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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Brave_Little_Toaster_(novel)
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The Brave Little Toaster (novel)
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["1 Plot summary","2 Development","3 Reception","3.1 Awards and honors","4 Film adaptations and sequels","4.1 Printed versions","4.2 Film adaptations","5 Characters","6 See also","7 References"]
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1980 novella by Thomas M. Disch
This article is about the novel. For the film, see The Brave Little Toaster.
The Brave Little Toaster The first publication cover of Thomas M. Disch's The Brave Little Toaster, art by Gahan Wilson.AuthorThomas M. DischLanguageEnglishPublishedAugust 15, 1980 (1980-08-15)Publication placeUnited States
The Brave Little Toaster is a 1980 novella by American writer Thomas M. Disch intended for children or, as put by the author, a "bedtime story for small appliances". The story centers on a group of five household appliances—a tensor lamp stand, an electric blanket, an AM radio alarm clock, a vacuum cleaner and a toaster—on their quest to find their original owner referred to as the Master.
Plot summary
The story opens with a description of five members of a family of minor home appliances left in the cottage, listed from oldest to youngest. They are each given a personality. As the oldest, the vacuum cleaner is steady and dependable, the plastic AM radio alarm clock, the yellow electric blanket (cheerful), the tensor lamp stand (somewhat neurotic whether it, as an incentive from a savings bank, was better than a store-bought equivalent) and the sunbeam toaster (bright). The cottage itself is on the northernmost edge of an immense forest and the appliances have grown used to seasonal use, with some of the master's other appliances (such as the black and white television set, the blender, the oral irrigator, the telephone, the stereo system and the world clock) annually returning to the city with their master each Labor Day.
One spring day, after "two years, five months, and thirteen days" without the master, though, the appliances begin to suspect they have been abandoned. A few months later, the toaster tells the others "We need people to take care of, and we need people to take care of us" and retells the story of an abandoned dog who had accidentally been left behind in a summer cottage, like themselves, but still "found his way to his master, hundreds of miles away". The appliances plan to do the same as soon as they can all travel safely together. Although the hoover, while being strong and self-propelled, could take the other appliances, it still needed a source of power other than the wall outlet.
But before any of the small appliances who may be listening to this tale should begin to think that they might do the same thing, let them be warned: ELECTRICITY IS VERY DANGEROUS. Never play with old batteries! Never put your plug in a strange socket! And if you are in any doubt about the voltage of the current where you are living, ask a major appliance.
Their transportation needs are solved by fitting an old metal office chair with casters from the bed upstairs and rigging it with an old automotive battery from the Volkswagen Beetle to power the hoover, who will tow the other appliances. Suitably equipped, they set out through the woods since, even though the highway would otherwise be faster, "whenever human beings are observing them they must remain perfectly still".
During their first afternoon in the woods, the appliances stop to rest in a meadow after a brief rainstorm. The toaster is surprised by a daisy who speaks only in verse ("daisies, being among the simpler flowers, characteristically employ a rough sort of octosyllabic doggerel") to declare its love for the toaster, having fallen in love with its reflection in the toaster's chrome side. As the toaster excuses itself to rejoin its appliance friends, the daisy begs the toaster to "Pluck me and take me where you're bound. / I cannot live without you here: / Then let your bosom be my bier". Shocked, the toaster leaves the daisy in the ground and returns to the appliances, where the blanket folds itself into a tent to shelter the others.
The next night the appliances run into Harold and Marjorie, married squirrels. The squirrels and appliances have an awkward encounter when the squirrels first ask what gender the appliances are (they aren't), followed by an exchange of inappropriate jokes which neither group find funny. During the night, another rainstorm blows the blanket into the trees above, where it is stuck until the squirrels help it down the following morning. To thank the squirrels for their help, the toaster roasts some nuts, and the blanket plugs into the battery to dry out and warm the squirrels.
After leaving the squirrels, the journey of the appliances comes to an abrupt stop at the unexpected obstacle of a wide river. The hoover suffers a panic attack and starts chewing its own cord, calming down only after the toaster led the hoover back and forth across the grassy bank of the river in regular carpet-sweeping swathes. The appliances consult a map and discovering how close they are now to the city where their master lives, excitedly hatch a plan to follow the river until they find a bridge to cross it and then, as the toaster explains, "when it's very late and there's no traffic, we can make a dash for it!" Once they begin their search for a crossing, the chair overturns after one leg gets stuck in mud and one caster comes off.
As the appliances search for the lost caster, the blanket discovers a boat, which the hoover declares they will use to cross the river. The toaster objects, saying this makes them no better than pirates, who "are the bane of an appliance's existence, since once an appliance has been spirited away by a pirate, it has no choice but to serve its bidding just as though it were that appliance's legitimate master. Truly, there is no fate, even obsolescence, so terrible as falling into the hands of pirates". As the toaster continues to argue with the other four appliances, who have already boarded the boat, the owner of the boat returns and, thinking that whoever had placed the appliances in the boat was intending to steal his boat, decides to retaliate by stealing the appliances instead. After taking the battery off to save it, the pirate throws the office chair into the river, then takes them to his home across the river at the City Dump.
The Dump itself is likened to a graveyard for defective and obsolescent appliances, a horrible vision of rusted junk and broken parts. The pirate reviews the condition of each appliance and declares them junk one-by-one, discarding all save the radio, which he takes into his shack. Outside the shack, the appliances hatch a plan to frighten the pirate so they can rescue the radio, who has been playing cheerful tunes, in what the toaster believes is a deliberate attempt to keep them optimistic, especially since one of the songs was "I Whistle a Happy Tune", the toaster's favorite. The appliances outside also find a baby buggy in good repair, which they plan to use to complete their journey.
They pose as a ghost, with the blanket shrouding the toaster, perched atop the hoover. It makes ghostly noises to lure the pirate out of his shack, and at the instant he looks at the hooded figure, the lamp turns on and the pirate sees his face reflected in the toaster's chrome side. The pirate, upon seeing his corrupted reflection, concludes the ghost is "the kind that understand exactly who we are and knows all the wrong things we've done and intends to punish us for them" and flees in terror. Before he returns, the appliances escape in the buggy to where their master lives, only a mile or so from the Dump.
At the apartment on Newton Avenue, the appliances are greeted by their appliance friends, old and new, where they learn the master has not returned to the cottage because of his new companion (referred to as "the mistress"), who has caused them to move their vacations from the cottage, "where there is bound to be ragweed and pollen and such" which would exacerbate the mistress's hay fever, to the seaside, and further, the master intends to sell the cottage, along with the appliances inside. While deciding what to do next, the five appliances spend the night in the apartment, where the Singer sewing machine repairs the rips in the blanket and the toaster tells the tale of their long journey.
The next afternoon, with the five appliances freshly cleaned, they listen to the radio program The Swap Shop, which advertises the five appliances are available if "you should have a real and genuine need for all five of these fine appliances, since their present owner wants them to be able to stay together. For sentimental reasons!" It is the toaster's final plan to help the group of five, and the first to call is "an elderly, impoverished ballerina" from Center Street who trades five black-and-white kittens for the five appliances. Although the mistress is allergic to cat fur, she decides to take more antihistamines and keep the cats. The five appliances "lived and worked, happy and fulfilled, serving their dear mistress and enjoying each other's companionship, to the end of their days".
Development
The second publication cover, art by Karen Lee Schmidt.
The story first appeared as a novella in the August 1980 issue of The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction. Although appearing in a general circulation magazine, the story was written in the style of a children's fable. It was one of the most popular science fiction and fantasy stories of the early 1980s and nominated for both a Hugo Award and a Nebula Award for Best Novella. It also won a Locus Award, Seiun Award and British SF Association Award. It was later published as a book in May 1986.
Disch said that he was unable to publish the story as a children's book at first, because publishers thought the concept of talking appliances was too "far-fetched", even after Disch had sold it to Disney as a film; Doubleday finally published it as a part of a five-book contract.
Reception
The Brave Little Toaster was well received by critics. Anna Quindlen, while writing for The New York Times, called it "a wonderful book for a certain sort of eccentric adult. You know who you are. Buy it for your children; read it yourself" and also suggested that the book lacked a clearly defined audience.
Awards and honors
Year
Category
Award
Result
1980
Best Short Fiction
BSFA
won
Best Novella
Nebula
nominated
1981
Best Novelette
Locus
won
Best Novella
Hugo
nominated
Short Fiction
Balrog
nominated
1982
Foreign Short Story
Seiun
won
Film adaptations and sequels
John Lasseter learned about the novella from a friend and convinced Tom Wilhite to purchase the film rights in the early 1980s for Disney. Lasseter pitched a 30-second clip, featuring traditional two-dimensional cel animation with three-dimensional computer-generated backgrounds to Disney executives in 1983, but was told that since the cost and time savings over an animated film made through traditional methods were negligible, they were not interested in pursuing the project. As Lasseter recalled years later, he had gone around some of his direct superiors in his enthusiasm to pitch the project, making enemies in doing so, and he was fired from Disney ten minutes after his pitch was rejected. The Disney Newsreel, an internal newsletter, highlighted the work of Lasseter and Glen Keane in June 1983, describing the process of animating scenes from Where the Wild Things Are as a test for the future Brave Little Toaster film.
In 1987, the novel was adapted by Disch and Joe Ranft as a conventionally animated feature film under Hyperion Pictures, which was founded by Wilhite. The film contains many differences from the book but is essentially the same story, although the ending differs. In the novel, the appliances trade themselves away to an old ballerina who needs them, while in the film, they are reunited with their former master (named "Rob" in the film).
Disch later wrote a sequel titled The Brave Little Toaster Goes to Mars in which the Brave Little Toaster and his companions travel to Mars to stop an invasion from hostile appliances who have a colony there. This too was made into a film. There was also a third film in the series named The Brave Little Toaster to the Rescue, which is set chronologically between the two books, but is not based directly on one.
Printed versions
Novella
— (August 1980). "The Brave Little Toaster: A Bedtime Story for Small Appliances". The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction. (magazine publication)
— (March 1981). "Il Bravo Piccolo Tostapane". Urania. No. 878. (Italian translation)
— (May 1981). "Le brave petit grille-pain". Fiction. No. 318. Translated by Lemoine, Daniel. (French translation)
— (November 1981). "Le valiant petit grille-pain". Thomas M. Dish: anthologie réunie et prés. par Patrice Duvic. Translated by Pugi, Jean-Pierre. Presses Pocket. ISBN 2-266-00995-8. (paperback anthology with French translation)
— (December 1981). "いさましいちびのトースター". SF Magazine. Translated by 浅倉久志 (Asakura Hisashi). (Japanese translation)
— (1982). "Tapferer kleiner Toaster". Fenster. Translated by Winter, Biggy. Heyne. ISBN 3-453-30752-6. (paperback anthology with German translation)
Ferman, Edward L., ed. (1982). The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction: 24th Series. Scribner. ISBN 978-0-684-17490-7. (hardcover anthology reprint of novella)
Ferman, Edward L., ed. (1983). The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction: 24th Series. Ace Books. ISBN 978-0-441-05485-5. (paperback anthology reprint of novella)
— (1984). "Il bravo piccolo tostapane. Una favola per elettrodomestici". La Signora degli scarafaggi e altri 22 racconti. Arnoldo Mondadori. (paperback anthology with Italian translation)
Chapter books
— Schmidt, Karen (illus). (1986). The Brave Little Toaster: A Bedtime Story for Small Appliances. Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-23050-6. (book publication)
— Schmidt, Karen (illus). (1986). The Brave Little Toaster: A Bedtime Story for Small Appliances. Grafton Books. ISBN 978-0-246-13080-8. (UK book publication) UPC 780246 130808
— (1988). The Brave Little Toaster Goes to Mars. Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-24162-5.
Film adaptations
The Brave Little Toaster, 1987 (adaptation of the novel)
The Brave Little Toaster to the Rescue, 1997 (not based on printed work)
The Brave Little Toaster Goes to Mars, 1998 (adaptation of the novel)
Characters
The Toaster
A gallant Sunbeam pop-up two-slice toaster.
The Lamp
A tensor gooseneck desktop lamp stand that shines a bright light from his light bulb.
The Electric Blanket
A shy but cheerful yellow electric blanket with a childlike manner.
The AM Radio Alarm Clock
An off-white plastic vacuum-tube-based prototype amplitude modulation radiotelegraphic alarm clock.
The Old Vacuum Cleaner
A big, strong hoover upright vacuum cleaner.
The Daisy
A daisy who can only speak in verse. She mistakes her reflection in the toaster as her male counterpart and falls in love.
Harold and Marjorie
A pair of squirrels whom the appliances meet in the forest. They help the blanket out of a tree after being blown away in a storm. They are unable to comprehend the idea of appliances or the fact that they have no gender, although they are fascinated by the blanket's warmth and the toaster's ability to roast acorns.
The Pirate
A man who finds the appliances (just as they are about to use his boat to cross a river). He takes them back to the city dump by throwing all of the appliances, except the Radio, into the heap. The toaster plans an escape for them all by having the four of them pretend to be a ghost and scare the man away.
The Master
The former owner of the five appliances, whom they all revere. The appliances eventually learn that he has a mistress, and that they spend their holidays out at sea instead of the cottage because of the woman's hay fever. They also learn that the cottage will be sold and they will each be auctioned off soon. Coming to terms with having fulfilled their duty for the master, they look for a new home where they will be needed and can stay together.
The Ballerina
A woman who trades the appliances on a radio show for her kittens.
See also
Children's literature portal
References
^ Disch, Thomas M. (August 1980). "The Brave Little Toaster". The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction. Vol. 59, no. 2. Cornwell, Connecticut.
^ "Obituary: Thomas M. Disch". sffworld.com. 2008-07-10. Retrieved 2009-01-14.
^ "Obituary: Thomas M. Disch". Locus Publications. 2008-07-06. Retrieved 2009-01-14.
^ Horwich, David (2001-07-30). "Interview: Thomas M. Disch". Strange Horizons. Retrieved 2009-01-14.
^ "Tom Disch (Thomas M. Disch) (1940 - 2008)". Poetry Foundation. Retrieved 2009-01-14.
^ Quindlen, Anna (1986-04-20). "CHILDREN'S BOOKS". The New York Times. Retrieved 2009-01-14.
^ "BSFA Awards". The British Science Fiction Association. Retrieved 14 February 2018.
^ "1980 Nebula Awards". Science Fiction & Fantasy Writers of America. Retrieved 14 February 2018.
^ "Locus Awards 1981". Science Fiction Awards Database. Retrieved 14 February 2018.
^ "Hugo Awards 1981". The Hugo Awards. Retrieved 14 February 2018.
^ "Balrog Awards 1981". Science Fiction Awards Database. Retrieved 14 February 2018.
^ "Seiun Award". The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction. Retrieved 14 February 2018.
^ Schlender, Brent (17 May 2006). "Pixar's magic man". Fortune. Retrieved 12 February 2018.
^ Amidi, Amid (23 February 2011). "'Where the Wild Things Are': An Early CG Experiment by John Lasseter and Glen Keane". Cartoon Brew. Retrieved 12 February 2018.
^ Foreman, Liza (13 September 2012). "Waterman Gives 'Brave Little Toaster' a New Lease of Life (Exclusive)". The Wrap. Retrieved 12 February 2018.
vteThe Brave Little ToasterNovels
The Brave Little Toaster (1980)
The Brave Little Toaster Goes to Mars (1988)
Films
The Brave Little Toaster (1987)
The Brave Little Toaster to the Rescue (1997)
The Brave Little Toaster Goes to Mars (1998)
vteBSFA Award for the Best Short Fiction1969–1979
The Moment of Eclipse by Brian W. Aldiss (1970)
The Deathbird Stories by Harlan Ellison (1978)
"Palely Loitering" by Christopher Priest (1979)
1980–1989
"The Brave Little Toaster" by Thomas M. Disch (1980)
"Mythago Wood" by Robert Holdstock (1981)
"Kitemaster" by Keith Roberts (1982)
"After-Images" by Malcolm Edwards (1983)
"The Unconquered Country" by Geoff Ryman (1984)
"Cube Root" by David Langford (1985)
"Kaeti and the Hangman" by Keith Roberts (1986)
"Love Sickness" by Geoff Ryman (1987)
"Dark Night in Toyland" by Bob Shaw (1988)
"In Translation" by Lisa Tuttle (1989)
1990–1999
"The Original Doctor Shade" by Kim Newman (1990)
"Bad Timing" by Molly Brown (1991)
"Innocent" by Ian McDonald (1992)
"The Ragthorn" by Robert Holdstock and Garry Kilworth (1993)
"The Double Felix" by Paul di Filippo (1994)
"The Hunger and Ecstasy of Vampires" by Brian Stableford (1995)
"A Crab Must Try" by Barrington J. Bayley (1996)
"War Birds" by Stephen Baxter (1997)
"La Cenerentola" by Gwyneth Jones (1998)
"Hunting the Slarque" by Eric Brown (1999)
2000–2009
"The Suspect Genome" by Peter F. Hamilton (2000)
"Children of Winter" by Eric Brown (2001)
"Coraline" by Neil Gaiman (2002)
"The Wolves in the Walls" by Neil Gaiman and Dave McKean (2003)
"Mayflower II" by Stephen Baxter (2004)
"Magic for Beginners" by Kelly Link (2005)
"The Djinn's Wife" by Ian McDonald (2006)
"Lighting Out" by Ken MacLeod (2007)
"Exhalation" by Ted Chiang (2008)
"The Beloved Time of Their Lives" by Ian Watson and Roberto Quaglia (2009)
2010–current
"The Ship Maker" by Aliette de Bodard (2010)
"The Copenhagen Interpretation" by Paul Cornell (2011)
"Adrift on the Sea of Rains" by Ian Sales (2012)
"Spin" by Nina Allan (2013)
"The Honey Trap" by Ruth E. J. Booth (2014)
"Three Cups of Grief, by Starlight" by Aliette de Bodard (2015)
"Liberty Bird" by Jaine Fenn (2016)
"The Enclave" by Anne Charnock (2017)
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Brave Little Toaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Brave_Little_Toaster"},{"link_name":"Thomas M. Disch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_M._Disch"},{"link_name":"tensor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tensor_lamp"},{"link_name":"lamp stand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_fixture"},{"link_name":"electric blanket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_blanket"},{"link_name":"radio alarm clock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alarm_clock"},{"link_name":"vacuum cleaner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_cleaner"},{"link_name":"toaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toaster"}],"text":"This article is about the novel. For the film, see The Brave Little Toaster.The Brave Little Toaster is a 1980 novella by American writer Thomas M. Disch intended for children or, as put by the author, a \"bedtime story for small appliances\". The story centers on a group of five household appliances—a tensor lamp stand, an electric blanket, an AM radio alarm clock, a vacuum cleaner and a toaster—on their quest to find their original owner referred to as the Master.","title":"The Brave Little Toaster (novel)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"home appliances","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_appliance"},{"link_name":"cottage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cottage"},{"link_name":"television set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television_set"},{"link_name":"blender","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blender"},{"link_name":"oral irrigator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_irrigator"},{"link_name":"telephone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone"},{"link_name":"stereo system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereophonic_sound"},{"link_name":"world clock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_clock"},{"link_name":"office chair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_chair"},{"link_name":"casters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caster"},{"link_name":"automotive battery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automotive_battery"},{"link_name":"Volkswagen Beetle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volkswagen_Beetle"},{"link_name":"woods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forest"},{"link_name":"highway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highway"},{"link_name":"rainstorm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rain"},{"link_name":"daisy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteraceae"},{"link_name":"verse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verse_(poetry)"},{"link_name":"reflection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirror_image"},{"link_name":"tent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tent"},{"link_name":"squirrels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squirrel"},{"link_name":"gender","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender"},{"link_name":"river","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River"},{"link_name":"boat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boat"},{"link_name":"I Whistle a Happy Tune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Whistle_a_Happy_Tune"},{"link_name":"baby buggy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baby_transport"},{"link_name":"ghost","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost"},{"link_name":"hay fever","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allergic_rhinitis"},{"link_name":"kittens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitten"},{"link_name":"fur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fur"},{"link_name":"antihistamines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antihistamine"}],"text":"The story opens with a description of five members of a family of minor home appliances left in the cottage, listed from oldest to youngest. They are each given a personality. As the oldest, the vacuum cleaner is steady and dependable, the plastic AM radio alarm clock, the yellow electric blanket (cheerful), the tensor lamp stand (somewhat neurotic whether it, as an incentive from a savings bank, was better than a store-bought equivalent) and the sunbeam toaster (bright). The cottage itself is on the northernmost edge of an immense forest and the appliances have grown used to seasonal use, with some of the master's other appliances (such as the black and white television set, the blender, the oral irrigator, the telephone, the stereo system and the world clock) annually returning to the city with their master each Labor Day.One spring day, after \"two years, five months, and thirteen days\" without the master, though, the appliances begin to suspect they have been abandoned. A few months later, the toaster tells the others \"We need people to take care of, and we need people to take care of us\" and retells the story of an abandoned dog who had accidentally been left behind in a summer cottage, like themselves, but still \"found his way to his master, hundreds of miles away\". The appliances plan to do the same as soon as they can all travel safely together. Although the hoover, while being strong and self-propelled, could take the other appliances, it still needed a source of power other than the wall outlet.But before any of the small appliances who may be listening to this tale should begin to think that they might do the same thing, let them be warned: ELECTRICITY IS VERY DANGEROUS. Never play with old batteries! Never put your plug in a strange socket! And if you are in any doubt about the voltage of the current where you are living, ask a major appliance.Their transportation needs are solved by fitting an old metal office chair with casters from the bed upstairs and rigging it with an old automotive battery from the Volkswagen Beetle to power the hoover, who will tow the other appliances. Suitably equipped, they set out through the woods since, even though the highway would otherwise be faster, \"whenever human beings are observing them they must remain perfectly still\".During their first afternoon in the woods, the appliances stop to rest in a meadow after a brief rainstorm. The toaster is surprised by a daisy who speaks only in verse (\"daisies, being among the simpler flowers, characteristically employ a rough sort of octosyllabic doggerel\") to declare its love for the toaster, having fallen in love with its reflection in the toaster's chrome side. As the toaster excuses itself to rejoin its appliance friends, the daisy begs the toaster to \"Pluck me and take me where you're bound. / I cannot live without you here: / Then let your bosom be my bier\". Shocked, the toaster leaves the daisy in the ground and returns to the appliances, where the blanket folds itself into a tent to shelter the others.The next night the appliances run into Harold and Marjorie, married squirrels. The squirrels and appliances have an awkward encounter when the squirrels first ask what gender the appliances are (they aren't), followed by an exchange of inappropriate jokes which neither group find funny. During the night, another rainstorm blows the blanket into the trees above, where it is stuck until the squirrels help it down the following morning. To thank the squirrels for their help, the toaster roasts some nuts, and the blanket plugs into the battery to dry out and warm the squirrels.After leaving the squirrels, the journey of the appliances comes to an abrupt stop at the unexpected obstacle of a wide river. The hoover suffers a panic attack and starts chewing its own cord, calming down only after the toaster led the hoover back and forth across the grassy bank of the river in regular carpet-sweeping swathes. The appliances consult a map and discovering how close they are now to the city where their master lives, excitedly hatch a plan to follow the river until they find a bridge to cross it and then, as the toaster explains, \"when it's very late and there's no traffic, we can make a dash for it!\" Once they begin their search for a crossing, the chair overturns after one leg gets stuck in mud and one caster comes off.As the appliances search for the lost caster, the blanket discovers a boat, which the hoover declares they will use to cross the river. The toaster objects, saying this makes them no better than pirates, who \"are the bane of an appliance's existence, since once an appliance has been spirited away by a pirate, it has no choice but to serve its bidding just as though it were that appliance's legitimate master. [...] Truly, there is no fate, even obsolescence, so terrible as falling into the hands of pirates\". As the toaster continues to argue with the other four appliances, who have already boarded the boat, the owner of the boat returns and, thinking that whoever had placed the appliances in the boat was intending to steal his boat, decides to retaliate by stealing the appliances instead. After taking the battery off to save it, the pirate throws the office chair into the river, then takes them to his home across the river at the City Dump.The Dump itself is likened to a graveyard for defective and obsolescent appliances, a horrible vision of rusted junk and broken parts. The pirate reviews the condition of each appliance and declares them junk one-by-one, discarding all save the radio, which he takes into his shack. Outside the shack, the appliances hatch a plan to frighten the pirate so they can rescue the radio, who has been playing cheerful tunes, in what the toaster believes is a deliberate attempt to keep them optimistic, especially since one of the songs was \"I Whistle a Happy Tune\", the toaster's favorite. The appliances outside also find a baby buggy in good repair, which they plan to use to complete their journey.They pose as a ghost, with the blanket shrouding the toaster, perched atop the hoover. It makes ghostly noises to lure the pirate out of his shack, and at the instant he looks at the hooded figure, the lamp turns on and the pirate sees his face reflected in the toaster's chrome side. The pirate, upon seeing his corrupted reflection, concludes the ghost is \"the kind that understand exactly who we are and knows all the wrong things we've done and intends to punish us for them\" and flees in terror. Before he returns, the appliances escape in the buggy to where their master lives, only a mile or so from the Dump.At the apartment on Newton Avenue, the appliances are greeted by their appliance friends, old and new, where they learn the master has not returned to the cottage because of his new companion (referred to as \"the mistress\"), who has caused them to move their vacations from the cottage, \"where there is bound to be ragweed and pollen and such\" which would exacerbate the mistress's hay fever, to the seaside, and further, the master intends to sell the cottage, along with the appliances inside. While deciding what to do next, the five appliances spend the night in the apartment, where the Singer sewing machine repairs the rips in the blanket and the toaster tells the tale of their long journey.The next afternoon, with the five appliances freshly cleaned, they listen to the radio program The Swap Shop, which advertises the five appliances are available if \"you should have a real and genuine need for all five of these fine appliances, since their present owner wants them to be able to stay together. For sentimental reasons!\" It is the toaster's final plan to help the group of five, and the first to call is \"an elderly, impoverished ballerina\" from Center Street who trades five black-and-white kittens for the five appliances. Although the mistress is allergic to cat fur, she decides to take more antihistamines and keep the cats. The five appliances \"lived and worked, happy and fulfilled, serving their dear mistress and enjoying each other's companionship, to the end of their days\".","title":"Plot summary"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brave_Little_Toaster.jpg"},{"link_name":"The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Magazine_of_Fantasy_and_Science_Fiction"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"science fiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_fiction"},{"link_name":"fantasy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantasy"},{"link_name":"Hugo Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_Award"},{"link_name":"Nebula Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nebula_Award"},{"link_name":"Locus Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locus_Award"},{"link_name":"Seiun Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seiun_Award"},{"link_name":"British SF Association Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSFA_award"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Disney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Walt_Disney_Company"},{"link_name":"Doubleday","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doubleday_(publisher)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"The second publication cover, art by Karen Lee Schmidt.The story first appeared as a novella in the August 1980 issue of The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction.[1] Although appearing in a general circulation magazine, the story was written in the style of a children's fable. It was one of the most popular science fiction and fantasy stories of the early 1980s and nominated for both a Hugo Award and a Nebula Award for Best Novella. It also won a Locus Award, Seiun Award and British SF Association Award.[2] It was later published as a book in May 1986.[3]Disch said that he was unable to publish the story as a children's book at first, because publishers thought the concept of talking appliances was too \"far-fetched\", even after Disch had sold it to Disney as a film; Doubleday finally published it as a part of a five-book contract.[4]","title":"Development"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Anna Quindlen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Quindlen"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"The Brave Little Toaster was well received by critics.[5] Anna Quindlen, while writing for The New York Times, called it \"a wonderful book for a certain sort of eccentric adult. You know who you are. Buy it for your children; read it yourself\" and also suggested that the book lacked a clearly defined audience.[6]","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Awards and honors","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"John Lasseter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lasseter"},{"link_name":"Disney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Walt_Disney_Company"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Glen Keane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glen_Keane"},{"link_name":"Where the Wild Things Are","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Where_the_Wild_Things_Are"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Joe Ranft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Ranft"},{"link_name":"Hyperion Pictures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperion_Pictures"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"The Brave Little Toaster Goes to Mars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Brave_Little_Toaster_Goes_to_Mars"},{"link_name":"The Brave Little Toaster to the Rescue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Brave_Little_Toaster_to_the_Rescue"}],"text":"John Lasseter learned about the novella from a friend and convinced Tom Wilhite to purchase the film rights in the early 1980s for Disney. Lasseter pitched a 30-second clip, featuring traditional two-dimensional cel animation with three-dimensional computer-generated backgrounds to Disney executives in 1983, but was told that since the cost and time savings over an animated film made through traditional methods were negligible, they were not interested in pursuing the project. As Lasseter recalled years later, he had gone around some of his direct superiors in his enthusiasm to pitch the project, making enemies in doing so, and he was fired from Disney ten minutes after his pitch was rejected.[13] The Disney Newsreel, an internal newsletter, highlighted the work of Lasseter and Glen Keane in June 1983, describing the process of animating scenes from Where the Wild Things Are as a test for the future Brave Little Toaster film.[14]In 1987, the novel was adapted by Disch and Joe Ranft as a conventionally animated feature film under Hyperion Pictures, which was founded by Wilhite.[15] The film contains many differences from the book but is essentially the same story, although the ending differs. In the novel, the appliances trade themselves away to an old ballerina who needs them, while in the film, they are reunited with their former master (named \"Rob\" in the film).Disch later wrote a sequel titled The Brave Little Toaster Goes to Mars in which the Brave Little Toaster and his companions travel to Mars to stop an invasion from hostile appliances who have a colony there. This too was made into a film. There was also a third film in the series named The Brave Little Toaster to the Rescue, which is set chronologically between the two books, but is not based directly on one.","title":"Film adaptations and sequels"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"The Brave Little Toaster: A Bedtime Story for Small Appliances\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/title.cgi?49671"},{"link_name":"\"Il Bravo Piccolo Tostapane\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/title.cgi?1418307"},{"link_name":"\"Le brave petit grille-pain\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/title.cgi?1776282"},{"link_name":"Thomas M. Dish: anthologie réunie et prés. par Patrice Duvic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/title.cgi?1592097"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2-266-00995-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-266-00995-8"},{"link_name":"Fenster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/title.cgi?1725145"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"3-453-30752-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-453-30752-6"},{"link_name":"The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction: 24th Series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/pl.cgi?35677"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-684-17490-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-17490-7"},{"link_name":"The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction: 24th Series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/pl.cgi?35717"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-441-05485-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-441-05485-5"},{"link_name":"La Signora degli scarafaggi e altri 22 racconti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/title.cgi?1583359"},{"link_name":"—","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_M._Disch"},{"link_name":"The Brave Little Toaster: A Bedtime Story for Small Appliances","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/bravelittletoast0000disc"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-385-23050-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-23050-6"},{"link_name":"—","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_M._Disch"},{"link_name":"The Brave Little Toaster: A Bedtime Story for Small Appliances","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/pl.cgi?194509"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-246-13080-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-246-13080-8"},{"link_name":"—","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_M._Disch"},{"link_name":"The Brave Little Toaster Goes to Mars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/bravelittletoast00disc"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-385-24162-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-24162-5"}],"sub_title":"Printed versions","text":"Novella— (August 1980). \"The Brave Little Toaster: A Bedtime Story for Small Appliances\". The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction. (magazine publication)\n— (March 1981). \"Il Bravo Piccolo Tostapane\". Urania. No. 878. (Italian translation)\n— (May 1981). \"Le brave petit grille-pain\". Fiction. No. 318. Translated by Lemoine, Daniel. (French translation)\n— (November 1981). \"Le valiant petit grille-pain\". Thomas M. Dish: anthologie réunie et prés. par Patrice Duvic. Translated by Pugi, Jean-Pierre. Presses Pocket. ISBN 2-266-00995-8. (paperback anthology with French translation)\n— (December 1981). \"いさましいちびのトースター\". SF Magazine. Translated by 浅倉久志 (Asakura Hisashi). (Japanese translation)\n— (1982). \"Tapferer kleiner Toaster\". Fenster. Translated by Winter, Biggy. Heyne. ISBN 3-453-30752-6. (paperback anthology with German translation)\nFerman, Edward L., ed. (1982). The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction: 24th Series. Scribner. ISBN 978-0-684-17490-7. (hardcover anthology reprint of novella)\nFerman, Edward L., ed. (1983). The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction: 24th Series. Ace Books. ISBN 978-0-441-05485-5. (paperback anthology reprint of novella)\n— (1984). \"Il bravo piccolo tostapane. Una favola per elettrodomestici\". La Signora degli scarafaggi e altri 22 racconti. Arnoldo Mondadori. (paperback anthology with Italian translation)Chapter books— Schmidt, Karen (illus). (1986). The Brave Little Toaster: A Bedtime Story for Small Appliances. Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-23050-6. (book publication)\n— Schmidt, Karen (illus). (1986). The Brave Little Toaster: A Bedtime Story for Small Appliances. Grafton Books. ISBN 978-0-246-13080-8. (UK book publication) UPC 780246 130808\n— (1988). The Brave Little Toaster Goes to Mars. Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-24162-5.","title":"Film adaptations and sequels"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Brave Little Toaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Brave_Little_Toaster"},{"link_name":"The Brave Little Toaster to the Rescue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Brave_Little_Toaster_to_the_Rescue"},{"link_name":"The Brave Little Toaster Goes to Mars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Brave_Little_Toaster_Goes_to_Mars"}],"sub_title":"Film adaptations","text":"The Brave Little Toaster, 1987 (adaptation of the novel)\nThe Brave Little Toaster to the Rescue, 1997 (not based on printed work)\nThe Brave Little Toaster Goes to Mars, 1998 (adaptation of the novel)","title":"Film adaptations and sequels"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"light","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light"},{"link_name":"light bulb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incandescent_lamp"},{"link_name":"daisy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bellis_perennis"}],"text":"The Toaster\nA gallant Sunbeam pop-up two-slice toaster.\nThe Lamp\nA tensor gooseneck desktop lamp stand that shines a bright light from his light bulb.\nThe Electric Blanket\nA shy but cheerful yellow electric blanket with a childlike manner.\nThe AM Radio Alarm Clock\nAn off-white plastic vacuum-tube-based prototype amplitude modulation radiotelegraphic alarm clock.\nThe Old Vacuum Cleaner\nA big, strong hoover upright vacuum cleaner.\nThe Daisy\nA daisy who can only speak in verse. She mistakes her reflection in the toaster as her male counterpart and falls in love.\nHarold and Marjorie\nA pair of squirrels whom the appliances meet in the forest. They help the blanket out of a tree after being blown away in a storm. They are unable to comprehend the idea of appliances or the fact that they have no gender, although they are fascinated by the blanket's warmth and the toaster's ability to roast acorns.\nThe Pirate\nA man who finds the appliances (just as they are about to use his boat to cross a river). He takes them back to the city dump by throwing all of the appliances, except the Radio, into the heap. The toaster plans an escape for them all by having the four of them pretend to be a ghost and scare the man away.\nThe Master\nThe former owner of the five appliances, whom they all revere. The appliances eventually learn that he has a mistress, and that they spend their holidays out at sea instead of the cottage because of the woman's hay fever. They also learn that the cottage will be sold and they will each be auctioned off soon. Coming to terms with having fulfilled their duty for the master, they look for a new home where they will be needed and can stay together.\nThe Ballerina\nA woman who trades the appliances on a radio show for her kittens.","title":"Characters"}]
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[{"image_text":"The second publication cover, art by Karen Lee Schmidt.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c8/Brave_Little_Toaster.jpg/220px-Brave_Little_Toaster.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Children's literature portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Children%27s_literature"}]
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[{"reference":"— (August 1980). \"The Brave Little Toaster: A Bedtime Story for Small Appliances\". The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/title.cgi?49671","url_text":"\"The Brave Little Toaster: A Bedtime Story for Small Appliances\""}]},{"reference":"— (March 1981). \"Il Bravo Piccolo Tostapane\". Urania. No. 878.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/title.cgi?1418307","url_text":"\"Il Bravo Piccolo Tostapane\""}]},{"reference":"— (May 1981). \"Le brave petit grille-pain\". Fiction. No. 318. Translated by Lemoine, Daniel.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/title.cgi?1776282","url_text":"\"Le brave petit grille-pain\""}]},{"reference":"— (November 1981). \"Le valiant petit grille-pain\". Thomas M. Dish: anthologie réunie et prés. par Patrice Duvic. Translated by Pugi, Jean-Pierre. Presses Pocket. ISBN 2-266-00995-8.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/title.cgi?1592097","url_text":"Thomas M. Dish: anthologie réunie et prés. par Patrice Duvic"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-266-00995-8","url_text":"2-266-00995-8"}]},{"reference":"— (December 1981). \"いさましいちびのトースター\". SF Magazine. Translated by 浅倉久志 (Asakura Hisashi).","urls":[]},{"reference":"— (1982). \"Tapferer kleiner Toaster\". Fenster. Translated by Winter, Biggy. Heyne. ISBN 3-453-30752-6.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/title.cgi?1725145","url_text":"Fenster"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-453-30752-6","url_text":"3-453-30752-6"}]},{"reference":"Ferman, Edward L., ed. (1982). The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction: 24th Series. Scribner. ISBN 978-0-684-17490-7.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/pl.cgi?35677","url_text":"The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction: 24th Series"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-17490-7","url_text":"978-0-684-17490-7"}]},{"reference":"Ferman, Edward L., ed. (1983). The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction: 24th Series. Ace Books. ISBN 978-0-441-05485-5.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/pl.cgi?35717","url_text":"The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction: 24th Series"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-441-05485-5","url_text":"978-0-441-05485-5"}]},{"reference":"— (1984). \"Il bravo piccolo tostapane. Una favola per elettrodomestici\". La Signora degli scarafaggi e altri 22 racconti. Arnoldo Mondadori.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/title.cgi?1583359","url_text":"La Signora degli scarafaggi e altri 22 racconti"}]},{"reference":"— Schmidt, Karen (illus). (1986). The Brave Little Toaster: A Bedtime Story for Small Appliances. Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-23050-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_M._Disch","url_text":"—"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/bravelittletoast0000disc","url_text":"The Brave Little Toaster: A Bedtime Story for Small Appliances"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-23050-6","url_text":"978-0-385-23050-6"}]},{"reference":"— Schmidt, Karen (illus). (1986). The Brave Little Toaster: A Bedtime Story for Small Appliances. Grafton Books. ISBN 978-0-246-13080-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_M._Disch","url_text":"—"},{"url":"http://www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/pl.cgi?194509","url_text":"The Brave Little Toaster: A Bedtime Story for Small Appliances"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-246-13080-8","url_text":"978-0-246-13080-8"}]},{"reference":"— (1988). The Brave Little Toaster Goes to Mars. Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-24162-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_M._Disch","url_text":"—"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/bravelittletoast00disc","url_text":"The Brave Little Toaster Goes to Mars"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-24162-5","url_text":"978-0-385-24162-5"}]},{"reference":"Disch, Thomas M. (August 1980). \"The Brave Little Toaster\". The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction. Vol. 59, no. 2. Cornwell, Connecticut.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Obituary: Thomas M. Disch\". sffworld.com. 2008-07-10. Retrieved 2009-01-14.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.sffworld.com/news/575.html","url_text":"\"Obituary: Thomas M. Disch\""}]},{"reference":"\"Obituary: Thomas M. Disch\". Locus Publications. 2008-07-06. Retrieved 2009-01-14.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.locusmag.com/2008/Disch_Obit.html","url_text":"\"Obituary: Thomas M. Disch\""}]},{"reference":"Horwich, David (2001-07-30). \"Interview: Thomas M. Disch\". Strange Horizons. Retrieved 2009-01-14.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.strangehorizons.com/2001/20010730/interview.shtml","url_text":"\"Interview: Thomas M. Disch\""}]},{"reference":"\"Tom Disch (Thomas M. Disch) (1940 - 2008)\". Poetry Foundation. Retrieved 2009-01-14.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.poetryfoundation.org/archive/poet.html?id=80598","url_text":"\"Tom Disch (Thomas M. Disch) (1940 - 2008)\""}]},{"reference":"Quindlen, Anna (1986-04-20). \"CHILDREN'S BOOKS\". The New York Times. Retrieved 2009-01-14.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1986/04/20/books/children-s-books-058586.html","url_text":"\"CHILDREN'S BOOKS\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"}]},{"reference":"\"BSFA Awards\". The British Science Fiction Association. Retrieved 14 February 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bsfa.co.uk/bsfa-awards/","url_text":"\"BSFA Awards\""}]},{"reference":"\"1980 Nebula Awards\". Science Fiction & Fantasy Writers of America. Retrieved 14 February 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://nebulas.sfwa.org/award-year/1980/","url_text":"\"1980 Nebula Awards\""}]},{"reference":"\"Locus Awards 1981\". Science Fiction Awards Database. Retrieved 14 February 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.sfadb.com/Locus_Awards_1981","url_text":"\"Locus Awards 1981\""}]},{"reference":"\"Hugo Awards 1981\". The Hugo Awards. Retrieved 14 February 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.thehugoawards.org/hugo-history/1981-hugo-awards/","url_text":"\"Hugo Awards 1981\""}]},{"reference":"\"Balrog Awards 1981\". Science Fiction Awards Database. Retrieved 14 February 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.sfadb.com/Balrog_Awards_1981","url_text":"\"Balrog Awards 1981\""}]},{"reference":"\"Seiun Award\". The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction. Retrieved 14 February 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.sf-encyclopedia.com/entry/seiun_award","url_text":"\"Seiun Award\""}]},{"reference":"Schlender, Brent (17 May 2006). \"Pixar's magic man\". Fortune. Retrieved 12 February 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://archive.fortune.com/2006/05/15/magazines/fortune/pixar_futureof_fortune_052906/index.htm","url_text":"\"Pixar's magic man\""}]},{"reference":"Amidi, Amid (23 February 2011). \"'Where the Wild Things Are': An Early CG Experiment by John Lasseter and Glen Keane\". Cartoon Brew. Retrieved 12 February 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cartoonbrew.com/disney/early-cg-experiments-by-john-lasseter-and-glen-keane-37145.html","url_text":"\"'Where the Wild Things Are': An Early CG Experiment by John Lasseter and Glen Keane\""}]},{"reference":"Foreman, Liza (13 September 2012). \"Waterman Gives 'Brave Little Toaster' a New Lease of Life (Exclusive)\". The Wrap. Retrieved 12 February 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thewrap.com/waterman-gives-brave-little-toaster-new-lease-life-exclusive-56236/","url_text":"\"Waterman Gives 'Brave Little Toaster' a New Lease of Life (Exclusive)\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proskovice_(Ostrava)
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Proskovice (Ostrava)
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["1 History","2 References"]
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Coordinates: 49°45′10″N 18°11′56″E / 49.7527°N 18.1990°E / 49.7527; 18.1990This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Proskovice" Ostrava – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
A cross in Proskovice
Proskovice on the map of Ostrava
Proskovice is a village and administrative part of Ostrava in the Moravian-Silesian Region of the Czech Republic It has about 1,200 inhabitants. Proskovice is located on the southwestern edge of Ostrava.
History
The first approved written reference appeared in the book of Roman Catholic Archdiocese. The patron for Proskovice is Saint Florian.
In 1394 it was an agricultural village. Since 24 November 1990, it has been a part of the city of Ostrava Even though Proskovice became a district of Ostrava the number of people living there stayed almost the same.
References
^ "Základní data". ostrava.cz. City of Ostrava. Retrieved 13 December 2016.
