilhelm,_F%C3%BCrst_zu_Hohenlohe"},{"link_name":"Liechtenstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_I_Joseph,_Prince_of_Liechtenstein"},{"link_name":"Hessen-Homburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_VI,_Landgrave_of_Hesse-Homburg"},{"link_name":"Kienmayer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_von_Kienmayer"},{"link_name":"grenadiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grenadier"},{"link_name":"d'Aspre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstantin_Ghilian_Karl_d%27Aspr%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Armée d'Allemagne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_of_Germany_(1809)"},{"link_name":"Napoleon I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_I"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERothenberg1995242%E2%80%93245-8"},{"link_name":"Imperial Guard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Guard_(Napoleon_I)"},{"link_name":"Curial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philibert_Jean-Baptiste_Curial"},{"link_name":"Dorsenne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Marie_Pierre_Dorsenne"},{"link_name":"Arrighi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Thomas_Arrighi_de_Casanova"},{"link_name":"Lannes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Lannes"},{"link_name":"Tharreau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Victor_Tharreau"},{"link_name":"Claparède","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Marie_Clapar%C3%A8de"},{"link_name":"Saint-Hilaire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Charles_Vincent_Le_Blond_de_Saint-Hilaire"},{"link_name":"Masséna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Mass%C3%A9na"},{"link_name":"Legrand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Juste_Alexandre_Legrand"},{"link_name":"Carra Saint-Cyr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Carra_de_Saint-Cyr"},{"link_name":"Molitor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel_Jean_Joseph_Molitor"},{"link_name":"Boudet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Boudet"},{"link_name":"Marulaz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Fran%C3%A7ois_Marulaz"},{"link_name":"Lasalle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lasalle"},{"link_name":"Bessières","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Bessi%C3%A8res"},{"link_name":"Nansouty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Marie_Antoine_Champion_de_Nansouty"},{"link_name":"Saint-Sulpice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond_Gaspard_de_Bonardi_de_Saint-Sulpice"},{"link_name":"d'Espagne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Louis-Brigitte_d%27Espagne"}],"text":"The Battle of Aspern-Essling, May 1809by Fernand CormonKaiserlich-Königliche Hauptarmee, under the command of Charles of Austria:[6]1st Column (VI Corps), Hiller:\nVanguard: Nordmann\nDiv. Kottulinsky\nDiv. Vincent\n2nd Column (I Corps), Bellegarde:\nDiv. Fresnel\nDiv. Vogelsang\nDiv. Ulm\nDiv. Notitz\n3rd Column (II Corps), Hohenzollern-Hechingen:\nAdvance Guard\nDiv. Brady\nDiv. Weber\n4th Column (IV Corps), Rosenberg/Dedovich:\nDiv. Klenau\nDiv. Dedovich\n5th Column (a part of IV Corps), Rosenberg/Hohenlohe:\nVanguard: Rohan\nDiv. Hohenlohe\nReserve Corps, Liechtenstein:\nDiv. Hessen-Homburg\nDiv. Kienmayer\nDiv. of grenadiers, Lindenau\nDiv. of grenadiers, d'AspreTotal: 99 000 men; 84 000 infantry, 14 250 cavalry, 288 gunsArmée d'Allemagne, under the command of Napoleon I:[6]Imperial Guard:\nDiv. 1 (Young Guard): Curial\nDiv. 2 (Old Guard): Dorsenne\nDiv. 3 (cavalry): Arrighi\nII Corps, Lannes † :\nDiv. Tharreau\nDiv. Claparède\nDiv. Saint-Hilaire †\nDiv. of reserve, Demont (unengaged)\nIV Corps, Masséna:\nDiv. Legrand\nDiv. Carra Saint-Cyr\nDiv. Molitor\nDiv. Boudet\nBrig. Marulaz (cavalry)\nDiv. Lasalle (cavalry)\nCavalry Reserve Corps, Bessières:\nDiv. Nansouty\nDiv. Saint-Sulpice\nDiv. d'Espagne †Total: 77 000 men; 67 000 infantry, 10 000 cavalry, 152 guns","title":"Order of battle"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Battle"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lageplan_Aspern.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Myrbach-Aspern-Essling.jpg"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911767%E2%80%93768-7"},{"link_name":"cuirassiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuirassiers"},{"link_name":"infantry squares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infantry_square"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911767%E2%80%93768-7"},{"link_name":"Lannes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Lannes"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911767%E2%80%93768-7"}],"sub_title":"First day","text":"French (white) and Austrians (black) positions, 21 May 1809Fighting in the streets of Essling. Beleaguered French infantry exchanges fire with Austrian troops in the distance.The battle began at Aspern; Hiller carried the village at the first rush, but Masséna recaptured it, and held his ground with remarkable tenacity. The French infantry fought with the old stubborn bravery which it had failed to show in the earlier battles of the year. However, the Austrians also fought with fierceness and tenacity that surprised the French, including Napoleon himself.