49°45′10″N 18°11′56″E / 49.7527°N 18.1990°E / 49.7527; 18.1990
Authority control databases: National
Czech Republic
This Moravian-Silesian Region location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orator
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Orator
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["1 Etymology","2 History","3 Orators","3.1 Classical era","3.2 18th Century and later","4 Notes","5 References","6 External links"]
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Public speaker
For other uses, see Orator (disambiguation).
See also: Public speaking and Rhetoric
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An orator giving a speech at a keynote in Prague.
Part of a series onRhetoric
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Ancient Greece
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Topics (c. 350 BC)
De Inventione (84 BC)
Rhetorica ad Herennium (80 BC)
De Oratore (55 BC)
A Dialogue Concerning Oratorical Partitions (c. 50 BC)
De Optimo Genere Oratorum (46 BC)
Orator (46 BC)
On the Sublime (c. 50)
Institutio Oratoria (95)
Panegyrici Latini (100–400)
Dialogus de oratoribus (102)
De doctrina Christiana (426)
De vulgari eloquentia (1305)
Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style (1521)
Language as Symbolic Action (1966)
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vte
An orator, or oratist, is a public speaker, especially one who is eloquent or skilled.
Etymology
Recorded in English c. 1374, with a meaning of "one who pleads or argues for a cause", from Anglo-French oratour, Old French orateur (14th century), Latin orator ("speaker"), from orare ("speak before a court or assembly; plead"), derived from a Proto-Indo-European base *or- ("to pronounce a ritual formula").
The modern meaning of the word, "public speaker", is attested from c. 1430.
History
In ancient Rome, the art of speaking in public (Ars Oratoria) was a professional competence especially cultivated by politicians and lawyers. As the Greeks were still seen as the masters in this field, as in philosophy and most sciences, the leading Roman families often either sent their sons to study these things under a famous master in Greece (as was the case with the young Julius Caesar), or engaged a Greek teacher (under pay or as a slave).
In the young revolutionary French Republic, Orateur (French for "orator") was the formal title for the delegated members of the Tribunat to the Corps législatif, similar to the role of a "Parliamentary Speaker," to motivate their ruling on a presented bill.
In the 19th century, orators and historians and speakers such as Mark Twain, Charles Dickens, and Col. Robert G. Ingersoll were major providers of popular entertainment.
A pulpit orator is a Christian author, often a clergyman, renowned for their ability to write or deliver (from the pulpit in church, hence the word) rhetorically skilled religious sermons.
In some universities, the title 'Orator' is given to the official whose task it is to give speeches on ceremonial occasions, such as the presentation of honorary degrees.
Orators
The following is a list of those who have been noted as famous specifically for their oratory abilities, or for a particularly famous speech or speeches. Most religious leaders and politicians (by nature of their office) may give many speeches, as may those who support or oppose a particular issue. A list of all such leaders would be prohibitively long.
Classical era
The ten Attic orators (Greece)
Demosthenes, champion of the Philippic
Aeschines
Andocides
Antiphon
Dinarchus
Hypereides
Lysias
Isaeus
Isocrates
Lycurgus of Athens
Aristogeiton
Claudius Aelianus, meliglossos, 'honey-tongued'
Cicero
Corax of Syracuse
Gaius Scribonius Curio, praetor urbanus in Roman Republic c. 121 BC
Gorgias
Hegesippus, Athenian
Julius Caesar, Roman dictator
Licinius Macer Calvus, Roman poet and orator
Marcus Antonius (orator), Roman
Pericles, Athenian statesman
Quintilian
Quintus Hortensius
John Chrysostom (literally golden-mouthed), Christian preacher
18th Century and later
Allied leaders of World War II:
Winston Churchill (British Prime Minister)
Franklin D. Roosevelt (US President)
Charles de Gaulle (Free French general; later President of France)
Douglas MacArthur (US General of the Army) - Farewell Speech to Congress
Manuel L. Quezon (Philippine President)
Axis leaders of World War II:
Adolf Hitler (Führer of Nazi Germany)
Benito Mussolini (Il Duce of Fascist Italy)
Joseph Goebbels (Nazi Propaganda Minister)
The U.S. 19th century Great Triumvirate:
Henry Clay
John C. Calhoun
Daniel Webster
Independence and civil rights leaders
Jawaharlal Nehru - Tryst with Destiny
William Jennings Bryan - Cross of Gold speech
Frederick Douglass - Self-Made Men
Patrick Henry - Give me Liberty, or give me Death!
Martin Luther King Jr. - I Have A Dream
Sojourner Truth - Ain't I a Woman?
Malcolm X - The Ballot or the Bullet
Nelson Mandela - I Am Prepared to Die
Sukarno - Indonesia Accuses
Presidents of the United States
Abraham Lincoln - Gettysburg Address
John F. Kennedy - Inaugural Address
Richard M. Nixon - Checkers speech (while Vice President)
Ronald Reagan - Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!
Barack H. Obama - A More Perfect Union (speech)
Ralph Waldo Emerson - The American Scholar
Margaret Thatcher - The lady's not for turning
Rufus Choate
Robert G. Ingersoll
John Neal, first American orator on women's rights
Notes
^ "orator | Definition of orator in English by Oxford Dictionaries". Oxford Dictionaries | English. Archived from the original on September 6, 2017. Retrieved 2018-06-05.
^ African American Orators: A Bio-Critical Sourcebook, edited by Richard W. Leeman, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1996. ISBN 0-313-29014-8
^ Daggett, Windsor (1920). A Down-East Yankee From the District of Maine. Portland, Maine: A.J. Huston. p. 30. OCLC 1048477735.
^ Sears, Donald A. (1978). John Neal. Boston, Massachusetts: Twayne Publishers. p. 98. ISBN 9780805772302.
References
Catholic Encyclopaedia (passim)
1911 Encyclopædia Britannica (passim)
EtymologyOnLine
African American Orators: A Bio-Critical Sourcebook, edited by Richard W. Leeman, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1996. ISBN 0-313-29014-8
The Will of a People: A Critical Anthology of Great Speeches by African Americans, edited with critical introductions by Richard W. Leeman and Bernard K. Duffy, Southern Illinois University Press, 2012. ISBN 0-8093-3057-1 | ISBN 978-0-8093-3057-7
American Orators of the Twentieth Century: Critical Studies and Sources, edited by Bernard K. Duffy and Halford R. Ryan, Greenwood, 1987. ISBN 0-313-24843-5 ISBN 978-0-313-24843-6
American Orators Before 1900: Critical Studies and Sources, edited by Bernard K. Duffy and Halford R. Ryan, Greenwood, 1987. ISBN 0-313-25129-0 ISBN 978-0-313-25129-0
American Voices: An Encyclopedia of Contemporary Orators, edited by Bernard K. Duffy and Richard W. Leeman, Greewnood, 1987. ISBN 0-313-32790-4 ISBN 978-0-313-32790-2
Women Public Speakers in the United States, 1800–1925: A Bio-Critical Sourcebook, edited by Karlyn Kohrs Campbell, Greenwood, 1993. ISBN 0-313-27533-5 ISBN 978-0-313-27533-3
American Voices, Significant Speeches in American History: 1640–1945, edited by James Andrews and David Zarefsky, Longman Publishing Group, 1989. ISBN 0-8013-0217-X ISBN 978-0-8013-0217-6
Contemporary American Voices: Significant Speeches in American History, 1945–Present, edited by James R. Andrews and David Zarefsky, Longman Publishing Group, 1991. ISBN 0-8013-0218-8 ISBN 978-0-8013-0218-3
Contemporary American Public Discourse. 3rd Edition. edited by Halford Ross Ryan, Waveland Press, 1991. ISBN 0-88133-629-7 | ISBN 978-0-88133-629-0
External links
Look up orator in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Voices of Democracy
American Rhetoric
Authority control databases: National
France
BnF data
Germany
2
Israel
United States
Czech Republic
2
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Ingersoll","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_G._Ingersoll"},{"link_name":"popular entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_entertainment"},{"link_name":"pulpit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulpit"},{"link_name":"sermons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sermon"},{"link_name":"universities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University"},{"link_name":"honorary degrees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honorary_degrees"}],"text":"In ancient Rome, the art of speaking in public (Ars Oratoria) was a professional competence especially cultivated by politicians and lawyers. As the Greeks were still seen as the masters in this field, as in philosophy and most sciences, the leading Roman families often either sent their sons to study these things under a famous master in Greece (as was the case with the young Julius Caesar), or engaged a Greek teacher (under pay or as a slave).[citation needed]In the young revolutionary French Republic, Orateur (French for \"orator\") was the formal title for the delegated members of the Tribunat to the Corps législatif, similar to the role of a \"Parliamentary Speaker,\" to motivate their ruling on a presented bill.In the 19th century, orators and historians and speakers such as Mark Twain, Charles Dickens, and Col. Robert G. Ingersoll were major providers of popular entertainment.A pulpit orator is a Christian author, often a clergyman, renowned for their ability to write or deliver (from the pulpit in church, hence the word) rhetorically skilled religious sermons.In some universities, the title 'Orator' is given to the official whose task it is to give speeches on ceremonial occasions, such as the presentation of honorary degrees.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Classical era","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_antiquity"},{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Orator&action=edit§ion=4"},{"link_name":"Attic orators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attic_orators"},{"link_name":"Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece"},{"link_name":"Demosthenes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demosthenes"},{"link_name":"Philippic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippic"},{"link_name":"Aeschines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeschines"},{"link_name":"Andocides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andocides"},{"link_name":"Antiphon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiphon_(person)"},{"link_name":"Dinarchus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinarchus"},{"link_name":"Hypereides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypereides"},{"link_name":"Lysias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysias"},{"link_name":"Isaeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaeus"},{"link_name":"Isocrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isocrates"},{"link_name":"Lycurgus of Athens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lycurgus_of_Athens"},{"link_name":"Aristogeiton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristogeiton_(orator)"},{"link_name":"Claudius Aelianus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claudius_Aelianus"},{"link_name":"Cicero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero"},{"link_name":"Corax of Syracuse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corax_of_Syracuse"},{"link_name":"Gaius Scribonius Curio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaius_Scribonius_Curio_(praetor_121_BC)"},{"link_name":"praetor urbanus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praetor#Praetor_urbanus"},{"link_name":"Roman Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Republic"},{"link_name":"Gorgias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorgias"},{"link_name":"Hegesippus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hegesippus_(orator)"},{"link_name":"Athenian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athenian"},{"link_name":"Julius Caesar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Caesar"},{"link_name":"Roman dictator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_dictator"},{"link_name":"Licinius Macer Calvus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Licinius_Macer_Calvus"},{"link_name":"Roman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Republic"},{"link_name":"Marcus Antonius (orator)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Antonius_(orator)"},{"link_name":"Roman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Republic"},{"link_name":"Pericles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pericles"},{"link_name":"Quintilian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintilian"},{"link_name":"Quintus Hortensius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintus_Hortensius"},{"link_name":"John Chrysostom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Chrysostom"},{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Orator&action=edit§ion=5"},{"link_name":"Allied","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_leaders_of_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Winston Churchill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winston_Churchill"},{"link_name":"British Prime Minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Franklin D. Roosevelt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt"},{"link_name":"US President","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Charles de Gaulle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle"},{"link_name":"Free French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_French_Forces"},{"link_name":"President of France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_France"},{"link_name":"Douglas MacArthur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_MacArthur"},{"link_name":"US General of the Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_of_the_Army_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Farewell Speech to Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/MacArthur%27s_Farewell_Speech_to_Congress"},{"link_name":"Manuel L. Quezon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuel_L._Quezon"},{"link_name":"Philippine President","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_Philippines"},{"link_name":"Axis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_leaders_of_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Adolf Hitler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Hitler"},{"link_name":"Führer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%BChrer"},{"link_name":"Nazi Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Germany"},{"link_name":"Benito Mussolini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini"},{"link_name":"Il Duce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Il_Duce"},{"link_name":"Fascist Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fascist_Italy_(1922%E2%80%931943)"},{"link_name":"Joseph Goebbels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Goebbels"},{"link_name":"Nazi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi"},{"link_name":"Propaganda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propaganda"},{"link_name":"Great Triumvirate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Triumvirate"},{"link_name":"Henry Clay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Clay"},{"link_name":"John C. Calhoun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_C._Calhoun"},{"link_name":"Daniel Webster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Webster"},{"link_name":"Jawaharlal Nehru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru"},{"link_name":"Tryst with Destiny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tryst_with_Destiny"},{"link_name":"William Jennings Bryan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan"},{"link_name":"Cross of Gold speech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross_of_Gold_speech"},{"link_name":"Frederick Douglass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Douglass"},{"link_name":"Self-Made Men","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-Made_Men_(Frederick_Douglass)"},{"link_name":"Patrick Henry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Henry"},{"link_name":"Give me Liberty, or give me Death!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Give_me_Liberty,_or_give_me_Death!"},{"link_name":"Martin Luther King Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr."},{"link_name":"I Have A Dream","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Have_A_Dream"},{"link_name":"Sojourner Truth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sojourner_Truth"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Leeman-2"},{"link_name":"Ain't I a Woman?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ain%27t_I_a_Woman%3F"},{"link_name":"Malcolm X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malcolm_X"},{"link_name":"The Ballot or the Bullet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ballot_or_the_Bullet"},{"link_name":"Nelson Mandela","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nelson_Mandela"},{"link_name":"I Am Prepared to Die","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Am_Prepared_to_Die"},{"link_name":"Sukarno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sukarno"},{"link_name":"Indonesia Accuses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia_Accuses"},{"link_name":"Presidents of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Abraham Lincoln","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln"},{"link_name":"Gettysburg Address","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gettysburg_Address"},{"link_name":"John F. Kennedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_F._Kennedy"},{"link_name":"Inaugural Address","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inaugural_address_of_John_F._Kennedy"},{"link_name":"Richard M. Nixon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_M._Nixon"},{"link_name":"Checkers speech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Checkers_speech"},{"link_name":"Vice President","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Ronald Reagan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Reagan"},{"link_name":"Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tear_down_this_wall!"},{"link_name":"Barack H. Obama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barack_H._Obama"},{"link_name":"A More Perfect Union (speech)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_More_Perfect_Union_(speech)"},{"link_name":"Ralph Waldo Emerson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson"},{"link_name":"The American Scholar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_American_Scholar"},{"link_name":"Margaret Thatcher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher"},{"link_name":"The lady's not for turning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_lady%27s_not_for_turning"},{"link_name":"Rufus Choate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rufus_Choate"},{"link_name":"Robert G. Ingersoll","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_G._Ingersoll"},{"link_name":"John Neal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Neal_(writer)"},{"link_name":"women's rights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%27s_rights"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"The following is a list of those who have been noted as famous specifically for their oratory abilities, or for a particularly famous speech or speeches. Most religious leaders and politicians (by nature of their office) may give many speeches, as may those who support or oppose a particular issue. A list of all such leaders would be prohibitively long.Classical era[edit]\nThe ten Attic orators (Greece)\nDemosthenes, champion of the Philippic\nAeschines\nAndocides\nAntiphon\nDinarchus\nHypereides\nLysias\nIsaeus\nIsocrates\nLycurgus of Athens\nAristogeiton\nClaudius Aelianus, meliglossos, 'honey-tongued'\nCicero\nCorax of Syracuse\nGaius Scribonius Curio, praetor urbanus in Roman Republic c. 121 BC\nGorgias\nHegesippus, Athenian\nJulius Caesar, Roman dictator\nLicinius Macer Calvus, Roman poet and orator\nMarcus Antonius (orator), Roman\nPericles, Athenian statesman\nQuintilian\nQuintus Hortensius\nJohn Chrysostom (literally golden-mouthed), Christian preacher\n\n\n18th Century and later[edit]\nAllied leaders of World War II:\nWinston Churchill (British Prime Minister)\nFranklin D. Roosevelt (US President)\nCharles de Gaulle (Free French general; later President of France)\nDouglas MacArthur (US General of the Army) - Farewell Speech to Congress\nManuel L. Quezon (Philippine President)\nAxis leaders of World War II:\nAdolf Hitler (Führer of Nazi Germany)\nBenito Mussolini (Il Duce of Fascist Italy)\nJoseph Goebbels (Nazi Propaganda Minister)\nThe U.S. 19th century Great Triumvirate:\nHenry Clay\nJohn C. Calhoun\nDaniel Webster\nIndependence and civil rights leaders\nJawaharlal Nehru - Tryst with Destiny\nWilliam Jennings Bryan - Cross of Gold speech\nFrederick Douglass - Self-Made Men\nPatrick Henry - Give me Liberty, or give me Death!\nMartin Luther King Jr. - I Have A Dream\nSojourner Truth[2] - Ain't I a Woman?\nMalcolm X - The Ballot or the Bullet\nNelson Mandela - I Am Prepared to Die\nSukarno - Indonesia Accuses\nPresidents of the United States\nAbraham Lincoln - Gettysburg Address\nJohn F. Kennedy - Inaugural Address\nRichard M. Nixon - Checkers speech (while Vice President)\nRonald Reagan - Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!\nBarack H. Obama - A More Perfect Union (speech)\nRalph Waldo Emerson - The American Scholar\nMargaret Thatcher - The lady's not for turning\nRufus Choate\nRobert G. Ingersoll\nJohn Neal, first American orator on women's rights[3][4]","title":"Orators"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"\"orator | Definition of orator in English by Oxford Dictionaries\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20170906173732/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/orator"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/orator"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Leeman_2-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-313-29014-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-29014-8"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"A Down-East Yankee From the District of Maine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/007921667"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1048477735","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/1048477735"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780805772302","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780805772302"}],"text":"^ \"orator | Definition of orator in English by Oxford Dictionaries\". Oxford Dictionaries | English. Archived from the original on September 6, 2017. Retrieved 2018-06-05.\n\n^ African American Orators: A Bio-Critical Sourcebook, edited by Richard W. Leeman, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1996. ISBN 0-313-29014-8\n\n^ Daggett, Windsor (1920). A Down-East Yankee From the District of Maine. Portland, Maine: A.J. Huston. p. 30. OCLC 1048477735.\n\n^ Sears, Donald A. (1978). John Neal. Boston, Massachusetts: Twayne Publishers. p. 98. ISBN 9780805772302.","title":"Notes"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cram_and_Ferguson_Architects
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Cram and Ferguson Architects
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["1 Historic projects","1.1 Religious architecture","1.2 Academic architecture","1.3 Residential, institutional, and commercial architecture","2 Recent projects","3 Awards","4 History","5 Firm names","6 Commenced employment","7 The team","8 References"]
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Cram and Ferguson Architects LLCFormerlyCram and Wentworth (1889-1890)
Cram, Wentworth and Goodhue (1890-1905)
Cram, Goodhue and Ferguson (1905-14)
Cram and Ferguson (1914-1958)
Hoyle, Doran and Berry (1958-92)
HDB/Cram and Ferguson (1992-2008)
Cram and Ferguson LLC (2008–present)Company typeLimited Liability CompanyFounded1889FounderRalph Adams CramHeadquartersConcord, Massachusetts, United StatesProductsArchitectural designOwnerEthan Anthony AIAWebsitehttps://www.cramandferguson.com/
Cram and Ferguson Architects is an architecture firm based in Concord, Massachusetts. The company was founded as a partnership in 1889 by the "preeminent American Ecclesiastical Gothicist" Ralph Adams Cram and Charles Francis Wentworth. In 1890 they were joined by Bertram Goodhue, who was made a partner in 1895.
The firm name has changed as partners have changed and names have included: Cram and Wentworth, Cram Goodhue and Wentworth, Cram Goodhue and Ferguson, Cram and Ferguson, Cram and Ferguson Architects, Hoyle, Doran and Berry and HDB/Cram and Ferguson all successor firms to the original partnership of Ralph Adams Cram and Charles Francis Wentworth.
Frank Ferguson, their structural engineer, was made a partner on Wentworth's death in 1905 making the firm one of the earliest A/E firms. Hoyle, Doran and Berry, Inc. the partnership formed by Alexander Hoyle and John Doran continuing the unbroken succession descending from original Cram collaborators in 1958, HDB/Cram and Ferguson was the partnership of David H. Hulihan long time employee of Cram and Ferguson and Ethan Anthony AIA. That partnership was reformed in 2008 on the retirement of President David H. Hulihan and the firm reverted to its traditional name of Cram and Ferguson Architects under the leadership of Ethan Anthony AIA.
In 1931, in Cram's waning years, Arthur Tappan North wrote in his Monograph on the firm's work:
Some architectural styles such as the Gothic manifestations in several countries, were invented for and dedicated to a specific use which has continued to this day in the original or modified forms. It was this continuity of use that was the basis of the conception of Cram and Wentworth and their successors, including Cram and Ferguson, of the ideal American church. A consistent adherence to this ideal did not in any manner prevent their work assuming a wide range of individual expressions, a testimony to their extensive knowledge and understanding, liberally expressed.
Among a very small number of American Architects, Ralph Adams Cram is a distinguished contributor to (architectural) literature, not confined to the purely technical aspects of architecture but to it sociological and philosophical attributes. Dr. Cram is equally distinguished for his contributions to architecture, which, although predominantly ecclesiastical in character, embrace many building projects of different types. While he has always been recognized as the senior member of the firm, he has always unselfishly accorded to his associates a full measure of credit for their cooperation and equal contributions to its successes.— Arthur Tappan North
Since 1990 Cram and Ferguson under the leadership of the American Architect; Ethan Anthony is completing new church and academic work including: the St. Thomas Aquinas University Church at the University of Virginia at Charlottesville, The Shrine of Our Lady of Good Voyage at Boston Seaport, Massachusetts and the St. Kateri Tekakwitha Catholic Church at Ridgway, Illinois. Major work the last fifteen years, the Benedictine Monastery of Syon Abbey on the Blue Ridge Parkway in Floyd, Virginia, The Phillips Chapel at the Canterbury School in Greensboro, North Carolina and The Edward's Chapel at The Casady School in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma.
Historic projects
Religious architecture
St. Thomas Church, New York, NY, 1907
The Cathedral Church of St. Paul in Detroit, MI, 1908-11
All Saints Church Ashmont – Dorchester, MA, 1891
Saint Paul's Episcopal Church – Brockton, MA, 1891-94
Swedenborgian Church, 1893 – Newton, MA
Church of Saint Peter and Paul – Fall River, MA, 1893
Christ Church – Hyde Park, MA, 1893
St. Luke's Church – Roxbury, MA, 1895
Second Congregational Church (Phillips Church) – Exeter, NH, 1895-98All Saints Church, Peterborough, NH, 1913–21
St. Stephen's Episcopal Church – Cohasset, MA, 1899
Emmanuel Church – Newport, RI, 1900
St. Paul's Episcopal Church – Chicago, IL, 1902
First Baptist Church – Pittsburgh, PA, 1902
All Saints Chapel, University of the South – Sewanee, TN, 1903
Christ Church Cathedral Competition (project) – Victoria, British Columbia, 1903
St. John in the Wilderness Episcopal Cathedral (project) – Denver, CO, 1903
First Unitarian Church – West Newton, MA, 1905
Westminster Presbyterian Church – Springfield, IL, 1905
All Saints Cathedral – Halifax, Nova Scotia, 1906
Calvary Episcopal Church – Pittsburgh, PA, 1906
Glens Falls Presbyterian Church – Glens Falls, NY, 1906
St. Thomas Episcopal Church – New York, NY, 1907
Trinity Memorial Church (now St. Andrew's) – Denver, CO, 1907
Church of the Covenant – Cleveland, OH, 1907
St. Paul's Episcopal Cathedral – Detroit, MI, 1908-11
Church and Rectory (project) – Guantanamo, Cuba, 1908
Russell Sage Memorial First Presbyterian Church – Far Rockaway, NY, 1908
St. Mary's Church – Walkerville, Ontario, 1908
Cathedral of the Incarnation (project) – Diocese of Baltimore, MD, 1908
Church of the Ascension – Montgomery, AL, 1910
St. James Episcopal Church – New York, NY, 1911-24
St. Paul's Episcopal Church – Malden, MA, 1911
Grace Episcopal Church Parish House – Manchester, NH, 1911
House of Hope Presbyterian Church – St. Paul, MN, 1916-26
Fourth Presbyterian Church – Chicago, IL, 1912
Church of the New Jerusalem – Bryn Athyn, PA 1912
First Presbyterian Church – Oakland, CA, 1912-13
All Saints Episcopal Church – Peterborough, NH, 1913-21
Trinity Episcopal Church (addition) – Princeton, NJ, 1914
Chapel for the Sisters of St. Anne – Arlington, MA, 1914
St. Elizabeth Chapel at Whitehall – Sudbury, MA, 1914
First Universalist Church – Somerville, MA, 1916
Ellingwood Funerary Chapel – Nahant, MA, 1919
St. James Church – Lake Delaware, NY, 1920
Trinity Episcopal Church – Houston, TX, 1920
Sacred Heart Church – Jersey City, NJ, 1921
Central Union Church – Honolulu, HI, 1922
East Liberty Presbyterian Church, Pittsburgh, PA, 1931First Presbyterian Church – Tacoma, WA, 1923
Trinity Methodist Episcopal Church – Durham, NC, 1923
First Presbyterian Church – Jamestown, NY, 1923
St. Paul's Episcopal Church – Yonkers, NY, 1924
Cathedral of St. John the Divine – New York, NY, 1925-31
St. Mary's Catholic Church – Detroit, MI, 1925
Emmanuel Church (project) – Rockford, IL, 1927
St. Paul's Church – Winston-Salem, NC 1927
American Church of Paris – Paris, France, 1927
St. Florian's Church – Detroit, MI, 1928
Prince Memorial Chapel (project) – Fort Myer, VA, 1929
St. Vincent's Church – Los Angeles, CA, 1927
Christ Church – United Methodist Church – New York, NY, 1929
All Saints Episcopal Church (addition) – Brookline, MA, 1929
Klise Memorial Chapel East Congregational UCC Church – Grand Rapids, MI, 1929
Mishawaka Cathedral (project) – Mishawaka, IN, 1930
East Liberty Presbyterian Church – Pittsburgh, PA, 1931
Second Unitarian Church – Boston, MA, 1934
Blank Church (project) – Chicago, IL, 1935
Conventual Church of Sts. Mary and John – Cambridge, MA, 1936
All Saints Episcopal Church – Winter Park, FL, 1938
St. Thomas Church – Peoria, IL, 1939
Academic architecture
Princeton University Graduate College Design, 1913
Wheaton College – Norton, MA, 1898-1932
Wallace Library
Cole Memorial Chapel
Kilham Hall
Sweet Briar College – Sweet Briar, VA, 1902-66
United States Military Academy – West Point, NY, 1904-1923
Cadet Chapel
Headquarters Building
Princeton University – Princeton, NJ, 1906-29
Graduate College
Lovett Hall at Rice UniversityWilliams College, Chapins HallProctor Hall
University Chapel
Cleveland Tower
Campbell Hall
McCormick School of Art and Architecture
Rice University – Houston, TX, 1908-57
Administration Building (Lovett Hall)
Campus Master Plan
Mechanical Engineering Laboratory
Westhampton College, University of Richmond – Richmond, VA, 1910-16
St. Mary's School – Peekskill, NY, 1911
Phillips Exeter Academy – Exeter, NH, 1911-37
Dormitories
Williams College – Williamstown, MA, 1912-38
Williams Hall
Chapins Hall
Stetson Hall Library
Sage Hall
Gate between William and Sage
Mears House
Lehman Hall
Heating Plant
Adams Memorial Theatre
Fayerweather Hall
Mercersburg Academy Chapel – Mercersburg, PA, 1916-26
The Masters School – Dobbs Ferry, NY, 1919 *University of Notre Dame, South Dining Hall
Tsuda University – Hokkaido, Japan, 1919
Dominican University – River Forest, IL, 1920
St. George's Chapel – Newport, RI, 1923-29
Choate School – Wallingford, CT, 1924-25
University of Notre Dame, South Dining Hall – South Bend, Indiana, 1927
St. Paul's School – Concord, NH, 1927-37
St. Alban's Choir School – Washington, D.C., 1929
Gibson Chapel, The Blue Ridge School – Dyke, VA, 1929
Rollins College Chapel – Winter Park, FL, 1930
University of Southern California, Doheny Library – Los Angeles, CA, 1930
Wellesley College – Wellesley, MA, 1930
Boston University – Boston, MA, 1930-66
St. Mary's High School and Grammar School – Glens Falls, NY, 1930
Swarthmore College – Swarthmore, PA, 1938
John Hancock Building, Boston, MA
Residential, institutional, and commercial architecture
Eddy Residence – Newton, MA, 1888
Edward Courtland Gale Residence – Williamstown, MA, 1890
Kennedy Road – Cambridge, MA, 1890
Eugene Fellner Residence – Brookline, MA, 1890
126 and 128 Brattle Street – Cambridge MA, 1892
165 Winthrop Street – Brookline, MA, 1892
Bushy Hill – Simsbury, CT, 1893
Richmond Court Apartments – Brookline, MA, 1898
Harbor Court – Newport, RI, 1904
Charles Barron Residence – Beacon Street, Boston, MA, 1907
House on the Moors – Gloucester, MA, 1917
Blanche Sewall Residence – Houston, TX, 1924
Paul Watkins House – Winona, MN, 1925
Angelica Livingston Gerry Residence – Lake Delaware, NY, 1926
Chickamauga Memorial Arch – Chickamauga, TN, 1897
Washington Hotel – Colon, Panama, 1910
Edward Courtland Gale Mausoleum – Troy, NY, 1914
Woodrow Wilson Memorial – Washington DC, 1925
Memorial Chapel, American Military Cemetery – Belleau Wood, France, 1926
World War I Memorial Carillon – Richmond, VA, 1926
Oise-Aisne American Military Cemetery Memorial – Fère-en-Tardenois, France, 1926
Deborah Cook Sayles Public Library – Pawtucket, RI, 1893
Richmond Court, Brookline, MAPublic Library – Fall River, MA, 1899
Hunt Library – Nashua, NH, 1902
Lucius Beebe Memorial Library – Wakefield, MA, 1921
Houston Public Library – Houston, TX, 1926
Parker Hill Branch, Boston Public Library – Roxbury, MA, 1929
National Life Insurance Building – Montpelier, VT, 1921
McCormack Federal Building – Boston, MA, 1929
Portsmouth Harbor Front Renewal – Portsmouth, NH, 1933
District Court Building – Dedham, MA, 1937
Holy Cross Monastery – West Park, NY, 1934
Bourne and Sagamore Bridges – Cape Cod, MA, 1938
New England Mutual Life Insurance Headquarters – Boston, MA, 1938
The People's Savings Bank – Providence, RI, 1944
The John Hancock Life Insurance Company Headquarters Building – Boston, MA, 1946
Currier Museum of Art in Manchester, New Hampshire
The Berkeley Building, 200 Berkeley Street, Boston, Massachusetts
Illustrations and floor plan from the 1920 proposal for the Currier Art Gallery in Manchester, New Hampshire.
Recent projects
Phillips Academy Renovations, Phillips Church- Exeter, NH, 2000
Cathedral of Our Lady of Walsingham – Houston, TX, 2000
All Saints' Church Peterborough (Addition) – Peterborough, NH, 2000
Canterbury School Bell Tower – Greensboro, NC, 2000
Casady School – Oklahoma City, OK, 2001
West Transept
St. Edwards Chapel, 2012
Records Mausoleum – Oklahoma City, OK, 2002
Gale Mausoleum Restoration – Troy, NY, 2002
St. John Neumann Catholic Church – Knoxville, TN, 2005
St. Andrews Episcopal Church Restoration – Denver, CO, 2009
The Bradford Mill, "Wheelhouse" Project – Concord, MA, 2010
Valley of Our Lady Monastery Design – Prairie Du Sac, WI, 2011
Church of the Incarnation – Dallas, TX, 2012
Hunt Memorial Building Restoration – Nashua, NH, 2012
The Church of the Open Word Preservation – Newton, MA, 2014
St. Kateri Tekakwitha Parish – Ridgeway, IL, 2015
The Shrine of Our Lady of Good Voyage – Boston Seaport, MA, 2017
Sister of St. Thomas Aquinas – Brooksville, FL, 2019
Syon Abbey Monastery – Blue Ridge, VA, 2007Emmanuel Baptist Church Restoration – Worcester, MA, 2019
St. Edward's Chapel, The Casady School, Olklahoma city, OK
Our Lady of Walsingham
Awards
2019 AIA CM Awards – Emmanuel Baptist Church
Real Estate and Construction Review Plaque of Honor – Our Lady of Walsingham
2017 AIACM Merit Award for Design Excellence for St. Kateri, Ridgeway, IL
2017 AIACM Merit Award for Design Excellence for St. Andrews, Denver, Colorado
2017 AIACM Citation Award for Design Excellence for Our Lady of the Valley Monastery, Prairie Du Sac, WI
2015 AIACM Honor Award for Design Excellence for additions to, and renovation of, St Edward's Chapel, Oklahoma City
2009 Architect of the Year award from the Macael Institute in Alicante, Spain
2003 Golden Trowel Award for outstanding masonry building of the year for Our Lady of Walsingham Church, Houston, Texas
1993 Honor Award from the Institute for Religious Art and Architecture for St. Elizabeth's Memorial Garden, Sudbury, Massachusetts
1938 and 1949 Boston Society of Architects Harleston Parker Awards for most beautiful building of the year
History
Ralph Adams Cram, founder of the firmThe practice of the office was started by Ralph Adams Cram in 1889
In 1890 Mr. Cram became associated with Charles F. Wentworth and later with Bertram G. Goodhue, who became a partner in 1895. Frank W. Ferguson became a partner in 1899
Mr. Wentworth died in 1899. Mr. Goodhue conducted the New York Office of the firm for some time before his connection was terminated in 1913
On July 1, 1925, Frank E. Cleveland, Chester Godfrey and Alexander E. Hoyle were admitted to partnership and a new contract was entered into on October 5, 1926. Now four partners
Mr. Ferguson died October 4, 1926. (Born November 3, 1861, Portsmouth, N.H.)
Mr. Cram died September 22, 1942, and the partnership continued with the three remaining partners. (Born December 16, 1863, Hampton Falls, N.H.)
On January 1, 1944, Chester A. Brown, John T. Doran and William H. Owens were admitted to partnership. The firm now consisted of six equal partners
Mr. Cleveland died July 30, 1950, and a new partnership was entered into on August 1, 1950, with the five remaining partners. (Born Nov. 11, 1877, Richmond, P.Q., Canada)
Mr. Godfrey died May 5, 1952, and a new partnership was entered into on July 15, 1952, with the remaining four partners – Messrs. Hoyle, Brown, Doran Owens. (Born April 17, 1878, at Hampton, N.H.)
Mr. Owens retired April 30, 1953, and a new partnership was entered into on May 1, 1953, with the three remaining partners – Messrs. Hoyle, Brown and Doran
On May 1, 1954, Maurice A. Berry and Oscar H. Cederlund were admitted to partnership. The firm now consisted of five partners
Mr. Cederlund died April 23, 1956. Partnership dissolved April 30, 1956. New partnership dated May 1, 1956. Partners now: Messrs. Hoyle, Brown, Doran, Berry
Mr. Brown retired April 30, 1957. Partnership dissolved April 30, 1957. On May 1, 1957, a new contract was entered into by Messrs. Hoyl, Doran and Berry
On January 25, 1957, the new was changed to Hoyle, Doran and Berry
On April 30, 1961, Mr. Hoyle retired. Partnership dissolved April 30, 1961. On May 2, 1961, the following were admitted to partnership: Nisso T. Aladjem, Frank De Bruyn, Robert W. Hadley, Charles P. Harris. There were now six partners
Mr. Hadley died January 3, 1964. Interim agreement dated January 20, 1964
Mr. Harris retired January 3, 1966, and a new contract was entered into on January 31, 1966, with the four remaining partners: Messrs. Doran, Berry, Aladjem, De Bruyn
On August 1, 1965, Austin J. Cribben Jr. was made a partner and a new contract was entered into on February 1, 1966. Partners: Messrs. Doran, Berry, Aladjem, De Bruyn, Cribben
Hoyle Doran& Berry Inc, was incorporated September 5, 1968; Major Stockholders: Doran, Berry, Aladjem, De Bruyn
Mr. Hoyle died January 2, 1969Austin Cribben
Mr. De Bruyn died November 15, 1972, after retiring July 31, 1972
Remaining Partners: Doran, Berry, Aladjem, Cribben
Mr. Berry retired November 1, 1974
Mr. Doran died December 14, 1979. Remaining partners: Aladjem, Cribben
Mr. Brown died June 27, 1980
Mr. Berry died December 26, 1981. Stockholders as of 1987: Cribben and Aladjem
December 1990 Ethan Anthony Associates merged with Hoyle Doran & Berry Inc. Ethan Anthony joined David J Hulihan as a majority stockholder
December 1998 David J. Hulihan Retired, Ethan Anthony became sole Stockholder of Corporation
2008 firm renamed HDB/Cram and Ferguson
March 31, 2010, Hoyle, Doran & Berry Inc dissolved, Assets acquired by Ethan Anthony
March 31, 2010, Ethan Anthony founds Cram and Ferguson Architects taking up the ongoing work of Hoyle, Doran & Berry Inc.
September 10, 2012, Cram and Ferguson Architects, LLC Incorporated in the State of Massachusetts
December 16, 2013, Cram and Ferguson Architects leads the 150th anniversary celebration of the birth of Ralph Adams Cram
Mr. Cribben and Mr. Aladjem retired 1987
David Hulihan became a partner 1987
Ethan Anthony became a partner 1990
Mr Aladjem died October 23, 2004
David Hulihan retires 2008
Mr Cribben died March 30, 2016
David Hulihan died May 12, 2018
January 1, 2019, is the 130th anniversary of continuous practice of Cram and Ferguson Architects, LLC.
Firm names
Ralph Adams Cram founded firm – 1889
Cram & Wentworth – 1890
Cram, Wentworth & Goodhue – 1895
Cram, Goodhue & Ferguson – 1899
Cram and Ferguson Architects – 1913
Hoyle, Doran and Berry – 1957
Hoyle, Doran and Berry, Inc. – 1968
Cram and Ferguson Architects LLC – 2012
Commenced employment
C. N. Godfrey – 1900
A. E. Hoyle – 1908
C. A. Brown – 1910
J. T. Doran – 1927
W. H. Owens – 1921
M. A. Berry – 1923
O. H. Cederlund – 1946
N.T. Aladjem – 1950
Frank E. De Bruyn – 1926
R. W. Hadley – 1945
C. P. Harris – 1955
A. J. Cribben – 1946
David J Hulihan – 1967
Ethan Anthony – 1990
The team
Kevin Hogan, the project manager, has 20 years of experience with the firm and has participated in numerous major church and chapel projects as the leader for all phases of production and construction administration
Matthew Alderman has been the lead designer on many projects both with Cram and Ferguson and in his prior employments, including St. Kateri Catholic Church in Ridgway, Illinois, St. Thomas Aquinas University Parish in Charlottesville, Virginia, which is now under construction and Our Lady of Good Voyage Chapel in Boston, Massachusetts.
References
^ Jay C. Henry,
Architecture in Texas 1895-1945, University of Texas Press (1993), p. 104, ISBN 0-292-73072-1
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn bo bp bq Anthony, Ethan (2007). The Architecture of Ralph Adams Cram And His Office. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. ISBN 9780393731040.
^ Shand-Tucci, Douglass (1978). Built in Boston: City and Suburb 1800-1950. New York: New York Graphic Society.
^ a b c d e f g h i j Contemporary American Architects: Ralph Adams Cram, Cram and Ferguson. New York and London: Whittlesey House. 1931.
^ a b c d e f g h i j Muccigrosso, Robert (1980). American Gothic: The Mind and Art of Ralph Adams Cram. Washington DC: University Press of America. ISBN 0819108847.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z Anthony, Ethan (2017). A Pocket Guide to the New England Architecture of Cram and Ferguson Architects (2 ed.). Concord, MA: Cram and Ferguson Architects LLC.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai Shand-Tucci, Douglass (1975). Ralph Adams Cram: American Medievalist. Boston Public Library.
^ Shand-Tucci, Douglass (1995). Boston Bohemia 1881-1900, vol. 1 Ralph Adams Cram: Life and Architecture. Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press.
^ a b Shand-Tucci, Douglass (1974). Church Building in Boston 1720-1970 With and Introduction to the Work of Ralph Adams Cram and the Boston Gothicists. Concord, MA: The Rumford Press.
^ a b c Lanford, Sarah Drummond (1982). A Gothic Epitome: Ralph Adams Cram as Princeton's Architect. Princeton University: Princeton University Library.
^ "Chronological List of Architecture". Planning Design & Construction. Retrieved 2020-05-06.
^ "Upon This Foundation: Are new church designs taking us backward?". America Magazine. 2012-05-28. Retrieved 2020-05-11.
^ "St. Kateri DCD Magazine". Cram & Ferguson Architects. Retrieved 2020-05-11.
^ Cullen, Kevin (11 June 2016). "Our Lady of Good Voyage survives choppy waters in Seaport". The Boston Globe. Retrieved 2020-05-11.
^ a b "Press & Awards". Cram & Ferguson Architects. Retrieved 2020-05-11.
Authority control databases International
VIAF
Artists
ULAN
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Concord, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concord,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TexArch-1"},{"link_name":"Ralph Adams Cram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Adams_Cram"},{"link_name":"Bertram Goodhue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertram_Goodhue"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Ethan Anthony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethan_Anthony"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-4"},{"link_name":"Ethan Anthony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethan_Anthony"},{"link_name":"The Shrine of Our Lady of Good Voyage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Good_Voyage_(Boston)"},{"link_name":"Syon Abbey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.liturgicalartsjournal.com/2020/04/21st-century-english-medieval-revival.html"},{"link_name":"The Phillips Chapel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.greensborodailyphoto.com/2010/05/canterburys-phillips-chapel.html"}],"text":"Cram and Ferguson Architects is an architecture firm based in Concord, Massachusetts. The company was founded as a partnership in 1889 by the \"preeminent American Ecclesiastical Gothicist\"[1] Ralph Adams Cram and Charles Francis Wentworth. In 1890 they were joined by Bertram Goodhue, who was made a partner in 1895.The firm name has changed as partners have changed and names have included: Cram and Wentworth, Cram Goodhue and Wentworth, Cram Goodhue and Ferguson, Cram and Ferguson, Cram and Ferguson Architects, Hoyle, Doran and Berry and HDB/Cram and Ferguson all successor firms to the original partnership of Ralph Adams Cram and Charles Francis Wentworth.Frank Ferguson, their structural engineer, was made a partner on Wentworth's death in 1905 making the firm one of the earliest A/E firms.[2][3] Hoyle, Doran and Berry, Inc. the partnership formed by Alexander Hoyle and John Doran continuing the unbroken succession descending from original Cram collaborators in 1958, HDB/Cram and Ferguson was the partnership of David H. Hulihan long time employee of Cram and Ferguson and Ethan Anthony AIA. That partnership was reformed in 2008 on the retirement of President David H. Hulihan and the firm reverted to its traditional name of Cram and Ferguson Architects under the leadership of Ethan Anthony AIA.In 1931, in Cram's waning years, Arthur Tappan North wrote in his Monograph on the firm's work:[4]Some architectural styles such as the Gothic manifestations in several countries, were invented for and dedicated to a specific use which has continued to this day in the original or modified forms. It was this continuity of use that was the basis of the conception of Cram and Wentworth and their successors, including Cram and Ferguson, of the ideal American church. A consistent adherence to this ideal did not in any manner prevent their work assuming a wide range of individual expressions, a testimony to their extensive knowledge and understanding, liberally expressed.\nAmong a very small number of American Architects, Ralph Adams Cram is a distinguished contributor to (architectural) literature, not confined to the purely technical aspects of architecture but to it sociological and philosophical attributes. Dr. Cram is equally distinguished for his contributions to architecture, which, although predominantly ecclesiastical in character, embrace many building projects of different types. While he has always been recognized as the senior member of the firm, he has always unselfishly accorded to his associates a full measure of credit for their cooperation and equal contributions to its successes.— Arthur Tappan NorthSince 1990 Cram and Ferguson under the leadership of the American Architect; Ethan Anthony is completing new church and academic work including: the St. Thomas Aquinas University Church at the University of Virginia at Charlottesville, The Shrine of Our Lady of Good Voyage at Boston Seaport, Massachusetts and the St. Kateri Tekakwitha Catholic Church at Ridgway, Illinois. Major work the last fifteen years, the Benedictine Monastery of Syon Abbey on the Blue Ridge Parkway in Floyd, Virginia, The Phillips Chapel at the Canterbury School in Greensboro, North Carolina and The Edward's Chapel at The Casady School in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma.","title":"Cram and Ferguson Architects"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Historic projects"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:St_Thomas_Church_of_Fifth_Av_from_53rd_St_in_2008_jeh.jpg"},{"link_name":"St. Thomas Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Thomas_Church_(Manhattan)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cathedral_Church_of_Saint_Paul.jpg"},{"link_name":"The Cathedral Church of St. Paul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathedral_Church_of_St._Paul_(Detroit)"},{"link_name":"All Saints Church Ashmon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parish_of_All_Saints_Ashmont"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-5"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-4"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-6"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-4"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-7"},{"link_name":"Christ Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christ_Church,_Hyde_Park"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-4"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:All_Saints_Church,_Peterborough,_NH.jpg"},{"link_name":"All Saints 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Divine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathedral_of_St._John_the_Divine"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-6"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-7"},{"link_name":"American Church of Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Church_in_Paris"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-7"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"St. Vincent's Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Vincent_de_Paul_Church_(Los_Angeles)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-7"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-4"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"East Liberty Presbyterian Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Liberty_Presbyterian_Church"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-7"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-9"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"All Saints Episcopal Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_Saints_Episcopal_Church_(Winter_Park,_Florida)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-7"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"}],"sub_title":"Religious architecture","text":"St. Thomas Church, New York, NY, 1907The Cathedral Church of St. Paul in Detroit, MI, 1908-11All Saints Church Ashmont – Dorchester, MA, 1891[5]\nSaint Paul's Episcopal Church – Brockton, MA, 1891-94[4][6]\nSwedenborgian Church, 1893 – Newton, MA[4][2]\nChurch of Saint Peter and Paul – Fall River, MA, 1893[7]\nChrist Church – Hyde Park, MA, 1893[4]\nSt. Luke's Church – Roxbury, MA, 1895[4]\nSecond Congregational Church (Phillips Church) – Exeter, NH, 1895-98[6]All Saints Church, Peterborough, NH, 1913–21\nSt. Stephen's Episcopal Church – Cohasset, MA, 1899[6]\nEmmanuel Church – Newport, RI, 1900[6]\nSt. Paul's Episcopal Church – Chicago, IL, 1902[2]\nFirst Baptist Church – Pittsburgh, PA, 1902[2]\nAll Saints Chapel, University of the South – Sewanee, TN, 1903[7]\nChrist Church Cathedral Competition (project) – Victoria, British Columbia, 1903[2]\nSt. John in the Wilderness Episcopal Cathedral (project) – Denver, CO, 1903[2]\nFirst Unitarian Church – West Newton, MA, 1905[8][6]\nWestminster Presbyterian Church – Springfield, IL, 1905[7]\nAll Saints Cathedral – Halifax, Nova Scotia, 1906[7]\nCalvary Episcopal Church – Pittsburgh, PA, 1906[2]\nGlens Falls Presbyterian Church – Glens Falls, NY, 1906[6]\nSt. Thomas Episcopal Church – New York, NY, 1907[5]\nTrinity Memorial Church (now St. Andrew's) – Denver, CO, 1907[2]\nChurch of the Covenant – Cleveland, OH, 1907[2]\nSt. Paul's Episcopal Cathedral – Detroit, MI, 1908-11[7]\nChurch and Rectory (project) – Guantanamo, Cuba, 1908[2]\nRussell Sage Memorial First Presbyterian Church – Far Rockaway, NY, 1908[2]\nSt. Mary's Church – Walkerville, Ontario, 1908[7]\nCathedral of the Incarnation (project) – Diocese of Baltimore, MD, 1908[2]\nChurch of the Ascension – Montgomery, AL, 1910[2]\nSt. James Episcopal Church – New York, NY, 1911-24[6]\nSt. Paul's Episcopal Church – Malden, MA, 1911[4]\nGrace Episcopal Church Parish House – Manchester, NH, 1911[7]\nHouse of Hope Presbyterian Church – St. Paul, MN, 1916-26[2]\nFourth Presbyterian Church – Chicago, IL, 1912[2]\nChurch of the New Jerusalem – Bryn Athyn, PA 1912[2]\nFirst Presbyterian Church – Oakland, CA, 1912-13[2]\nAll Saints Episcopal Church – Peterborough, NH, 1913-21[6]\nTrinity Episcopal Church (addition) – Princeton, NJ, 1914\nChapel for the Sisters of St. Anne – Arlington, MA, 1914[4]\nSt. Elizabeth Chapel at Whitehall – Sudbury, MA, 1914[5][6]\nFirst Universalist Church – Somerville, MA, 1916[9]\nEllingwood Funerary Chapel – Nahant, MA, 1919[2]\nSt. James Church – Lake Delaware, NY, 1920[7]\nTrinity Episcopal Church – Houston, TX, 1920[2]\nSacred Heart Church – Jersey City, NJ, 1921[7]\nCentral Union Church – Honolulu, HI, 1922[2][7]\nEast Liberty Presbyterian Church, Pittsburgh, PA, 1931First Presbyterian Church – Tacoma, WA, 1923[2]\nTrinity Methodist Episcopal Church – Durham, NC, 1923[7]\nFirst Presbyterian Church – Jamestown, NY, 1923[7]\nSt. Paul's Episcopal Church – Yonkers, NY, 1924[6]\nCathedral of St. John the Divine – New York, NY, 1925-31[5][6]\nSt. Mary's Catholic Church – Detroit, MI, 1925[2]\nEmmanuel Church (project) – Rockford, IL, 1927[2]\nSt. Paul's Church – Winston-Salem, NC 1927[2][7]\nAmerican Church of Paris – Paris, France, 1927[2]\nSt. Florian's Church – Detroit, MI, 1928[7]\nPrince Memorial Chapel (project) – Fort Myer, VA, 1929[2]\nSt. Vincent's Church – Los Angeles, CA, 1927[7]\nChrist Church – United Methodist Church – New York, NY, 1929[7]\nAll Saints Episcopal Church (addition) – Brookline, MA, 1929[4]\nKlise Memorial Chapel East Congregational UCC Church – Grand Rapids, MI, 1929[2]\nMishawaka Cathedral (project) – Mishawaka, IN, 1930[2]\nEast Liberty Presbyterian Church – Pittsburgh, PA, 1931[7]\nSecond Unitarian Church – Boston, MA, 1934[9]\nBlank Church (project) – Chicago, IL, 1935[2]\nConventual Church of Sts. Mary and John – Cambridge, MA, 1936[2]\nAll Saints Episcopal Church – Winter Park, FL, 1938[7]\nSt. Thomas Church – Peoria, IL, 1939[2]","title":"Historic projects"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PSM_V78_D318_Design_for_the_princeton_university_graduate_college.png"},{"link_name":"Princeton University Graduate College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton_University_Graduate_College"},{"link_name":"Wheaton College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheaton_College_(Massachusetts)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-6"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-4"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"Sweet Briar College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweet_Briar_College"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-7"},{"link_name":"United States Military Academy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Military_Academy"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-6"},{"link_name":"Cadet Chapel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Point_Cadet_Chapel"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-5"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-5"},{"link_name":"Princeton University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton_University"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-6"},{"link_name":"Graduate College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton_University_Graduate_College"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-5"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-10"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lovett_Hall.jpg"},{"link_name":"Rice University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rice_University"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Williams_College_-_Chapin_Hall.JPG"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-5"},{"link_name":"University Chapel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton_University_Chapel"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-5"},{"link_name":"Cleveland Tower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleveland_Tower"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-10"},{"link_name":"Rice University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rice_University"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-5"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"Westhampton College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Richmond"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-7"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"Phillips Exeter Academy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phillips_Exeter_Academy"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-7"},{"link_name":"Williams College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Williams_College"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Mercersburg Academy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercersburg_Academy"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"The Masters School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masters_School"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:South_Dining_Hall.jpg"},{"link_name":"Tsuda University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsuda_University"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"Dominican University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominican_University_(Illinois)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-7"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"Choate School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choate_Rosemary_Hall"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-7"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-6"},{"link_name":"University of Notre Dame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Notre_Dame"},{"link_name":"South Dining Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=South_Dining_Hall&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-7"},{"link_name":"St. Paul's School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Paul%27s_School_(New_Hampshire)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-7"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"Rollins College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rollins_College"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"University of Southern California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Southern_California"},{"link_name":"Doheny Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doheny_Library"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"Wellesley College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wellesley_College"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-6"},{"link_name":"Boston University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_University"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-7"},{"link_name":"Swarthmore College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swarthmore_College"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:26183_John_Hancock_Building.jpg"}],"sub_title":"Academic architecture","text":"Princeton University Graduate College Design, 1913Wheaton College – Norton, MA, 1898-1932[6]\nWallace Library[2]\nCole Memorial Chapel[4]\nKilham Hall[2]\nSweet Briar College – Sweet Briar, VA, 1902-66[7]\nUnited States Military Academy – West Point, NY, 1904-1923[6]\nCadet Chapel[5]\nHeadquarters Building[5]\nPrinceton University – Princeton, NJ, 1906-29[6]\nGraduate College[5][10]\nLovett Hall at Rice UniversityWilliams College, Chapins HallProctor Hall[5]\nUniversity Chapel[5]\nCleveland Tower[2]\nCampbell Hall[2][10]\nMcCormick School of Art and Architecture[10]\nRice University – Houston, TX, 1908-57[2]\nAdministration Building (Lovett Hall)[5]\nCampus Master Plan[2]\nMechanical Engineering Laboratory[2]\nWesthampton College, University of Richmond – Richmond, VA, 1910-16[7]\nSt. Mary's School – Peekskill, NY, 1911[2]\nPhillips Exeter Academy – Exeter, NH, 1911-37[7]\nDormitories\nWilliams College – Williamstown, MA, 1912-38[11]\nWilliams Hall\nChapins Hall\nStetson Hall Library\nSage Hall\nGate between William and Sage\nMears House\nLehman Hall\nHeating Plant\nAdams Memorial Theatre\nFayerweather Hall\nMercersburg Academy Chapel – Mercersburg, PA, 1916-26[2]\nThe Masters School – Dobbs Ferry, NY, 1919[4] *University of Notre Dame, South Dining Hall\nTsuda University – Hokkaido, Japan, 1919[2]\nDominican University – River Forest, IL, 1920[7]\nSt. George's Chapel – Newport, RI, 1923-29[2]\nChoate School – Wallingford, CT, 1924-25[7][6]\nUniversity of Notre Dame, South Dining Hall – South Bend, Indiana, 1927[7]\nSt. Paul's School – Concord, NH, 1927-37[6]\nSt. Alban's Choir School – Washington, D.C., 1929[7]\nGibson Chapel, The Blue Ridge School – Dyke, VA, 1929[2]\nRollins College Chapel – Winter Park, FL, 1930[2]\nUniversity of Southern California, Doheny Library – Los Angeles, CA, 1930[2]\nWellesley College – Wellesley, MA, 1930[6]\nBoston University – Boston, MA, 1930-66[6]\nSt. Mary's High School and Grammar School – Glens Falls, NY, 1930[7]\nSwarthmore College – Swarthmore, PA, 1938[2]John Hancock Building, Boston, MA","title":"Historic projects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"Richmond Court Apartments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richmond_Court"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-7"},{"link_name":"Charles Barron Residence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//backbayhouses.org/334-beacon/#Cram"},{"link_name":"Beacon Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beacon_Street"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-6"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-7"},{"link_name":"Paul Watkins House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watkins_Manor_House"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-7"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"World War I Memorial Carillon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byrd_Park"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"Oise-Aisne American Military Cemetery Memorial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oise-Aisne_American_Cemetery_and_Memorial"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"Deborah Cook Sayles Public Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deborah_Cook_Sayles_Public_Library"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Richmond_Court,_Brookline,_Massachusetts_22_July_2005.jpg"},{"link_name":"Richmond Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richmond_Court"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-6"},{"link_name":"Lucius Beebe Memorial Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucius_Beebe_Memorial_Library"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-7"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-6"},{"link_name":"Houston Public Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston_Public_Library"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"Boston Public Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_Public_Library"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-7"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"McCormack Federal Building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McCormack_Building"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-7"},{"link_name":"Portsmouth Harbor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piscataqua_River"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-6"},{"link_name":"Holy Cross Monastery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Cross_Monastery_(West_Park,_New_York)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-6"},{"link_name":"Bourne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourne_Bridge"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"Sagamore Bridges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagamore_Bridge"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-6"},{"link_name":"New England Mutual Life Insurance Headquarters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_England_Mutual_Life_Insurance_Building_(Boston)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-7"},{"link_name":"The John Hancock Life Insurance Company Headquarters Building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hancock_Building"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"Currier Museum of Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Currier_Museum_of_Art"},{"link_name":"Manchester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester,_New_Hampshire"},{"link_name":"New Hampshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Hampshire"},{"link_name":"Berkeley Building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkeley_Building"},{"link_name":"Boston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston"},{"link_name":"Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cram_and_Ferguson_-_Currier_Art_Gallery_proposal_1920,_external_view.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cram_and_Ferguson_-_Currier_Art_Gallery_proposal_1920,_internal_courtyard_view.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cram_and_Ferguson_-_Currier_Art_Gallery_proposal_1920,_floor_plan.jpg"},{"link_name":"Currier Art Gallery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Currier_Museum_of_Art"},{"link_name":"Manchester, New Hampshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester,_New_Hampshire"}],"sub_title":"Residential, institutional, and commercial architecture","text":"Eddy Residence – Newton, MA, 1888[2]\nEdward Courtland Gale Residence – Williamstown, MA, 1890[2]\nKennedy Road – Cambridge, MA, 1890[2]\nEugene Fellner Residence – Brookline, MA, 1890[2]\n126 and 128 Brattle Street – Cambridge MA, 1892[2]\n165 Winthrop Street – Brookline, MA, 1892[2]\nBushy Hill – Simsbury, CT, 1893[2]\nRichmond Court Apartments – Brookline, MA, 1898[7]\nHarbor Court – Newport, RI, 1904[7]\nCharles Barron Residence – Beacon Street, Boston, MA, 1907[6]\nHouse on the Moors – Gloucester, MA, 1917[6]\nBlanche Sewall Residence – Houston, TX, 1924[2][7]\nPaul Watkins House – Winona, MN, 1925[2]\nAngelica Livingston Gerry Residence – Lake Delaware, NY, 1926[2]\nChickamauga Memorial Arch – Chickamauga, TN, 1897[2]\nWashington Hotel – Colon, Panama, 1910[7]\nEdward Courtland Gale Mausoleum – Troy, NY, 1914[2]\nWoodrow Wilson Memorial – Washington DC, 1925[2]\nMemorial Chapel, American Military Cemetery – Belleau Wood, France, 1926[2]\nWorld War I Memorial Carillon – Richmond, VA, 1926[2]\nOise-Aisne American Military Cemetery Memorial – Fère-en-Tardenois, France, 1926[2]\nDeborah Cook Sayles Public Library – Pawtucket, RI, 1893[7]\nRichmond Court, Brookline, MAPublic Library – Fall River, MA, 1899[2]\nHunt Library – Nashua, NH, 1902[6]\nLucius Beebe Memorial Library – Wakefield, MA, 1921[7][6]\nHouston Public Library – Houston, TX, 1926[2]\nParker Hill Branch, Boston Public Library – Roxbury, MA, 1929[7]\nNational Life Insurance Building – Montpelier, VT, 1921[2]\nMcCormack Federal Building – Boston, MA, 1929[6][7]\nPortsmouth Harbor Front Renewal – Portsmouth, NH, 1933[2]\nDistrict Court Building – Dedham, MA, 1937[6]\nHoly Cross Monastery – West Park, NY, 1934[6]\nBourne[2] and Sagamore Bridges[6] – Cape Cod, MA, 1938\nNew England Mutual Life Insurance Headquarters – Boston, MA, 1938[2]\nThe People's Savings Bank – Providence, RI, 1944[7]\nThe John Hancock Life Insurance Company Headquarters Building – Boston, MA, 1946[2]\nCurrier Museum of Art in Manchester, New Hampshire\nThe Berkeley Building, 200 Berkeley Street, Boston, MassachusettsIllustrations and floor plan from the 1920 proposal for the Currier Art Gallery in Manchester, New Hampshire.","title":"Historic projects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Phillips Academy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phillips_Academy"},{"link_name":"Phillips Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.cramandferguson.com/philips-church"},{"link_name":"Cathedral of Our Lady of Walsingham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathedral_of_Our_Lady_of_Walsingham_(Houston)"},{"link_name":"All Saints' Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_Saints_Church_(Peterborough,_New_Hampshire)"},{"link_name":"Canterbury School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canterbury_School_(Greensboro,_NC)"},{"link_name":"Casady School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casady_School"},{"link_name":"St. Edwards Chapel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.cramandferguson.com/the-casady-school"},{"link_name":"Records Mausoleum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.cramandferguson.com/record-mausoleum"},{"link_name":"St. John Neumann Catholic Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//sjnknox.org/"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"St. Andrews Episcopal Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Andrew%27s_Episcopal_Church_(Denver,_Colorado)"},{"link_name":"Church of the Incarnation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_the_Incarnation_(Dallas,_Texas)"},{"link_name":"St. Kateri Tekakwitha Parish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.cramandferguson.com/st-kateri"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"The Shrine of Our Lady of Good Voyage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Good_Voyage_(Boston)"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Syon_abbey.jpg"},{"link_name":"Emmanuel Baptist Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmanuel_Baptist_(Worcester,_Massachusetts)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Casady_3.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:OLW_-_Exterior_East-02_9x6_300dpi.jpg"}],"text":"Phillips Academy Renovations, Phillips Church- Exeter, NH, 2000\nCathedral of Our Lady of Walsingham – Houston, TX, 2000\nAll Saints' Church Peterborough (Addition) – Peterborough, NH, 2000\nCanterbury School Bell Tower – Greensboro, NC, 2000\nCasady School – Oklahoma City, OK, 2001\nWest Transept\nSt. Edwards Chapel, 2012\nRecords Mausoleum – Oklahoma City, OK, 2002\nGale Mausoleum Restoration – Troy, NY, 2002\nSt. John Neumann Catholic Church – Knoxville, TN, 2005[12]\nSt. Andrews Episcopal Church Restoration – Denver, CO, 2009\nThe Bradford Mill, \"Wheelhouse\" Project – Concord, MA, 2010\nValley of Our Lady Monastery Design – Prairie Du Sac, WI, 2011\nChurch of the Incarnation – Dallas, TX, 2012\nHunt Memorial Building Restoration – Nashua, NH, 2012\nThe Church of the Open Word Preservation – Newton, MA, 2014\nSt. Kateri Tekakwitha Parish – Ridgeway, IL, 2015[13]\nThe Shrine of Our Lady of Good Voyage – Boston Seaport, MA, 2017[14]\nSister of St. Thomas Aquinas – Brooksville, FL, 2019\nSyon Abbey Monastery – Blue Ridge, VA, 2007Emmanuel Baptist Church Restoration – Worcester, MA, 2019St. Edward's Chapel, The Casady School, Olklahoma city, OKOur Lady of Walsingham","title":"Recent projects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:7-15"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:7-15"}],"text":"2019 AIA CM Awards – Emmanuel Baptist Church[15]\nReal Estate and Construction Review Plaque of Honor – Our Lady of Walsingham[15]\n2017 AIACM Merit Award for Design Excellence for St. Kateri, Ridgeway, IL\n2017 AIACM Merit Award for Design Excellence for St. Andrews, Denver, Colorado\n2017 AIACM Citation Award for Design Excellence for Our Lady of the Valley Monastery, Prairie Du Sac, WI\n2015 AIACM Honor Award for Design Excellence for additions to, and renovation of, St Edward's Chapel, Oklahoma City\n2009 Architect of the Year award from the Macael Institute in Alicante, Spain\n2003 Golden Trowel Award for outstanding masonry building of the year for Our Lady of Walsingham Church, Houston, Texas\n1993 Honor Award from the Institute for Religious Art and Architecture for St. Elizabeth's Memorial Garden, Sudbury, Massachusetts\n1938 and 1949 Boston Society of Architects Harleston Parker Awards for most beautiful building of the year","title":"Awards"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ralph_A._Cram_-_Marceau._LCCN2002717882.jpg"},{"link_name":"Ralph Adams Cram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Adams_Cram"},{"link_name":"Ralph Adams Cram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Adams_Cram"},{"link_name":"Bertram G. Goodhue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertram_Goodhue"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Austin_Cribben.jpg"}],"text":"Ralph Adams Cram, founder of the firmThe practice of the office was started by Ralph Adams Cram in 1889\nIn 1890 Mr. Cram became associated with Charles F. Wentworth and later with Bertram G. Goodhue, who became a partner in 1895. Frank W. Ferguson became a partner in 1899\nMr. Wentworth died in 1899. Mr. Goodhue conducted the New York Office of the firm for some time before his connection was terminated in 1913\nOn July 1, 1925, Frank E. Cleveland, Chester Godfrey and Alexander E. Hoyle were admitted to partnership and a new contract was entered into on October 5, 1926. Now four partners\nMr. Ferguson died October 4, 1926. (Born November 3, 1861, Portsmouth, N.H.)\nMr. Cram died September 22, 1942, and the partnership continued with the three remaining partners. (Born December 16, 1863, Hampton Falls, N.H.)\nOn January 1, 1944, Chester A. Brown, John T. Doran and William H. Owens were admitted to partnership. The firm now consisted of six equal partners\nMr. Cleveland died July 30, 1950, and a new partnership was entered into on August 1, 1950, with the five remaining partners. (Born Nov. 11, 1877, Richmond, P.Q., Canada)\nMr. Godfrey died May 5, 1952, and a new partnership was entered into on July 15, 1952, with the remaining four partners – Messrs. Hoyle, Brown, Doran Owens. (Born April 17, 1878, at Hampton, N.H.)\nMr. Owens retired April 30, 1953, and a new partnership was entered into on May 1, 1953, with the three remaining partners – Messrs. Hoyle, Brown and Doran\nOn May 1, 1954, Maurice A. Berry and Oscar H. Cederlund were admitted to partnership. The firm now consisted of five partners\nMr. Cederlund died April 23, 1956. Partnership dissolved April 30, 1956. New partnership dated May 1, 1956. Partners now: Messrs. Hoyle, Brown, Doran, Berry\nMr. Brown retired April 30, 1957. Partnership dissolved April 30, 1957. On May 1, 1957, a new contract was entered into by Messrs. Hoyl, Doran and Berry\nOn January 25, 1957, the new was changed to Hoyle, Doran and Berry\nOn April 30, 1961, Mr. Hoyle retired. Partnership dissolved April 30, 1961. On May 2, 1961, the following were admitted to partnership: Nisso T. Aladjem, Frank De Bruyn, Robert W. Hadley, Charles P. Harris. There were now six partners\nMr. Hadley died January 3, 1964. Interim agreement dated January 20, 1964\nMr. Harris retired January 3, 1966, and a new contract was entered into on January 31, 1966, with the four remaining partners: Messrs. Doran, Berry, Aladjem, De Bruyn\nOn August 1, 1965, Austin J. Cribben Jr. was made a partner and a new contract was entered into on February 1, 1966. Partners: Messrs. Doran, Berry, Aladjem, De Bruyn, Cribben\nHoyle Doran& Berry Inc, was incorporated September 5, 1968; Major Stockholders: Doran, Berry, Aladjem, De Bruyn\nMr. Hoyle died January 2, 1969Austin Cribben\nMr. De Bruyn died November 15, 1972, after retiring July 31, 1972\nRemaining Partners: Doran, Berry, Aladjem, Cribben\nMr. Berry retired November 1, 1974\nMr. Doran died December 14, 1979. Remaining partners: Aladjem, Cribben\nMr. Brown died June 27, 1980\nMr. Berry died December 26, 1981. Stockholders as of 1987: Cribben and Aladjem\nDecember 1990 Ethan Anthony Associates merged with Hoyle Doran & Berry Inc. Ethan Anthony joined David J Hulihan as a majority stockholder\nDecember 1998 David J. Hulihan Retired, Ethan Anthony became sole Stockholder of Corporation\n2008 firm renamed HDB/Cram and Ferguson\nMarch 31, 2010, Hoyle, Doran & Berry Inc dissolved, Assets acquired by Ethan Anthony\nMarch 31, 2010, Ethan Anthony founds Cram and Ferguson Architects taking up the ongoing work of Hoyle, Doran & Berry Inc.\nSeptember 10, 2012, Cram and Ferguson Architects, LLC Incorporated in the State of Massachusetts\nDecember 16, 2013, Cram and Ferguson Architects leads the 150th anniversary celebration of the birth of Ralph Adams Cram\nMr. Cribben and Mr. Aladjem retired 1987\nDavid Hulihan became a partner 1987\nEthan Anthony became a partner 1990\nMr Aladjem died October 23, 2004\nDavid Hulihan retires 2008\nMr Cribben died March 30, 2016\nDavid Hulihan died May 12, 2018\nJanuary 1, 2019, is the 130th anniversary of continuous practice of Cram and Ferguson Architects, LLC.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Ralph Adams Cram founded firm – 1889\nCram & Wentworth – 1890\nCram, Wentworth & Goodhue – 1895\nCram, Goodhue & Ferguson – 1899\nCram and Ferguson Architects – 1913\nHoyle, Doran and Berry – 1957\nHoyle, Doran and Berry, Inc. – 1968\nCram and Ferguson Architects LLC – 2012","title":"Firm names"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"C. N. Godfrey – 1900\nA. E. Hoyle – 1908\nC. A. Brown – 1910\nJ. T. Doran – 1927\nW. H. Owens – 1921\nM. A. Berry – 1923\nO. H. Cederlund – 1946\nN.T. Aladjem – 1950\nFrank E. De Bruyn – 1926\nR. W. Hadley – 1945\nC. P. Harris – 1955\nA. J. Cribben – 1946\nDavid J Hulihan – 1967\nEthan Anthony – 1990","title":"Commenced employment"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Kevin Hogan, the project manager, has 20 years of experience with the firm and has participated in numerous major church and chapel projects as the leader for all phases of production and construction administrationMatthew Alderman has been the lead designer on many projects both with Cram and Ferguson and in his prior employments, including St. Kateri Catholic Church in Ridgway, Illinois, St. Thomas Aquinas University Parish in Charlottesville, Virginia, which is now under construction and Our Lady of Good Voyage Chapel in Boston, Massachusetts.","title":"The team"}]
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[{"image_text":"St. Thomas Church, New York, NY, 1907","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/St_Thomas_Church_of_Fifth_Av_from_53rd_St_in_2008_jeh.jpg/220px-St_Thomas_Church_of_Fifth_Av_from_53rd_St_in_2008_jeh.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Cathedral Church of St. Paul in Detroit, MI, 1908-11","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Cathedral_Church_of_Saint_Paul.jpg/220px-Cathedral_Church_of_Saint_Paul.jpg"},{"image_text":"All Saints Church, Peterborough, NH, 1913–21","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/All_Saints_Church%2C_Peterborough%2C_NH.jpg/220px-All_Saints_Church%2C_Peterborough%2C_NH.jpg"},{"image_text":"East Liberty Presbyterian Church, Pittsburgh, PA, 1931","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/East_Liberty_Presbyterian_Church_Front.TIF/lossy-page1-220px-East_Liberty_Presbyterian_Church_Front.TIF.jpg"},{"image_text":"Princeton University Graduate College Design, 1913","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/PSM_V78_D318_Design_for_the_princeton_university_graduate_college.png/220px-PSM_V78_D318_Design_for_the_princeton_university_graduate_college.png"},{"image_text":"Lovett Hall at Rice University","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Lovett_Hall.jpg/220px-Lovett_Hall.jpg"},{"image_text":"Williams College, Chapins Hall","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Williams_College_-_Chapin_Hall.JPG/220px-Williams_College_-_Chapin_Hall.JPG"},{"image_text":"*University of Notre Dame, South Dining Hall","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/South_Dining_Hall.jpg/403px-South_Dining_Hall.jpg"},{"image_text":"John Hancock Building, Boston, MA","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/26183_John_Hancock_Building.jpg/220px-26183_John_Hancock_Building.jpg"},{"image_text":"Richmond Court, Brookline, MA","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Richmond_Court%2C_Brookline%2C_Massachusetts_22_July_2005.jpg/220px-Richmond_Court%2C_Brookline%2C_Massachusetts_22_July_2005.jpg"},{"image_text":"Syon Abbey Monastery – Blue Ridge, VA, 2007","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Syon_abbey.jpg/220px-Syon_abbey.jpg"},{"image_text":"St. Edward's Chapel, The Casady School, Olklahoma city, OK","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Casady_3.jpg/220px-Casady_3.jpg"},{"image_text":"Our Lady of Walsingham","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/OLW_-_Exterior_East-02_9x6_300dpi.jpg/220px-OLW_-_Exterior_East-02_9x6_300dpi.jpg"},{"image_text":"Ralph Adams Cram, founder of the firm","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Ralph_A._Cram_-_Marceau._LCCN2002717882.jpg/220px-Ralph_A._Cram_-_Marceau._LCCN2002717882.jpg"},{"image_text":"Austin Cribben","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Austin_Cribben.jpg/220px-Austin_Cribben.jpg"}]
| null |
[{"reference":"Anthony, Ethan (2007). The Architecture of Ralph Adams Cram And His Office. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. ISBN 9780393731040.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780393731040","url_text":"9780393731040"}]},{"reference":"Shand-Tucci, Douglass (1978). Built in Boston: City and Suburb 1800-1950. New York: New York Graphic Society.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Contemporary American Architects: Ralph Adams Cram, Cram and Ferguson. New York and London: Whittlesey House. 1931.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Muccigrosso, Robert (1980). American Gothic: The Mind and Art of Ralph Adams Cram. Washington DC: University Press of America. ISBN 0819108847.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0819108847","url_text":"0819108847"}]},{"reference":"Anthony, Ethan (2017). A Pocket Guide to the New England Architecture of Cram and Ferguson Architects (2 ed.). Concord, MA: Cram and Ferguson Architects LLC.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Shand-Tucci, Douglass (1975). Ralph Adams Cram: American Medievalist. Boston Public Library.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Shand-Tucci, Douglass (1995). Boston Bohemia 1881-1900, vol. 1 Ralph Adams Cram: Life and Architecture. Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Shand-Tucci, Douglass (1974). Church Building in Boston 1720-1970 With and Introduction to the Work of Ralph Adams Cram and the Boston Gothicists. Concord, MA: The Rumford Press.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Lanford, Sarah Drummond (1982). A Gothic Epitome: Ralph Adams Cram as Princeton's Architect. Princeton University: Princeton University Library.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Chronological List of Architecture\". Planning Design & Construction. Retrieved 2020-05-06.","urls":[{"url":"https://facilities.williams.edu/planning-construction/planning-construction/properties/architecture-list/","url_text":"\"Chronological List of Architecture\""}]},{"reference":"\"Upon This Foundation: Are new church designs taking us backward?\". America Magazine. 2012-05-28. Retrieved 2020-05-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.americamagazine.org/issue/5142/architecture/upon-foundation","url_text":"\"Upon This Foundation: Are new church designs taking us backward?\""}]},{"reference":"\"St. Kateri DCD Magazine\". Cram & Ferguson Architects. Retrieved 2020-05-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cramandferguson.com/st-kateri-dcd-magazine","url_text":"\"St. Kateri DCD Magazine\""}]},{"reference":"Cullen, Kevin (11 June 2016). \"Our Lady of Good Voyage survives choppy waters in Seaport\". The Boston Globe. Retrieved 2020-05-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2016/06/11/our-lady-good-voyage-survives-seaport-building-boom/eKDRNXavEiZBLpkIW1FleJ/story.html","url_text":"\"Our Lady of Good Voyage survives choppy waters in Seaport\""}]},{"reference":"\"Press & Awards\". Cram & Ferguson Architects. Retrieved 2020-05-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cramandferguson.com/awards-press","url_text":"\"Press & Awards\""}]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://www.cramandferguson.com/","external_links_name":"https://www.cramandferguson.com/"},{"Link":"https://www.liturgicalartsjournal.com/2020/04/21st-century-english-medieval-revival.html","external_links_name":"Syon Abbey"},{"Link":"https://www.greensborodailyphoto.com/2010/05/canterburys-phillips-chapel.html","external_links_name":"The Phillips Chapel"},{"Link":"https://backbayhouses.org/334-beacon/#Cram","external_links_name":"Charles Barron Residence"},{"Link":"https://www.cramandferguson.com/philips-church","external_links_name":"Phillips Church"},{"Link":"https://www.cramandferguson.com/the-casady-school","external_links_name":"St. Edwards Chapel"},{"Link":"https://www.cramandferguson.com/record-mausoleum","external_links_name":"Records Mausoleum"},{"Link":"https://sjnknox.org/","external_links_name":"St. John Neumann Catholic Church"},{"Link":"https://www.cramandferguson.com/st-kateri","external_links_name":"St. Kateri Tekakwitha Parish"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=XSEKMBiN-OQC&pg=PA104","external_links_name":"104"},{"Link":"https://facilities.williams.edu/planning-construction/planning-construction/properties/architecture-list/","external_links_name":"\"Chronological List of Architecture\""},{"Link":"https://www.americamagazine.org/issue/5142/architecture/upon-foundation","external_links_name":"\"Upon This Foundation: Are new church designs taking us backward?\""},{"Link":"https://www.cramandferguson.com/st-kateri-dcd-magazine","external_links_name":"\"St. Kateri DCD Magazine\""},{"Link":"https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2016/06/11/our-lady-good-voyage-survives-seaport-building-boom/eKDRNXavEiZBLpkIW1FleJ/story.html","external_links_name":"\"Our Lady of Good Voyage survives choppy waters in Seaport\""},{"Link":"https://www.cramandferguson.com/awards-press","external_links_name":"\"Press & Awards\""},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/295918087","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://www.getty.edu/vow/ULANFullDisplay?find=&role=&nation=&subjectid=500204955","external_links_name":"ULAN"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cissexism
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Cisgenderism
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["1 Definition","2 Characteristics","3 Consequences","4 See also","5 References"]
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Appeal to norms that enforce the gender binary and gender essentialism
Cisgenderism or cissexism is an ideology that challenges people's gender identities and thus leads to discrimination against gender variant people. It is systematic, and reflected in culture and the practices of legal authorities. Cisgenderism includes normative ideas about gender, which lead to the exclusion of intersex people and cultures with systems of gender different from the Western norm, and people who do not conform to the norms of cisgenderism are categorized as transgender and stigmatized. The concept of cisgenderism was proposed as an alternative to that of transphobia, as heterosexism was to homophobia.
Definition
The SAGE Encyclopedia of Trans Studies defines cisgenderism as an ideology that "involves concepts, language, and behavior that problematize people's own definitions and classifications of their genders and bodies". Cisgenderism is systematic and may be promoted by the practices of legal authorities. It can affect all people, including those considered cisgender, but more often targets transgender people.
Cisgenderism is defined in opposition to transphobia, as heterosexism is to homophobia. While transphobia focuses on attitudes towards people seen as transgender, cisgenderism is described as an ideology. This ideology is "systemic, multi-level and reflected in authoritative cultural discourses". Critique of cisgenderism also criticizes the very distinction between cisgender and transgender people. These concepts arise from Western culture with the gender binary peculiar to it, and are inapplicable to societies with other views on gender. Non-binary and intersex people also cause problems for the cisgender–transgender dichotomy. Therefore, this binary distinction may itself be a result of cisgenderism. The concept of cisgenderism is influenced by critical disability studies as well as critical racism and ethnocentrism studies.
Characteristics
Cisgenderism relies on the assumption that there are only two sex and gender categories, that gender is unchanging through life, and that it should be assigned by external authorities. In doing this, it ignores intersex people as well as societies where these assumptions do not hold true. People who do not conform to these assumptions are categorized as transgender. They are also portrayed as "deviant, immoral, and even threatening". Cisgenderism further justifies prejudice, discrimination, and violence in order to preserve itself.
Consequences
Cisgenderism has a variety of consequences for its targets, intentionally or not. It may result in people's gender identities being pathologized or seen as disordered. This can contribute to depression, and make mental health care harder to access. It can also marginalize people for their gender identities, leading to strain and higher risks of ridicule and hate crime. Coercive queering, another manifestation of cisgenderism, is classifying someone as LGBT against their wishes. It may also be lumping transgender rights issues together with lesbian, gay, and bisexual issues without actually addressing problems specific to transgender people. Misgendering and objectification by reducing people to their physical characteristics are also consequences of cisgenderism. In addition to these overt consequences of cisgenderism, trans erasure, whereby the challenges transgender people face are not represented in dominant discourses, is also a result of cisgenderism. Passing is a way to avoid consequences of cisgenderism, by outwardly conforming with cisgenderist norms.
See also
Systemic bias
References
^ a b c d Ansara, Y. Gavriel; Berger, Israel. Cisgenderism. In: Goldberg, Abbie; Beemyn, Gemmy, editors. The SAGE Encyclopedia of Trans Studies. SAGE Publications; 2021. ISBN 978-1-5443-9381-0.
^ Ansara, Y. Gavriel; Hegarty, Peter. Cisgenderism in psychology: pathologising and misgendering children from 1999 to 2008. Psychology and Sexuality. 2012;3(2):137–160. doi:10.1080/19419899.2011.576696.
^ Kennedy, Natacha (2013). "Cultural cisgenderism: Consequences of the imperceptible". Psychology of Women Section Review. 15 (2): 3–11.
^ Rogers, Michaela M. (October 2021). "Exploring the Domestic Abuse Narratives of Trans and Nonbinary People and the Role of Cisgenderism in Identity Abuse, Misgendering, and Pathologizing". Violence Against Women. 27 (12–13): 2187–2207. doi:10.1177/1077801220971368. ISSN 1077-8012. PMC 8404723. PMID 34448660.
^ Blumer, Markie L. C.; Gavriel Ansara, Y.; Watson, Courtney M. Cisgenderism in Family Therapy: How Everyday Clinical Practices Can Delegitimize People's Gender Self-Designations. Journal of Family Psychotherapy. 2013;24(4):267–285. doi:10.1080/08975353.2013.849551.
^ Lennon, Erica; Mistler, Brian J. Cisgenderism. Transgender Studies Quarterly. 2014;1(1–2):63–64. doi:10.1215/23289252-2399623.
^ a b Ansara, Y. Gavriel. Challenging cisgenderism in the ageing and aged care sector. Australasian Journal on Ageing. 2015;34(S2):14–18. doi:10.1111/ajag.12278.
^ Rogers, Michaela M. The intersection of cisgenderism and hate crime: learning from trans people's narratives. Journal of Family Strengths. 2017;17(2). doi:10.58464/2168-670X.1352.