[5]The three Austrian columns were unable to capture more than half the village. The rest was still held by Masséna when night fell. Meanwhile, nearly all the French infantry between the two villages and in front of the bridges had been drawn into the fight on the flank. Napoleon therefore, to create a diversion, sent forward his center, now consisting only of cavalry, to charge the enemy's artillery, which was deployed in a long line and firing on Aspern. The first charge of the French was repulsed, but the second attempt was made by heavy masses of cuirassiers. The French horsemen drove off the Austrian gunners, rode round Hohenzollern's infantry squares, and resisted the cavalry of Lichtenstein, but they were unable to do more, and in the end they retired to their previous position.[5]Meanwhile, Essling had been the scene of fighting almost as desperate as that of Aspern. The French cuirassiers made heavy charges on the flank of Rosenberg's force, and delayed an assault. In the villages, Lannes with a single division resisted until night ended the battle. The two armies bivouacked, and in Aspern the French and Austrians lay within pistol shot of each other. The emperor was not discouraged, and renewed efforts to bring up every available man. All through the night more and more French troops came across.[5]","title":"Battle"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Myrbach-Austrian_grenadiers_at_Essling.jpg"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911767%E2%80%93768-7"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911767%E2%80%93768-7"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911767%E2%80%93768-7"}],"sub_title":"Second day","text":"In ferocious fighting, Austrian grenadiers attempt to storm the fortified granary in the village of Essling.At early dawn of the 22nd the battle was resumed. Masséna swiftly cleared Aspern of the Austrians, but at the same time Rosenberg stormed Essling. Lannes, however, resisted desperately, and reinforced by St Hilaire's division, drove Rosenberg out. In Aspern, Masséna was driven out by a counter-attack of Hiller and Bellegarde.[5]Meanwhile, Napoleon had launched an attack on the Austrian center. The whole of the French center, with Lannes on the left and the cavalry in reserve, moved forward. The Austrian line was broken through, between Rosenberg's right and Hohenzollern's left, and the French squadrons poured into the gap. Victory was almost won when the Archduke brought up his last reserve, leading his soldiers with a colour in his hand. Lannes was checked, and with his repulse the impetus of the attack died out all along the line. Aspern had been lost, and graver news reached Napoleon at the critical moment. The Danube bridges, which had broken down once already, had been cut by heavy barges, which had been sent drifting down stream by the Austrians.[5]Napoleon at once suspended the attack. Essling now fell to another assault of Rosenberg, and the French drove him out again. Rosenberg then directed his efforts on the flank of the French center, slowly retiring on the bridges. The retirement was terribly costly, but Lannes stopped the French from being driven into the Danube. Complete exhaustion of both sides ended the fighting.[5]","title":"Battle"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lannes_mortally_wounded_at_Essling_(E._Boutigny).jpg"},{"link_name":"Jean Lannes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Lannes"},{"link_name":"Johann von Klenau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_von_Klenau"},{"link_name":"Louis-Vincent-Joseph Le Blond de Saint-Hilaire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis-Vincent-Joseph_Le_Blond_de_Saint-Hilaire"},{"link_name":"Acre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Acre_(1799)"},{"link_name":"Lobau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lobau"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911767%E2%80%93768-7"},{"link_name":"Battle of Wagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Wagram"},{"link_name":"Löwe von Aspern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aspern_(Wien)_-_L%C3%B6we_(Kriegerdenkmal).JPG"}],"text":"Marshal Lannes was mortally wounded at Essling. Painting by Paul-Émile Boutigny, 1894The French lost over 20,000 men including one of Napoleon's ablest field commanders and closest friends, Marshal Jean Lannes, who died after being mortally wounded by an Austrian cannonball in an attack on Johann von Klenau's force at Aspern, which was backed up by 60 well-placed guns. French general Louis-Vincent-Joseph Le Blond de Saint-Hilaire also died as a result of injuries from the battle; his leg was torn off by a cannonball. The Austrians had also suffered similar casualties but had secured the first major victory against the French for over a decade. The victory demonstrated both the progress the Austrian army had made since the string of catastrophic defeats in 1800 and 1805, and the fact that Napoleon's army was in decline and could now be defeated in battle. This was Napoleon's first battle loss since losing at Acre, which coincidentally had occurred precisely ten years and one day before. The loss of Marshal Lannes was an especially severe blow to Napoleon, as he lost one of the few marshals who was capable of independent command, something that would haunt him dearly in the future.The French forces were withdrawn to the island. On the night of the 22nd the last bridge was repaired, and the army awaited the arrival of reinforcements in Lobau.