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2016 bill C-16
Chile
2018 law
Germany
India
2014 Bill
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Kerala
Tamil Nadu
Iran
Ireland
New Zealand
Pakistan
2017 bill
2018 Act
South Africa
2003 Act
South Korea
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2022 law
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2004 act
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legal history
title IX
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2018 law
See also
Gender
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Social construction of gender
Outline
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Category
Transgender portal
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ideology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideology"},{"link_name":"gender identities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_identity"},{"link_name":"discrimination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrimination"},{"link_name":"gender variant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_variance"},{"link_name":"normative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_norm"},{"link_name":"gender","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender"},{"link_name":"intersex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intersex"},{"link_name":"transgender","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transgender"},{"link_name":"transphobia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transphobia"},{"link_name":"heterosexism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterosexism"},{"link_name":"homophobia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophobia"}],"text":"Cisgenderism or cissexism is an ideology that challenges people's gender identities and thus leads to discrimination against gender variant people. It is systematic, and reflected in culture and the practices of legal authorities. Cisgenderism includes normative ideas about gender, which lead to the exclusion of intersex people and cultures with systems of gender different from the Western norm, and people who do not conform to the norms of cisgenderism are categorized as transgender and stigmatized. The concept of cisgenderism was proposed as an alternative to that of transphobia, as heterosexism was to homophobia.","title":"Cisgenderism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SAGE_Cisgenderism-1"},{"link_name":"cisgender","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisgender"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SAGE_Cisgenderism-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ansara_&_Hegarty,_2012-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kennedy,_2013-3"},{"link_name":"Non-binary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-binary"},{"link_name":"critical disability studies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_disability_studies"},{"link_name":"critical racism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Critical_racism_studies&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"ethnocentrism studies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethnocentrism_studies&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SAGE_Cisgenderism-1"}],"text":"The SAGE Encyclopedia of Trans Studies defines cisgenderism as an ideology that \"involves concepts, language, and behavior that problematize people's own definitions and classifications of their genders and bodies\".[1] Cisgenderism is systematic and may be promoted by the practices of legal authorities. It can affect all people, including those considered cisgender, but more often targets transgender people.[1]Cisgenderism is defined in opposition to transphobia, as heterosexism is to homophobia. While transphobia focuses on attitudes towards people seen as transgender, cisgenderism is described as an ideology. This ideology is \"systemic, multi-level and reflected in authoritative cultural discourses\".[2][3] Critique of cisgenderism also criticizes the very distinction between cisgender and transgender people. These concepts arise from Western culture with the gender binary peculiar to it, and are inapplicable to societies with other views on gender. Non-binary and intersex people also cause problems for the cisgender–transgender dichotomy. Therefore, this binary distinction may itself be a result of cisgenderism. The concept of cisgenderism is influenced by critical disability studies as well as critical racism and ethnocentrism studies.[1]","title":"Definition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"sex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex"},{"link_name":"assigned","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_assignment"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rogers,_2021-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Blumer_et_al,_2013-5"},{"link_name":"prejudice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prejudice"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lennon_&_Mistler,_2014-6"}],"text":"Cisgenderism relies on the assumption that there are only two sex and gender categories, that gender is unchanging through life, and that it should be assigned by external authorities.[4] In doing this, it ignores intersex people as well as societies where these assumptions do not hold true. People who do not conform to these assumptions are categorized as transgender.[5] They are also portrayed as \"deviant, immoral, and even threatening\". Cisgenderism further justifies prejudice, discrimination, and violence in order to preserve itself.[6]","title":"Characteristics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"pathologized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathologization"},{"link_name":"depression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_(mood)"},{"link_name":"mental health care","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_health_care"},{"link_name":"marginalize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marginalization"},{"link_name":"hate crime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hate_crime"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SAGE_Cisgenderism-1"},{"link_name":"Coercive queering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Coercive_queering&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"LGBT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT"},{"link_name":"transgender rights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transgender_rights"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ansara,_2015-7"},{"link_name":"Misgendering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misgendering"},{"link_name":"objectification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objectification"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ansara,_2015-7"},{"link_name":"trans erasure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans_erasure"},{"link_name":"Passing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passing_(gender)"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rogers,_2017-8"}],"text":"Cisgenderism has a variety of consequences for its targets, intentionally or not. It may result in people's gender identities being pathologized or seen as disordered. This can contribute to depression, and make mental health care harder to access. It can also marginalize people for their gender identities, leading to strain and higher risks of ridicule and hate crime.[1] Coercive queering, another manifestation of cisgenderism, is classifying someone as LGBT against their wishes. It may also be lumping transgender rights issues together with lesbian, gay, and bisexual issues without actually addressing problems specific to transgender people.[7] Misgendering and objectification by reducing people to their physical characteristics are also consequences of cisgenderism.[7] In addition to these overt consequences of cisgenderism, trans erasure, whereby the challenges transgender people face are not represented in dominant discourses, is also a result of cisgenderism. Passing is a way to avoid consequences of cisgenderism, by outwardly conforming with cisgenderist norms.[8]","title":"Consequences"}]
|
[]
|
[{"title":"Systemic bias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systemic_bias"}]
|
[{"reference":"Ansara, Y. Gavriel; Berger, Israel. Cisgenderism. In: Goldberg, Abbie; Beemyn, Gemmy, editors. The SAGE Encyclopedia of Trans Studies. SAGE Publications; 2021. ISBN 978-1-5443-9381-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5443-9381-0","url_text":"978-1-5443-9381-0"}]},{"reference":"Ansara, Y. Gavriel; Hegarty, Peter. Cisgenderism in psychology: pathologising and misgendering children from 1999 to 2008. Psychology and Sexuality. 2012;3(2):137–160. doi:10.1080/19419899.2011.576696.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F19419899.2011.576696","url_text":"10.1080/19419899.2011.576696"}]},{"reference":"Kennedy, Natacha (2013). \"Cultural cisgenderism: Consequences of the imperceptible\". Psychology of Women Section Review. 15 (2): 3–11.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Rogers, Michaela M. (October 2021). \"Exploring the Domestic Abuse Narratives of Trans and Nonbinary People and the Role of Cisgenderism in Identity Abuse, Misgendering, and Pathologizing\". Violence Against Women. 27 (12–13): 2187–2207. doi:10.1177/1077801220971368. ISSN 1077-8012. PMC 8404723. PMID 34448660.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8404723","url_text":"\"Exploring the Domestic Abuse Narratives of Trans and Nonbinary People and the Role of Cisgenderism in Identity Abuse, Misgendering, and Pathologizing\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1077801220971368","url_text":"10.1177/1077801220971368"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1077-8012","url_text":"1077-8012"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8404723","url_text":"8404723"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34448660","url_text":"34448660"}]},{"reference":"Blumer, Markie L. C.; Gavriel Ansara, Y.; Watson, Courtney M. Cisgenderism in Family Therapy: How Everyday Clinical Practices Can Delegitimize People's Gender Self-Designations. Journal of Family Psychotherapy. 2013;24(4):267–285. doi:10.1080/08975353.2013.849551.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F08975353.2013.849551","url_text":"10.1080/08975353.2013.849551"}]},{"reference":"Lennon, Erica; Mistler, Brian J. Cisgenderism. Transgender Studies Quarterly. 2014;1(1–2):63–64. doi:10.1215/23289252-2399623.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1215%2F23289252-2399623","url_text":"10.1215/23289252-2399623"}]},{"reference":"Ansara, Y. Gavriel. Challenging cisgenderism in the ageing and aged care sector. Australasian Journal on Ageing. 2015;34(S2):14–18. doi:10.1111/ajag.12278.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fajag.12278","url_text":"10.1111/ajag.12278"}]},{"reference":"Rogers, Michaela M. The intersection of cisgenderism and hate crime: learning from trans people's narratives. Journal of Family Strengths. 2017;17(2). doi:10.58464/2168-670X.1352.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.58464%2F2168-670X.1352","url_text":"10.58464/2168-670X.1352"}]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F19419899.2011.576696","external_links_name":"10.1080/19419899.2011.576696"},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8404723","external_links_name":"\"Exploring the Domestic Abuse Narratives of Trans and Nonbinary People and the Role of Cisgenderism in Identity Abuse, Misgendering, and Pathologizing\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1077801220971368","external_links_name":"10.1177/1077801220971368"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1077-8012","external_links_name":"1077-8012"},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8404723","external_links_name":"8404723"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34448660","external_links_name":"34448660"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F08975353.2013.849551","external_links_name":"10.1080/08975353.2013.849551"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1215%2F23289252-2399623","external_links_name":"10.1215/23289252-2399623"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fajag.12278","external_links_name":"10.1111/ajag.12278"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.58464%2F2168-670X.1352","external_links_name":"10.58464/2168-670X.1352"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waidbruck
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Waidbruck
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["1 Geography","2 History","2.1 Place name","2.2 Coat-of-arms","3 Society","3.1 Linguistic distribution","3.2 Demographic evolution","4 References","5 External links"]
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Coordinates: 46°36′N 11°32′E / 46.600°N 11.533°E / 46.600; 11.533Comune in Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, ItalyWaidbruckComuneGemeinde WaidbruckComune di Ponte GardenaOswald von Wolkenstein Town SquareLocation of Waidbruck
WaidbruckLocation of Waidbruck in ItalyShow map of ItalyWaidbruckWaidbruck (Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol)Show map of Trentino-Alto Adige/SüdtirolCoordinates: 46°36′N 11°32′E / 46.600°N 11.533°E / 46.600; 11.533CountryItalyRegionTrentino-Alto Adige/SüdtirolProvinceSouth Tyrol (BZ)Government • MayorPhilipp KerschbaumerArea • Total2.3 km2 (0.9 sq mi)Elevation471 m (1,545 ft)Population (Nov. 2010) • Total192 • Density83/km2 (220/sq mi)Demonym(s)German: WaidbruckerItalian: pontegardenesiTime zoneUTC+1 (CET) • Summer (DST)UTC+2 (CEST)Postal code39040Dialing code0471WebsiteOfficial website
Waidbruck (German: ; Italian: Ponte Gardena ; Ladin: Pruca) is a comune (municipality) in South Tyrol in northern Italy, located about 20 kilometres (12 mi) northeast of Bolzano.
Geography
As of November 30, 2010, it had a population of 192 and an area of 2.3 square kilometres (0.89 sq mi).
Waidbruck borders the following municipalities: Barbian, Kastelruth and Lajen.
History
Place name
An archaic form of the comune's name, Waidepruk (1264), reveals its origins from Old High German. Waid means "meadow" and pruk means "bridge". Hence also the Italian name, "Ponte Gardena".
Coat-of-arms
The emblem symbolizes the bridge; argent a fess nebuly gules on azure that indicates the Eisack river. The reason comes from the gules and argent insignia of the counts of Wolkenstein, owners of the local Trostburg Castle since 1385. The emblem was adopted in 1969.
Society
Linguistic distribution
According to the 2011 census, 81.40% of the population speak German, 13.37% Italian and 5.23% Ladin as first language.
Demographic evolution
References
^ "Superficie di Comuni Province e Regioni italiane al 9 ottobre 2011". Italian National Institute of Statistics. Retrieved 16 March 2019.
^ "Popolazione Residente al 1° Gennaio 2018". Italian National Institute of Statistics. Retrieved 16 March 2019.
^ All demographics and other statistics: Italian statistical institute Istat.
^ Heraldry of the World: Waidbruck
^ "Volkszählung 2011/Censimento della popolazione 2011". astat info (38). Provincial Statistics Institute of the Autonomous Province of South Tyrol: 6–7. June 2012. Retrieved 2012-06-14.
External links
Media related to Waidbruck at Wikimedia Commons
(in German and Italian) Homepage of the municipality
vteMunicipalities of South Tyrol
Ahrntal
Aldein
Algund
Altrei
Andrian
Auer
Badia
Barbian
Bolzano
Brenner
Brixen
Bronzolo
Bruneck
Burgstall
Corvara
Deutschnofen
Eppan
Feldthurns
Franzensfeste
Freienfeld
Gais
Gargazon
Glurns
Graun im Vinschgau
Gsies
Hafling
Innichen
Jenesien
Kaltern
Karneid
Kastelbell-Tschars
Kastelruth
Kiens
Klausen
Kuens
Kurtatsch
Kurtinig
Laas
Laives
Lajen
Lana
Latsch
Laurein
La Val
Lüsen
Mals
Mareo
Margreid
Marling
Martell
Merano
Mölten
Montan
Moos in Passeier
Mühlbach
Mühlwald
Nals
Naturns
Natz-Schabs
Neumarkt
Niederdorf
Olang
Partschins
Percha
Pfalzen
Pfitsch
Plaus
Prad
Prags
Prettau
Proveis
Rasen-Antholz
Ratschings
Riffian
Ritten
Rodeneck
Salorno
San Martin de Tor
Sand in Taufers
Santa Cristina Gherdëina
St. Leonhard in Passeier
St. Lorenzen
St. Martin in Passeier
St. Pankraz
Sarntal
Schenna
Schlanders
Schluderns
Schnals
Sëlva
Sexten
Sterzing
Stilfs
Taufers im Münstertal
Terenten
Terlan
Tiers
Tirol
Tisens
Toblach
Tramin
Truden
Tscherms
Ulten
Unsere Liebe Frau im Walde-St. Felix
Urtijëi
Vadena
Vahrn
Villanders
Villnöß
Vintl
Völs am Schlern
Vöran
Waidbruck
Welsberg-Taisten
Welschnofen
Authority control databases International
VIAF
National
Germany
Israel
United States
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[vaɪtˈbrʊk]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German"},{"link_name":"Italian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_language"},{"link_name":"[ˈponte ɡarˈdeːna, - ɡarˈdɛːna]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Italian"},{"link_name":"Ladin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladin_language"},{"link_name":"comune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comune"},{"link_name":"South Tyrol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Tyrol"},{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"Bolzano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolzano"}],"text":"Comune in Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, ItalyWaidbruck (German: [vaɪtˈbrʊk]; Italian: Ponte Gardena [ˈponte ɡarˈdeːna, - ɡarˈdɛːna]; Ladin: Pruca) is a comune (municipality) in South Tyrol in northern Italy, located about 20 kilometres (12 mi) northeast of Bolzano.","title":"Waidbruck"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-istat-3"},{"link_name":"Barbian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbian"},{"link_name":"Kastelruth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kastelruth"},{"link_name":"Lajen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lajen"}],"text":"As of November 30, 2010, it had a population of 192 and an area of 2.3 square kilometres (0.89 sq mi).[3]Waidbruck borders the following municipalities: Barbian, Kastelruth and Lajen.","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Old High German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_High_German"}],"sub_title":"Place name","text":"An archaic form of the comune's name, Waidepruk (1264), reveals its origins from Old High German. Waid means \"meadow\" and pruk means \"bridge\". Hence also the Italian name, \"Ponte Gardena\".","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"argent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argent"},{"link_name":"fess","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fess"},{"link_name":"nebuly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nebuly"},{"link_name":"gules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gules"},{"link_name":"azure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azure_(heraldry)"},{"link_name":"Eisack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eisack"},{"link_name":"counts of Wolkenstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Counts_of_Wolkenstein&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"sub_title":"Coat-of-arms","text":"The emblem symbolizes the bridge; argent a fess nebuly gules on azure that indicates the Eisack river. The reason comes from the gules and argent insignia of the counts of Wolkenstein, owners of the local Trostburg Castle since 1385. The emblem was adopted in 1969.[4]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Society"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ladin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladin_language"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"sub_title":"Linguistic distribution","text":"According to the 2011 census, 81.40% of the population speak German, 13.37% Italian and 5.23% Ladin as first language.[5]","title":"Society"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Demographic evolution","title":"Society"}]
|
[]
| null |
[{"reference":"\"Superficie di Comuni Province e Regioni italiane al 9 ottobre 2011\". Italian National Institute of Statistics. Retrieved 16 March 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.istat.it/it/archivio/156224","url_text":"\"Superficie di Comuni Province e Regioni italiane al 9 ottobre 2011\""}]},{"reference":"\"Popolazione Residente al 1° Gennaio 2018\". Italian National Institute of Statistics. Retrieved 16 March 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://demo.istat.it/pop2018/index3.html","url_text":"\"Popolazione Residente al 1° Gennaio 2018\""}]},{"reference":"\"Volkszählung 2011/Censimento della popolazione 2011\". astat info (38). Provincial Statistics Institute of the Autonomous Province of South Tyrol: 6–7. June 2012. Retrieved 2012-06-14.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.provinz.bz.it/astat/de/service/256.asp?news_action=300&news_image_id=563169","url_text":"\"Volkszählung 2011/Censimento della popolazione 2011\""}]}]
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Quinn_(puppeteer)
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Mike Quinn (puppeteer)
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["1 Early life and career","2 Personal life","3 Filmography","3.1 Film","3.2 Television","3.3 Event","4 Crew","5 References","6 External links"]
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British puppeteer
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Mike QuinnQuinn in 2022Born (1964-07-28) 28 July 1964 (age 59)London, England, U.K.Other namesMike QuinbyMichael E. QuinnMichael QuinnOccupation(s)Puppeteer, animator, actor, director, producer, voice-over artist, puppet builder, composer, mentorYears active1980–presentSpouse
Karen Prell
(m. 1988; div. 2004)
Mike Quinn (born 28 July 1964) is an English puppeteer, animator, actor, director, producer, voice-over artist, puppet builder, composer and mentor. He is also known as Mike Quinby, Michael E. Quinn, and Michael Quinn.
Early life and career
Quinn was born in London, but grew up in Enfield, Middlesex. He began puppeteering at age eight.
In 1977, Mike regularly visited the set of The Muppet Show with his homemade puppets, eventually meeting Jim Henson. Through his visits, he learned more about puppeteering and received encouragement from Jim Henson and his co-workers.
Mike Quinn at Galaxy Con Raleigh 2023
After leaving school in 1980, Quinn joined The Jim Henson Company and worked on the 1981 film The Great Muppet Caper puppeteering in crowd scenes and acting as a double for various main Muppet characters. Quinn later designed and built the Podlings for The Dark Crystal, where he also performed the Skeksis Slave Master SkekNa (who was voiced by David Buck).
During the filming of Return of the Jedi, Quinn (and David Barclay and David Greenaway) were assistant puppeteers to Frank Oz in his performance of Yoda. He also performed the role of Nien Nunb in Return Of the Jedi. Between the late 1980s and early 1990s, Quinn joined with fellow puppeteer David Barclay, creating Ultimate Animates, a production company specializing in new building and performing techniques for internal and external puppet productions.
Quinn joined George Lucas's Industrial Light and Magic as an animator, first working on Jurassic Park III and then Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones.
He reprised his role as Nien Nunb in Star Wars: The Force Awakens, a role that he reprised again in Star Wars: The Last Jedi and Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker, and performed for the Disney theme park ride Star Wars: Rise of the Resistance.
In 2018, Quinn provided the voice of the Stan Laurel-based character Agnes Packard in the Cartoon Network series, Mighty Magiswords opposing Ken Mitchroney voicing her Oliver Hardy-based husband Mr. Pachydermus in the episode "Pachydermus Packard and the Camp of Fantasy".
Mike Quinn at Galaxy Con Raleigh 2023
Quinn appeared as a guest on The George Lucas Talk Show during their May the AR Be LI$$ You Arli$$ Marathon fundraiser.
Personal life
From 1989 to 2004, Quinn was married to fellow puppeteer Karen Prell.
Filmography
Film
Year
Title
Role
Notes
1981
The Great Muppet Caper
Additional Muppets
1982
The Dark Crystal
SkekNa - the slavemaster Skeksis
Performer plus puppet builder
1983
Return of the Jedi
Nien Nunb and various roles
Yoda (assistant performer)
1985
Dreamchild
Puppeteer
1986
Little Shop of Horrors
Puppeteer
1986
Labyrinth
Goblins plus various
Puppeteer
The Tale of the Bunny Picnic
Bulbous, Mayor Bunnyparte
1988
Who Framed Roger Rabbit
Puppeteer
1989
How to Get Ahead in Advertising
Puppeteer of the boil and growing head
1992
The Muppet Christmas Carol
Undertaker
performer of Miss Piggy and Fozzie Bear
1996
Muppet Treasure Island
Additional Muppets
1996
Mary Reilly
Special effects Puppeteer
1998
A Bug's Life
Animator
1999
Toy Story 2
Animator, including the 'Woody's Roundup' TV sequence
2001
Jurassic Park III
Dinosaur animator
2002
Star Wars Episode II Attack of the Clones
Animator
2005
The Muppets' Wizard of Oz
Additional Muppets
Credited as Michael Quinn
2011
The Muppets
Additional Muppets
2014
Muppets Most Wanted
Additional Muppets
2015
Star Wars: The Force Awakens
Nien Nunb
2017
Star Wars: The Last Jedi
2019
Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker
Television
Year
Title
Role
Notes
1983–87
Fraggle Rock
Gobo Fraggle (UK and French versions), Traveling Matt (UK and French versions), Sprocket (French and German versions) and various
recorded regional variations for UK, Germany, France
1987
Jim Henson's Mother Goose Stories
Brown Gosling, Humpty Dumpty, plus various
Credited as Mike Quinby
1988
The Storyteller
Devil
Episode: "The Soldier and Death" puppeteer
1989
The Ghost of Faffner Hall
Riff, synthesiser fly
1993
The Great Bong
Producer, director, puppeteer, puppet builder
1994
The Secret Life of Toys
Various, Rabbit Lamp
Jim Henson's Animal Show
Chuck The Lion
4 episodes
1995
Heroes of Comedy
Designer, builder, performer of Max Miller puppet
Series 1, Episode 3
1995-97
The Slow Norris
Puppeteer, Puppet Builder
2005
The Muppets' Wizard of Oz
Muppet Performer
2013
Shake It Up
Parrot
Episode: "Ty It Up"
Good Luck Charlie
Additional Muppet Performer
Episode: "Duncan Dream House"
Glee
Puppeteer
Episode: "Puppet Master"
2015-16
The Muppets
Additional Muppet Performer
2015-2017
Mighty Magiswords
Agnes Packard
Episode: "Pachydermus Packard and the Camp of Fantasy"
2018–present
Kidding
Secret Chef, Wedding Groomsman and Puppeteer
4 episodes
2020
Muppets Now
Additional Muppet Performer
6 episodes
2020
The George Lucas Talk Show
Himself
May the AR Be LI$$ You (Arli$$ Marathon fundraiser)
Event
Year
Title
Role
Notes
2015
TEDx Talk
Assistant puppeteer to Kermit the Frog
2016
Outside Lands Music Festival Golden Gate Park, San Francisco
Muppet Performer for Dr. Teeth and the Electric Mayhem
August 7
2017
The Muppets Take the Bowl
Additional Muppet Performer
Live show at the Hollywood Bowl, September 8–10
2018
The Muppets Take the O2
Additional Muppet Performer and voices
Live show at the O2 Arena London, July
2019 and continuing
Disney Theme Park Ride Star Wars: Rise of the Resistance
Nien Nunb
Star Wars: Galaxy's Edge at Disney's Hollywood Studios and Disneyland
Crew
Dreamchild - Puppeteer
Jurassic Park III - Animator
Little Shop of Horrors - Puppeteer
Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones - Animator
Toy Story 2 - Animator
Who Framed Roger Rabbit - Puppeteer (UK)
References
^ Ward, Jason (25 October 2015). "Star Wars Legend Mike Quinn returns as Nien Nunb in Star Wars: The Force Awakens!". Making Star Wars. Retrieved 12 February 2016.
^ a b Orange, B. Alan (5 February 2016). "Nien Nunb Will Return in 'Star Wars 8'". MovieWeb. Retrieved 19 February 2016.
External links
The Official Mike Quinn website
Mike Quinn at IMDb
Mike Quinn's mentoring and training site
vteThe Muppets
Jim Henson
The Muppets Studio
Characters
Kermit the Frog
Miss Piggy
Fozzie Bear
Gonzo
Rowlf the Dog
Scooter
Dr. Teeth and the Electric Mayhem
Animal
Statler and Waldorf
Dr. Bunsen Honeydew
Beaker
Sam Eagle
Swedish Chef
Rizzo the Rat
Pepe the King Prawn
Walter
TelevisionSeries
Sam and Friends (1955–1961)
The Muppet Show (1976–1981) (episodes)
Muppet Babies (1984–1991) (episodes)
Little Muppet Monsters (1985)
The Jim Henson Hour (1989)
Muppets Tonight (1996–1998)
The Muppets (2015–2016)
Muppet Babies (2018–2022) (episodes)
Muppets Now (2020)
The Muppets Mayhem (2023)
Segments
The Jimmy Dean Show ("Rowlf the Dog", 1963–1965)
The Mike Douglas Show (1966–1979)
The Ed Sullivan Show (including The Great Santa Claus Switch, 1966–1971)
NBC's Saturday Night (The Land of Gorch, 1975–1976)
Specials
Hey, Cinderella! (1969)
The Muppets on Puppets (1970)
The Great Santa Claus Switch (1970)
The Frog Prince (1971)
The Muppet Musicians of Bremen (1972)
The Muppets Valentine Show (1974)
The Muppet Show: Sex and Violence (1975)
John Denver and the Muppets: A Christmas Together (1979)
The Muppets Go Hollywood (1979)
The Muppets Go to the Movies (1981)
The Fantastic Miss Piggy Show (1982)
Rocky Mountain Holiday (1983)
The Muppets: A Celebration of 30 Years (1986)
A Muppet Family Christmas (1987)
Cartoon All-Stars to the Rescue (1990)
The Earth Day Special (1990)
The Muppets at Walt Disney World (1990)
The Muppets Celebrate Jim Henson (1990)
Mr. Willowby's Christmas Tree (1995)
Studio DC: Almost Live (2008)
A Muppets Christmas: Letters to Santa (2008)
Lady Gaga and the Muppets Holiday Spectacular (2013)
Muppets Haunted Mansion (2021)
FilmsTheatrical
The Muppet Movie (1979)
The Great Muppet Caper (1981)
The Muppets Take Manhattan (1984)
The Muppet Christmas Carol (1992)
Muppet Treasure Island (1996)
Muppets from Space (1999)
The Muppets (2011)
Muppets Most Wanted (2014)
Television
Emmet Otter's Jug-Band Christmas (1977)
The Tale of the Bunny Picnic (1986)
The Christmas Toy (1986)
It's a Very Merry Muppet Christmas Movie (2002)
The Muppets' Wizard of Oz (2005)
Direct-to-video
Muppet Classic Theater (1994)
Kermit's Swamp Years (2002)
MusicAlbums
The Muppet Show (1977)
The Muppet Show 2 (1978)
The Muppet Movie (1979)
John Denver and the Muppets: A Christmas Together (1979)
Ol' Brown Ears Is Back (1993)
Muppet Beach Party (1993)
Kermit Unpigged (1994)
The Muppet Show: Music, Mayhem, and More (2002)
A Green and Red Christmas (2006)
A Muppets Christmas: Letters to Santa (2009)
The Green Album (2011)
The Muppets (2011)
Muppets Most Wanted (2014)
The Electric Mayhem (The Muppets Mayhem: Music From the Disney+ Original Series) (2023)
Songs
"Rainbow Connection"
"Bein' Green"
"Mahna Mahna"
"When the River Meets the Sea"
"Bohemian Rhapsody"
"Man or Muppet"
Web series
Statler and Waldorf: From the Balcony (2005–06)
The Muppets Kitchen with Cat Cora (2010)
Video games
Pigs in Space (1983)
Muppet Adventure: Chaos at the Carnival (1989)
Muppets Inside (1996)
Muppet Treasure Island (1996)
Muppet Kids (1997)
Jim Henson's Muppets (2000)
Muppet RaceMania (2000)
Muppet Monster Adventure (2000)
Spy Muppets: License to Croak (2003)
Muppets Party Cruise (2003)
The Muppets Movie Adventures (2014)
Disney Mirrorverse (2022)
Disney Magic Kingdoms (2023)
Disney Speedstorm (2024)
Other media
Muppet*Vision 3D (1991–present)
Muppet Mobile Lab (2007–present)
The Muppets Present...Great Moments in American History (2016–2020)
Comics series
Before You Leap
Related
Puppet Heap
The Jim Henson Company
Creature Shop
Fraggle Rock
characters
Sesame Workshop
Sesame Street
Muppets
Muppet Theory
Kermitops
Jim Henson Idea Man
Category
|
[{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Mike Quinn (born 28 July 1964) is an English puppeteer, animator, actor, director, producer, voice-over artist, puppet builder, composer and mentor. He is also known as Mike Quinby, Michael E. Quinn, and Michael Quinn.","title":"Mike Quinn (puppeteer)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London"},{"link_name":"Enfield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enfield_Town"},{"link_name":"Middlesex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middlesex"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"The Muppet Show","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Muppet_Show"},{"link_name":"Jim Henson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Henson"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mike_Quinn_and_Dave_Barclay_Q%26A_-_53115630642.jpg"},{"link_name":"The Great Muppet Caper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Great_Muppet_Caper"},{"link_name":"The Dark Crystal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dark_Crystal"},{"link_name":"David Buck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Buck"},{"link_name":"Return of the Jedi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Return_of_the_Jedi"},{"link_name":"David Barclay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Alan_Barclay"},{"link_name":"Frank Oz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Oz"},{"link_name":"Yoda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoda"},{"link_name":"Nien Nunb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nien_Nunb"},{"link_name":"David Barclay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Barclay_(puppeteer)"},{"link_name":"George Lucas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Lucas"},{"link_name":"Jurassic Park III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurassic_Park_III"},{"link_name":"Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Wars:_Episode_II_%E2%80%93_Attack_of_the_Clones"},{"link_name":"Star Wars: The Force Awakens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Wars:_The_Force_Awakens"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Star Wars: The Last Jedi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Wars:_The_Last_Jedi"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-movieweb-2"},{"link_name":"Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Wars:_The_Rise_of_Skywalker"},{"link_name":"Star Wars: Rise of the Resistance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Wars:_Rise_of_the_Resistance"},{"link_name":"Stan Laurel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stan_Laurel"},{"link_name":"Cartoon Network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartoon_Network"},{"link_name":"Mighty Magiswords","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mighty_Magiswords"},{"link_name":"Oliver Hardy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Hardy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mike_Quinn_and_Dave_Barclay_Q%26A_-_53116634875.jpg"},{"link_name":"The George Lucas Talk Show","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_George_Lucas_Talk_Show"},{"link_name":"Arli$$","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arliss_(TV_series)"}],"text":"Quinn was born in London, but grew up in Enfield, Middlesex. He began puppeteering at age eight.[citation needed]In 1977, Mike regularly visited the set of The Muppet Show with his homemade puppets, eventually meeting Jim Henson. Through his visits, he learned more about puppeteering and received encouragement from Jim Henson and his co-workers.[citation needed]Mike Quinn at Galaxy Con Raleigh 2023After leaving school in 1980, Quinn joined The Jim Henson Company and worked on the 1981 film The Great Muppet Caper puppeteering in crowd scenes and acting as a double for various main Muppet characters. Quinn later designed and built the Podlings for The Dark Crystal, where he also performed the Skeksis Slave Master SkekNa (who was voiced by David Buck).During the filming of Return of the Jedi, Quinn (and David Barclay and David Greenaway) were assistant puppeteers to Frank Oz in his performance of Yoda. He also performed the role of Nien Nunb in Return Of the Jedi. Between the late 1980s and early 1990s, Quinn joined with fellow puppeteer David Barclay, creating Ultimate Animates, a production company specializing in new building and performing techniques for internal and external puppet productions.Quinn joined George Lucas's Industrial Light and Magic as an animator, first working on Jurassic Park III and then Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones.He reprised his role as Nien Nunb in Star Wars: The Force Awakens,[1] a role that he reprised again in Star Wars: The Last Jedi[2] and Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker, and performed for the Disney theme park ride Star Wars: Rise of the Resistance.In 2018, Quinn provided the voice of the Stan Laurel-based character Agnes Packard in the Cartoon Network series, Mighty Magiswords opposing Ken Mitchroney voicing her Oliver Hardy-based husband Mr. Pachydermus in the episode \"Pachydermus Packard and the Camp of Fantasy\".Mike Quinn at Galaxy Con Raleigh 2023Quinn appeared as a guest on The George Lucas Talk Show during their May the AR Be LI$$ You Arli$$ Marathon fundraiser.","title":"Early life and career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Karen Prell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karen_Prell"}],"text":"From 1989 to 2004, Quinn was married to fellow puppeteer Karen Prell.","title":"Personal life"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Film","title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Television","title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Event","title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dreamchild","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreamchild"},{"link_name":"Jurassic Park III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurassic_Park_III"},{"link_name":"Little Shop of Horrors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Shop_of_Horrors_(film)"},{"link_name":"Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Wars:_Episode_II_%E2%80%93_Attack_of_the_Clones"},{"link_name":"Toy Story 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toy_Story_2"},{"link_name":"Who Framed Roger Rabbit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Who_Framed_Roger_Rabbit"}],"text":"Dreamchild - Puppeteer\nJurassic Park III - Animator\nLittle Shop of Horrors - Puppeteer\nStar Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones - Animator\nToy Story 2 - Animator\nWho Framed Roger Rabbit - Puppeteer (UK)","title":"Crew"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Mike Quinn at Galaxy Con Raleigh 2023","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Mike_Quinn_and_Dave_Barclay_Q%26A_-_53115630642.jpg/220px-Mike_Quinn_and_Dave_Barclay_Q%26A_-_53115630642.jpg"},{"image_text":"Mike Quinn at Galaxy Con Raleigh 2023","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Mike_Quinn_and_Dave_Barclay_Q%26A_-_53116634875.jpg/220px-Mike_Quinn_and_Dave_Barclay_Q%26A_-_53116634875.jpg"}]
| null |
[{"reference":"Ward, Jason (25 October 2015). \"Star Wars Legend Mike Quinn returns as Nien Nunb in Star Wars: The Force Awakens!\". Making Star Wars. Retrieved 12 February 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://makingstarwars.net/2015/10/star-wars-legend-mike-quinn-returns-as-nien-nunb-in-star-wars-the-force-awakens/","url_text":"\"Star Wars Legend Mike Quinn returns as Nien Nunb in Star Wars: The Force Awakens!\""}]},{"reference":"Orange, B. Alan (5 February 2016). \"Nien Nunb Will Return in 'Star Wars 8'\". MovieWeb. Retrieved 19 February 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://movieweb.com/star-wars-8-nien-nunb/","url_text":"\"Nien Nunb Will Return in 'Star Wars 8'\""}]}]
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._L._R._James
|
C. L. R. James
|
["1 Biography","1.1 Early life in Trinidad","1.2 British years","1.3 Speaking tour in the United States","2 Meeting Trotsky","2.1 U.S. and the Johnson–Forest Tendency","2.2 Return to Britain","3 Trinidad and afterwards","4 Personal life","5 Legacy and recognition","6 Archives","7 Writings on cricket","8 Selected bibliography","9 References","10 Further reading","11 External links"]
|
Trinidadian historian, journalist and Marxist (1901–1989)
"Cyril James" redirects here. For the Canadian academic, see Frank Cyril James.
C. L. R. JamesJames in 1974BornCyril Lionel Robert James(1901-01-04)4 January 1901Tunapuna, Trinidad and TobagoDied31 May 1989(1989-05-31) (aged 88)Brixton, London, EnglandNationalityTrinidadianOther namesJ. R. Johnson; Nello JamesOccupation(s)Historian, writer, socialistNotable workThe Black Jacobins Beyond a Boundary Minty Alley Toussaint Louverture: The Story of the Only Successful Slave Revolt in History World RevolutionSpouses
Juanita Young
(m. 1929; div. 1932)
Constance Webb
(m. 1946; div. 1953)
Selma Weinstein
(m. 1956; div. 1980)Children1
Cyril Lionel Robert James (4 January 1901 – 31 May 1989), who sometimes wrote under the pen-name J. R. Johnson, was a Trinidadian historian, journalist, Trotskyist activist and Marxist writer. His works are influential in various theoretical, social, and historiographical contexts. His work is a staple of Marxism, and he figures as a pioneering and influential voice in postcolonial literature. A tireless political activist, James is the author of the 1937 work World Revolution outlining the history of the Communist International, which stirred debate in Trotskyist circles, and in 1938 he wrote on the Haitian Revolution, The Black Jacobins.
Characterised by one literary critic as an "anti-Stalinist dialectician", James was known for his autodidactism, for his occasional playwriting and fiction, and as an avid sportsman. The performance of his 1934 play Toussaint Louverture was the first time black professional actors featured in a production written by a black playwright in the UK. His 1936 book Minty Alley was the first novel by a black West Indian to be published in Britain. He is also famed as a writer on cricket, and his 1963 book Beyond a Boundary, which he himself described as "neither cricket reminiscences nor autobiography", is commonly named as the best single book on cricket, and even the best book about sports ever written.
Biography
Early life in Trinidad
Born in 1901 in Tunapuna, Trinidad, then a British Crown colony, C. L. R. James was the first child of Ida Elizabeth James (née Rudder) and Robert Alexander James, a schoolteacher.
In 1910, James won a scholarship to Queen's Royal College (QRC), the island's oldest non-Catholic secondary school, in Port of Spain, where he became a club cricketer and distinguished himself as an athlete (he held the Trinidad high-jump record at 5 feet 9 inches (175 cm) from 1918 to 1922), as well as beginning to write fiction. After graduating in 1918 from QRC, he worked there as a teacher of English and History in the 1920s; among those he taught was the young Eric Williams, who became the first Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago.
Together with Ralph de Boissière, Albert Gomes and Alfred Mendes, James was a member of the anticolonialist "Beacon Group", a circle of writers associated with The Beacon magazine, in which he published a series of short stories. His short story "La Divina Pastora" was published in October 1927 in the Saturday Review of Literature, and was widely reprinted.
British years
In 1932, James left Trinidad for the small town of Nelson in Lancashire, England, at the invitation of his friend, West Indian cricketer Learie Constantine, who needed his help writing his autobiography Cricket and I (published in 1933). James had brought with him to England the manuscript of his first full-length non-fiction work, partly based on his interviews with the Trinidad labour leader Arthur Andrew Cipriani, which was published with financial assistance from Constantine in 1932.
During this time, James took a job as cricket correspondent with The Manchester Guardian. In 1933, he moved to London. The following year, he joined a Trotskyist group that met to talk for hours in his rented room. Louise Cripps, one of its members, recalled: "We felt our work could contribute to the time when we would see Socialism spreading."
James had begun to campaign for the independence of the West Indies while in Trinidad. An abridged version of his Life of Captain Cipriani was issued by Leonard and Virginia Woolf's Hogarth Press in 1933 as the pamphlet The Case for West-Indian Self Government. He became a champion of Pan-Africanism, and was named Chair of the International African Friends of Abyssinia, later renamed the International African Friends of Ethiopia (IAFE) – a group formed in 1935 in response to the Italian fascist invasion of Ethiopia (the Second Italo-Ethiopian War). Leading members included Amy Ashwood Garvey, Jomo Kenyatta and Chris Braithwaite.
When the IAFE was transformed into the International African Service Bureau in 1937, James edited its newsletter, Africa and the World, and its journal, International African Opinion. The Bureau was led by his childhood friend George Padmore, who became a driving force for socialist Pan-Africanism for several decades. Both Padmore and James wrote for the New Leader, published by the Independent Labour Party (ILP), which James had joined in 1934 (when Fenner Brockway was its General Secretary).
James in 1938
In 1934, James wrote a three-act play about the Haitian revolutionary Toussaint Louverture (entitled Toussaint Louverture: The Story of the Only Successful Slave Revolt in History), which was staged in London's West End in 1936 and starred Paul Robeson, Orlando Martins, Robert Adams and Harry Andrews. The play had been presumed lost until the rediscovery of a draft copy in 2005, the play has now gone on to be adapted into a graphic novel by Nic Watts and Sakina Karimjee. In 1967, James went on to write a second play about the Haitian Revolution, The Black Jacobins, which became the first production from Talawa Theatre Company in 1986, coinciding with the overthrow of Jean-Claude Duvalier. 1936 also saw Secker & Warburg in London publish James's novel, Minty Alley, which he had brought with him in manuscript form from Trinidad. (Fenner Brockway had introduced him to Fredric Warburg, co-owner of the press.) It was the first novel to be published by a black Caribbean author in the UK.
Amid his frenetic political activity, James wrote what are perhaps his best known works of non-fiction: World Revolution (1937), a history of the rise and fall of the Communist International, which was critically praised by Leon Trotsky, George Orwell, E. H. Carr and Fenner Brockway; and The Black Jacobins: Toussaint L'Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution (1938), a widely acclaimed history of the Haitian Revolution, which was later seen as a seminal text in the study of the African diaspora. James went to Paris to research this work, where he met Haitian military historian Alfred Auguste Nemours. In a new foreword to the 1980 Allison & Busby edition of The Black Jacobins, James recalled that "Nemours used coffee cups and books in Paris cafés to bring to life the military skills of revolutionary Haitians."
In 1936, James and his Trotskyist Marxist Group left the ILP to form an open party. In 1938, this new group took part in several mergers to form the Revolutionary Socialist League (RSL). The RSL was a highly factionalised organisation.
Speaking tour in the United States
At the urging of Trotsky and James P. Cannon, in October 1938, James was invited to tour the United States by the leadership of the Socialist Workers' Party (SWP), then the US section of the Fourth International, to facilitate its work among black workers. Following several meetings in New York, which garnered "enthusiastic praise for his oratorical ability and capacity for analysis of world events," James kicked off his national speaking tour on 6 January 1939 in Philadelphia. He gave lectures in cities including New Haven, Youngstown, Rochester, and Boston, before finishing the tour with two lectures in Los Angeles and another in Pasadena in March 1939. He spoke on topics such as "Twilight of the British Empire" and "The Negro and World Imperialism".
Constance Webb, who later became James' second wife, attended one of his 1939 lectures in Los Angeles and reflected on it in her memoir, writing: "I had already heard speeches by two great orators, Winston Churchill and Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Now I was hearing a third. The three men were masters of the English language, a skill that gave them extraordinary power."
James's relationship with Louise Cripps Samoiloff had broken up after her second abortion, so that intimate tie no longer bound him to England.
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In April 1939, James visited Trotsky in Coyoacán, Mexico. James stayed there about a month and also met Diego Rivera and Frida Kahlo, before returning to the United States in May 1939. A key topic that James and Trotsky discussed was the "Negro Question". Parts of their conversation were transcribed, with James sometimes referred to by his pen-name, J. R. Johnson. Whereas Trotsky saw the Trotskyist Party as providing leadership to the black community, in the general manner that the Bolsheviks provided guidance to ethnic minorities in Russia, James suggested that the self-organised struggle of African Americans would precipitate a much broader radical social movement.
U.S. and the Johnson–Forest Tendency
James stayed in the United States until he was deported in 1953. By 1940, he had begun to doubt Trotsky's view of the Soviet Union as a degenerated workers' state. He left the SWP along with Max Shachtman, who formed the Workers' Party (WP). Within the WP, James formed the Johnson–Forest Tendency with Raya Dunayevskaya (his pseudonym was Johnson and Dunayevskaya's was Forest) and Grace Lee (later Grace Lee Boggs) to spread their views within the new party.
As "J. R. Johnson", James wrote the column "The Negro Question" for Socialist Appeal (later renamed The Militant), and was also a columnist for Labor Action.
While within the WP, the views of the Johnson–Forest Tendency underwent considerable development. By the end of the Second World War, they had definitively rejected Trotsky's theory of Russia as a degenerated workers' state. Instead, they classified it as state capitalist, a political evolution shared by other Trotskyists of their generation, most notably Tony Cliff. Unlike Cliff, the Johnson–Forest Tendency was focusing increasingly on the liberation movements of oppressed minorities, a theoretical development already visible in James's thought in his 1939 discussions with Trotsky. Such liberation struggles came to take centre stage for the Johnson–Forest Tendency.
After the Second World War, the WP witnessed a downturn in revolutionary sentiment. The Tendency, on the other hand, was encouraged by the prospects for revolutionary change for oppressed peoples. After a few short months as an independent group, during which they published a great deal of material, in 1947, the Johnson–Forest Tendency joined the SWP, which it regarded as more proletarian than the WP.
James would still describe himself as a Leninist despite his rejection of Vladimir Lenin's conception of the vanguard role of the revolutionary party. He argued for socialists to support the emerging black nationalist movements. By 1949, James rejected the idea of a vanguard party. This led the Johnson–Forest Tendency to leave the Trotskyist movement and rename itself the Correspondence Publishing Committee.
In 1955 after James had left for Britain, about half the membership of the Committee withdrew, under the leadership of Raya Dunayevskaya, to form a separate tendency of Marxist humanism and found the organisation News and Letters Committees. Whether Dunayevskaya's faction had constituted a majority or a minority in the Correspondence Publishing Committee remains a matter of dispute. Historian Kent Worcester says that Dunayevskaya's supporters formed a majority, but Martin Glaberman says in New Politics that the faction loyal to James had a majority.
The Committee split again in 1962, as Grace Lee Boggs and James Boggs, two key activists, left to pursue a more Third Worldist approach. The remaining Johnsonites, including leading member Martin Glaberman, reconstituted themselves as Facing Reality. James advised the group from Great Britain until it dissolved in 1970, against his urging.
James's writings were also influential in the development of Autonomist Marxism as a current within Marxist thought. He himself saw his life's work as developing the theory and practice of Leninism.
Return to Britain
In 1953, James was forced to leave the US under threat of deportation for having overstayed his visa. In his attempt to remain in America, he wrote a study of Herman Melville, Mariners, Renegades and Castaways: The Story of Herman Melville and the World We Live In, and had copies of the privately published work sent to every member of the Senate. He wrote the book while being detained at the immigration station on Ellis Island. In an impassioned letter to his old friend George Padmore, James said that in Mariners he was using Moby-Dick as a parable for the anti-communism sweeping the United States, a consequence, he thought, of Americans' uncritical faith in capitalism.
Returning to Britain, James appeared to Padmore and his partner Dorothy Pizer to be a man adrift. After James started reporting on cricket for the Manchester Guardian, Padmore wrote to American novelist Richard Wright: "That will take him out of his ivory tower and making his paper revolution...." Grace Lee Boggs, a colleague from the Detroit group, came to London in 1954 to work with James, but she too, saw him "at loose ends, trying to find his way after fifteen years out of the country."
In 1957, James travelled to Ghana for the celebration of its independence from British rule in March that year. He had met Ghana's new head of state, Kwame Nkrumah, in the United States when Nkrumah was studying there and sent him on to work with George Padmore in London after the Second World War; Padmore was by this point a close Nkrumah advisor and had written The Gold Coast Revolution (1953). In correspondence sent from Ghana in 1957, James told American friends that Nkrumah thought he too ought to write a book on the Convention People's Party, which under Nkrumah's leadership had brought the country to independence. The book shows how the party's strategies could be used to build a new African future. James invited Grace Lee Boggs, his colleague from Detroit, to join in the work, though in the end, James wrote Nkrumah and the Ghana Revolution on his own. The book was not published until 1977, years after Nkrumah's overthrow, exile and subsequent death.
Trinidad and afterwards
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In 1958 James went back to Trinidad, where he edited The Nation newspaper for the pro-independence People's National Movement (PNM) party. He also became active again in the Pan-African movement. He believed that the Ghana revolution greatly encouraged the anticolonialist revolutionary struggle.
James also advocated the West Indies Federation. It was over this issue that he fell out with the PNM leadership. He returned to Great Britain, where he joined Calvin C. Hernton, Obi Egbuna and others on the faculty of the Antiuniversity of London, which had been set up by a group of left-wing thinkers led by American academic Joseph Berke. In 1968 James was invited to the US, where he taught at the University of the District of Columbia (formerly Federal City College), leaving for Trinidad in 1980.
Ultimately returning in 1981 to Britain, where Allison & Busby had in the mid-1970s begun a programme of reissuing his work, beginning with a volume of selected writings, James spent his last years in Brixton, London. In the 1980s, he was awarded an Honorary Doctorate from South Bank Polytechnic (later to become London South Bank University) for his body of socio-political work, including that relating to race and sport.
James died in London from a chest infection on 19 May 1989, aged 88. His funeral took place on Monday, 12 June in Trinidad, where he was buried at Tunapuna Cemetery. A state memorial service was held for him at the National Stadium, Port of Spain, on 28 June 1989.
Personal life
James married his first wife, Juanita Young, in Trinidad in 1929, but his move three years later to Britain led to their estrangement. He met his second wife, Constance Webb (1918–2005), an American model, actress and author, after he moved to the US in 1938; she wrote of having first heard him speak in the spring of 1939 at a meeting in California. James and Webb married in 1946 and their son, C. L. R. James Jr, familiarly known as Nobbie, was born in 1949. Separated forcibly in 1952, by James's arrest and detention on Ellis Island, the couple divorced in 1953, when James was deported to Britain, while Webb remained in New York with Nobbie. A collection of James's letters to Webb was posthumously published as Special Delivery: The Letters of C.L.R. James to Constance Webb, 1939–1948, edited and introduced by Anna Grimshaw (Oxford, UK; Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1996). Stories written by James for his son were published in 2006 as The Nobbie Stories for Children and Adults, edited and introduced by Constance Webb.
In 1956 James married Selma Weinstein (née Deitch), who had been a young member of the Johnson–Forest Tendency; they remained close political colleagues for more than 25 years, but divorced in 1980. She is best known as one of the founders of the International Wages for Housework Campaign.
Legacy and recognition
In the 1970s and 1980s, a number of titles by James were published by Allison & Busby (co-founder Margaret Busby's father had attended Queen's Royal College with James), including four volumes of selected writings published during his lifetime "that looked to bring together the best of James' writing and introduce him to a new audience": The Future in the Present (1977), Spheres of Existence (1980), At the Rendezvous of Victory (1984), and Cricket (1986).
In his honour, the Nello James Centre, in Whalley Range, Manchester, was bought with funds donated by Vanessa Redgrave and bequeathed to the community in the 1970s.
In 1976, Mike Dibb directed a film about James entitled Beyond a Boundary for the BBC Television series Omnibus. In 1984, Dibb also made a film for Channel 4 television entitled C. L. R. James in Conversation with Stuart Hall.
In 1983, a 60-minute film, Talking History (directed by H. O. Nazareth), featuring James in dialogue with the historian E. P. Thompson, was made by Penumbra Productions, a small independent production company newly established in London, whose members included Horace Ové, H. O. Nazareth, Margaret Busby, Farrukh Dhondy, Mustapha Matura, Michael Abbensetts, and Lindsay Barrett. Penumbra Productions also filmed a series of six of James's lectures, shown on Channel 4 television. The topics were: William Shakespeare; cricket; American society; Solidarity in Poland; the Caribbean; and Africa.
The C. L. R. James Institute was founded with James's blessing by Jim Murray in 1983. Based in New York, and affiliated to the Centre for African Studies at Cambridge University, it has been run by Ralph Dumain since Murray's death in 2003.
A public library in the London Borough of Hackney is named in his honour. There was a C. L. R. James Week of ceremonies in March 1985, and his widow, Selma James, attended a reception there to mark its 20th anniversary. The Hackney London Borough Council had intended to drop the name of the library as part of a new development in Dalston Square in 2010, but after protests from Selma James and local and international campaigners, the council promised that the library would after all retain the name of C. L. R. James. A council statement said: "As part of the new library, there will be a permanent exhibition to chronicle his life and works and an annual event in his memory, and we are pleased to report the state-of-the-art education room will also be named after this influential figure." The new Dalston C. L. R. James Library was officially opened on 28 February 2012. The library is housed in Collins Tower, named for Sir Collins a co-founder of The Four Aces Club that was demolished to make way for the site. At the launch there on 2 March 2012 of a permanent exhibition dedicated to James's life and legacy, Selma James spoke.
In 1986, the first play produced by Talawa Theatre Company was The Black Jacobins by James, staged at the Riverside Studios.
In August 1996, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a five-part abridgement (by Margaret Busby) of James's Beyond a Boundary, read by Trevor McDonald and produced by Pam Fraser Solomon.
A dramatisation of Minty Alley, by Margaret Busby (produced by Pam Fraser Solomon, with a cast that included Doña Croll, Angela Wynter, Martina Laird, Nina Wadia, Julian Francis, Geff Francis, Vivienne Rochester and Burt Caesar), was first broadcast on BBC Radio 4 on 12 June 1998, winning a Commission for Racial Equality (CRE) "Race in the Media Award" in 1999.
In 2002, James was the subject chosen by Darcus Howe, his nephew, in an episode of the BBC Radio 4 biography series Great Lives, presented by Humphrey Carpenter.
In 2004, English Heritage unveiled a blue plaque in Brixton, London, at 165 Railton Road (a building that housed the offices of Darcus Howe's Race Today Collective), inscribed: "C. L. R. JAMES 1901–1989 West Indian Writer and Political Activist lived and died here".
A conference to mark the 50th anniversary of the publication of Beyond a Boundary was held at the University of Glasgow in May 2013.
James is the subject of the 2016 feature-length documentary film Every Cook Can Govern: Documenting the life, impact & works of CLR James, made by WORLDwrite.
James appeared briefly in Steve McQueen's 2020 film Mangrove, part of the Small Axe strand, portrayed by Derek Griffiths.
On 17 March 2023, a blue plaque was unveiled in Southwick, West Sussex, to mark the house where in 1937 James wrote The Black Jacobins, at an address on Old Shoreham Road discovered by historian Christian Hogsbjerg from a letter that had been intercepted by Special Branch.
Archives
Collections of C. L. R. James papers are held at the University of the West Indies Alma Jordan Library, St Augustine, Trinidad, and at Columbia University Libraries.
Duke University Press publish the series "The C. L. R. James Archives", edited by Robert A. Hill, literary executor of the estate of C. L. R. James, producing new editions of books by James, as well as scholarly explorations of his oeuvre.
Writings on cricket
See also: Beyond a Boundary
He is widely known as a writer on cricket, especially for his autobiographical 1963 book, Beyond a Boundary, which he himself described as "neither cricket reminiscences nor autobiography". It is considered a seminal work on the game, and is often named as the best single book on cricket (or even the best book on any sport) ever written. John Arlott called it "so outstanding as to compel any reviewer to check his adjectives several times before he describes it and, since he is likely to be dealing in superlatives, to measure them carefully to avoid over-praise – which this book does not need ... in the opinion of the reviewer, it is the finest book written about the game of cricket." A conference to mark the 50th anniversary of its first publication was held 10–11 May 2013.
The book's key question, frequently quoted by modern journalists and essayists, is inspired by a line in Rudyard Kipling's poem "English Flag" – "What do they know of England who only England know?" James asks in the Preface: "What do they know of cricket who only cricket know?" Acknowledging that "To answer involves ideas as well as facts", James uses this challenge as the basis for describing cricket in an historical and social context, the strong influence cricket had on his life, and how it meshed with his role in politics and his understanding of issues of class and race.
While editor of The Nation, he led the successful campaign in 1960 to have Frank Worrell appointed the first black captain of the West Indies cricket team. James believed that the relationship between players and the public was a prominent reason behind the West Indies' achieving so much with so little.
Selected bibliography
Letters from London (series of essays written in 1932). Signal Books (2003).
The Life of Captain Cipriani: An Account of British Government in the West Indies. Nelson, Lancs.: Cartmel & Co. (1932).
The Case for West-Indian Self-Government. London: Hogarth Press (1933). Reprinted, New York: University Place Bookshop (1967); Detroit: Facing Reality Publishing Co. (1967).
Minty Alley. London: Secker & Warburg (1936). New edition, London & Port of Spain: New Beacon Books (1971).
Toussaint Louverture: The story of the only successful slave revolt in history (play written in 1934). Produced by Peter Godfrey at the Westminster Theatre, London (1936). Durham, NC: Duke University Press (2013).
World Revolution, 1917–1936: The Rise and Fall of the Communist International. London: Secker & Warburg (1937). New edition, with introduction by Christian Høgsbjerg, Durham, NC: Duke University Press (2017), ISBN 978-0-8223-6308-8.
A History of Negro Revolt. Fact monograph no. 18, London (1938). Revised as A History of Pan-African Revolt. Washington: Drum and Spear Press (1969). A History of Negro Revolt, London: Creation for Liberation, ISBN 978-0947716035 (1985). As A History of Pan-African Revolt, with an Introduction by Robin D. G. Kelley, PM Press (2012).
The Black Jacobins: Toussaint L'Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution. London: Secker & Warburg (1938). Revised edition, New York: Vintage Books/Random House (1963). ISBN 0-679-72467-2. Index starts at p. 419. Library of Congress Card Number: 63-15043. New British edition with foreword, London: Allison & Busby (1980).
Why Negroes should oppose the war (as "J. R. Johnson"). New York: Pioneer Publishers for the Socialist Workers Party and the Young People's Socialist League – Fourth International (1939).
"My Friends": A Fireside Chat on the War (as "Native Son"). New York: Workers Party (1940).
The Invading Socialist Society (with F. Forest and Ria Stone). New York: Johnson Forest Tendency (1947). Reprinted with new preface, Detroit: Bewick/Ed (1972).
Notes on Dialectics: Hegel, Marx and Lenin (Link only goes to the last half of Part 2 from the 1980 edition) (1948). New edition with Introduction, London: Allison & Busby (1980); Westport, Conn.: Lawrence Hill Books (1980).
Notes on American Civilisation. Typescript , published as American Civilization, Oxford: Blackwell (1992).
State Capitalism and World Revolution (1950). New edition, with foreword by James and introduction by Paul Buhle, Chicago: Charles H. Kerr (1986).
Mariners, Renegades and Castaways: The Story of Herman Melville and the World We Live In. New York: privately printed (1953). Detroit: Bewick/Ed, (1978). London: Allison & Busby (1984).
"Every Cook Can Govern: A Study of Democracy in Ancient Greece, Its Meaning for Today". Correspondence, Vol. 2, No. 12 (June 1956). Detroit: Bewick/Ed (1992).
Facing Reality (with Cornelius Castoriadis and Grace Lee Boggs), Detroit: Correspondence (1958). New edition, with a new Introduction by John H. Bracey, Bewick Editions (1974).
Modern Politics (A series of lectures given at the Trinidad Public Library, in its Adult Education Programme). Port of Spain: PNM Publishing Co. (1960).
A Convention Appraisal: Dr. Eric Williams: first premier of Trinidad & Tobago: a biographical sketch. Port of Spain, Trinidad: PNM Publishing Co. (1960).
Party Politics in the West Indies. San Juan, Port of Spain: Vedic Enterprises (1962).
Marxism and the intellectuals. Detroit: Facing Reality Publishing Committee (1962).
Beyond a Boundary. London: Stanley Paul/Hutchinson (1963). New edition, London: Serpent's Tail (1983); New York: Pantheon (1984).
Kas-kas; interviews with three Caribbean writers in Texas. George Lamming, C. L. R. James Wilson Harris. Austin, TX: African and Afro-American Research Institute, University of Texas at Austin (1972).
Not For Sale (with Michael Manley). San Francisco: Editorial Consultants (1976).
The Future in the Present, Selected Writings, vol. 1. London: Allison & Busby (1977); Westport, Conn.: Lawrence Hill Books (1977).
Nkrumah and the Ghana Revolution. London: Allison & Busby (1977); Westport, Conn.: Lawrence Hill Books (1977). Duke University Press, 2022, with Introduction by Leslie James.
Spheres of Existence, Selected Writings, vol. 2. London: Allison & Busby (1980); Westport, Conn.: Lawrence Hill Books (1980).
Walter Rodney and the Question of Power (text of talk at memorial symposium entitled "Walter Rodney, Revolutionary and Scholar: A Tribute", at the University of California, 30 January 1981). London: Race Today Publications (1983).
80th Birthday Lectures (Margaret Busby and Darcus Howe, eds). London: Race Today Publications (1984).
At the Rendezvous of Victory, Selected Writings, vol. 3. London: Allison & Busby (1984).
Cricket (selected writings, ed. Anna Grimshaw). London: Allison & Busby (1986); distributed in the United States by Schocken Books (1986). As A Majestic Innings: Writings on Cricket, new edition, London: Aurum Press (2006).
Anna Grimshaw (ed.), The C.L.R. James Reader. Oxford: Blackwell (1992).
Scott McLemee (ed.), C.L.R. James on the Negro Question. University Press of Mississippi (1996).
"Lectures on the Black Jacobins". Small Axe, 8 (2000): 65–112. Print.
"They Showed the Way to Labor Emancipation: On Karl Marx and the 75th Anniversary of the Paris Commune". Originally published pseudonymously in the 18 March 1946 issue of Labor Action, newspaper of the Workers' Party of the United States; reprinted in Revolutionary History, 21 December 2008.
"Negroes and Bolshevism". Originally published pseudonymously in Labor Action, 7 April 1947; reprinted in Revolutionary History, 21 December 2008.
David Austin (ed.), You Don't Play With Revolution: The Montreal Lectures of C.L.R. James – Book Excerpt | Revolution by the Book You Don't Play With Revolution: The Montreal Lectures of CLR James. AK Press (2009).
References
^ a b c d Fraser, C. Gerald, "C. L. R. James, Historian, Critic And Pan-Africanist, Is Dead at 88" Archived 21 April 2019 at the Wayback Machine, The New York Times, 2 June 1989.
^ Said, Edward, Culture and Imperialism, London: Chatto & Windus, 1993, p. 54.
^ Segal, Ronald. The Black Diaspora, London: Faber, 1996, p. 275.
^ Said, Culture and Imperialism. p. 253.
^ Gabrielle Bellot, "On the First Novel Published By a Black Caribbean Writer in England" Archived 11 September 2016 at the Wayback Machine, The Huffington Post, 19 May 2016.
^ a b James, Beyond a Boundary (1963), Preface.
^ a b Rosengarten: Urbane Revolutionary, p. 134.
^ "West Indies | C. L. R. James". Making Britain. The Open University. Archived from the original on 29 June 2021.
^ "Timeline" Archived 1 April 2019 at the Wayback Machine, Every Cook Can Govern: Documenting the life, impact & works of CLR James.
^ a b Margaret Busby, "C. L. R. James: A Biographical Introduction", in At the Rendezvous of Victory, Allison & Busby, 1984, p. vii.
^ Reinhard W. Sander (ed.), From Trinidad: An Anthology of Early West Indian Writing, Hodder & Stoughton, 1978.
^ "C.L.R. James". Writers of the Caribbean. Archived from the original on 29 June 2021.
^ Bogues, Anthony, Caliban's Freedom: The Early Political Thought of C.L.R. James, Pluto Press, 1997, p. 17.
^ James, Louis (2001). "Writing the Ballad: The Short Fiction of Samuel Selvon and Earl Lovelace". In Jacqueline Bardolph; André Viola; Jean-Pierre Durix (eds.). Telling Stories: Postcolonial Short Fiction in English. Rodopi. p. 103. ISBN 9042015349.
^ a b c Anna Grimshaw, "Notes on the Life and Work of C. L. R. James", in Paul Buhle (ed.), C. L. R. James: His Life and Work, London: Allison & Busby, 1986, pp. 9–21.
^ "C.L.R. James" Archived 24 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Encyclopædia Britannica.
^ Ramachandra Guha, "Black is Bountiful: C. L. R. James", in An Anthropologist Among the Marxists and Other Essays, Delhi: Permanent Black, 2004, p. 215.
^ The Life of Captain Cipriani: An Account of British Government in the West Indies, with the pamphlet The Case for West-Indian Self Government Archived 24 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine at Duke University Press (2014).
^ Excerpts from pamphlet Celebrating C. L. R. James, produced by Hackney Library Service 2012 Archived 13 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine. C. L. R. James Legacy Project.
^ Polsgrove, Ending British Rule, pp. 27, 35.
^ C. L. R. James, Toussaint Louverture: The Story of the Only Successful Slave Revolt in History – A Play in Three Acts Archived 25 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine (edited and with an introduction by Christian Høgsbjerg), Duke University Press, 2013.
^ Gaverne Bennett, "Book Review: Toussaint Louverture by C.L.R. James" Archived 15 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine, LSHG Newsletter # 49 (May 2013).
^ "Toussaint Louverture". Verso. Retrieved 2 March 2024.
^ a b "The Black Jacobins | Talawa Theatre Company – 21st February 2019" Archived 27 February 2019 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Marc Matera, Black London: The Imperial Metropolis and Decolonization in the Twentieth Century, University of California Press, 2015, p. 276.
^ D. Elliott Paris, "Minty Alley", in Paul Buhle (ed.), C. L. R. James: His Life and Work, London: Allison & Busby, 1986, p. 200.
^ Fenner Brockway, The New Leader, 16 April 1937.
^ Magno, Viviane (30 January 2021). "Remembering C. L. R. James | An interview with Rachel Douglas". Tribune. Archived from the original on 3 October 2022.
^ Rosengarten, Frank (2008). "C. L. R. James's Engagement with Marxism". Urbane Revolutionary: C.L.R. James and the Struggle for a New Society. Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi. p. 25. ISBN 978-1-60473-306-8.
^ "C. L. R. James Opens National Tour in Phila" (PDF). Socialist Appeal. 7 January 1939. p. 4. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 July 2020.
^ "C. L. R. James on Successful Tour" (PDF). Socialist Appeal. 21 January 1939. p. 2. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 July 2020.
^ "James Tour Continues with Striking Success" (PDF). Socialist Appeal. 28 January 1939. p. 2. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 July 2020.
^ a b "C. L. R. James Ends Tour in California" (PDF). Socialist Appeal. 10 March 1939. p. 1. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 July 2020.
^ Webb, Constance (2003). Not Without Love: Memoirs. Lebanon, NH: University Press of New England. p. 71. ISBN 9781584653011.
^ Polsgrove, Ending British Rule, p. 34.
^ Jelly-Schapiro, Joshua (2011). "C. L. R. James in America" (PDF). Transition 104. pp. 30–57. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 October 2016.
^ Trotsky, Leon (1970). "Self-Determination for the American Negroes". International Socialism. 43 (April/May): 37–38. Archived from the original on 31 October 2020.
^ James, C. L. R. (1986). Paul Buhle (ed.). State Capitalism and World Revolution. Charles H. Kerr Publishing Company. p. xiii.
^ "Works | AMERICA 1938-1953". Every Cook Can Govern: Documenting the life, impact & works of CLR James. Archived from the original on 29 June 2021.
^ Glaberman, Martin, "C. L. R. James: A Recollection", New Politics No. 8 (Winter 1990), pp. 78–84.
^ "The Legacy of CLR James - Red and Black Notes". Red and Black Notes (15). Summer 2002. Archived from the original on 29 September 2022 – via libcom.org.
^ Polsgrove, Ending British Rule, p. 129.
^ Polsgrove, Ending British Rule, p. 130.
^ Boggs, Grace Lee, Living for Change (1998), p. 69.
^ Polsgrove, Ending British Rule, pp. 155–56.
^ James, Dr Leslie (10 March 2022). "Book extract: Leslie James introduces the new edition of Nkrumah and the Ghana Revolution by C. L. R. James". LSE. Archived from the original on 22 May 2022.
^ C. L. R. James, "Lecture on Federation, (West Indies and British Guiana)" Archived 30 December 2020 at the Wayback Machine, delivered on June 1958 at Queen's College, Guyana.
^ Jakobsen, Jakob, "The Antiuniversity of London – an Introduction to Deinstitutionalisation" Archived 5 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Antihistory.
^ Jakobsen, Jakob (2012). "The Counter University". London: Antihistory. Archived from the original on 6 February 2016.
^ Sam Gelder, "Shoreditch's Antiuniversity legacy lives on half a century after its closure" Archived 14 November 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Hackney Gazette, 9 November 2016.
^ a b Margaret Busby, "Storming the pavilion of prejudice", The Guardian, 3 August 1996, p. 29: "Allison & Busby set about a publishing programme, beginning with his Selected Writings, and in the course of the next decade produced nine James volumes."
^ a b "James gets unique honour". BBC Caribbean. 9 October 2004. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022.
^ Selwyn R. Cudjoe, "CLR James Misbound" Archived 13 January 2022 at the Wayback Machine, Transition, No. 58 (1992), p. 124.
^ Jackqueline Frost (31 May 2019). "The Funeral of C.L.R. James". Verso Blog. Archived from the original on 31 July 2023.
^ "C.L.R. James: A Tribute: Eulogies Delivered at the State Memorial Service Held for the Late C.L.R. James, National Stadium, Port-of-Spain, 28 June 1989", 1990, 20pp, in Trinidad and Tobago national bibliography, p. 31.
^ Webb, Constance, "C. L. R. James, the Speaker and his Charisma", in Paul Buhle (ed.), C. L. R. James: His Life and Work, London: Allison & Busby, 1986, p. 168.
^ Caryl Phillips, "Obituary: Constance Webb, Writer wife of CLR James" Archived 13 January 2022 at the Wayback Machine, The Guardian, 15 April 2005.
^ a b "Constance Webb papers, 1918-2005 bulk 1939-2002" Archived 31 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine, Archival collections, Columbia University Library.
^ Special Delivery: The Letters of C.L.R. James to Constance Webb, 1939–1948 Archived 31 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine, Pan-African News Wire, 14 April 2009.
^ The Nobbie Stories for Children and Adults, University of Nebraska Press, 2006.
^ Becky Gardiner, "A life in writing: Selma James" Archived 30 March 2020 at the Wayback Machine, The Guardian, 8 June 2012.
^ Shereen Ali, "Sharing our Voices" Archived 25 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Trinidad and Tobago Guardian, 29 April 2015.
^ a b "The Future in the Present (Selected Writings)". Every Cook Can Govern: Documenting the life, impact & works of CLR James. Archived from the original on 3 December 2023.
^ Johnson, Helen (11 March 2015). "Campaign launched to save Nello James community centre in Whalley Range". Greater Manchester News. Archived from the original on 25 January 2023.
^ "Beyond a Boundary" Archived 18 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine (1976; producer/director Mike Dibb) on YouTube.
^ "In Conversation with Stuart Hall" Archived 18 January 2015 at the Wayback Machine, YouTube video.
^ "E.P. Thompson and C.L.R. James" on YouTube
^ Suman Bhuchar, "Nazareth, H. O.", in Alison Donnell (ed.), Companion to Contemporary Black British Culture, Routledge, 2002, p. 214.
^ Margaret Busby, "2015: The Year of Being Connected, Exhibition-wise", Wasafiri, Volume 31, Issue 4, November 2016.
^ "Penumbra Productions". BFI. Archived from the original on 11 April 2020.
^ "The C.L.R. James Institute". Archived from the original on 26 February 2005.
^ Mike Watson, "The Local Importance of CLR James and Dalston Library" Archived 2 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Local Roots, Global Routes, 25 July 2014.
^ Scott McLemee, "At the Rendezvous of Victory" Archived 2 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Inside Higher Ed, 22 September 2010.
^ "Black Hero Dropped by Hackney" Archived 26 September 2019 at the Wayback Machine, Loving Dalston, 19 February 2010.
^ Eloise Horsfield, "Hackney Council signals U-turn in CLR James library row" Archived 18 October 2010 at the Wayback Machine, Hackney Citizen, 8 October 2010.
^ a b "Celebrations for the New Dalston C.L.R James Library Reach Fever Pitch" Archived 6 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Hackney Council, 1 March 2012.
^ Gelder, Sam (28 March 2018). "Charlie Collins: Reggae pioneer and founder of Dalston's legendary Four Aces Club dies aged 81". Hackney Gazette. Archived from the original on 18 January 2021.
^ BEMA Network Archived 13 January 2022 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 16 March 2012.
^ "Black Jacobins, The", Black Plays Archive, Royal National Theatre.
^ "Beyond a Boundary" Archived 22 December 2015 at the Wayback Machine, BBC, Radio Times, Issue 3787, 22 August 1996: Abridged in five parts (25–30 August 1996) by Margaret Busby, produced by Pam Fraser Solomon.
^ "Radio", in David Dabydeen, John Gilmore, Cecily Jones (eds), The Oxford Companion to Black British History, Oxford University Press, 2007, p. 392.
^ "Minty Alley | Margaret Busby's award-winning dramatisation of the only novel by C L R James" Archived 2 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine, Afternoon Play, BBC Radio 4.
^ "Afternoon Play: Minty Alley" Archived 26 September 2019 at the Wayback Machine, Radio Times, Issue 3878, 4 June 1998, p. 133.
^ Nigel Deacon, "BBC Radio Plays, radio 4, 1998" Archived 29 August 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Diversity Website.
^ "Non Traditional Channels – A Publishing and Lit Conversation – Contributor Biographies" Archived 26 September 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Sable, 27 November 2012.
^ "CLR James" Archived 11 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Series 2, Great Lives, BBC Radio 4.
^ "CLR James | Writer | Blue Plaques" Archived 9 August 2019 at the Wayback Machine. English Heritage, 2004.
^ "Darcus Howe – fighter for Black people's rights" Archived 24 September 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Brixton Blog, 2 April 2017.
^ Leila Hassan, Robin Bunce and Paul Field, "Books | Here to Stay, Here to Fight: On the history, and legacy, of 'Race Today'" Archived 11 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Ceasefire, 31 October 2019.
^ a b "C. L. R. James' Beyond a Boundary Archived 15 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine 50th Anniversary Conference", University of Glasgow, May 2013.
^ "Mike Brearley: CLR James & Socrates" Archived 29 November 2014 at the Wayback Machine. Keynote speech at Beyond a Boundary 50th-anniversary conference, May 2013.
^ "Every Cook Can Govern: The life, works & impact of C. L. R. James" Archived 1 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine, YouTube trailer, 23 March 2016.
^ "Every Cook Can Govern: Documenting the life, impact & works of CLR James" Archived 28 August 2016 at the Wayback Machine. CLR James Film and Knowledge Portal.
^ Bradshaw, Peter (25 September 2020). "Mangrove review – Steve McQueen takes axe to racial prejudice". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 1 January 2022.
^ Elaine Hammond (20 March 2023). "Blue plaque unveiled in Southwick to mark house where political activist C.L.R. James wrote his magnum opus, The Black Jacobins". Sussex World. Archived from the original on 20 March 2023.
^ Luke Donnelly (23 March 2023). "Blue plaque unveiled for revolutionary historian and journalist in Southwick". Sussex Live. Archived from the original on 3 September 2023.
^ "C.L.R. James Collection" Archived 22 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Special Collections, The Alma Jordan Library.
^ "MEMORY OF THE WORLD REGISTER: C.L.R. James Collection" Archived 22 August 2016 at the Wayback Machine, UNESCO.
^ "C. L. R. James Papers, 1933-2001 " Archived 5 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Archival Collections, Columbia University Libraries.
^ "The C. L. R. James Archives—Overview" Archived 3 May 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Duke University Press.
^ Review by John Arlott in Wisden, 19 April 1963, quoted by Selma James, "How Beyond a Boundary broke down the barriers of race, class and empire" Archived 25 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine, The Guardian, 2 April 2013.
^ "C.L.R. James's Beyond a Boundary: 50th anniversary conference" Archived 29 November 2014 at the Wayback Machine, London Socialist Historians Group, 18 May 2012.
^ "Sir Frank Worrell and CLR James: Once in a blue moon". UWI Today. University of the West Indies. September–October 2010. Archived from the original on 13 January 2022.
^ "A History of Pan-African Revolt" Archived 26 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine, PM Press.
^ James, Leslie, Introduction: Ghana and the Worlds of C. L. R. James", Nkrumah and the Ghana Revolution], Duke University Press, 2022, pp. xi–xxxiii.
Further reading
Bennett, Gaverne, and Christian Høgsbjerg (eds), Celebrating C.L.R. James in Hackney, London. London: Redwords, 2015, ISBN 9781909026902.
Boggs, Grace Lee, Living for Change: An Autobiography. Minneapolis, London: University of Minnesota Press, 1998.
Bogues, Anthony, Caliban's Freedom: The Early Political Thought of C. L. R. James. London: Pluto Press, 1997.
Buhle, Paul, C. L. R. James. The Artist as Revolutionary. London: Verso Books, 1988, ISBN 978-0-86091-932-2.
Buhle, Paul (ed.), C. L. R. James: His Life and Work. London: Allison & Busby, 1986, ISBN 9780850316858.
Cripps, Louise, C. L. R. James: Memories and Commentaries. London: Cornwall Books, 1997, ISBN 978-0845348659.
Dhondy, Farrukh, C. L. R. James: Cricket, the Caribbean and World Revolution. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2001, ISBN 978-0297646136.
Douglas, Rachel. Making The Black Jacobins: C. L. R. James and the Drama of History (2019) online
Featherstone, Dave, and Chris Gair, Christian Høgsbjerg, and Andrew Smith (eds), Marxism, Colonialism and Cricket: C.L.R. James's Beyond a Boundary. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2018, ISBN 978-1478001478.
Flood, Anthony, "C. L. R. James: Herbert Aptheker's Invisible Man", The C. L. R. James Journal, vol. 19, nos. 1 & 2, Fall 2013.
Forsdick, Charles, and Christian Høgsbjerg (eds), The Black Jacobins Reader. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2017, ISBN 978-0822362012.
Gair, Chris (ed.) Beyond Boundaries: C.L.R. James and Postnational Studies. London: Pluto, 2006, ISBN 978-0745323428.
Glaberman, Martin, Marxism for our Times: C. L. R. James on Revolutionary Organization, University Press of Mississippi, 1999, ISBN 9781578061518.
Grimshaw, Anna, "C.L.R. James: A Revolutionary Vision for the 20th Century", The C.L.R. James Institute and Cultural Correspondence, New York, in co-operation with Smyrna Press, April 1991. 44 pp. ISBN 0918266-30-0.
Grimshaw, Anna, The C.L.R. James Reader. Oxford: Blackwell, 1992, ISBN 978-0631184959.
Høgsbjerg, Christian, C. L. R. James in Imperial Britain. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2014, ISBN 978-0822356189.
McClendon III, John H., C. L. R. James's Notes on Dialectics: Left Hegelianism or Marxism-Leninism?. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2004, ISBN 978-0739107751.
McLemee, Scott, & Paul LeBlanc (eds), C. L. R. James and Revolutionary Marxism: Selected Writings of C. L. R. James 1939–1949. Prometheus Books, 1994. Reprinted Haymarket Books, 2018.
Nielsen, Aldon Lynn, C. L. R. James: A Critical Introduction, Jackson, Mississippi: University Press of Mississippi, 1997. ISBN 978-0878059720
Polsgrove, Carol, Ending British Rule in Africa: Writers in a Common Cause. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2009. ISBN 978-0719077678
Quest, Matthew. "C.L.R. James's Conflicted Legacies on Mao Tse Tung's China." Insurgent Notes, Issue 8, March 2013.
Quest, Matthew, "'Every Cook Can Govern:' Direct Democracy, Workers' Self-Management, and the Creative Foundations of CLR James' Political Thought." The CLR James Journal, 19.1 & 2, Fall 2013.
Quest, Matthew, "George Padmore's and C.L.R. James's International African Opinion." In Fitzroy Baptiste and Rupert C. Lewis (eds), George Padmore: Pan African Revolutionary. Kingston, Jamaica: Ian Randle, 2009, 105–132.
Quest, Matthew, "Silences on the Suppression of Workers Self-Emancipation: Historical Problems With CLR James's Interpretation of V.I. Lenin." Insurgent Notes, Issue 7, October 2012.
Renault, Matthieu, C.L.R. James: la vie révolutionnaire d'un "platon noir". Paris: La Découverte, 2016, ISBN 978-2-7071-8191-6.
Renton, David, C. L. R. James: Cricket's Philosopher King, London: Haus Publishing, 2008, ISBN 978-1905791019.
Rosengarten, Frank, Urbane Revolutionary: C. L. R. James and the Struggle for a New Society, University Press of Mississippi, 2007. ISBN 87-7289-096-7.
Scott, David, Conscripts of Modernity: The Tragedy of Colonial Enlightenment. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004, ISBN 978-0822334330.
Smith, Andrew, C.L.R. James and the Study of Culture. Palgrave Macmillan, 2010, ISBN 978-0230220218.
Webb, Constance, Not Without Love: Memoirs. Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 2003. ISBN 978-1584653011.
Williams, John L, C.L.R. James: A Life Beyond the Boundaries. London: Constable, 2022.
Worcester, Kent, C. L. R. James. A Political Biography. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1996. ISBN 9781438424446.
Young, James D., The World of C. L. R. James. The Unfragmented Vision. Glasgow: Clydeside Press, 1999.
External links
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The C.L.R. James Legacy Project