[5] The Austrians, surprised by their victory, failed to capitalize on the situation, allowing the French to regroup. One month later, the French made a second attempt to cross the Danube where Napoleon gained a costly and decisive victory over the Austrians at the Battle of Wagram.The Löwe von Aspern (Lion of Aspern), a large stone sculpture in front of St. Martin's Church, is a monument commemorating the battle.","title":"Aftermath"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Patrick Rambaud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Rambaud"},{"link_name":"The Battle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Battle_(Rambaud_novel)"},{"link_name":"Honoré de Balzac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honor%C3%A9_de_Balzac"},{"link_name":"Marcellin Marbot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcellin_Marbot"},{"link_name":"Dominique-Jean Larrey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominique-Jean_Larrey"},{"link_name":"bouillon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bouillon_(broth)"},{"link_name":"horse meat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horse_meat"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker198383-9"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEB%C3%A9raud1841-10"}],"text":"Patrick Rambaud, a French author, wrote a fictionalized account of the conflict entitled \"The Battle\" using many first-hand sources. Just looking from the French perspective, the novel provides a rather realistic description of combat in the Napoleonic era, as well as detailed depictions of famous commanders such as Napoleon, Massena, and Lannes. The concept and notes for the book originally came from noted French author Honoré de Balzac. Marcellin Marbot, one of Marshal Lannes aide-de-camps, wrote in his memoirs of the battle, in which he had to observe the last moments of his close friends, and describes the amount of bloodshed and sadness which came to the Grande Armée after the crossing of the Danube.The army surgeon Dominique-Jean Larrey also described the battle in his memoirs and mentions how he fed the wounded at Lobau with a bouillon of horse meat seasoned with gunpowder.[7] Larrey is quoted in French by Dr Béraud[8]","title":"Accounts"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENovitskySchwartzApushkinSchoultz1911-3"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENovitskySchwartzApushkinSchoultz1911-3"}],"text":"^ 13 generals, 772 officers, c. 21,500 soldiers[3]\n\n^ 24 generals, 977 officers, c. 23,000 soldiers[3]","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bodart, Gaston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaston_Bodart"},{"link_name":"Militär-historisches Kriegs-Lexikon (1618–1905)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/bub_gb_A0kNAAAAYAAJ"},{"link_name":"Chandler, David","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_G._Chandler"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-90-04-27034-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-27034-3"},{"link_name":"Chisholm, Hugh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm"},{"link_name":"\"Aspern-Essling, Battle of\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Aspern-Essling,_Battle_of"},{"link_name":"Chisholm, Hugh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm"},{"link_name":"Encyclopædia Britannica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition"},{"link_name":"cite encyclopedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_encyclopedia"},{"link_name":"link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_date_and_year"},{"link_name":"Rothenberg, Gunther E.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunther_E._Rothenberg"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-885119-21-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-885119-21-6"},{"link_name":"Three Napoleonic Battles (2nd ed.)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=qiyp-Mft2zEC&pg=PA84"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780822305477","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780822305477"},{"link_name":"Dominique-Jean Larrey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominique-Jean_Larrey"},{"link_name":"Béraud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%A9raud"},{"link_name":"Études Hygiéniques de la chair de cheval comme aliment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//leslivresoublies.free.fr/leslivresoublies/Sciences_et_techniques_muse/cheval.html"},{"link_name":"Военная энциклопедия Сытина","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/bmk-brz-3/page/n211/mode/2up"}],"text":"Bodart, Gaston (1908). Militär-historisches Kriegs-Lexikon (1618–1905). Retrieved 14 June 2021.\nChandler, David (1979). Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars. MacMillan.\nCastle, Ian (1990). Aspern/Wagram (1809). Oxford: Osprey.\nGill, John H. (2009). 1809. Thunder on the Danube: Napoleon's Defeat of the Habsburgs. Volume II: The Fall of Vienna and the Battle of Aspern. London: Frontline Books.\nGill, John H. (2016). Leggiere, M. (ed.). Napoleon and the Operational Art of War. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-27034-3.\nChisholm, Hugh (1911). \"Aspern-Essling, Battle of\" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 767–768.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)\nRothenberg, Gunther E. (1995). Napoleon's Great Adversary: Archduke Charles and the Austrian Army 1792–1814. Sarpedon. ISBN 1-885119-21-6.\nParker, Harold T. (1983). Three Napoleonic Battles (2nd ed.). Duke University Press. ISBN 9780822305477. It references Dominique-Jean Larrey, Mémoires de chirurgie militaire et campagnes, III 281, Paris, Smith.\nBéraud, Dr. (1841). Études Hygiéniques de la chair de cheval comme aliment (in French).\nNovitsky, Vasily F.; Schwartz, Aleksey V. von; Apushkin, Vladimir A.; Schoultz, Gustav K. von (1911). Военная энциклопедия Сытина [Sytin Military Encyclopedia] (in Russian). Vol. III: Аральская флотилия – Афонское сражение. Moscow: Типография Т-ва И. Д. Сытина. pp. 180–182. Retrieved 16 September 2023.","title":"Sources"}]
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[{"image_text":"The Battle of Aspern-Essling, May 1809by Fernand Cormon","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Fernand_Cormon_005.jpg/200px-Fernand_Cormon_005.jpg"},{"image_text":"French (white) and Austrians (black) positions, 21 May 1809","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Lageplan_Aspern.jpg/170px-Lageplan_Aspern.jpg"},{"image_text":"Fighting in the streets of Essling. Beleaguered French infantry exchanges fire with Austrian troops in the distance.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Myrbach-Aspern-Essling.jpg/200px-Myrbach-Aspern-Essling.jpg"},{"image_text":"In ferocious fighting, Austrian grenadiers attempt to storm the fortified granary in the village of Essling.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Myrbach-Austrian_grenadiers_at_Essling.jpg/200px-Myrbach-Austrian_grenadiers_at_Essling.jpg"},{"image_text":"Marshal Lannes was mortally wounded at Essling. Painting by Paul-Émile Boutigny, 1894","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Lannes_mortally_wounded_at_Essling_%28E._Boutigny%29.jpg/300px-Lannes_mortally_wounded_at_Essling_%28E._Boutigny%29.jpg"}]
| null |
[{"reference":"Bodart, Gaston (1908). Militär-historisches Kriegs-Lexikon (1618–1905). Retrieved 14 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaston_Bodart","url_text":"Bodart, Gaston"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_A0kNAAAAYAAJ","url_text":"Militär-historisches Kriegs-Lexikon (1618–1905)"}]},{"reference":"Chandler, David (1979). Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars. MacMillan.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_G._Chandler","url_text":"Chandler, David"}]},{"reference":"Castle, Ian (1990). Aspern/Wagram (1809). Oxford: Osprey.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Gill, John H. (2009). 1809. Thunder on the Danube: Napoleon's Defeat of the Habsburgs. Volume II: The Fall of Vienna and the Battle of Aspern. London: Frontline Books.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Gill, John H. (2016). Leggiere, M. (ed.). Napoleon and the Operational Art of War. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-27034-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-27034-3","url_text":"978-90-04-27034-3"}]},{"reference":"Chisholm, Hugh (1911). \"Aspern-Essling, Battle of\" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 767–768.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm","url_text":"Chisholm, Hugh"},{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Aspern-Essling,_Battle_of","url_text":"\"Aspern-Essling, Battle of\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm","url_text":"Chisholm, Hugh"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition","url_text":"Encyclopædia Britannica"}]},{"reference":"Rothenberg, Gunther E. (1995). Napoleon's Great Adversary: Archduke Charles and the Austrian Army 1792–1814. Sarpedon. ISBN 1-885119-21-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunther_E._Rothenberg","url_text":"Rothenberg, Gunther E."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-885119-21-6","url_text":"1-885119-21-6"}]},{"reference":"Parker, Harold T. (1983). Three Napoleonic Battles (2nd ed.). Duke University Press. ISBN 9780822305477.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=qiyp-Mft2zEC&pg=PA84","url_text":"Three Napoleonic Battles (2nd ed.)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780822305477","url_text":"9780822305477"}]},{"reference":"Béraud, Dr. (1841). Études Hygiéniques de la chair de cheval comme aliment (in French).","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%A9raud","url_text":"Béraud"},{"url":"http://leslivresoublies.free.fr/leslivresoublies/Sciences_et_techniques_muse/cheval.html","url_text":"Études Hygiéniques de la chair de cheval comme aliment"}]},{"reference":"Novitsky, Vasily F.; Schwartz, Aleksey V. von; Apushkin, Vladimir A.; Schoultz, Gustav K. von (1911). Военная энциклопедия Сытина [Sytin Military Encyclopedia] (in Russian). Vol. III: Аральская флотилия – Афонское сражение. Moscow: Типография Т-ва И. Д. Сытина. pp. 180–182. Retrieved 16 September 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/bmk-brz-3/page/n211/mode/2up","url_text":"Военная энциклопедия Сытина"}]}]
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