The CLR James Journal
Works by or about C. L. R. James at Internet Archive
C. L. R. James at the Marxists Internet Archive.
C L R James papers at the University of London
C. L. R. James papers, 1933–2001, bulk 1948–1989 at Columbia University
C.L.R. James Collection SC82 at the Alma Jordan Library, the University of the West Indies
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Frank Cyril James","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Cyril_James"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CGeraldFraser-1"},{"link_name":"Trinidadian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinidadians_and_Tobagonians"},{"link_name":"Trotskyist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trotskyist"},{"link_name":"Marxism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism"},{"link_name":"postcolonial literature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postcolonial_literature"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"World Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Revolution_(book)"},{"link_name":"Communist International","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_International"},{"link_name":"Haitian Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haitian_Revolution"},{"link_name":"The Black Jacobins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Black_Jacobins"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"anti-Stalinist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Stalinist"},{"link_name":"dialectician","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialectician"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"autodidactism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autodidactism"},{"link_name":"Toussaint Louverture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toussaint_Louverture:_The_Story_of_the_Only_Successful_Slave_Revolt_in_History"},{"link_name":"Minty Alley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minty_Alley"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"cricket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cricket"},{"link_name":"Beyond a Boundary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_a_Boundary"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-James,_1963-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated1-7"}],"text":"\"Cyril James\" redirects here. For the Canadian academic, see Frank Cyril James.Cyril Lionel Robert James (4 January 1901 – 31 May 1989),[1] who sometimes wrote under the pen-name J. R. Johnson, was a Trinidadian historian, journalist, Trotskyist activist and Marxist writer. His works are influential in various theoretical, social, and historiographical contexts. His work is a staple of Marxism, and he figures as a pioneering and influential voice in postcolonial literature.[2] A tireless political activist, James is the author of the 1937 work World Revolution outlining the history of the Communist International, which stirred debate in Trotskyist circles, and in 1938 he wrote on the Haitian Revolution, The Black Jacobins.[3]Characterised by one literary critic as an \"anti-Stalinist dialectician\",[4] James was known for his autodidactism, for his occasional playwriting and fiction, and as an avid sportsman. The performance of his 1934 play Toussaint Louverture was the first time black professional actors featured in a production written by a black playwright in the UK. His 1936 book Minty Alley was the first novel by a black West Indian to be published in Britain.[5] He is also famed as a writer on cricket, and his 1963 book Beyond a Boundary, which he himself described as \"neither cricket reminiscences nor autobiography\",[6] is commonly named as the best single book on cricket, and even the best book about sports ever written.[7]","title":"C. L. R. James"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tunapuna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunapuna"},{"link_name":"Trinidad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinidad"},{"link_name":"British Crown colony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Queen's Royal College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen%27s_Royal_College"},{"link_name":"Port of Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_of_Spain"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IntroARV-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IntroARV-10"},{"link_name":"Eric Williams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Williams"},{"link_name":"Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago"},{"link_name":"Ralph de Boissière","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_de_Boissi%C3%A8re"},{"link_name":"Albert Gomes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Gomes"},{"link_name":"Alfred Mendes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Mendes"},{"link_name":"anticolonialist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-imperialism"},{"link_name":"The Beacon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Beacon_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Saturday Review of Literature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturday_Review_of_Literature"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"sub_title":"Early life in Trinidad","text":"Born in 1901 in Tunapuna, Trinidad, then a British Crown colony, C. L. R. James was the first child of Ida Elizabeth James (née Rudder)[8] and Robert Alexander James, a schoolteacher.[9]In 1910, James won a scholarship to Queen's Royal College (QRC), the island's oldest non-Catholic secondary school, in Port of Spain, where he became a club cricketer and distinguished himself as an athlete (he held the Trinidad high-jump record at 5 feet 9 inches (175 cm) from 1918 to 1922), as well as beginning to write fiction.[10] After graduating in 1918 from QRC, he worked there as a teacher of English and History in the 1920s;[10] among those he taught was the young Eric Williams, who became the first Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago.Together with Ralph de Boissière, Albert Gomes and Alfred Mendes, James was a member of the anticolonialist \"Beacon Group\", a circle of writers associated with The Beacon magazine, in which he published a series of short stories.[11] His short story \"La Divina Pastora\" was published in October 1927 in the Saturday Review of Literature,[12][13] and was widely reprinted.[14]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Nelson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nelson,_Lancashire"},{"link_name":"Lancashire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancashire"},{"link_name":"Learie Constantine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learie_Constantine"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Grimshaw-15"},{"link_name":"Arthur Andrew Cipriani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Andrew_Cipriani"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"The Manchester Guardian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Grimshaw-15"},{"link_name":"London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London"},{"link_name":"Trotskyist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trotskyist"},{"link_name":"Louise Cripps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louise_Cripps"},{"link_name":"West Indies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Indies"},{"link_name":"Leonard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Woolf"},{"link_name":"Virginia Woolf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia_Woolf"},{"link_name":"Hogarth Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hogarth_Press"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Pan-Africanism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Africanism"},{"link_name":"International African Friends of Abyssinia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_African_Friends_of_Abyssinia"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Italian fascist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_fascism"},{"link_name":"Ethiopia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopia"},{"link_name":"Second Italo-Ethiopian War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War"},{"link_name":"Amy Ashwood Garvey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amy_Ashwood_Garvey"},{"link_name":"Jomo Kenyatta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jomo_Kenyatta"},{"link_name":"Chris Braithwaite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Braithwaite"},{"link_name":"International African Service Bureau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_African_Service_Bureau"},{"link_name":"George Padmore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Padmore"},{"link_name":"Independent Labour Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_Labour_Party"},{"link_name":"Fenner Brockway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenner_Brockway"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CLR_James,_1938.jpg"},{"link_name":"Toussaint Louverture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toussaint_Louverture"},{"link_name":"Toussaint Louverture: The Story of the Only Successful Slave Revolt in History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toussaint_Louverture:_The_Story_of_the_Only_Successful_Slave_Revolt_in_History"},{"link_name":"West End","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_End_theatre"},{"link_name":"Paul Robeson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Robeson"},{"link_name":"Orlando Martins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orlando_Martins"},{"link_name":"Robert Adams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Adams_(actor)"},{"link_name":"Harry Andrews","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Andrews"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Talawa Theatre Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talawa_Theatre_Company"},{"link_name":"Jean-Claude Duvalier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Claude_Duvalier"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-24"},{"link_name":"Secker & Warburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secker_%26_Warburg"},{"link_name":"Minty Alley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minty_Alley"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Grimshaw-15"},{"link_name":"Fredric Warburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fredric_Warburg"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"World Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Revolution_(book)"},{"link_name":"Communist International","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_International"},{"link_name":"Leon Trotsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Trotsky"},{"link_name":"George Orwell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Orwell"},{"link_name":"E. H. Carr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._H._Carr"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"The Black Jacobins: Toussaint L'Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Black_Jacobins"},{"link_name":"Haitian Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haitian_Revolution"},{"link_name":"African diaspora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_diaspora"},{"link_name":"Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris"},{"link_name":"Alfred Auguste Nemours","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Auguste_Nemours"},{"link_name":"Allison & Busby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allison_%26_Busby"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Marxist Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxist_Group_(UK)"},{"link_name":"Revolutionary Socialist League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutionary_Socialist_League_(UK,_1938)"}],"sub_title":"British years","text":"In 1932, James left Trinidad for the small town of Nelson in Lancashire, England, at the invitation of his friend, West Indian cricketer Learie Constantine, who needed his help writing his autobiography Cricket and I (published in 1933).[15] James had brought with him to England the manuscript of his first full-length non-fiction work, partly based on his interviews with the Trinidad labour leader Arthur Andrew Cipriani, which was published with financial assistance from Constantine in 1932.[16][17]During this time, James took a job as cricket correspondent with The Manchester Guardian.[15] In 1933, he moved to London. The following year, he joined a Trotskyist group that met to talk for hours in his rented room. Louise Cripps, one of its members, recalled: \"We felt our work could contribute to the time when we would see Socialism spreading.\"James had begun to campaign for the independence of the West Indies while in Trinidad. An abridged version of his Life of Captain Cipriani was issued by Leonard and Virginia Woolf's Hogarth Press in 1933 as the pamphlet The Case for West-Indian Self Government.[18] He became a champion of Pan-Africanism, and was named Chair of the International African Friends of Abyssinia, later renamed the International African Friends of Ethiopia (IAFE)[19] – a group formed in 1935 in response to the Italian fascist invasion of Ethiopia (the Second Italo-Ethiopian War). Leading members included Amy Ashwood Garvey, Jomo Kenyatta and Chris Braithwaite.When the IAFE was transformed into the International African Service Bureau in 1937, James edited its newsletter, Africa and the World, and its journal, International African Opinion. The Bureau was led by his childhood friend George Padmore, who became a driving force for socialist Pan-Africanism for several decades. Both Padmore and James wrote for the New Leader, published by the Independent Labour Party (ILP), which James had joined in 1934 (when Fenner Brockway was its General Secretary).[20]James in 1938In 1934, James wrote a three-act play about the Haitian revolutionary Toussaint Louverture (entitled Toussaint Louverture: The Story of the Only Successful Slave Revolt in History), which was staged in London's West End in 1936 and starred Paul Robeson, Orlando Martins, Robert Adams and Harry Andrews.[21][22] The play had been presumed lost until the rediscovery of a draft copy in 2005, the play has now gone on to be adapted into a graphic novel by Nic Watts and Sakina Karimjee.[23] In 1967, James went on to write a second play about the Haitian Revolution, The Black Jacobins, which became the first production from Talawa Theatre Company in 1986, coinciding with the overthrow of Jean-Claude Duvalier.[24] 1936 also saw Secker & Warburg in London publish James's novel, Minty Alley, which he had brought with him in manuscript form from Trinidad.[15] (Fenner Brockway had introduced him to Fredric Warburg, co-owner of the press.)[25] It was the first novel to be published by a black Caribbean author in the UK.[26]Amid his frenetic political activity, James wrote what are perhaps his best known works of non-fiction: World Revolution (1937), a history of the rise and fall of the Communist International, which was critically praised by Leon Trotsky, George Orwell, E. H. Carr and Fenner Brockway;[27] and The Black Jacobins: Toussaint L'Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution (1938), a widely acclaimed history of the Haitian Revolution, which was later seen as a seminal text in the study of the African diaspora. James went to Paris to research this work, where he met Haitian military historian Alfred Auguste Nemours. In a new foreword to the 1980 Allison & Busby edition of The Black Jacobins, James recalled that \"Nemours used coffee cups and books in Paris cafés to bring to life the military skills of revolutionary Haitians.\"[28]In 1936, James and his Trotskyist Marxist Group left the ILP to form an open party. In 1938, this new group took part in several mergers to form the Revolutionary Socialist League (RSL). The RSL was a highly factionalised organisation.","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"James P. Cannon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_P._Cannon"},{"link_name":"Socialist Workers' Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_Workers%27_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Fourth International","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_International"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City"},{"link_name":"Philadelphia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphia"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"New Haven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Haven,_Connecticut"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Youngstown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youngstown,_Ohio"},{"link_name":"Rochester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rochester,_New_York"},{"link_name":"Boston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles"},{"link_name":"Pasadena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasadena,_California"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-33"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-33"},{"link_name":"Winston Churchill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winston_Churchill"},{"link_name":"Franklin Delano Roosevelt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Louise Cripps Samoiloff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louise_Cripps_Samoiloff"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"}],"sub_title":"Speaking tour in the United States","text":"At the urging of Trotsky and James P. Cannon, in October 1938, James was invited to tour the United States by the leadership of the Socialist Workers' Party (SWP), then the US section of the Fourth International, to facilitate its work among black workers.[29] Following several meetings in New York, which garnered \"enthusiastic praise for his oratorical ability and capacity for analysis of world events,\" James kicked off his national speaking tour on 6 January 1939 in Philadelphia.[30] He gave lectures in cities including New Haven,[31] Youngstown, Rochester, and Boston,[32] before finishing the tour with two lectures in Los Angeles and another in Pasadena in March 1939.[33] He spoke on topics such as \"Twilight of the British Empire\" and \"The Negro and World Imperialism\".[33]Constance Webb, who later became James' second wife, attended one of his 1939 lectures in Los Angeles and reflected on it in her memoir, writing: \"I had already heard speeches by two great orators, Winston Churchill and Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Now I was hearing a third. The three men were masters of the English language, a skill that gave them extraordinary power.\"[34]James's relationship with Louise Cripps Samoiloff had broken up after her second abortion, so that intimate tie no longer bound him to England.[35]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Coyoacán","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coyoac%C3%A1n"},{"link_name":"Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico"},{"link_name":"Diego Rivera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diego_Rivera"},{"link_name":"Frida Kahlo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frida_Kahlo"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jelly-Schapiro-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"}],"text":"In April 1939, James visited Trotsky in Coyoacán, Mexico. James stayed there about a month and also met Diego Rivera and Frida Kahlo, before returning to the United States in May 1939.[36] A key topic that James and Trotsky discussed was the \"Negro Question\". Parts of their conversation were transcribed, with James sometimes referred to by his pen-name, J. R. Johnson.[37] Whereas Trotsky saw the Trotskyist Party as providing leadership to the black community, in the general manner that the Bolsheviks provided guidance to ethnic minorities in Russia, James suggested that the self-organised struggle of African Americans would precipitate a much broader radical social movement.[38]","title":"Meeting Trotsky"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"degenerated workers' state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degenerated_workers%27_state"},{"link_name":"Max Shachtman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Shachtman"},{"link_name":"Workers' Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Workers%27_Party_(United_States)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Johnson–Forest Tendency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnson%E2%80%93Forest_Tendency"},{"link_name":"Raya Dunayevskaya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raya_Dunayevskaya"},{"link_name":"Grace Lee Boggs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grace_Lee_Boggs"},{"link_name":"Socialist Appeal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_Appeal_(newspaper)"},{"link_name":"The Militant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Militant"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Second World War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_World_War"},{"link_name":"state capitalist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_capitalist"},{"link_name":"Tony Cliff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Cliff"},{"link_name":"Leninist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leninist"},{"link_name":"Vladimir Lenin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin"},{"link_name":"revolutionary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutionary"},{"link_name":"black nationalist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_nationalist"},{"link_name":"vanguard party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanguard_party"},{"link_name":"Correspondence Publishing Committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correspondence_Publishing_Committee"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Raya Dunayevskaya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raya_Dunayevskaya"},{"link_name":"Marxist humanism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxist_humanism"},{"link_name":"News and Letters Committees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/News_and_Letters_Committees"},{"link_name":"Kent Worcester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kent_Worcester"},{"link_name":"Martin Glaberman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Glaberman"},{"link_name":"New Politics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Politics_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"James Boggs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Boggs_(activist)"},{"link_name":"Third Worldist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Worldist"},{"link_name":"Facing Reality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facing_Reality"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Autonomist Marxism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomist_Marxism"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"U.S. and the Johnson–Forest Tendency","text":"James stayed in the United States until he was deported in 1953. By 1940, he had begun to doubt Trotsky's view of the Soviet Union as a degenerated workers' state. He left the SWP along with Max Shachtman, who formed the Workers' Party (WP). Within the WP, James formed the Johnson–Forest Tendency with Raya Dunayevskaya (his pseudonym was Johnson and Dunayevskaya's was Forest) and Grace Lee (later Grace Lee Boggs) to spread their views within the new party.As \"J. R. Johnson\", James wrote the column \"The Negro Question\" for Socialist Appeal (later renamed The Militant), and was also a columnist for Labor Action.[39]While within the WP, the views of the Johnson–Forest Tendency underwent considerable development. By the end of the Second World War, they had definitively rejected Trotsky's theory of Russia as a degenerated workers' state. Instead, they classified it as state capitalist, a political evolution shared by other Trotskyists of their generation, most notably Tony Cliff. Unlike Cliff, the Johnson–Forest Tendency was focusing increasingly on the liberation movements of oppressed minorities, a theoretical development already visible in James's thought in his 1939 discussions with Trotsky. Such liberation struggles came to take centre stage for the Johnson–Forest Tendency.After the Second World War, the WP witnessed a downturn in revolutionary sentiment. The Tendency, on the other hand, was encouraged by the prospects for revolutionary change for oppressed peoples. After a few short months as an independent group, during which they published a great deal of material, in 1947, the Johnson–Forest Tendency joined the SWP, which it regarded as more proletarian than the WP.James would still describe himself as a Leninist despite his rejection of Vladimir Lenin's conception of the vanguard role of the revolutionary party. He argued for socialists to support the emerging black nationalist movements. By 1949, James rejected the idea of a vanguard party. This led the Johnson–Forest Tendency to leave the Trotskyist movement and rename itself the Correspondence Publishing Committee.[citation needed]In 1955 after James had left for Britain, about half the membership of the Committee withdrew, under the leadership of Raya Dunayevskaya, to form a separate tendency of Marxist humanism and found the organisation News and Letters Committees. Whether Dunayevskaya's faction had constituted a majority or a minority in the Correspondence Publishing Committee remains a matter of dispute. Historian Kent Worcester says that Dunayevskaya's supporters formed a majority, but Martin Glaberman says in New Politics that the faction loyal to James had a majority.[40]The Committee split again in 1962, as Grace Lee Boggs and James Boggs, two key activists, left to pursue a more Third Worldist approach. The remaining Johnsonites, including leading member Martin Glaberman, reconstituted themselves as Facing Reality. James advised the group from Great Britain until it dissolved in 1970, against his urging.[41]James's writings were also influential in the development of Autonomist Marxism as a current within Marxist thought. He himself saw his life's work as developing the theory and practice of Leninism.[citation needed]","title":"Meeting Trotsky"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Herman Melville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herman_Melville"},{"link_name":"Ellis Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellis_Island"},{"link_name":"Moby-Dick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moby-Dick"},{"link_name":"anti-communism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-communism"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"Dorothy Pizer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorothy_Pizer"},{"link_name":"Manchester Guardian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian"},{"link_name":"Richard Wright","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Wright_(author)"},{"link_name":"ivory tower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivory_tower"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"Grace Lee Boggs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grace_Lee_Boggs"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"Ghana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghana"},{"link_name":"Ghana's new head of state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_Ghana"},{"link_name":"Kwame Nkrumah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwame_Nkrumah"},{"link_name":"Convention People's Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_People%27s_Party"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"}],"sub_title":"Return to Britain","text":"In 1953, James was forced to leave the US under threat of deportation for having overstayed his visa. In his attempt to remain in America, he wrote a study of Herman Melville, Mariners, Renegades and Castaways: The Story of Herman Melville and the World We Live In, and had copies of the privately published work sent to every member of the Senate. He wrote the book while being detained at the immigration station on Ellis Island. In an impassioned letter to his old friend George Padmore, James said that in Mariners he was using Moby-Dick as a parable for the anti-communism sweeping the United States, a consequence, he thought, of Americans' uncritical faith in capitalism.[42]Returning to Britain, James appeared to Padmore and his partner Dorothy Pizer to be a man adrift. After James started reporting on cricket for the Manchester Guardian, Padmore wrote to American novelist Richard Wright: \"That will take him out of his ivory tower and making his paper revolution....\"[43] Grace Lee Boggs, a colleague from the Detroit group, came to London in 1954 to work with James, but she too, saw him \"at loose ends, trying to find his way after fifteen years out of the country.\"[44]In 1957, James travelled to Ghana for the celebration of its independence from British rule in March that year. He had met Ghana's new head of state, Kwame Nkrumah, in the United States when Nkrumah was studying there and sent him on to work with George Padmore in London after the Second World War; Padmore was by this point a close Nkrumah advisor and had written The Gold Coast Revolution (1953). In correspondence sent from Ghana in 1957, James told American friends that Nkrumah thought he too ought to write a book on the Convention People's Party, which under Nkrumah's leadership had brought the country to independence. The book shows how the party's strategies could be used to build a new African future. James invited Grace Lee Boggs, his colleague from Detroit, to join in the work, though in the end, James wrote Nkrumah and the Ghana Revolution on his own. The book was not published until 1977, years after Nkrumah's overthrow, exile and subsequent death.[45][46]","title":"Meeting Trotsky"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"People's National Movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_National_Movement"},{"link_name":"Ghana revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Ghana#Independence"},{"link_name":"anticolonialist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decolonization"},{"link_name":"West Indies Federation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Indies_Federation"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"Calvin C. Hernton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calvin_C._Hernton"},{"link_name":"Obi Egbuna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obi_Egbuna"},{"link_name":"Antiuniversity of London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiuniversity_of_London"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"Joseph Berke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Berke"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"University of the District of Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_the_District_of_Columbia"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CGeraldFraser-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CGeraldFraser-1"},{"link_name":"Allison & Busby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allison_%26_Busby"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Busby_-_Storming_the_pavilion_of_prejudice-51"},{"link_name":"Brixton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brixton"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BBC_Caribbean-52"},{"link_name":"South Bank Polytechnic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Bank_Polytechnic"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CGeraldFraser-1"},{"link_name":"Tunapuna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunapuna"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"National Stadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasely_Crawford_Stadium"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"}],"text":"In 1958 James went back to Trinidad, where he edited The Nation newspaper for the pro-independence People's National Movement (PNM) party. He also became active again in the Pan-African movement. He believed that the Ghana revolution greatly encouraged the anticolonialist revolutionary struggle.James also advocated the West Indies Federation.[47] It was over this issue that he fell out with the PNM leadership. He returned to Great Britain, where he joined Calvin C. Hernton, Obi Egbuna and others on the faculty of the Antiuniversity of London,[48][49] which had been set up by a group of left-wing thinkers led by American academic Joseph Berke.[50] In 1968 James was invited to the US, where he taught at the University of the District of Columbia (formerly Federal City College), leaving for Trinidad in 1980.[1]Ultimately returning in 1981 to Britain,[1] where Allison & Busby had in the mid-1970s begun a programme of reissuing his work, beginning with a volume of selected writings,[51] James spent his last years in Brixton, London.[52] In the 1980s, he was awarded an Honorary Doctorate from South Bank Polytechnic (later to become London South Bank University) for his body of socio-political work, including that relating to race and sport.James died in London from a chest infection on 19 May 1989, aged 88.[1] His funeral took place on Monday, 12 June in Trinidad, where he was buried at Tunapuna Cemetery.[53][54] A state memorial service was held for him at the National Stadium, Port of Spain, on 28 June 1989.[55]","title":"Trinidad and afterwards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Constance_Webb_papers-58"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Constance_Webb_papers-58"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"Selma Weinstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selma_James"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"International Wages for Housework Campaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Wages_for_Housework_Campaign"}],"text":"James married his first wife, Juanita Young, in Trinidad in 1929, but his move three years later to Britain led to their estrangement. He met his second wife, Constance Webb (1918–2005), an American model, actress and author, after he moved to the US in 1938; she wrote of having first heard him speak in the spring of 1939 at a meeting in California.[56] James and Webb married in 1946 and their son, C. L. R. James Jr, familiarly known as Nobbie,[57] was born in 1949.[58] Separated forcibly in 1952, by James's arrest and detention on Ellis Island, the couple divorced in 1953, when James was deported to Britain, while Webb remained in New York with Nobbie.[58] A collection of James's letters to Webb was posthumously published as Special Delivery: The Letters of C.L.R. James to Constance Webb, 1939–1948, edited and introduced by Anna Grimshaw (Oxford, UK; Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1996).[59] Stories written by James for his son were published in 2006 as The Nobbie Stories for Children and Adults, edited and introduced by Constance Webb.[60]In 1956 James married Selma Weinstein (née Deitch), who had been a young member of the Johnson–Forest Tendency;[61] they remained close political colleagues for more than 25 years, but divorced in 1980. She is best known as one of the founders of the International Wages for Housework Campaign.","title":"Personal life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Allison & Busby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allison_%26_Busby"},{"link_name":"Margaret Busby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Busby"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Future-63"},{"link_name":"Whalley Range, Manchester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whalley_Range,_Manchester"},{"link_name":"Vanessa Redgrave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanessa_Redgrave"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"Mike Dibb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Dibb"},{"link_name":"BBC Television","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Television"},{"link_name":"Omnibus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omnibus_(British_TV_programme)"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"Channel 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_4"},{"link_name":"Stuart Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuart_Hall_(cultural_theorist)"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"H. O. Nazareth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H._O._Nazareth"},{"link_name":"E. P. Thompson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._P._Thompson"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"Horace Ové","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace_Ov%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"Margaret Busby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Busby"},{"link_name":"Farrukh Dhondy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farrukh_Dhondy"},{"link_name":"Mustapha Matura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mustapha_Matura"},{"link_name":"Michael Abbensetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Abbensetts"},{"link_name":"Lindsay Barrett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lindsay_Barrett"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"Channel 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_4"},{"link_name":"William Shakespeare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespeare"},{"link_name":"Solidarity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City"},{"link_name":"Cambridge University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"Ralph Dumain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Dumain"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"London Borough of Hackney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Borough_of_Hackney"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"Selma James","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selma_James"},{"link_name":"Hackney London Borough Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hackney_London_Borough_Council"},{"link_name":"Dalston Square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalston_Square"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Celebrations-76"},{"link_name":"Sir Collins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Collins"},{"link_name":"The Four Aces Club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Four_Aces_Club"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Celebrations-76"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"Talawa Theatre Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talawa_Theatre_Company"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-24"},{"link_name":"Riverside Studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riverside_Studios"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"BBC Radio 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Radio_4"},{"link_name":"Beyond a Boundary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_a_Boundary"},{"link_name":"Trevor McDonald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trevor_McDonald"},{"link_name":"Pam Fraser Solomon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pam_Fraser_Solomon"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Busby_-_Storming_the_pavilion_of_prejudice-51"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"Doña Croll","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Do%C3%B1a_Croll"},{"link_name":"Angela Wynter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angela_Wynter"},{"link_name":"Nina Wadia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nina_Wadia"},{"link_name":"Geff Francis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geff_Francis"},{"link_name":"Burt Caesar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burt_Caesar"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"Commission for Racial Equality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commission_for_Racial_Equality"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"Darcus Howe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darcus_Howe"},{"link_name":"Great Lives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Lives"},{"link_name":"Humphrey Carpenter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphrey_Carpenter"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"English Heritage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Heritage"},{"link_name":"blue plaque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_plaque"},{"link_name":"Brixton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brixton"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BBC_Caribbean-52"},{"link_name":"Railton Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railton_Road"},{"link_name":"Race Today","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_Today"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"University of Glasgow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Glasgow"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Glasgow_conference-90"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"},{"link_name":"Steve McQueen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_McQueen_(director)"},{"link_name":"Mangrove","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mangrove_(film)"},{"link_name":"Small Axe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_Axe_(anthology)"},{"link_name":"Derek Griffiths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derek_Griffiths"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"},{"link_name":"Southwick, West Sussex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southwick,_West_Sussex"},{"link_name":"Special Branch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_Branch"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"}],"text":"In the 1970s and 1980s, a number of titles by James were published by Allison & Busby (co-founder Margaret Busby's father had attended Queen's Royal College with James),[62] including four volumes of selected writings published during his lifetime \"that looked to bring together the best of James' writing and introduce him to a new audience\":[63] The Future in the Present (1977), Spheres of Existence (1980), At the Rendezvous of Victory (1984), and Cricket (1986).\nIn his honour, the Nello James Centre, in Whalley Range, Manchester, was bought with funds donated by Vanessa Redgrave and bequeathed to the community in the 1970s.[64]\nIn 1976, Mike Dibb directed a film about James entitled Beyond a Boundary for the BBC Television series Omnibus.[65] In 1984, Dibb also made a film for Channel 4 television entitled C. L. R. James in Conversation with Stuart Hall.[66]\nIn 1983, a 60-minute film, Talking History (directed by H. O. Nazareth), featuring James in dialogue with the historian E. P. Thompson, was made by Penumbra Productions,[67] a small independent production company newly established in London, whose members included Horace Ové, H. O. Nazareth,[68] Margaret Busby, Farrukh Dhondy, Mustapha Matura, Michael Abbensetts, and Lindsay Barrett.[69] Penumbra Productions also filmed a series of six of James's lectures, shown on Channel 4 television. The topics were: William Shakespeare; cricket; American society; Solidarity in Poland; the Caribbean; and Africa.[70]\nThe C. L. R. James Institute was founded with James's blessing by Jim Murray in 1983. Based in New York, and affiliated to the Centre for African Studies at Cambridge University, it has been run by Ralph Dumain since Murray's death in 2003.[71]\nA public library in the London Borough of Hackney is named in his honour. There was a C. L. R. James Week of ceremonies in March 1985,[72] and his widow, Selma James, attended a reception there to mark its 20th anniversary. The Hackney London Borough Council had intended to drop the name of the library as part of a new development in Dalston Square in 2010, but after protests from Selma James and local and international campaigners,[73] the council promised that the library would after all retain the name of C. L. R. James. A council statement said: \"As part of the new library, there will be a permanent exhibition to chronicle his life and works and an annual event in his memory, and we are pleased to report the state-of-the-art education room will also be named after this influential figure.\"[74][75] The new Dalston C. L. R. James Library was officially opened on 28 February 2012.[76] The library is housed in Collins Tower, named for Sir Collins a co-founder of The Four Aces Club that was demolished to make way for the site.[77] At the launch there on 2 March 2012 of a permanent exhibition dedicated to James's life and legacy, Selma James spoke.[76][78]\nIn 1986, the first play produced by Talawa Theatre Company was The Black Jacobins by James,[24] staged at the Riverside Studios.[79]\nIn August 1996, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a five-part abridgement (by Margaret Busby) of James's Beyond a Boundary, read by Trevor McDonald and produced by Pam Fraser Solomon.[51][80]\nA dramatisation[81] of Minty Alley, by Margaret Busby (produced by Pam Fraser Solomon, with a cast that included Doña Croll, Angela Wynter, Martina Laird, Nina Wadia, Julian Francis, Geff Francis, Vivienne Rochester and Burt Caesar), was first broadcast on BBC Radio 4 on 12 June 1998,[82][83][84] winning a Commission for Racial Equality (CRE) \"Race in the Media Award\" in 1999.[85]\nIn 2002, James was the subject chosen by Darcus Howe, his nephew, in an episode of the BBC Radio 4 biography series Great Lives, presented by Humphrey Carpenter.[86]\nIn 2004, English Heritage unveiled a blue plaque in Brixton, London,[52] at 165 Railton Road (a building that housed the offices of Darcus Howe's Race Today Collective), inscribed: \"C. L. R. JAMES 1901–1989 West Indian Writer and Political Activist lived and died here\".[87][88][89]\nA conference to mark the 50th anniversary of the publication of Beyond a Boundary was held at the University of Glasgow in May 2013.[90][91]\nJames is the subject of the 2016 feature-length documentary film Every Cook Can Govern: Documenting the life, impact & works of CLR James, made by WORLDwrite.[92][93]\nJames appeared briefly in Steve McQueen's 2020 film Mangrove, part of the Small Axe strand, portrayed by Derek Griffiths.[94]\nOn 17 March 2023, a blue plaque was unveiled in Southwick, West Sussex, to mark the house where in 1937 James wrote The Black Jacobins, at an address on Old Shoreham Road discovered by historian Christian Hogsbjerg from a letter that had been intercepted by Special Branch.[95][96]","title":"Legacy and recognition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Alma Jordan Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alma_Jordan_Library"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-98"},{"link_name":"Columbia University Libraries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_University_Libraries"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-99"},{"link_name":"Duke University Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_University_Press"},{"link_name":"Robert A. Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_A._Hill_(historian)"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-100"}],"text":"Collections of C. L. R. James papers are held at the University of the West Indies Alma Jordan Library, St Augustine, Trinidad,[97][98] and at Columbia University Libraries.[99]Duke University Press publish the series \"The C. L. R. James Archives\", edited by Robert A. Hill, literary executor of the estate of C. L. R. James, producing new editions of books by James, as well as scholarly explorations of his oeuvre.[100]","title":"Archives"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Beyond a Boundary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_a_Boundary"},{"link_name":"Beyond a Boundary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_a_Boundary"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-James,_1963-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated1-7"},{"link_name":"John Arlott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Arlott"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Glasgow_conference-90"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-102"},{"link_name":"Rudyard Kipling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudyard_Kipling"},{"link_name":"Frank Worrell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Worrell"},{"link_name":"West Indies cricket team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Indies_cricket_team"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-103"}],"text":"See also: Beyond a BoundaryHe is widely known as a writer on cricket, especially for his autobiographical 1963 book, Beyond a Boundary, which he himself described as \"neither cricket reminiscences nor autobiography\".[6] It is considered a seminal work on the game, and is often named as the best single book on cricket (or even the best book on any sport) ever written.[7] John Arlott called it \"so outstanding as to compel any reviewer to check his adjectives several times before he describes it and, since he is likely to be dealing in superlatives, to measure them carefully to avoid over-praise – which this book does not need ... in the opinion of the reviewer, it is the finest book written about the game of cricket.\"[101] A conference to mark the 50th anniversary of its first publication was held 10–11 May 2013.[90][102]The book's key question, frequently quoted by modern journalists and essayists, is inspired by a line in Rudyard Kipling's poem \"English Flag\" – \"What do they know of England who only England know?\" James asks in the Preface: \"What do they know of cricket who only cricket know?\" Acknowledging that \"To answer involves ideas as well as facts\", James uses this challenge as the basis for describing cricket in an historical and social context, the strong influence cricket had on his life, and how it meshed with his role in politics and his understanding of issues of class and race.While editor of The Nation, he led the successful campaign in 1960 to have Frank Worrell appointed the first black captain of the West Indies cricket team. James believed that the relationship between players and the public was a prominent reason behind the West Indies' achieving so much with so little.[103]","title":"Writings on cricket"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Letters from London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.signalbooks.co.uk/2014/02/letters-from-london/"},{"link_name":"The Life of Captain Cipriani: An Account of British Government in the West Indies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.dukeupress.edu/The-Life-of-Captain-Cipriani/"},{"link_name":"The Case for West-Indian Self-Government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.dukeupress.edu/The-Life-of-Captain-Cipriani/"},{"link_name":"Hogarth Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hogarth_Press"},{"link_name":"Minty Alley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minty_Alley"},{"link_name":"Secker & Warburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secker_%26_Warburg"},{"link_name":"New Beacon Books","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Beacon_Books"},{"link_name":"Toussaint Louverture: The story of the only successful slave revolt in history","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20121007080149/http://www.dukeupress.edu/Catalog/ViewProduct.php?productid=20043"},{"link_name":"Peter Godfrey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Godfrey_(director)"},{"link_name":"Westminster Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_Theatre"},{"link_name":"Duke University Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_University_Press"},{"link_name":"World Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Revolution_(book)"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-8223-6308-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-6308-8"},{"link_name":"Drum and Spear Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Drum_and_Spear_Press&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0947716035","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0947716035"},{"link_name":"Robin D. G. Kelley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robin_D._G._Kelley"},{"link_name":"PM Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PM_Press"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-104"},{"link_name":"The Black Jacobins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Black_Jacobins"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-679-72467-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-679-72467-2"},{"link_name":"Allison & Busby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allison_%26_Busby"},{"link_name":"Why Negroes should oppose the war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.marxists.org/archive/james-clr/works/1939/xx/war.htm"},{"link_name":"Socialist Workers Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_Workers_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Young People's Socialist League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_People%27s_Socialist_League_(1907)"},{"link_name":"\"My Friends\": A Fireside Chat on the War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.marxists.org/archive/james-clr/works/1940/06/chat.html"},{"link_name":"Workers Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workers_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"The Invading Socialist Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.marxists.org/archive/james-clr/works/1947/invading/index.htm"},{"link_name":"Notes on Dialectics: Hegel, Marx and Lenin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.marxists.org/archive/james-clr/works/dialecti/index.htm"},{"link_name":"Lawrence Hill Books","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Hill_Books"},{"link_name":"State Capitalism and World Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.marxists.org/archive/james-clr/works/1950/08/state-capitalism.htm"},{"link_name":"Paul Buhle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Buhle"},{"link_name":"Charles H. Kerr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_H._Kerr_Publishing_Company"},{"link_name":"\"Every Cook Can Govern: A Study of Democracy in Ancient Greece, Its Meaning for Today\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.marxists.org/archive/james-clr/works/1956/06/every-cook.htm"},{"link_name":"Facing Reality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/001137144"},{"link_name":"Cornelius Castoriadis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornelius_Castoriadis"},{"link_name":"New edition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//files.libcom.org/files/James%20-%20Facing%20Reality.pdf"},{"link_name":"Trinidad Public Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Library_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago"},{"link_name":"Marxism and the intellectuals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.marxists.org/archive/james-clr/works/1962/destruction-paper/index.htm"},{"link_name":"Beyond a Boundary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_a_Boundary"},{"link_name":"Stanley Paul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Paul"},{"link_name":"Hutchinson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hutchinson_(publisher)"},{"link_name":"Serpent's Tail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent%27s_Tail"},{"link_name":"George Lamming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Lamming"},{"link_name":"Wilson Harris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilson_Harris"},{"link_name":"University of Texas at Austin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Texas_at_Austin"},{"link_name":"Michael Manley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Manley"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Future-63"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-105"},{"link_name":"Walter Rodney and the Question of Power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.marxists.org/archive/james-clr/works/1981/01/rodney.htm"},{"link_name":"University of California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California"},{"link_name":"Margaret Busby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Busby"},{"link_name":"Darcus Howe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darcus_Howe"},{"link_name":"Schocken Books","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schocken_Books"},{"link_name":"Aurum Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurum_Press"},{"link_name":"University Press of Mississippi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_Press_of_Mississippi"},{"link_name":"Small Axe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_Axe_(journal)"},{"link_name":"\"They Showed the Way to Labor Emancipation: On Karl Marx and the 75th Anniversary of the Paris Commune\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.marxists.org/archive/james-clr/works/1946/03/paris-commune.htm"},{"link_name":"Revolutionary History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutionary_History"},{"link_name":"\"Negroes and Bolshevism\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.marxists.org/archive/james-clr/works/1947/04/bolshevi.htm"},{"link_name":"Revolutionary History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutionary_History"},{"link_name":"You Don't Play With Revolution: The Montreal Lectures of C.L.R. James – Book Excerpt | Revolution by the Book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.revolutionbythebook.akpress.org/you-don%E2%80%99t-play-with-revolution-the-montreal-lectures-of-clr-james-book-excerpt/"}],"text":"Letters from London (series of essays written in 1932). Signal Books (2003).\nThe Life of Captain Cipriani: An Account of British Government in the West Indies. Nelson, Lancs.: Cartmel & Co. (1932).\nThe Case for West-Indian Self-Government. London: Hogarth Press (1933). Reprinted, New York: University Place Bookshop (1967); Detroit: Facing Reality Publishing Co. (1967).\nMinty Alley. London: Secker & Warburg (1936). New edition, London & Port of Spain: New Beacon Books (1971).\nToussaint Louverture: The story of the only successful slave revolt in history (play written in 1934). Produced by Peter Godfrey at the Westminster Theatre, London (1936). Durham, NC: Duke University Press (2013).\nWorld Revolution, 1917–1936: The Rise and Fall of the Communist International. London: Secker & Warburg (1937). New edition, with introduction by Christian Høgsbjerg, Durham, NC: Duke University Press (2017), ISBN 978-0-8223-6308-8.\nA History of Negro Revolt. Fact monograph no. 18, London (1938). Revised as A History of Pan-African Revolt. Washington: Drum and Spear Press (1969). A History of Negro Revolt, London: Creation for Liberation, ISBN 978-0947716035 (1985). As A History of Pan-African Revolt, with an Introduction by Robin D. G. Kelley, PM Press (2012).[104]\nThe Black Jacobins: Toussaint L'Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution. London: Secker & Warburg (1938). Revised edition, New York: Vintage Books/Random House (1963). ISBN 0-679-72467-2. Index starts at p. 419. Library of Congress Card Number: 63-15043. New British edition with foreword, London: Allison & Busby (1980).\nWhy Negroes should oppose the war (as \"J. R. Johnson\"). New York: Pioneer Publishers for the Socialist Workers Party and the Young People's Socialist League – Fourth International (1939).\n\"My Friends\": A Fireside Chat on the War (as \"Native Son\"). New York: Workers Party (1940).\nThe Invading Socialist Society (with F. Forest and Ria Stone). New York: Johnson Forest Tendency (1947). Reprinted with new preface, Detroit: Bewick/Ed (1972).\nNotes on Dialectics: Hegel, Marx and Lenin (Link only goes to the last half of Part 2 from the 1980 edition) (1948). New edition with Introduction, London: Allison & Busby (1980); Westport, Conn.: Lawrence Hill Books (1980).\nNotes on American Civilisation. Typescript [1950], published as American Civilization, Oxford: Blackwell (1992).\nState Capitalism and World Revolution (1950). New edition, with foreword by James and introduction by Paul Buhle, Chicago: Charles H. Kerr (1986).\nMariners, Renegades and Castaways: The Story of Herman Melville and the World We Live In. New York: privately printed (1953). Detroit: Bewick/Ed, (1978). London: Allison & Busby (1984).\n\"Every Cook Can Govern: A Study of Democracy in Ancient Greece, Its Meaning for Today\". Correspondence, Vol. 2, No. 12 (June 1956). Detroit: Bewick/Ed (1992).\nFacing Reality (with Cornelius Castoriadis and Grace Lee Boggs), Detroit: Correspondence (1958). New edition, with a new Introduction by John H. Bracey, Bewick Editions (1974).\nModern Politics (A series of lectures given at the Trinidad Public Library, in its Adult Education Programme). Port of Spain: PNM Publishing Co. (1960).\nA Convention Appraisal: Dr. Eric Williams: first premier of Trinidad & Tobago: a biographical sketch. Port of Spain, Trinidad: PNM Publishing Co. (1960).\nParty Politics in the West Indies. San Juan, Port of Spain: Vedic Enterprises (1962).\nMarxism and the intellectuals. Detroit: Facing Reality Publishing Committee (1962).\nBeyond a Boundary. London: Stanley Paul/Hutchinson (1963). New edition, London: Serpent's Tail (1983); New York: Pantheon (1984).\nKas-kas; interviews with three Caribbean writers in Texas. George Lamming, C. L. R. James [and] Wilson Harris. Austin, TX: African and Afro-American Research Institute, University of Texas at Austin (1972).\nNot For Sale (with Michael Manley). San Francisco: Editorial Consultants (1976).\nThe Future in the Present, Selected Writings, vol. 1. London: Allison & Busby (1977);[63] Westport, Conn.: Lawrence Hill Books (1977).\nNkrumah and the Ghana Revolution. London: Allison & Busby (1977); Westport, Conn.: Lawrence Hill Books (1977). Duke University Press, 2022, with Introduction by Leslie James.[105]\nSpheres of Existence, Selected Writings, vol. 2. London: Allison & Busby (1980); Westport, Conn.: Lawrence Hill Books (1980).\nWalter Rodney and the Question of Power (text of talk at memorial symposium entitled \"Walter Rodney, Revolutionary and Scholar: A Tribute\", at the University of California, 30 January 1981). London: Race Today Publications (1983).\n80th Birthday Lectures (Margaret Busby and Darcus Howe, eds). London: Race Today Publications (1984).\nAt the Rendezvous of Victory, Selected Writings, vol. 3. London: Allison & Busby (1984).\nCricket (selected writings, ed. Anna Grimshaw). London: Allison & Busby (1986); distributed in the United States by Schocken Books (1986). As A Majestic Innings: Writings on Cricket, new edition, London: Aurum Press (2006).\nAnna Grimshaw (ed.), The C.L.R. James Reader. Oxford: Blackwell (1992).\nScott McLemee (ed.), C.L.R. James on the Negro Question. University Press of Mississippi (1996).\n\"Lectures on the Black Jacobins\". Small Axe, 8 (2000): 65–112. Print.\n\"They Showed the Way to Labor Emancipation: On Karl Marx and the 75th Anniversary of the Paris Commune\". Originally published pseudonymously in the 18 March 1946 issue of Labor Action, newspaper of the Workers' Party of the United States; reprinted in Revolutionary History, 21 December 2008.\n\"Negroes and Bolshevism\". Originally published pseudonymously in Labor Action, 7 April 1947; reprinted in Revolutionary History, 21 December 2008.\nDavid Austin (ed.), You Don't Play With Revolution: The Montreal Lectures of C.L.R. James – Book Excerpt | Revolution by the Book You Don't Play With Revolution: The Montreal Lectures of CLR James. AK Press (2009).","title":"Selected bibliography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9781909026902","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781909026902"},{"link_name":"University of Minnesota Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Minnesota_Press"},{"link_name":"Pluto Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto_Press"},{"link_name":"Verso Books","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verso_Books"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-86091-932-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86091-932-2"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780850316858","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780850316858"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0845348659","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0845348659"},{"link_name":"Dhondy, Farrukh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farrukh_Dhondy"},{"link_name":"Weidenfeld & Nicolson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weidenfeld_%26_Nicolson"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0297646136","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0297646136"},{"link_name":"online","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=55901"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1478001478","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1478001478"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0822362012","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0822362012"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0745323428","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0745323428"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9781578061518","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781578061518"},{"link_name":"\"C.L.R. James: A Revolutionary Vision for the 20th Century\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.marxists.org/archive/james-clr/biograph.htm"},{"link_name":"Cultural Correspondence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_Correspondence"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0918266-30-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0918266-30-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0631184959","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0631184959"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0822356189","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0822356189"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0739107751","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0739107751"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0878059720","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0878059720"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0719077678","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0719077678"},{"link_name":"Insurgent Notes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//insurgentnotes.com/2013/03/c-l-r-jamess-conflicted-intellectual-legacies-on-mao-tse-tungs-china/"},{"link_name":"The CLR James Journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.pdcnet.org/clrjames/The-CLR-James-Journal"},{"link_name":"Insurgent Notes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//insurgentnotes.com/2012/10/silences-on-the-suppression-of-workers-self-emancipation-historical-problems-with-clr-jamess-interpretation-of-v-i-lenin/"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-2-7071-8191-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7071-8191-6"},{"link_name":"Haus Publishing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haus_Publishing"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1905791019","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1905791019"},{"link_name":"University Press of Mississippi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_Press_of_Mississippi"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"87-7289-096-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/87-7289-096-7"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0822334330","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0822334330"},{"link_name":"Palgrave Macmillan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palgrave_Macmillan"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0230220218","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0230220218"},{"link_name":"University Press of New England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_Press_of_New_England"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1584653011","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1584653011"},{"link_name":"Constable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constable_(publisher)"},{"link_name":"State University of New York Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_University_of_New_York_Press"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9781438424446","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781438424446"}],"text":"Bennett, Gaverne, and Christian Høgsbjerg (eds), Celebrating C.L.R. James in Hackney, London. London: Redwords, 2015, ISBN 9781909026902.\nBoggs, Grace Lee, Living for Change: An Autobiography. Minneapolis, London: University of Minnesota Press, 1998.\nBogues, Anthony, Caliban's Freedom: The Early Political Thought of C. L. R. James. London: Pluto Press, 1997.\nBuhle, Paul, C. L. R. James. The Artist as Revolutionary. London: Verso Books, 1988, ISBN 978-0-86091-932-2.\nBuhle, Paul (ed.), C. L. R. James: His Life and Work. London: Allison & Busby, 1986, ISBN 9780850316858.\nCripps, Louise, C. L. R. James: Memories and Commentaries. London: Cornwall Books, 1997, ISBN 978-0845348659.\nDhondy, Farrukh, C. L. R. James: Cricket, the Caribbean and World Revolution. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2001, ISBN 978-0297646136.\nDouglas, Rachel. Making The Black Jacobins: C. L. R. James and the Drama of History (2019) online\nFeatherstone, Dave, and Chris Gair, Christian Høgsbjerg, and Andrew Smith (eds), Marxism, Colonialism and Cricket: C.L.R. James's Beyond a Boundary. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2018, ISBN 978-1478001478.\nFlood, Anthony, \"C. L. R. James: Herbert Aptheker's Invisible Man\", The C. L. R. James Journal, vol. 19, nos. 1 & 2, Fall 2013.\nForsdick, Charles, and Christian Høgsbjerg (eds), The Black Jacobins Reader. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2017, ISBN 978-0822362012.\nGair, Chris (ed.) Beyond Boundaries: C.L.R. James and Postnational Studies. London: Pluto, 2006, ISBN 978-0745323428.\nGlaberman, Martin, Marxism for our Times: C. L. R. James on Revolutionary Organization, University Press of Mississippi, 1999, ISBN 9781578061518.\nGrimshaw, Anna, \"C.L.R. James: A Revolutionary Vision for the 20th Century\", The C.L.R. James Institute and Cultural Correspondence, New York, in co-operation with Smyrna Press, April 1991. 44 pp. ISBN 0918266-30-0.\nGrimshaw, Anna, The C.L.R. James Reader. Oxford: Blackwell, 1992, ISBN 978-0631184959.\nHøgsbjerg, Christian, C. L. R. James in Imperial Britain. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2014, ISBN 978-0822356189.\nMcClendon III, John H., C. L. R. James's Notes on Dialectics: Left Hegelianism or Marxism-Leninism?. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2004, ISBN 978-0739107751.\nMcLemee, Scott, & Paul LeBlanc (eds), C. L. R. James and Revolutionary Marxism: Selected Writings of C. L. R. James 1939–1949. Prometheus Books, 1994. Reprinted Haymarket Books, 2018.\nNielsen, Aldon Lynn, C. L. R. James: A Critical Introduction, Jackson, Mississippi: University Press of Mississippi, 1997. ISBN 978-0878059720\nPolsgrove, Carol, Ending British Rule in Africa: Writers in a Common Cause. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2009. ISBN 978-0719077678\nQuest, Matthew. \"C.L.R. James's Conflicted Legacies on Mao Tse Tung's China.\" Insurgent Notes, Issue 8, March 2013.\nQuest, Matthew, \"'Every Cook Can Govern:' Direct Democracy, Workers' Self-Management, and the Creative Foundations of CLR James' Political Thought.\" The CLR James Journal, 19.1 & 2, Fall 2013.\nQuest, Matthew, \"George Padmore's and C.L.R. James's International African Opinion.\" In Fitzroy Baptiste and Rupert C. Lewis (eds), George Padmore: Pan African Revolutionary. Kingston, Jamaica: Ian Randle, 2009, 105–132.\nQuest, Matthew, \"Silences on the Suppression of Workers Self-Emancipation: Historical Problems With CLR James's Interpretation of V.I. Lenin.\" Insurgent Notes, Issue 7, October 2012.\nRenault, Matthieu, C.L.R. James: la vie révolutionnaire d'un \"platon noir\". Paris: La Découverte, 2016, ISBN 978-2-7071-8191-6.\nRenton, David, C. L. R. James: Cricket's Philosopher King, London: Haus Publishing, 2008, ISBN 978-1905791019.\nRosengarten, Frank, Urbane Revolutionary: C. L. R. James and the Struggle for a New Society, University Press of Mississippi, 2007. ISBN 87-7289-096-7.\nScott, David, Conscripts of Modernity: The Tragedy of Colonial Enlightenment. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004, ISBN 978-0822334330.\nSmith, Andrew, C.L.R. James and the Study of Culture. Palgrave Macmillan, 2010, ISBN 978-0230220218.\nWebb, Constance, Not Without Love: Memoirs. Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 2003. ISBN 978-1584653011.\nWilliams, John L, C.L.R. James: A Life Beyond the Boundaries. London: Constable, 2022.\nWorcester, Kent, C. L. R. James. A Political Biography. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1996. ISBN 9781438424446.\nYoung, James D., The World of C. L. R. James. The Unfragmented Vision. Glasgow: Clydeside Press, 1999.","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"James in 1938","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/CLR_James%2C_1938.jpg/220px-CLR_James%2C_1938.jpg"}]
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[{"reference":"\"West Indies | C. L. R. James\". Making Britain. The Open University. Archived from the original on 29 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.open.ac.uk/researchprojects/makingbritain/category/tags-making-britain/west-indies","url_text":"\"West Indies | C. L. R. James\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210629111053/https://www.open.ac.uk/researchprojects/makingbritain/category/tags-making-britain/west-indies","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"C.L.R. James\". Writers of the Caribbean. Archived from the original on 29 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://core.ecu.edu/engl/deenas/caribbean/james.htm","url_text":"\"C.L.R. James\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210629111052/http://core.ecu.edu/engl/deenas/caribbean/james.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"James, Louis (2001). \"Writing the Ballad: The Short Fiction of Samuel Selvon and Earl Lovelace\". In Jacqueline Bardolph; André Viola; Jean-Pierre Durix (eds.). Telling Stories: Postcolonial Short Fiction in English. Rodopi. p. 103. ISBN 9042015349.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=V37eNXDxnHsC&pg=PA103","url_text":"\"Writing the Ballad: The Short Fiction of Samuel Selvon and Earl Lovelace\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9042015349","url_text":"9042015349"}]},{"reference":"\"Toussaint Louverture\". Verso. Retrieved 2 March 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.versobooks.com/products/2535-toussaint-louverture","url_text":"\"Toussaint Louverture\""}]},{"reference":"Magno, Viviane (30 January 2021). \"Remembering C. L. R. James | An interview with Rachel Douglas\". Tribune. Archived from the original on 3 October 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://tribunemag.co.uk/2021/01/c-l-r-james-at-120","url_text":"\"Remembering C. L. R. James | An interview with Rachel Douglas\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribune_(magazine)","url_text":"Tribune"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20221003123443/https://tribunemag.co.uk/2021/01/c-l-r-james-at-120","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Rosengarten, Frank (2008). \"C. L. R. James's Engagement with Marxism\". Urbane Revolutionary: C.L.R. James and the Struggle for a New Society. Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi. p. 25. ISBN 978-1-60473-306-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=pMwAszlSt4gC&q=C.L.R.+takes+up+new+responsibilities+in+the+SWP+in+New+York+as+director+of+the+party%E2%80%99s+%E2%80%98National+Negro+Department%E2%80%99.&pg=PA25","url_text":"\"C. L. R. James's Engagement with Marxism\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60473-306-8","url_text":"978-1-60473-306-8"}]},{"reference":"\"C. L. R. James Opens National Tour in Phila\" (PDF). Socialist Appeal. 7 January 1939. p. 4. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 July 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.marxists.org/history/etol/newspape/themilitant/socialist-appeal-1939/v3n01-jan-07-1939.pdf","url_text":"\"C. L. R. James Opens National Tour in Phila\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200712040225/https://www.marxists.org/history/etol/newspape/themilitant/socialist-appeal-1939/v3n01-jan-07-1939.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"C. L. R. James on Successful Tour\" (PDF). Socialist Appeal. 21 January 1939. p. 2. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 July 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.marxists.org/history/etol/newspape/themilitant/socialist-appeal-1939/v3n03-jan-21-1939.pdf","url_text":"\"C. L. R. 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Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 July 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.marxists.org/history/etol/newspape/themilitant/socialist-appeal-1939/v3n14-mar-10-1939.pdf","url_text":"\"C. L. R. James Ends Tour in California\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200712024703/https://www.marxists.org/history/etol/newspape/themilitant/socialist-appeal-1939/v3n14-mar-10-1939.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Webb, Constance (2003). Not Without Love: Memoirs. Lebanon, NH: University Press of New England. p. 71. ISBN 9781584653011.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ltvgliX4Qw4C&q=I+had+already+heard+speeches+by+two+great+orators%2C+Winston+Churchill+and+Franklin+Delano+Roosevelt.+Now+I+was+hearing+a+third.+The+three+men+were+masters+of+the+English+language%2C+a+skill+that+gave+them+extraordinary+power","url_text":"Not Without Love: Memoirs"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_Press_of_New_England","url_text":"University Press of New England"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781584653011","url_text":"9781584653011"}]},{"reference":"Jelly-Schapiro, Joshua (2011). \"C. L. R. James in America\" (PDF). Transition 104. pp. 30–57. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 October 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joshua_Jelly-Schapiro","url_text":"Jelly-Schapiro, Joshua"},{"url":"https://static1.squarespace.com/static/51d7149de4b01ae1310f405e/t/522e9ac0e4b0a584ece4c586/1378785984730/James_In_America_JJS_Transition.pdf","url_text":"\"C. L. R. James in America\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transition_(magazine)","url_text":"Transition"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161026223352/https://static1.squarespace.com/static/51d7149de4b01ae1310f405e/t/522e9ac0e4b0a584ece4c586/1378785984730/James_In_America_JJS_Transition.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Trotsky, Leon (1970). \"Self-Determination for the American Negroes\". International Socialism. 43 (April/May): 37–38. Archived from the original on 31 October 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.marxists.org/history/etol/newspape/isj/1970/no043/trotsky2.htm","url_text":"\"Self-Determination for the American Negroes\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201031235401/https://www.marxists.org/history/etol/newspape/isj/1970/no043/trotsky2.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"James, C. L. R. (1986). Paul Buhle (ed.). State Capitalism and World Revolution. Charles H. Kerr Publishing Company. p. xiii.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Works | AMERICA 1938-1953\". Every Cook Can Govern: Documenting the life, impact & works of CLR James. Archived from the original on 29 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.clrjames.uk/works/clr-james-full-bibliography/america-and-after-1938-1956/","url_text":"\"Works | AMERICA 1938-1953\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210629103855/https://www.clrjames.uk/works/clr-james-full-bibliography/america-and-after-1938-1956/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"The Legacy of CLR James - Red and Black Notes\". Red and Black Notes (15). Summer 2002. Archived from the original on 29 September 2022 – via libcom.org.","urls":[{"url":"https://libcom.org/article/legacy-clr-james-red-and-black-notes","url_text":"\"The Legacy of CLR James - Red and Black Notes\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220929142544/https://libcom.org/article/legacy-clr-james-red-and-black-notes","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"James, Dr Leslie (10 March 2022). \"Book extract: Leslie James introduces the new edition of Nkrumah and the Ghana Revolution by C. L. R. James\". LSE. Archived from the original on 22 May 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/lsereviewofbooks/2022/03/10/book-extract-leslie-james-introduces-the-new-edition-of-nkrumah-and-the-ghana-revolution-by-c-l-r-james/","url_text":"\"Book extract: Leslie James introduces the new edition of Nkrumah and the Ghana Revolution by C. L. R. James\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_School_of_Economics","url_text":"LSE"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220522072801/https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/lsereviewofbooks/2022/03/10/book-extract-leslie-james-introduces-the-new-edition-of-nkrumah-and-the-ghana-revolution-by-c-l-r-james/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Jakobsen, Jakob (2012). \"The Counter University\". London: Antihistory. Archived from the original on 6 February 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://antihistory.org/page/5","url_text":"\"The Counter University\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160206035833/http://antihistory.org/page/5","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"James gets unique honour\". BBC Caribbean. 9 October 2004. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/caribbean/news/story/2004/10/041009_james-plaque.shtml","url_text":"\"James gets unique honour\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220112201552/https://www.bbc.co.uk/caribbean/news/story/2004/10/041009_james-plaque.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Jackqueline Frost (31 May 2019). \"The Funeral of C.L.R. James\". Verso Blog. Archived from the original on 31 July 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.versobooks.com/en-gb/blogs/news/4333-the-funeral-of-c-l-r-james","url_text":"\"The Funeral of C.L.R. 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Archived from the original on 25 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/news/greater-manchester-news/campaign-launched-save-nello-james-8818838","url_text":"\"Campaign launched to save Nello James community centre in Whalley Range\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230125175805/https://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/news/greater-manchester-news/campaign-launched-save-nello-james-8818838","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Penumbra Productions\". BFI. Archived from the original on 11 April 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200411110828/https://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2b94fdb349","url_text":"\"Penumbra Productions\""},{"url":"https://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2b94fdb349","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"The C.L.R. James Institute\". Archived from the original on 26 February 2005.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20050226091025/http://www.clrjamesinstitute.org/","url_text":"\"The C.L.R. James Institute\""},{"url":"http://www.clrjamesinstitute.org/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Gelder, Sam (28 March 2018). \"Charlie Collins: Reggae pioneer and founder of Dalston's legendary Four Aces Club dies aged 81\". Hackney Gazette. Archived from the original on 18 January 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hackneygazette.co.uk/news/charlie-collins-reggae-pioneer-and-founder-of-dalston-s-legendary-3589042","url_text":"\"Charlie Collins: Reggae pioneer and founder of Dalston's legendary Four Aces Club dies aged 81\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hackney_Gazette","url_text":"Hackney Gazette"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210118170923/https://www.hackneygazette.co.uk/news/charlie-collins-reggae-pioneer-and-founder-of-dalston-s-legendary-3589042","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Bradshaw, Peter (25 September 2020). \"Mangrove review – Steve McQueen takes axe to racial prejudice\". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 1 January 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/film/2020/sep/25/mangrove-review-racial-prejudice-steve-mcqueen-small-axe","url_text":"\"Mangrove review – Steve McQueen takes axe to racial prejudice\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian","url_text":"The Guardian"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220101230751/https://www.theguardian.com/film/2020/sep/25/mangrove-review-racial-prejudice-steve-mcqueen-small-axe","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Elaine Hammond (20 March 2023). \"Blue plaque unveiled in Southwick to mark house where political activist C.L.R. James wrote his magnum opus, The Black Jacobins\". Sussex World. Archived from the original on 20 March 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sussexexpress.co.uk/heritage-and-retro/retro/blue-plaque-unveiled-in-southwick-to-mark-house-where-political-activist-clr-james-wrote-his-magnum-opus-the-black-jacobins-4071334","url_text":"\"Blue plaque unveiled in Southwick to mark house where political activist C.L.R. James wrote his magnum opus, The Black Jacobins\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230320134325/http://www.sussexexpress.co.uk/heritage-and-retro/retro/blue-plaque-unveiled-in-southwick-to-mark-house-where-political-activist-clr-james-wrote-his-magnum-opus-the-black-jacobins-4071334","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Luke Donnelly (23 March 2023). \"Blue plaque unveiled for revolutionary historian and journalist in Southwick\". Sussex Live. Archived from the original on 3 September 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sussexlive.co.uk/news/history/blue-plaque-unveiled-revolutionary-historian-8263397","url_text":"\"Blue plaque unveiled for revolutionary historian and journalist in Southwick\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230903211729/https://www.sussexlive.co.uk/news/history/blue-plaque-unveiled-revolutionary-historian-8263397","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Sir Frank Worrell and CLR James: Once in a blue moon\". UWI Today. University of the West Indies. September–October 2010. Archived from the original on 13 January 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://sta.uwi.edu/uwitoday/archive/september_2010/article17.asp","url_text":"\"Sir Frank Worrell and CLR James: Once in a blue moon\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_the_West_Indies","url_text":"University of the West Indies"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220113134742/https://sta.uwi.edu/uwitoday/archive/september_2010/article17.asp","url_text":"Archived"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_McKelvey
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Jim McKelvey
|
["1 Early life","2 Career","2.1 Mira","2.2 Third Degree Glass Factory","2.3 Block, Inc. (formerly known as Square, Inc.)","2.4 Invisibly","2.5 The Federal Reserve","2.6 Downtown North","3 Non-profit work","3.1 LaunchCode","4 Philanthropy","5 Works","6 References","7 External links"]
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American sculptor
Jim McKelveyBornJames Morgan McKelvey Jr.1965 or 1966 (age 58–59)St. Louis, Missouri, USAlma materWashington University in St. LouisOccupationDirector of Block, Inc.
James Morgan McKelvey Jr. (born 1965 or 1966) is an American billionaire businessman who co-founded Block, Inc. McKelvey was appointed as an independent director of the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis in January 2017. As of July 2023, his net worth was estimated at US$2 billion.
Early life
James Morgan McKelvey Jr. was born and raised in St. Louis, Missouri, and is an alumnus of Ladue Horton Watkins High School. He wrote and published a handbook on UCSD Pascal and Apple Pascal in 1986. After graduatng from Washington University in St. Louis, McKelvey worked as a contractor for IBM in Los Angeles and in St. Louis. At the same time, he worked as a glassblowing instructor and founded Disconcepts, a CD-cabinet manufacturer.
Career
Mira
In 1989, Jim McKelvey and a team of software engineers from Washington University, established Mira in St. Louis. Their inaugural product was partly developed by their summer intern Jack Dorsey, who would later rise to prominence as the co-founder of Twitter.
Third Degree Glass Factory
In 2000, after giving a glassblowing demonstration at WUSTL, McKelvey met Doug Auer. In 2002 they founded Third Degree Glass Factory in St. Louis, a glass art studio and gallery which also provides space for private events. He talks about this extensively.
Block, Inc. (formerly known as Square, Inc.)
In 2009, McKelvey co-founded Square with Jack Dorsey. Professor Robert Morley made valuable early contributions to the hardware used by Square in 2009. In 2011, the iconic card reader design was inducted into the Museum of Modern Art. McKelvey served as Square's chairman until 2010. as of July 2023, McKelvey sits on the Board of Directors at Block, Inc.
Invisibly
In June 2016, McKelvey founded Invisibly, a company seeking to allow consumers to profit from their online data.
The Federal Reserve
In 2017, McKelvey was appointed as an Independent Director of the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis. In January 2022, McKelvey was named as Chair.
Downtown North
Since 2019, McKelvey and business partner John Berglund as Starwood Group have been instrumental in building Downtown North, an Urban Insight District in St. Louis.
Non-profit work
LaunchCode
In September 2013, McKelvey co-founded LaunchCode, a non-profit organization that aims to grow new talent and create pathways to on-the-job training and employment. LaunchCode partners with companies to set up paid apprenticeships in technology for talented people who lack the traditional credentials to land a quality, high-paying job. In 2014, LaunchCode was named "The Best Thing to Happen to St. Louis" by the St. Louis Riverfront Times. In February 2019, LaunchCode received a $300,000 grant from the Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation to support education programming.
Philanthropy
In 2016, McKelvey donated $15 million to the Washington University School of Engineering and Applied Science to build a new computer science and engineering building named after his father. In 2019, Washington University's engineering school was renamed the McKelvey School of Engineering.
Works
McKelvey, Jim (2020). The Innovation Stack: Building an Unbeatable Business One Crazy Idea at a Time. Penguin Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-593-08674-2.
McKelvey, James (2006). The Art Of Fire: Beginning Glassblowing. Third Degree Glass Factory. ISBN 0978683102.
References
^ a b Meyerowitz, Robert (March 7, 2011). "Jim McKelvey Has Altered the Way Money Changes Hands. Now What?". St. Louis Magazine.
^
"St. Louis Fed Announces Changes to Board of Directors". stlouisfed.org. December 12, 2016. Retrieved August 15, 2017.
^ "Forbes profile: Jim McKelvey". Forbes. Retrieved July 27, 2023.
^
Dielman, Susan (June 24, 2012). ""Distinguished Ladue Alumni Chosen for 2012 Awards Presentation"". Patch.com. Retrieved October 31, 2016.
^ McKelvey, Jim (1986). The Debugger's Handbook=UCSD and Apple Pascal. Wadsworth Publishing. ISBN 978-0-534-06432-7.
^ a b Kerth, Susan (May 30, 2004). "Entrepreneur-artist Jim McKelvey bankrolls his glass studio with his business savvy". www.bizjournals.com. Retrieved July 12, 2019.
^ a b "About Us". Mira Smart Conferencing. Retrieved February 7, 2024.
^ Mannino, Fran (October 5, 2011). "Third Degree Glass Factory Celebrates 9 Years". Times Newspapers. Retrieved March 28, 2019.
^ Cudnik, Christian (December 20, 2008). "Glass blowing goes public at Third Degree". news.stlpublicradio.org. Retrieved March 28, 2019.
^ Woytus, Amanda (October 18, 2018). "Square's Jack Dorsey and Jim McKelvey announce new credit card technology, plan to hire for 300 jobs in St. Louis". St. Louis Magazine. Retrieved April 12, 2019.
^
Calhoun, Lisa (June 8, 2016). ""Why Square's Co-Founder Says Be Wary of Advice From Successful People"". inc.com. Retrieved November 2, 2016.
^ "Robert E. Morley, Jr". engineering.wustl.edu. Retrieved July 19, 2023.
^ "MoMA | Talk to Me | Square". www.moma.org. Retrieved July 19, 2023.
^ Pontin, Jason. "The New Money". Technology Review. MIT.
^ "Board of Directors". Block Inc. Retrieved March 9, 2022.
^ https://www.linkedin.com/in/mckelveyjim
^ "Client Partner (Sales)". boards.greenhouse.io. Archived from the original on November 4, 2021. Retrieved November 4, 2021.
^ Bhardwaj, Prachi. "How these 23 entrepreneurs became the lesser known co-founders of the biggest tech companies in the world". Business Insider. Retrieved September 25, 2019.
^ "Federal Reserve Board announces designation of the Chairs and Deputy Chairs of the 12 Federal Reserve Banks for 2022". Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. Retrieved July 19, 2023.
^ Lloyd, Tim (October 21, 2013). "Square founder hopes to turn St. Louis into the Silicon Prairie". Marketplace. Retrieved October 6, 2014.
^ "About - So What is LaunchCode?". LaunchCode. Retrieved October 6, 2014.
^ "Best Thing to Happen to St. Louis St. Louis 2014 - LaunchCode". Riverfront Times. Retrieved October 6, 2014.
^ Collins, Leslie (February 21, 2019). "Kauffman Foundation doubles down on LaunchCode's KC program". www.bizjournals.com. Retrieved September 25, 2019.
^
Ebsworth-Goold, Erika (October 28, 2016). ""New engineering building to be named for school's former dean"". The Source. Retrieved October 31, 2016.
^ "WashU announces donation from Square co-founder to grow engineering school". TechCrunch. January 31, 2019. Retrieved March 14, 2019.
^ Barker, Jacob (January 31, 2019). "Wash U renaming engineering school after Square co-founder Jim McKelvey". stltoday.com. Retrieved March 14, 2019.
^ Fenske, Sarah (March 27, 2020). "Square's Jim McKelvey Explains How To Build A Business, 'One Crazy Idea At A Time'". St. Louis Public Radio. Retrieved May 2, 2020.
^ Woytus, Amanda (March 9, 2020). "Square co-founder Jim McKelvey details how he changed the payment game and beat Amazon in a new book". St. Louis Magazine. Retrieved May 2, 2020.
^ "Book Review - The Art of Fire - Beginning Glassblowing". Glassblowing.info. June 16, 2009. Retrieved July 16, 2021.
External links
Official website
Jim McKelvey on X
Appearances on C-SPAN
vteBlock, Inc.Subsidiaries
Afterpay
Cash App
Square
Tidal
Weebly
Executives
Jack Dorsey (CEO)
Jim McKelvey (Director)
Amrita Ahuja (CFO)
Authority control databases International
FAST
ISNI
VIAF
National
United States
Other
SNAC
|
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Retrieved March 14, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.stltoday.com/business/local/wash-u-renaming-engineering-school-after-square-co-founder-jim/article_8f402169-9ffe-5c3f-8244-77d285986147.html","url_text":"\"Wash U renaming engineering school after Square co-founder Jim McKelvey\""}]},{"reference":"Fenske, Sarah (March 27, 2020). \"Square's Jim McKelvey Explains How To Build A Business, 'One Crazy Idea At A Time'\". St. Louis Public Radio. Retrieved May 2, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.stlpublicradio.org/post/squares-jim-mckelvey-explains-how-build-business-one-crazy-idea-time","url_text":"\"Square's Jim McKelvey Explains How To Build A Business, 'One Crazy Idea At A Time'\""}]},{"reference":"Woytus, Amanda (March 9, 2020). \"Square co-founder Jim McKelvey details how he changed the payment game and beat Amazon in a new book\". St. Louis Magazine. Retrieved May 2, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.stlmag.com/api/content/cc440af0-6241-11ea-8c0f-1244d5f7c7c6/","url_text":"\"Square co-founder Jim McKelvey details how he changed the payment game and beat Amazon in a new book\""}]},{"reference":"\"Book Review - The Art of Fire - Beginning Glassblowing\". Glassblowing.info. June 16, 2009. Retrieved July 16, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.glassblower.info/the-art-of-fire-beginning-glassblowing-book.html","url_text":"\"Book Review - The Art of Fire - Beginning Glassblowing\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragoljub_Mi%C4%87unovi%C4%87
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Dragoljub Mićunović
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["1 Early life","2 Political career","3 References","4 External links"]
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Serbian politician and philosopher
Dragoljub MićunovićДрагољуб МићуновићMićunović in 2015President of the Chamber of Citizensof the Federal Assembly of YugoslaviaIn office3 November 2000 – 3 March 2003Preceded byMilomir MinićSucceeded byPosition abolishedPresident of the Assembly of Serbia and MontenegroIn office3 March 2003 – 4 March 2004Preceded byPosition establishedSucceeded byZoran ŠamiPresident of the Democratic PartyIn office3 February 1990 – 25 January 1994Preceded byPosition establishedSucceeded byZoran Đinđić
Personal detailsBorn (1930-07-14) 14 July 1930 (age 93)Merdare, Vardar Banovina, Kingdom of YugoslaviaNationalitySerbianPolitical partySKJ (1948–1970)DS (1990–1996, 2004–present)DC (1996–2004)Alma materUniversity of BelgradeOccupationPoliticianphilosopher
Dragoljub Mićunović (Serbian Cyrillic: Драгољуб Мићуновић Serbo-Croatian pronunciation: ; born 14 July 1930) is a Serbian politician and philosopher. As one of the founders of the Democratic Party, he served as its leader from 1990 to 1994, and as the president of the parliament of Serbia and Montenegro from 2000 to 2004.
Early life
Mićunović was born on 14 July 1930 in Merdare, Kingdom of Yugoslavia. He spent his childhood in Skopje where his father Mile worked as a civil servant. Following the annexation of parts of Yugoslavia by the Italian puppet Albanian Kingdom and Axis Kingdom of Bulgaria, he sought refuge in the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia. After World War II, he resumed high school in Kuršumlija and Prokuplje. Mićunović was then sentenced to 20 months of forced labour at Goli Otok island by the Yugoslav authorities for ideological inclinations towards the Soviet Union.
After his release, he became an assistant at the University of Belgrade Faculty of Philosophy. He was part of the Marxist humanist Praxis School, and in 1975 he was expelled from the faculty, together with seven other colleagues.
Political career
Mićunović was one of the members of the Founding Committee of the Democratic Party in December 1989 who began the process of re-establishing the Democratic Party (DS). He was elected the first President of the re-established Democratic Party at the founding party conference on February 3, 1990.
At the first multi-party elections in Serbia in 1990, he was elected a Member of Parliament of Serbia on behalf of the Democratic Party. As a Member of Parliament on the state level, he was elected a delegate to the Chamber of the Republics and Provinces (upper chamber) of the Assembly of Yugoslavia in the period 1991–1992. At the Federal elections in 1992, Mićunović was elected a Member of the Federal Assembly as a representative of the Democratic Party. As a member of the opposition coalition “Zajedno”, he was re-elected a Member of Federal Assembly in the Chamber of Citizens (lower chamber) in 1996.
He remained the party's president until 1994, when he was squeezed out from the top spot by Zoran Đinđić. Mićunović resigned and with a group of prominent intellectuals, founded the Center for Democracy Fund, a non-governmental organization for the development of civil society and the non-governmental sector, civil education and preparation of political and social reforms.
In 1996, Dragoljub Mićunović founded a new political party, Democratic Centre, of which he was elected president.
At the federal elections in 2000, as one of the leaders of the Democratic Opposition of Serbia (DOS) coalition, Mićunović was again elected a Member of Parliament in the Chamber of Citizens of the Federal Assembly. After the victory of the Democratic Opposition of Serbia in October 2000, he was elected President of the Chamber of Citizens of the Federal Assembly on November 3, 2000. When the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro was established, in March 2003, Dragoljub Mićunović was elected President of the Parliament of Serbia and Montenegro on March 3 that year. He held this position to March 3, 2004.
Mićunović was a candidate at the 2003 Serbian presidential election, winning 35.42% of the popular vote, but the election was canceled due to low turnout (the turnout was 38.8%, considerably less than the 50% of eligible voters threshold required by Serbian law).
Dragoljub Mićunović's Democratic Centre party merged into the Democratic Party in 2004, and he was one of the leading candidates on the Democratic Party list in the Serbian Parliamentary elections held on January 21, 2007.
Dragoljub Mićunović is the winner of the first award for tolerance awarded by the Ministry for Human Rights, OSCE, and B92 TV and radio station. For his contribution to the admission of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia to the Council of Europe he was presented an award by the European Movement in Serbia. In 2001 he was awarded by the Slovakian Ministry of Foreign Affairs for "active contribution to the work of the Community for democratic change in Yugoslavia which assembled representatives of different political parties, civil society and international organizations". In 2017, Dragoljub Mićunović signed the Declaration on the Common Language of the Croats, Serbs, Bosniaks and Montenegrins. In January 2020, he stated his opposition to the boycott of the 2020 parliamentary election.
References
^ "Dragoljub Mićunović: Demokrata". Danas (in Serbian). 16 July 2020. Archived from the original on 2020-07-17. Retrieved 2021-10-21.
^ a b c d e f g h i "Dragoljub Mićunović". ds.org.rs. Demokratska Stranka Srbija.
^ a b c d Mikuš, Marek (2018). Frontiers of Civil Society: Government and Hegemony in Serbia. Berghahn Books. p. 30. ISBN 978-1-78533-891-5.
^ Secor, Laura (14 June 2018). "Testaments Betrayed". Jacobin magazine.
^ a b c Ninoslav Kopač (2012). Svjedok histerije. Zagreb: Serb Democratic Forum. p. 34. ISBN 978-953-57313-2-0.
^ Signatories of the Declaration on the Common Language, official website, retrieved on 2018-08-16.
^ "Mićunović: Bojkot izbora je besmislen". B92.net (in Serbian). Retrieved 2021-10-21.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dragoljub Mićunović.
Interview with Mr. Mićunović in English
Memoirs of Mićunović (in Serbian)
Party political offices
Preceded byPost established
President of the Democratic Party 1990–1994
Succeeded byZoran Đinđić
vteDemocratic PartyLeadershipPresidents
Mićunović (1990–1994)
Đinđić (1994–2003)
Živković (2003–2004)
Tadić (2004–2012)
Đilas (2012–2014)
Pajtić (2014–2016)
Šutanovac (2016–2018)
Lutovac (2018–present)
Current vice presidents
Gavrilović
Jovančićević
Mitrović
Rakić (deputy president)
Ideology and position
Ideology and platform
Social democracy
Centre-left
International cooperation
History
Formation
1990–1993
1994–2000
2001–2004
2005–2012
2013–2017
2018–present
Italic denotes acting president
vteInformbiro PeriodGoli Otok prisonYugoslav leadership
Josip Broz Tito
Aleksandar Ranković
Killed
Andrija Hebrang
Arso Jovanović
Koçi Xoxe
Imprisoned
Panko Brashnarov
Vlado Dapčević
Miljuša Jovanović
Dragoljub Mićunović
Dragoslav Mihailović
Đuro Špoljarić
Rade Žigić
Sreten Žujović
Authority control databases International
FAST
ISNI
VIAF
WorldCat
National
France
BnF data
Germany
United States
Czech Republic
Netherlands
Other
IdRef
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Serbian Cyrillic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbian_Cyrillic_alphabet"},{"link_name":"[ˈdrǎɡɔʎub miˈt͜ɕǔːnɔʋit͜ɕ]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Serbo-Croatian"},{"link_name":"Democratic Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Party_(Serbia)"},{"link_name":"parliament of Serbia and Montenegro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_Serbia_and_Montenegro"}],"text":"Dragoljub Mićunović (Serbian Cyrillic: Драгољуб Мићуновић Serbo-Croatian pronunciation: [ˈdrǎɡɔʎub miˈt͜ɕǔːnɔʋit͜ɕ]; born 14 July 1930) is a Serbian politician and philosopher. As one of the founders of the Democratic Party, he served as its leader from 1990 to 1994, and as the president of the parliament of Serbia and Montenegro from 2000 to 2004.","title":"Dragoljub Mićunović"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Merdare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merdare"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Yugoslavia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Skopje","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skopje"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ds-2"},{"link_name":"Italian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"puppet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puppet_state"},{"link_name":"Albanian Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albanian_Kingdom_(1939%E2%80%9343)"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Bulgaria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bulgaria"},{"link_name":"Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Territory_of_the_Military_Commander_in_Serbia"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Kuršumlija","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kur%C5%A1umlija"},{"link_name":"Prokuplje","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prokuplje"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ds-2"},{"link_name":"Goli Otok","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goli_Otok"},{"link_name":"Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Miku%C5%A1-3"},{"link_name":"University of Belgrade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Belgrade"},{"link_name":"Faculty of Philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Belgrade_Faculty_of_Philosophy"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ds-2"},{"link_name":"Marxist humanist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxist_humanist"},{"link_name":"Praxis School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praxis_School"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Mićunović was born on 14 July 1930 in Merdare, Kingdom of Yugoslavia.[1] He spent his childhood in Skopje where his father Mile worked as a civil servant.[2] Following the annexation of parts of Yugoslavia by the Italian puppet Albanian Kingdom and Axis Kingdom of Bulgaria, he sought refuge in the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia. After World War II, he resumed high school in Kuršumlija and Prokuplje.[2] Mićunović was then sentenced to 20 months of forced labour at Goli Otok island by the Yugoslav authorities for ideological inclinations towards the Soviet Union.[3]After his release, he became an assistant at the University of Belgrade Faculty of Philosophy.[2] He was part of the Marxist humanist Praxis School, and in 1975 he was expelled from the faculty, together with seven other colleagues.[4]","title":"Early life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"the Founding Committee of the Democratic Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Founding_Committee_of_the_Democratic_Party"},{"link_name":"Democratic Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Party_(Serbia)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Svjedok_histerije-5"},{"link_name":"Parliament of Serbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_Serbia"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ds-2"},{"link_name":"Assembly of Yugoslavia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly_of_the_Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ds-2"},{"link_name":"Federal elections in 1992","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_1992_Yugoslav_parliamentary_election"},{"link_name":"Federal Assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Assembly_of_the_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ds-2"},{"link_name":"Zoran Đinđić","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoran_%C4%90in%C4%91i%C4%87"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Miku%C5%A1-3"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ds-2"},{"link_name":"Democratic Centre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Centre_(Serbia)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Miku%C5%A1-3"},{"link_name":"Democratic Opposition of Serbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Opposition_of_Serbia"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ds-2"},{"link_name":"Serbia and Montenegro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbia_and_Montenegro"},{"link_name":"Parliament of Serbia and Montenegro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_Serbia_and_Montenegro"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Svjedok_histerije-5"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Svjedok_histerije-5"},{"link_name":"2003 Serbian presidential election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003_Serbian_presidential_election"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Miku%C5%A1-3"},{"link_name":"Serbian Parliamentary elections","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007_Serbian_parliamentary_election"},{"link_name":"OSCE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe"},{"link_name":"B92","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B92"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ds-2"},{"link_name":"Federal Republic of Yugoslavia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia"},{"link_name":"Council of Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Europe"},{"link_name":"Slovakian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovakia"},{"link_name":"Declaration on the Common Language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declaration_on_the_Common_Language"},{"link_name":"Croats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croats"},{"link_name":"Serbs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbs"},{"link_name":"Bosniaks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosniaks"},{"link_name":"Montenegrins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montenegrins"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"2020 parliamentary election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Serbian_parliamentary_election"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"Mićunović was one of the members of the Founding Committee of the Democratic Party in December 1989 who began the process of re-establishing the Democratic Party (DS). He was elected the first President of the re-established Democratic Party at the founding party conference on February 3, 1990.[5]At the first multi-party elections in Serbia in 1990, he was elected a Member of Parliament of Serbia on behalf of the Democratic Party.[2] As a Member of Parliament on the state level, he was elected a delegate to the Chamber of the Republics and Provinces (upper chamber) of the Assembly of Yugoslavia in the period 1991–1992.[2] At the Federal elections in 1992, Mićunović was elected a Member of the Federal Assembly as a representative of the Democratic Party. As a member of the opposition coalition “Zajedno”, he was re-elected a Member of Federal Assembly in the Chamber of Citizens (lower chamber) in 1996.[2]He remained the party's president until 1994, when he was squeezed out from the top spot by Zoran Đinđić.[3] Mićunović resigned and with a group of prominent intellectuals, founded the Center for Democracy Fund, a non-governmental organization for the development of civil society and the non-governmental sector, civil education and preparation of political and social reforms.[2]In 1996, Dragoljub Mićunović founded a new political party, Democratic Centre, of which he was elected president.[3]At the federal elections in 2000, as one of the leaders of the Democratic Opposition of Serbia (DOS) coalition, Mićunović was again elected a Member of Parliament in the Chamber of Citizens of the Federal Assembly. After the victory of the Democratic Opposition of Serbia in October 2000, he was elected President of the Chamber of Citizens of the Federal Assembly on November 3, 2000.[2] When the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro was established, in March 2003, Dragoljub Mićunović was elected President of the Parliament of Serbia and Montenegro on March 3 that year.[5] He held this position to March 3, 2004.[5]Mićunović was a candidate at the 2003 Serbian presidential election, winning 35.42% of the popular vote, but the election was canceled due to low turnout (the turnout was 38.8%, considerably less than the 50% of eligible voters threshold required by Serbian law).Dragoljub Mićunović's Democratic Centre party merged into the Democratic Party in 2004,[3] and he was one of the leading candidates on the Democratic Party list in the Serbian Parliamentary elections held on January 21, 2007.Dragoljub Mićunović is the winner of the first award for tolerance awarded by the Ministry for Human Rights, OSCE, and B92 TV and radio station.[2] For his contribution to the admission of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia to the Council of Europe he was presented an award by the European Movement in Serbia. In 2001 he was awarded by the Slovakian Ministry of Foreign Affairs for \"active contribution to the work of the Community for democratic change in Yugoslavia which assembled representatives of different political parties, civil society and international organizations\". In 2017, Dragoljub Mićunović signed the Declaration on the Common Language of the Croats, Serbs, Bosniaks and Montenegrins.[6] In January 2020, he stated his opposition to the boycott of the 2020 parliamentary election.[7]","title":"Political career"}]
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[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sides_of_an_equation
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Sides of an equation
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["1 Example","2 Homogeneous and inhomogeneous equations","3 Syntax","4 See also","5 References"]
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Mathematical nomenclature
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Sides of an equation" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
In mathematics, LHS is informal shorthand for the left-hand side of an equation. Similarly, RHS is the right-hand side. The two sides have the same value, expressed differently, since equality is symmetric.
More generally, these terms may apply to an inequation or inequality; the right-hand side is everything on the right side of a test operator in an expression, with LHS defined similarly.
Example
The expression on the right side of the "=" sign is the right side of the equation and the expression on the left of the "=" is the left side of the equation.
For example, in
x
+
5
=
y
+
8
{\displaystyle x+5=y+8}
x + 5 is the left-hand side (LHS) and y + 8 is the right-hand side (RHS).
Homogeneous and inhomogeneous equations
In solving mathematical equations, particularly linear simultaneous equations, differential equations and integral equations, the terminology homogeneous is often used for equations with some linear operator L on the LHS and 0 on the RHS. In contrast, an equation with a non-zero RHS is called inhomogeneous or non-homogeneous, as exemplified by
Lf = g,
with g a fixed function, which equation is to be solved for f. Then any solution of the inhomogeneous equation may have a solution of the homogeneous equation added to it, and still remain a solution.
For example in mathematical physics, the homogeneous equation may correspond to a physical theory formulated in empty space, while the inhomogeneous equation asks for more 'realistic' solutions with some matter, or charged particles.
Syntax
More abstractly, when using infix notation
T * U
the term T stands as the left-hand side and U as the right-hand side of the operator *. This usage is less common, though.
See also
Equals sign
References
^ Engineering Mathematics, John Bird, p65: definition and example of abbreviation
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[]
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[{"title":"Equals sign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equals_sign"}]
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[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relevance_feedback
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Relevance feedback
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["1 Explicit feedback","2 Implicit feedback","3 Pseudo relevance feedback","4 Using relevance information","5 References","6 Further reading"]
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Relevance feedback is a feature of some information retrieval systems. The idea behind relevance feedback is to take the results that are initially returned from a given query, to gather user feedback, and to use information about whether or not those results are relevant to perform a new query. We can usefully distinguish between three types of feedback: explicit feedback, implicit feedback, and blind or "pseudo" feedback.
Explicit feedback
Explicit feedback is obtained from assessors of relevance indicating the relevance of a document retrieved for a query. This type of feedback is defined as explicit only when the assessors (or other users of a system) know that the feedback provided is interpreted as relevance judgments.
Users may indicate relevance explicitly using a binary or graded relevance system. Binary relevance feedback indicates that a document is either relevant or irrelevant for a given query. Graded relevance feedback indicates the relevance of a document to a query on a scale using numbers, letters, or descriptions (such as "not relevant", "somewhat relevant", "relevant", or "very relevant"). Graded relevance may also take the form of a cardinal ordering of documents created by an assessor; that is, the assessor places documents of a result set in order of (usually descending) relevance. An example of this would be the SearchWiki feature implemented by Google on their search website.
The relevance feedback information needs to be interpolated with the original query to improve retrieval performance, such as the well-known Rocchio algorithm.
A performance metric which became popular around 2005 to measure the usefulness of a ranking algorithm based on the explicit relevance feedback is normalized discounted cumulative gain. Other measures include precision at k and mean average precision.
Implicit feedback
Implicit feedback is inferred from user behavior, such as noting which documents they do and do not select for viewing, the duration of time spent viewing a document, or page browsing or scrolling actions. There are many signals during the search process that one can use for implicit feedback and the types of information to provide in response.
The key differences of implicit relevance feedback from that of explicit include:
The user is not assessing relevance for the benefit of the IR system, but only satisfying their own needs and
The user is not necessarily informed that their behavior (selected documents) will be used as relevance feedback
An example of this is dwell time, which is a measure of how long a user spends viewing the page linked to in a search result. It is an indicator of how well the search result met the query intent of the user, and is used as a feedback mechanism to improve search results.
Pseudo relevance feedback
Pseudo relevance feedback, also known as blind relevance feedback, provides a method for automatic local analysis. It automates the manual part of relevance feedback, so that the user gets improved retrieval performance without an extended interaction. The method is to do normal retrieval to find an initial set of most relevant documents, to then assume that the top "k" ranked documents are relevant, and finally to do relevance feedback as before under this assumption. The procedure is:
Take the results returned by initial query as relevant results (only top k with k being between 10 and 50 in most experiments).
Select top 20-30 (indicative number) terms from these documents using for instance tf-idf weights.
Do Query Expansion, add these terms to query, and then match the returned documents for this query and finally return the most relevant documents.
Some experiments such as results from the Cornell SMART system published in (Buckley et al.1995), show improvement of retrieval systems performances using pseudo-relevance feedback in the context of TREC 4 experiments.
This automatic technique mostly works. Evidence suggests that it tends to work better than global analysis. Through a query expansion, some relevant documents missed in the initial round can then be retrieved to improve the overall performance. Clearly, the effect of this method strongly relies on the quality of selected expansion terms. It has been found to improve performance in the TREC ad hoc task . But it is not without the dangers of an automatic process. For example, if the query is about copper mines and the top several documents are all about mines in Chile, then there may be query drift in the direction of documents on Chile. In addition, if the words added to the original query are unrelated to the query topic, the quality of the retrieval is likely to be degraded, especially in Web search, where web documents often cover multiple different topics. To improve the quality of expansion words in pseudo-relevance feedback, a positional relevance feedback for pseudo-relevance feedback has been proposed to select from feedback documents those words that are focused on the query topic based on positions of words in feedback documents. Specifically, the positional relevance model assigns more weights to words occurring closer to query words based on the intuition that words closer to query words are more likely to be related to the query topic.
Blind feedback automates the manual part of relevance feedback and has the advantage that assessors are not required.
Using relevance information
Relevance information is utilized by using the contents of the relevant documents to either adjust the weights of terms in the original query, or by using those contents to add words to the query. Relevance feedback is often implemented using the Rocchio algorithm.
References
^ "Archived copy" (PDF). www.scils.rutgers.edu. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 March 2004. Retrieved 12 January 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
^ Jansen, B. J. and McNeese, M. D. 2005. Evaluating the effectiveness of and patterns of interactions with automated assistance in IR systems. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology. 56(14), 1480-1503
^ Kelly, Diane, and Jaime Teevan. "Implicit feedback for inferring user preference: a bibliography." ACM SIGIR Forum. Vol. 37. No. 2. ACM, 2003.
^ "Archived copy" (PDF). haystack.lcs.mit.edu. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 June 2007. Retrieved 12 January 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
^ Jinxi Xu and W. Bruce Croft, Query expansion using local and global document analysis, in Proceedings of the 19th annual international ACM SIGIR conference on Research and development in information retrieval (SIGIR), 1996.
^ Yuanhua Lv and ChengXiang Zhai, Positional relevance model for pseudo-relevance feedback, in Proceedings of the 33rd international ACM SIGIR conference on Research and development in information retrieval (SIGIR), 2010.
Further reading
Relevance feedback lecture notes - Jimmy Lin's lecture notes, adapted from Doug Oard's
- chapter from Modern Information Retrieval
Stefan Büttcher, Charles L. A. Clarke, and Gordon V. Cormack. Information Retrieval: Implementing and Evaluating Search Engines Archived 2020-10-05 at the Wayback Machine. MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 2010.
|
[{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Relevance feedback"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"relevance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relevance_(information_retrieval)"},{"link_name":"SearchWiki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SearchWiki"},{"link_name":"Google","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google"},{"link_name":"Rocchio algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocchio_algorithm"},{"link_name":"performance metric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figure_of_merit"},{"link_name":"algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm"},{"link_name":"normalized discounted cumulative gain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discounted_cumulative_gain#Normalized_DCG"},{"link_name":"precision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precision_(information_retrieval)"},{"link_name":"mean average precision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean_average_precision#Mean_average_precision"}],"text":"Explicit feedback is obtained from assessors of relevance indicating the relevance of a document retrieved for a query. This type of feedback is defined as explicit only when the assessors (or other users of a system) know that the feedback provided is interpreted as relevance judgments.Users may indicate relevance explicitly using a binary or graded relevance system. Binary relevance feedback indicates that a document is either relevant or irrelevant for a given query. Graded relevance feedback indicates the relevance of a document to a query on a scale using numbers, letters, or descriptions (such as \"not relevant\", \"somewhat relevant\", \"relevant\", or \"very relevant\"). Graded relevance may also take the form of a cardinal ordering of documents created by an assessor; that is, the assessor places documents of a result set in order of (usually descending) relevance. An example of this would be the SearchWiki feature implemented by Google on their search website.The relevance feedback information needs to be interpolated with the original query to improve retrieval performance, such as the well-known Rocchio algorithm.A performance metric which became popular around 2005 to measure the usefulness of a ranking algorithm based on the explicit relevance feedback is normalized discounted cumulative gain. Other measures include precision at k and mean average precision.","title":"Explicit feedback"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"dwell time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwell_time_(information_retrieval)"}],"text":"Implicit feedback is inferred from user behavior, such as noting which documents they do and do not select for viewing, the duration of time spent viewing a document, or page browsing or scrolling actions.[1] There are many signals during the search process that one can use for implicit feedback and the types of information to provide in response.[2][3]The key differences of implicit relevance feedback from that of explicit include:[4]The user is not assessing relevance for the benefit of the IR system, but only satisfying their own needs and\nThe user is not necessarily informed that their behavior (selected documents) will be used as relevance feedbackAn example of this is dwell time, which is a measure of how long a user spends viewing the page linked to in a search result. It is an indicator of how well the search result met the query intent of the user, and is used as a feedback mechanism to improve search results.","title":"Implicit feedback"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"tf-idf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tf-idf"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Pseudo relevance feedback, also known as blind relevance feedback, provides a method for automatic local analysis. It automates the manual part of relevance feedback, so that the user gets improved retrieval performance without an extended interaction. The method is to do normal retrieval to find an initial set of most relevant documents, to then assume that the top \"k\" ranked documents are relevant, and finally to do relevance feedback as before under this assumption. The procedure is:Take the results returned by initial query as relevant results (only top k with k being between 10 and 50 in most experiments).\nSelect top 20-30 (indicative number) terms from these documents using for instance tf-idf weights.\nDo Query Expansion, add these terms to query, and then match the returned documents for this query and finally return the most relevant documents.Some experiments such as results from the Cornell SMART system published in (Buckley et al.1995), show improvement of retrieval systems performances using pseudo-relevance feedback in the context of TREC 4 experiments.This automatic technique mostly works. Evidence suggests that it tends to work better than global analysis.[5] Through a query expansion, some relevant documents missed in the initial round can then be retrieved to improve the overall performance. Clearly, the effect of this method strongly relies on the quality of selected expansion terms. It has been found to improve performance in the TREC ad hoc task [citation needed]. But it is not without the dangers of an automatic process. For example, if the query is about copper mines and the top several documents are all about mines in Chile, then there may be query drift in the direction of documents on Chile. In addition, if the words added to the original query are unrelated to the query topic, the quality of the retrieval is likely to be degraded, especially in Web search, where web documents often cover multiple different topics. To improve the quality of expansion words in pseudo-relevance feedback, a positional relevance feedback for pseudo-relevance feedback has been proposed to select from feedback documents those words that are focused on the query topic based on positions of words in feedback documents.[6] Specifically, the positional relevance model assigns more weights to words occurring closer to query words based on the intuition that words closer to query words are more likely to be related to the query topic.Blind feedback automates the manual part of relevance feedback and has the advantage that assessors are not required.","title":"Pseudo relevance feedback"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rocchio algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocchio_algorithm"}],"text":"Relevance information is utilized by using the contents of the relevant documents to either adjust the weights of terms in the original query, or by using those contents to add words to the query. Relevance feedback is often implemented using the Rocchio algorithm.","title":"Using relevance information"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Relevance feedback lecture notes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20070315214204/http://www.umiacs.umd.edu/~jimmylin/LBSC796-INFM718R-2006-Spring/lecture7.ppt"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.ischool.berkeley.edu/~hearst/irbook/chapters/chap10.html"},{"link_name":"Information Retrieval: Implementing and Evaluating Search Engines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.ir.uwaterloo.ca/book/"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20201005195805/http://www.ir.uwaterloo.ca/book/"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"}],"text":"Relevance feedback lecture notes - Jimmy Lin's lecture notes, adapted from Doug Oard's\n[1] - chapter from Modern Information Retrieval\nStefan Büttcher, Charles L. A. Clarke, and Gordon V. Cormack. Information Retrieval: Implementing and Evaluating Search Engines Archived 2020-10-05 at the Wayback Machine. MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 2010.","title":"Further reading"}]
|
[]
| null |
[{"reference":"\"Archived copy\" (PDF). www.scils.rutgers.edu. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 March 2004. Retrieved 12 January 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20040316204714/http://www.scils.rutgers.edu/etc/mongrel/kelly-belkin-SIGIR2001.pdf","url_text":"\"Archived copy\""},{"url":"http://www.scils.rutgers.edu/etc/mongrel/kelly-belkin-SIGIR2001.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Archived copy\" (PDF). haystack.lcs.mit.edu. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 June 2007. Retrieved 12 January 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070611121933/http://haystack.lcs.mit.edu/papers/kelly.sigirforum03.pdf","url_text":"\"Archived copy\""},{"url":"http://haystack.lcs.mit.edu/papers/kelly.sigirforum03.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20040316204714/http://www.scils.rutgers.edu/etc/mongrel/kelly-belkin-SIGIR2001.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Archived copy\""},{"Link":"http://www.scils.rutgers.edu/etc/mongrel/kelly-belkin-SIGIR2001.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://faculty.ist.psu.edu/jjansen/academic/pubs/jansen_assistance_jasist2005.pdf","external_links_name":"Evaluating the effectiveness of and patterns of interactions with automated assistance in IR systems"},{"Link":"http://vladoyak.aspone.cz/articles/Kelly%20-%20Introduction%20Implicit%20Feedback%20for%20Inferring%20User%20Preference.pdf","external_links_name":"Implicit feedback for inferring user preference: a bibliography"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070611121933/http://haystack.lcs.mit.edu/papers/kelly.sigirforum03.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Archived copy\""},{"Link":"http://haystack.lcs.mit.edu/papers/kelly.sigirforum03.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=243202","external_links_name":"Query expansion using local and global document analysis"},{"Link":"http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1835546","external_links_name":"Positional relevance model for pseudo-relevance feedback"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070315214204/http://www.umiacs.umd.edu/~jimmylin/LBSC796-INFM718R-2006-Spring/lecture7.ppt","external_links_name":"Relevance feedback lecture notes"},{"Link":"http://www.ischool.berkeley.edu/~hearst/irbook/chapters/chap10.html","external_links_name":"[1]"},{"Link":"http://www.ir.uwaterloo.ca/book/","external_links_name":"Information Retrieval: Implementing and Evaluating Search Engines"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201005195805/http://www.ir.uwaterloo.ca/book/","external_links_name":"Archived"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterodyne
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Heterodyne
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["1 History","1.1 Superheterodyne receiver","2 Applications","2.1 Up and down converters","2.2 Analog videotape recording","2.3 Music synthesis","2.4 Optical heterodyning","3 Mathematical principle","3.1 Mixer","3.2 Output of a mixer","4 See also","5 References","5.1 Citations","5.2 General and cited references","6 Further reading"]
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Signal processing technique
This article is about waveform manipulation. For other uses, see Heterodyne (disambiguation).
Frequency mixer symbol used in schematic diagrams
A heterodyne is a signal frequency that is created by combining or mixing two other frequencies using a signal processing technique called heterodyning, which was invented by Canadian inventor-engineer Reginald Fessenden. Heterodyning is used to shift signals from one frequency range into another, and is also involved in the processes of modulation and demodulation. The two input frequencies are combined in a nonlinear signal-processing device such as a vacuum tube, transistor, or diode, usually called a mixer.
In the most common application, two signals at frequencies f1 and f2 are mixed, creating two new signals, one at the sum of the two frequencies f1 + f2, and the other at the difference between the two frequencies f1 − f2. The new signal frequencies are called heterodynes. Typically, only one of the heterodynes is required and the other signal is filtered out of the output of the mixer. Heterodyne frequencies are related to the phenomenon of "beats" in acoustics.
A major application of the heterodyne process is in the superheterodyne radio receiver circuit, which is used in virtually all modern radio receivers.
History
Fessenden's heterodyne radio receiver circuit. The incoming radio frequency and local oscillator frequency mix in the crystal diode detector.
In 1901, Reginald Fessenden demonstrated a direct-conversion heterodyne receiver or beat receiver as a method of making continuous wave radiotelegraphy signals audible. Fessenden's receiver did not see much application because of its local oscillator's stability problem. A stable yet inexpensive local oscillator was not available until Lee de Forest invented the triode vacuum tube oscillator. In a 1905 patent, Fessenden stated that the frequency stability of his local oscillator was one part per thousand.
In radio telegraphy, the characters of text messages are translated into the short duration dots and long duration dashes of Morse code that are broadcast as radio signals. Radio telegraphy was much like ordinary telegraphy. One of the problems was building high power transmitters with the technology of the day. Early transmitters were spark gap transmitters. A mechanical device would make sparks at a fixed but audible rate; the sparks would put energy into a resonant circuit that would then ring at the desired transmission frequency (which might be 100 kHz). This ringing would quickly decay, so the output of the transmitter would be a succession of damped waves. When these damped waves were received by a simple detector, the operator would hear an audible buzzing sound that could be transcribed back into alpha-numeric characters.
With the development of the arc converter radio transmitter in 1904, continuous wave (CW) modulation began to be used for radiotelegraphy. CW Morse code signals are not amplitude modulated, but rather consist of bursts of sinusoidal carrier frequency. When CW signals are received by an AM receiver, the operator does not hear a sound. The direct-conversion (heterodyne) detector was invented to make continuous wave radio-frequency signals audible.
The "heterodyne" or "beat" receiver has a local oscillator that produces a radio signal adjusted to be close in frequency to the incoming signal being received. When the two signals are mixed, a "beat" frequency equal to the difference between the two frequencies is created. Adjusting the local oscillator frequency correctly puts the beat frequency in the audio range, where it can be heard as a tone in the receiver's earphones whenever the transmitter signal is present. Thus the Morse code "dots" and "dashes" are audible as beeping sounds. This technique is still used in radio telegraphy, the local oscillator now being called the beat frequency oscillator or BFO. Fessenden coined the word heterodyne from the Greek roots hetero- "different", and dyn- "power" (cf. δύναμις or dunamis).
Superheterodyne receiver
Block diagram of a typical superheterodyne receiver. Red parts are those that handle the incoming radio frequency (RF) signal; green are parts that operate at the intermediate frequency (IF), while blue parts operate at the modulation (audio) frequency.
An important and widely used application of the heterodyne technique is in the superheterodyne receiver (superhet). In the typical superhet, the incoming radio frequency signal from the antenna is mixed (heterodyned) with a signal from a local oscillator (LO) to produce a lower fixed frequency signal called the intermediate frequency (IF) signal. The IF signal is amplified and filtered and then applied to a detector that extracts the audio signal; the audio is ultimately sent to the receiver's loudspeaker.
The superheterodyne receiver has several advantages over previous receiver designs. One advantage is easier tuning; only the RF filter and the LO are tuned by the operator; the fixed-frequency IF is tuned ("aligned") at the factory and is not adjusted. In older designs such as the tuned radio frequency receiver (TRF), all of the receiver stages had to be simultaneously tuned. In addition, since the IF filters are fixed-tuned, the receiver's selectivity is the same across the receiver's entire frequency band. Another advantage is that the IF signal can be at a much lower frequency than the incoming radio signal, and that allows each stage of the IF amplifier to provide more gain. To first order, an amplifying device has a fixed gain-bandwidth product. If the device has a gain-bandwidth product of 60 MHz, then it can provide a voltage gain of 3 at an RF of 20 MHz or a voltage gain of 30 at an IF of 2 MHz. At a lower IF, it would take fewer gain devices to achieve the same gain. The regenerative radio receiver obtained more gain out of one gain device by using positive feedback, but it required careful adjustment by the operator; that adjustment also changed the selectivity of the regenerative receiver. The superheterodyne provides a large, stable gain and constant selectivity without troublesome adjustment.
The superior superheterodyne system replaced the earlier TRF and regenerative receiver designs, and since the 1930s most commercial radio receivers have been superheterodynes.
Applications
Heterodyning, also called frequency conversion, is used very widely in communications engineering to generate new frequencies and move information from one frequency channel to another. Besides its use in the superheterodyne circuit found in almost all radio and television receivers, it is used in radio transmitters, modems, satellite communications and set-top boxes, radar, radio telescopes, telemetry systems, cell phones, cable television converter boxes and headends, microwave relays, metal detectors, atomic clocks, and military electronic countermeasure (jamming) systems.
Up and down converters
In large scale telecommunication networks such as telephone network trunks, microwave relay networks, cable television systems, and communication satellite links, large bandwidth capacity links are shared by many individual communication channels by using heterodyning to move the frequency of the individual signals up to different frequencies, which share the channel. This is called frequency division multiplexing (FDM).
For example, a coaxial cable used by a cable television system can carry 500 television channels at the same time because each one is given a different frequency, so they do not interfere with one another. At the cable source or headend, electronic upconverters convert each incoming television channel to a new, higher frequency. They do this by mixing the television signal frequency, fCH with a local oscillator at a much higher frequency fLO, creating a heterodyne at the sum fCH + fLO, which is added to the cable. At the consumer's home, the cable set top box has a downconverter that mixes the incoming signal at frequency fCH + fLO with the same local oscillator frequency fLO creating the difference heterodyne frequency, converting the television channel back to its original frequency: (fCH + fLO) − fLO = fCH. Each channel is moved to a different higher frequency. The original lower basic frequency of the signal is called the baseband, while the higher channel it is moved to is called the passband.
Analog videotape recording
Many analog videotape systems rely on a downconverted color subcarrier to record color information in their limited bandwidth. These systems are referred to as "heterodyne systems" or "color-under systems". For instance, for NTSC video systems, the VHS (and S-VHS) recording system converts the color subcarrier from the NTSC standard 3.58 MHz to ~629 kHz. PAL VHS color subcarrier is similarly downconverted (but from 4.43 MHz). The now-obsolete 3/4" U-matic systems use a heterodyned ~688 kHz subcarrier for NTSC recordings (as does Sony's Betamax, which is at its basis a 1/2″ consumer version of U-matic), while PAL U-matic decks came in two mutually incompatible varieties, with different subcarrier frequencies, known as Hi-Band and Low-Band. Other videotape formats with heterodyne color systems include Video-8 and Hi8.
The heterodyne system in these cases is used to convert quadrature phase-encoded and amplitude modulated sine waves from the broadcast frequencies to frequencies recordable in less than 1 MHz bandwidth. On playback, the recorded color information is heterodyned back to the standard subcarrier frequencies for display on televisions and for interchange with other standard video equipment.
Some U-matic (3/4″) decks feature 7-pin mini-DIN connectors to allow dubbing of tapes without conversion, as do some industrial VHS, S-VHS, and Hi8 recorders.
Music synthesis
The theremin, an electronic musical instrument, traditionally uses the heterodyne principle to produce a variable audio frequency in response to the movement of the musician's hands in the vicinity of one or more antennae, which act as capacitor plates. The output of a fixed radio frequency oscillator is mixed with that of an oscillator whose frequency is affected by the variable capacitance between the antenna and the musician's hand as it is moved near the pitch control antenna. The difference between the two oscillator frequencies produces a tone in the audio range.
The ring modulator is a type of frequency mixer incorporated into some synthesizers or used as a stand-alone audio effect.
Optical heterodyning
Optical heterodyne detection (an area of active research) is an extension of the heterodyning technique to higher (visible) frequencies. Guerra (1995) first published the results of what he called a "form of optical heterodyning" in which light patterned by a 50 nm pitch grating illuminated a second grating of pitch 50 nm, with the gratings rotated with respect to each other by the angular amount needed to achieve magnification. Although the illuminating wavelength was 650 nm, the 50 nm grating was easily resolved. This showed a nearly 5-fold improvement over the Abbe resolution limit of 232 nm that should have been the smallest obtained for the numerical aperture and wavelength used. This super-resolution microscopic imaging through optical heterodyning later came to be know by many as "structured illumination microscopy".
In addition to super-resolution optical microscopy, optical heterodyning could greatly improve optical modulators, increasing the density of information carried by optical fibers. It is also being applied in the creation of more accurate atomic clocks based on directly measuring the frequency of a laser beam. See NIST subtopic 9.07.9-4.R for a description of research on one system to do this.
Since optical frequencies are far beyond the manipulation capacity of any feasible electronic circuit, all visible frequency photon detectors are inherently energy detectors not oscillating electric field detectors. However, since energy detection is inherently "square-law" detection, it intrinsically mixes any optical frequencies present on the detector. Thus, sensitive detection of specific optical frequencies necessitates optical heterodyne detection, in which two different (close by) wavelengths of light illuminate the detector so that the oscillating electrical output corresponds to the difference between their frequencies. This allows extremely narrow band detection (much narrower than any possible color filter can achieve) as well as precision measurements of phase and frequency of a light signal relative to a reference light source, as in a laser Doppler vibrometer.
This phase sensitive detection has been applied for Doppler measurements of wind speed, and imaging through dense media. The high sensitivity against background light is especially useful for lidar.
In optical Kerr effect (OKE) spectroscopy, optical heterodyning of the OKE signal and a small part of the probe signal produces a mixed signal consisting of probe, heterodyne OKE-probe and homodyne OKE signal. The probe and homodyne OKE signals can be filtered out, leaving the heterodyne frequency signal for detection.
Heterodyne detection is often used in interferometry but usually confined to single point detection rather than widefield interferometry, however, widefield heterodyne interferometry is possible using a special camera. Using this technique which a reference signal extracted from a single pixel it is possible to build a highly stable widefield heterodyne interferometer by removing the piston phase component
caused by microphonics or vibrations of the optical components or object.
Mathematical principle
Heterodyning is based on the trigonometric identity:
(
cos
θ
1
)
(
cos
θ
2
)
=
1
2
cos
(
θ
1
−
θ
2
)
+
1
2
cos
(
θ
1
+
θ
2
)
{\displaystyle (\cos \theta _{1})(\cos \theta _{2})={\tfrac {1}{2}}\cos(\theta _{1}-\theta _{2})+{\tfrac {1}{2}}\cos(\theta _{1}+\theta _{2})}
The product on the left hand side represents the multiplication ("mixing") of a sine wave with another sine wave (both produced by cosine functions). The right hand side shows that the resulting signal is the sum of two sinusoidal terms, one at the sum of the two original frequencies, and one at the difference, which can be dealt with separately, since their (large) frequency difference makes it easy to cleanly filter out one signal's frequency, while leaving the other signal unchanged.
Using this trigonometric identity, the result of multiplying two cosine wave signals
cos
(
2
π
f
1
t
)
{\displaystyle \ \cos \left(2\pi f_{1}t\right)\ }
and
cos
(
2
π
f
2
t
)
{\displaystyle \ \cos \left(2\pi f_{2}t\right)\ }
at different frequencies
f
1
{\displaystyle \ f_{1}\ }
and
f
2
{\displaystyle \ f_{2}\ }
can be calculated:
cos
(
2
π
f
1
t
)
cos
(
2
π
f
2
t
)
=
1
2
cos
[
2
π
(
f
1
−
f
2
)
t
]
+
1
2
cos
[
2
π
(
f
1
+
f
2
)
t
]
{\displaystyle \cos(2\pi f_{1}t)\cos(2\pi f_{2}t)={\tfrac {1}{2}}\cos+{\tfrac {1}{2}}\cos}
The result is the sum of two sinusoidal signals, one at the sum f1 + f2 and one at the difference f1 − f2 of the original frequencies.
Mixer
The two signals are combined in a device called a mixer. As seen in the previous section, an ideal mixer would be a device that multiplies the two signals. Some widely used mixer circuits, such as the Gilbert cell, operate in this way, but they are limited to lower frequencies. However, any nonlinear electronic component also multiplies signals applied to it, producing heterodyne frequencies in its output—so a variety of nonlinear components serve as mixers. A nonlinear component is one in which the output current or voltage is a nonlinear function of its input. Most circuit elements in communications circuits are designed to be linear. This means they obey the superposition principle; if
F
(
v
)
{\displaystyle \ F(v)\ }
is the output of a linear element with an input of
v
{\displaystyle \ v\ }
:
F
(
v
1
+
v
2
)
=
F
(
v
1
)
+
F
(
v
2
)
{\displaystyle \ F(v_{1}+v_{2})=F(v_{1})+F(v_{2})\ }
So if two sine wave signals at frequencies f1 and f2 are applied to a linear device, the output is simply the sum of the outputs when the two signals are applied separately with no product terms. Thus, the function
F
{\displaystyle F}
must be nonlinear to create mixer products. A perfect multiplier only produces mixer products at the sum and difference frequencies (f1 ± f2), but more general nonlinear functions produce higher order mixer products: n⋅f1 + m⋅f2 for integers n and m. Some mixer designs, such as double-balanced mixers, suppress some high order undesired products, while other designs, such as harmonic mixers exploit high order differences.
Examples of nonlinear components that are used as mixers are vacuum tubes and transistors biased near cutoff (class C), and diodes. Ferromagnetic core inductors driven into saturation can also be used at lower frequencies. In nonlinear optics, crystals that have nonlinear characteristics are used to mix laser light beams to create optical heterodyne frequencies.
Output of a mixer
To demonstrate mathematically how a nonlinear component can multiply signals and generate heterodyne frequencies, the nonlinear function
F
{\displaystyle F}
can be expanded in a power series (MacLaurin series):
F
(
v
)
=
α
1
v
+
α
2
v
2
+
α
3
v
3
+
⋯
{\displaystyle \ F(v)=\alpha _{1}v+\alpha _{2}v^{2}+\alpha _{3}v^{3}+\cdots \ }
To simplify the math, the higher order terms above α2 are indicated by an ellipsis (
⋯
{\displaystyle \ \cdots \ }
) and only the first terms are shown. Applying the two sine waves at frequencies ω1 = 2πf1 and ω2 = 2πf2 to this device:
v
o
u
t
=
F
(
A
1
cos
(
ω
1
t
)
+
A
2
cos
(
ω
2
t
)
)
{\displaystyle \ v_{\mathsf {out}}=F{\Bigl (}A_{1}\cos(\omega _{1}t)+A_{2}\cos(\omega _{2}t){\Bigr )}\ }
v
o
u
t
=
α
1
(
A
1
cos
(
ω
1
t
)
+
A
2
cos
(
ω
2
t
)
)
+
α
2
(
A
1
cos
(
ω
1
t
)
+
A
2
cos
(
ω
2
t
)
)
2
+
⋯
{\displaystyle \ v_{\mathsf {out}}=\alpha _{1}{\Bigl (}A_{1}\cos(\omega _{1}t)+A_{2}\cos(\omega _{2}t){\Bigr )}+\alpha _{2}{\Bigl (}A_{1}\cos(\omega _{1}t)+A_{2}\cos(\omega _{2}t){\Bigr )}^{2}+\cdots \ }
v
o
u
t
=
α
1
(
A
1
cos
(
ω
1
t
)
+
A
2
cos
(
ω
2
t
)
)
+
α
2
(
A
1
2
cos
2
(
ω
1
t
)
+
2
A
1
A
2
cos
(
ω
1
t
)
cos
(
ω
2
t
)
+
A
2
2
cos
2
(
ω
2
t
)
)
+
⋯
{\displaystyle \ v_{\mathsf {out}}=\alpha _{1}{\Bigl (}A_{1}\cos(\omega _{1}t)+A_{2}\cos(\omega _{2}t){\Bigr )}+\alpha _{2}{\Bigl (}A_{1}^{2}\cos ^{2}(\omega _{1}t)+2A_{1}A_{2}\cos(\omega _{1}t)\ \cos(\omega _{2}t)+A_{2}^{2}\cos ^{2}(\omega _{2}t){\Bigr )}+\cdots \ }
It can be seen that the second term above contains a product of the two sine waves. Simplifying with trigonometric identities:
v
o
u
t
=
α
1
(
A
1
cos
(
ω
1
t
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{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}v_{\mathsf {out}}={}&\alpha _{1}{\Bigl (}A_{1}\cos(\omega _{1}t)+A_{2}\cos(\omega _{2}t){\Bigr )}\\&{}+\alpha _{2}{\Bigl (}{\tfrac {1}{2}}A_{1}^{2}+A_{1}A_{2}+{\tfrac {1}{2}}A_{2}^{2}{\Bigr )}+\cdots \end{aligned}}}
Which leaves the two heterodyne frequencies as two among the many terms:
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{\displaystyle \ v_{\mathsf {out}}=\cdots +\alpha _{2}A_{1}A_{2}\cos(\omega _{1}-\omega _{2})t+\alpha _{2}A_{1}A_{2}\cos(\omega _{1}+\omega _{2})t+\cdots \ }
along with many other terms not shown.
Among many other frequencies, the output contains sinusoidal terms with frequencies at the sum ω1 + ω2 and difference ω1 − ω2 of the two original frequencies. It also contains terms at the original frequencies and terms at multiples of the original frequencies 2 ω1 , 2 ω2 , 3 ω1 , 3 ω2 , etc., called harmonics. It also contains much more complicated terms at frequencies of M ω1 + N ω2 , called intermodulation products. These unwanted frequencies, along with the unwanted heterodyne frequency, must be removed from the mixer output by an electronic filter, to leave the desired heterodyne frequency.
See also
Electroencephalography
Homodyne
Intermodulation – a problem with strong higher-order terms produced in some non-linear mixers
Transverter
References
Citations
^ Christopher E. Cooper (January 2001). Physics. Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers. pp. 25–. ISBN 978-1-57958-358-3.
^ a b c d United States Bureau of Naval Personnel (1973). Basic Electronics. USA: Courier Dover. p. 338. ISBN 978-0-486-21076-6.
^ a b Graf, Rudolf F. (1999). Modern dictionary of electronics (7th ed.). USA: Newnes. p. 344. ISBN 978-0-7506-9866-5.
^ Horowitz, Paul; Hill, Winfield (1989). The Art of Electronics (2nd ed.). London: Cambridge University Press. pp. 885, 897. ISBN 978-0-521-37095-0.
^ Strange, Allen; Strange, Patricia (2003). The Contemporary Violin: Extended Performance Techniques. Scarecrow Press. p. 216. ISBN 978-0-520-22409-4.
^ Ingard, Uno (2008). Acoustics. Jones and Bartlett. pp. 18–21. ISBN 978-1-934015-08-7.
^ Discussion of A History of Some Foundations of Modern Radio-Electronic Technology, Comments by Lloyd Espenschied, Proceedings of the IRE, July, 1959 (Vol. 47, No. 7), pp. 1254, 1256. Critique. ". . . the roots of our modern technology trace back generally to sources other than the Hammond Laboratory." Comment. Many of the roots that nourished the work of the Hammond group and its contemporaries were recorded in our paper: the pioneering work of Wilson and Evans, Tesla, Shoemaker, in basic radiodynamics; . . . of Tesla and Fessenden leading to the development of basic intermediate frequency circuitry.
^ Nahin 2001, p. 91, stating "Fessenden's circuit was ahead of its time, however, as there simply was no technology available then with which to build the required local oscillator with the necessary frequency stability." Figure 7.10 shows a simplified 1907 heterodyne detector.
^ Fessenden 1905, p. 4
^ Ashley, Charles Grinnell; Heyward, Charles Brian (1912). Wireless Telegraphy and Wireless Telephony. Chicago: American School of Correspondence. pp. 103/15–104/16.
^ Tapan K. Sarkar, History of wireless, page 372
^ Videotape formats using 1⁄2-inch-wide (13 mm) tape Archived June 16, 2006, at the Wayback Machine ; Retrieved 2007-01-01
^ Charles, Poynton (2003). Digital Video and HDTV: Algorithms and Interfaces. San Francisco: Morgan Kaufmann Publishers. pp. 582–3. ISBN 978-1-55860-792-7.
^ Guerra, John M. (June 26, 1995). "Super-resolution through illumination by diffraction-born evanescent waves". Applied Physics Letters. 66 (26): 3555–3557. Bibcode:1995ApPhL..66.3555G. doi:10.1063/1.113814. ISSN 0003-6951.
^ Contract Details: Robust Nanopopous Ceramic Microsensor Platform
^ Contract Details: High Pulsed Power Varactor Multipliers for Imaging
^ Patel, R.; Achamfuo-Yeboah, S.; Light R.; Clark M. (2011). "Widefield heterodyne interferometry using a custom CMOS modulated light camera". Optics Express. 19 (24): 24546–24556. Bibcode:2011OExpr..1924546P. doi:10.1364/oe.19.024546. PMID 22109482.
^ Patel, R.; Achamfuo-Yeboah, S.; Light R.; Clark M. (2012). "Ultrastable heterodyne interferometer system using a CMOS modulated light camera". Optics Express. 20 (16): 17722–17733. Bibcode:2012OExpr..2017722P. doi:10.1364/oe.20.017722. PMID 23038324.
General and cited references
US 1050441, Fessenden, Reginald A., "Electric Signaling Apparatus", published July 27, 1905, issued January 14, 1913
Glinsky, Albert (2000). Theremin: Ether Music and Espionage. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-02582-2.
Nahin, Paul J. (2001). The Science of Radio with Matlab and Electronics Workbench Demonstrations (Second ed.). New York: Springer-Verlag, AIP Press. ISBN 978-0-387-95150-8.
Further reading
Hogan, John V. L. (April 1921). "The Heterodyne Receiver". Electric Journal. Vol. 18. p. 116.
US 706740, Fessenden, Reginald A., "Wireless Signaling", published September 28, 1901, issued August 12, 1902
US 1050728, Fessenden, Reginald A., "Method of Signaling", published August 21, 1906, issued January 14, 1913
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Heterodyne (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterodyne_(disambiguation)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IdealMixer.svg"},{"link_name":"signal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal"},{"link_name":"frequency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency"},{"link_name":"signal processing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_processing"},{"link_name":"Reginald Fessenden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reginald_Fessenden"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cooper2001-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Naval-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Graf-3"},{"link_name":"frequency range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_range"},{"link_name":"modulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulation"},{"link_name":"demodulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demodulation"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Naval-2"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Horowitz-4"},{"link_name":"nonlinear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_circuit"},{"link_name":"vacuum tube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tube"},{"link_name":"transistor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor"},{"link_name":"diode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode"},{"link_name":"mixer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_mixer"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Naval-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Graf-3"},{"link_name":"filtered","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filter_(signal_processing)"},{"link_name":"beats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beat_(acoustics)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Naval-2"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Strange-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ingard-6"},{"link_name":"superheterodyne radio receiver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superheterodyne_receiver"}],"text":"This article is about waveform manipulation. For other uses, see Heterodyne (disambiguation).Frequency mixer symbol used in schematic diagramsA heterodyne is a signal frequency that is created by combining or mixing two other frequencies using a signal processing technique called heterodyning, which was invented by Canadian inventor-engineer Reginald Fessenden.[1][2][3] Heterodyning is used to shift signals from one frequency range into another, and is also involved in the processes of modulation and demodulation.[2][4] The two input frequencies are combined in a nonlinear signal-processing device such as a vacuum tube, transistor, or diode, usually called a mixer.[2]In the most common application, two signals at frequencies f1 and f2 are mixed, creating two new signals, one at the sum of the two frequencies f1 + f2, and the other at the difference between the two frequencies f1 − f2.[3] The new signal frequencies are called heterodynes. Typically, only one of the heterodynes is required and the other signal is filtered out of the output of the mixer. Heterodyne frequencies are related to the phenomenon of \"beats\" in acoustics.[2][5][6]A major application of the heterodyne process is in the superheterodyne radio receiver circuit, which is used in virtually all modern radio receivers.","title":"Heterodyne"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Heterodyne_radio_receiver_circuit_1920.png"},{"link_name":"Reginald Fessenden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reginald_Fessenden"},{"link_name":"direct-conversion heterodyne receiver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct-conversion_receiver"},{"link_name":"beat receiver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Beat_receiver&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"continuous wave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_wave"},{"link_name":"radiotelegraphy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiotelegraphy"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Lee de Forest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_de_Forest"},{"link_name":"triode vacuum tube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triode"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nahin1-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Morse code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morse_code"},{"link_name":"Radio telegraphy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_telegraphy"},{"link_name":"telegraphy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegraphy"},{"link_name":"spark gap transmitters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spark_gap_transmitter"},{"link_name":"damped waves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damped_wave"},{"link_name":"arc converter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc_converter"},{"link_name":"continuous wave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_wave"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"local oscillator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_oscillator"},{"link_name":"audio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_signal"},{"link_name":"earphones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earphone"},{"link_name":"beat frequency oscillator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beat_frequency_oscillator"},{"link_name":"δύναμις or dunamis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%B4%CF%8D%CE%BD%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%B9%CF%82"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"Fessenden's heterodyne radio receiver circuit. The incoming radio frequency and local oscillator frequency mix in the crystal diode detector.In 1901, Reginald Fessenden demonstrated a direct-conversion heterodyne receiver or beat receiver as a method of making continuous wave radiotelegraphy signals audible.[7] Fessenden's receiver did not see much application because of its local oscillator's stability problem. A stable yet inexpensive local oscillator was not available until Lee de Forest invented the triode vacuum tube oscillator.[8] In a 1905 patent, Fessenden stated that the frequency stability of his local oscillator was one part per thousand.[9]In radio telegraphy, the characters of text messages are translated into the short duration dots and long duration dashes of Morse code that are broadcast as radio signals. Radio telegraphy was much like ordinary telegraphy. One of the problems was building high power transmitters with the technology of the day. Early transmitters were spark gap transmitters. A mechanical device would make sparks at a fixed but audible rate; the sparks would put energy into a resonant circuit that would then ring at the desired transmission frequency (which might be 100 kHz). This ringing would quickly decay, so the output of the transmitter would be a succession of damped waves. When these damped waves were received by a simple detector, the operator would hear an audible buzzing sound that could be transcribed back into alpha-numeric characters.With the development of the arc converter radio transmitter in 1904, continuous wave (CW) modulation began to be used for radiotelegraphy. CW Morse code signals are not amplitude modulated, but rather consist of bursts of sinusoidal carrier frequency. When CW signals are received by an AM receiver, the operator does not hear a sound. The direct-conversion (heterodyne) detector was invented to make continuous wave radio-frequency signals audible.[10]The \"heterodyne\" or \"beat\" receiver has a local oscillator that produces a radio signal adjusted to be close in frequency to the incoming signal being received. When the two signals are mixed, a \"beat\" frequency equal to the difference between the two frequencies is created. Adjusting the local oscillator frequency correctly puts the beat frequency in the audio range, where it can be heard as a tone in the receiver's earphones whenever the transmitter signal is present. Thus the Morse code \"dots\" and \"dashes\" are audible as beeping sounds. This technique is still used in radio telegraphy, the local oscillator now being called the beat frequency oscillator or BFO. Fessenden coined the word heterodyne from the Greek roots hetero- \"different\", and dyn- \"power\" (cf. δύναμις or dunamis).[11]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Superheterodyne_receiver_block_diagram_2.svg"},{"link_name":"superheterodyne receiver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superheterodyne_receiver"},{"link_name":"radio frequency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_frequency"},{"link_name":"intermediate frequency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermediate_frequency"},{"link_name":"detector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detector_(radio)"},{"link_name":"tuned radio frequency receiver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuned_radio_frequency_receiver"},{"link_name":"gain-bandwidth product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gain-bandwidth_product"},{"link_name":"regenerative radio receiver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regenerative_radio_receiver"}],"sub_title":"Superheterodyne receiver","text":"Block diagram of a typical superheterodyne receiver. Red parts are those that handle the incoming radio frequency (RF) signal; green are parts that operate at the intermediate frequency (IF), while blue parts operate at the modulation (audio) frequency.An important and widely used application of the heterodyne technique is in the superheterodyne receiver (superhet). In the typical superhet, the incoming radio frequency signal from the antenna is mixed (heterodyned) with a signal from a local oscillator (LO) to produce a lower fixed frequency signal called the intermediate frequency (IF) signal. The IF signal is amplified and filtered and then applied to a detector that extracts the audio signal; the audio is ultimately sent to the receiver's loudspeaker.The superheterodyne receiver has several advantages over previous receiver designs. One advantage is easier tuning; only the RF filter and the LO are tuned by the operator; the fixed-frequency IF is tuned (\"aligned\") at the factory and is not adjusted. In older designs such as the tuned radio frequency receiver (TRF), all of the receiver stages had to be simultaneously tuned. In addition, since the IF filters are fixed-tuned, the receiver's selectivity is the same across the receiver's entire frequency band. Another advantage is that the IF signal can be at a much lower frequency than the incoming radio signal, and that allows each stage of the IF amplifier to provide more gain. To first order, an amplifying device has a fixed gain-bandwidth product. If the device has a gain-bandwidth product of 60 MHz, then it can provide a voltage gain of 3 at an RF of 20 MHz or a voltage gain of 30 at an IF of 2 MHz. At a lower IF, it would take fewer gain devices to achieve the same gain. The regenerative radio receiver obtained more gain out of one gain device by using positive feedback, but it required careful adjustment by the operator; that adjustment also changed the selectivity of the regenerative receiver. The superheterodyne provides a large, stable gain and constant selectivity without troublesome adjustment.The superior superheterodyne system replaced the earlier TRF and regenerative receiver designs, and since the 1930s most commercial radio receivers have been superheterodynes.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"communications engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communications_engineering"},{"link_name":"radio transmitters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_transmitter"},{"link_name":"modems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modem"},{"link_name":"satellite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite"},{"link_name":"radar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar"},{"link_name":"radio telescopes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_telescope"},{"link_name":"telemetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telemetry"},{"link_name":"headends","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cable_television_headend"},{"link_name":"microwave relays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave_relay"},{"link_name":"metal detectors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal_detector"},{"link_name":"atomic clocks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_clock"},{"link_name":"electronic countermeasure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_countermeasure"}],"text":"Heterodyning, also called frequency conversion, is used very widely in communications engineering to generate new frequencies and move information from one frequency channel to another. Besides its use in the superheterodyne circuit found in almost all radio and television receivers, it is used in radio transmitters, modems, satellite communications and set-top boxes, radar, radio telescopes, telemetry systems, cell phones, cable television converter boxes and headends, microwave relays, metal detectors, atomic clocks, and military electronic countermeasure (jamming) systems.","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"telecommunication networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunication_network"},{"link_name":"telephone network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_network"},{"link_name":"microwave relay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave_relay"},{"link_name":"communication satellite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_satellite"},{"link_name":"bandwidth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandwidth_(signal_processing)"},{"link_name":"frequency division multiplexing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_division_multiplexing"},{"link_name":"coaxial cable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coaxial_cable"},{"link_name":"headend","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cable_television_headend"},{"link_name":"local oscillator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_oscillator"},{"link_name":"set top box","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set_top_box"},{"link_name":"baseband","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseband"},{"link_name":"passband","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passband"}],"sub_title":"Up and down converters","text":"In large scale telecommunication networks such as telephone network trunks, microwave relay networks, cable television systems, and communication satellite links, large bandwidth capacity links are shared by many individual communication channels by using heterodyning to move the frequency of the individual signals up to different frequencies, which share the channel. This is called frequency division multiplexing (FDM).For example, a coaxial cable used by a cable television system can carry 500 television channels at the same time because each one is given a different frequency, so they do not interfere with one another. At the cable source or headend, electronic upconverters convert each incoming television channel to a new, higher frequency. They do this by mixing the television signal frequency, fCH with a local oscillator at a much higher frequency fLO, creating a heterodyne at the sum fCH + fLO, which is added to the cable. At the consumer's home, the cable set top box has a downconverter that mixes the incoming signal at frequency fCH + fLO with the same local oscillator frequency fLO creating the difference heterodyne frequency, converting the television channel back to its original frequency: (fCH + fLO) − fLO = fCH. Each channel is moved to a different higher frequency. The original lower basic frequency of the signal is called the baseband, while the higher channel it is moved to is called the passband.","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"videotape","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videotape"},{"link_name":"NTSC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NTSC"},{"link_name":"VHS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VHS"},{"link_name":"S-VHS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-VHS"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lionlamb-12"},{"link_name":"PAL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PAL"},{"link_name":"U-matic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U-matic"},{"link_name":"Sony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony"},{"link_name":"Betamax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betamax"},{"link_name":"Video-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video-8"},{"link_name":"Hi8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hi8"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-poynton-13"},{"link_name":"DIN connectors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DIN_connector"}],"sub_title":"Analog videotape recording","text":"Many analog videotape systems rely on a downconverted color subcarrier to record color information in their limited bandwidth. These systems are referred to as \"heterodyne systems\" or \"color-under systems\". For instance, for NTSC video systems, the VHS (and S-VHS) recording system converts the color subcarrier from the NTSC standard 3.58 MHz to ~629 kHz.[12] PAL VHS color subcarrier is similarly downconverted (but from 4.43 MHz). The now-obsolete 3/4\" U-matic systems use a heterodyned ~688 kHz subcarrier for NTSC recordings (as does Sony's Betamax, which is at its basis a 1/2″ consumer version of U-matic), while PAL U-matic decks came in two mutually incompatible varieties, with different subcarrier frequencies, known as Hi-Band and Low-Band. Other videotape formats with heterodyne color systems include Video-8 and Hi8.[13]The heterodyne system in these cases is used to convert quadrature phase-encoded and amplitude modulated sine waves from the broadcast frequencies to frequencies recordable in less than 1 MHz bandwidth. On playback, the recorded color information is heterodyned back to the standard subcarrier frequencies for display on televisions and for interchange with other standard video equipment.Some U-matic (3/4″) decks feature 7-pin mini-DIN connectors to allow dubbing of tapes without conversion, as do some industrial VHS, S-VHS, and Hi8 recorders.","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"theremin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theremin"},{"link_name":"electronic musical instrument","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_musical_instrument"},{"link_name":"audio frequency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_frequency"},{"link_name":"variable capacitance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_capacitance"},{"link_name":"ring modulator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_modulator"},{"link_name":"frequency mixer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_mixer"}],"sub_title":"Music synthesis","text":"The theremin, an electronic musical instrument, traditionally uses the heterodyne principle to produce a variable audio frequency in response to the movement of the musician's hands in the vicinity of one or more antennae, which act as capacitor plates. The output of a fixed radio frequency oscillator is mixed with that of an oscillator whose frequency is affected by the variable capacitance between the antenna and the musician's hand as it is moved near the pitch control antenna. The difference between the two oscillator frequencies produces a tone in the audio range.The ring modulator is a type of frequency mixer incorporated into some synthesizers or used as a stand-alone audio effect.","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Optical heterodyne detection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_heterodyne_detection"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"optical modulators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_modulator"},{"link_name":"optical fibers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiber"},{"link_name":"atomic clocks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_clock"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"square-law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square-law_detector"},{"link_name":"laser Doppler vibrometer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_Doppler_vibrometer"},{"link_name":"lidar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lidar"},{"link_name":"optical Kerr effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_Kerr_effect"},{"link_name":"interferometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interferometry"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"microphonics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microphonics"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"sub_title":"Optical heterodyning","text":"Optical heterodyne detection (an area of active research) is an extension of the heterodyning technique to higher (visible) frequencies. Guerra[14] (1995) first published the results of what he called a \"form of optical heterodyning\" in which light patterned by a 50 nm pitch grating illuminated a second grating of pitch 50 nm, with the gratings rotated with respect to each other by the angular amount needed to achieve magnification. Although the illuminating wavelength was 650 nm, the 50 nm grating was easily resolved. This showed a nearly 5-fold improvement over the Abbe resolution limit of 232 nm that should have been the smallest obtained for the numerical aperture and wavelength used. This super-resolution microscopic imaging through optical heterodyning later came to be know by many as \"structured illumination microscopy\".In addition to super-resolution optical microscopy, optical heterodyning could greatly improve optical modulators, increasing the density of information carried by optical fibers. It is also being applied in the creation of more accurate atomic clocks based on directly measuring the frequency of a laser beam. See NIST subtopic 9.07.9-4.R for a description of research on one system to do this.[15][16]Since optical frequencies are far beyond the manipulation capacity of any feasible electronic circuit, all visible frequency photon detectors are inherently energy detectors not oscillating electric field detectors. However, since energy detection is inherently \"square-law\" detection, it intrinsically mixes any optical frequencies present on the detector. Thus, sensitive detection of specific optical frequencies necessitates optical heterodyne detection, in which two different (close by) wavelengths of light illuminate the detector so that the oscillating electrical output corresponds to the difference between their frequencies. This allows extremely narrow band detection (much narrower than any possible color filter can achieve) as well as precision measurements of phase and frequency of a light signal relative to a reference light source, as in a laser Doppler vibrometer.This phase sensitive detection has been applied for Doppler measurements of wind speed, and imaging through dense media. The high sensitivity against background light is especially useful for lidar.In optical Kerr effect (OKE) spectroscopy, optical heterodyning of the OKE signal and a small part of the probe signal produces a mixed signal consisting of probe, heterodyne OKE-probe and homodyne OKE signal. The probe and homodyne OKE signals can be filtered out, leaving the heterodyne frequency signal for detection.Heterodyne detection is often used in interferometry but usually confined to single point detection rather than widefield interferometry, however, widefield heterodyne interferometry is possible using a special camera.[17] Using this technique which a reference signal extracted from a single pixel it is possible to build a highly stable widefield heterodyne interferometer by removing the piston phase component\ncaused by microphonics or vibrations of the optical components or object.[18]","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"trigonometric identity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigonometric_identity"},{"link_name":"sine wave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sine_wave"},{"link_name":"cosine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosine"},{"link_name":"sinusoidal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinusoidal"}],"text":"Heterodyning is based on the trigonometric identity:(\n cos\n \n \n θ\n \n 1\n \n \n )\n (\n cos\n \n \n θ\n \n 2\n \n \n )\n =\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n cos\n \n (\n \n θ\n \n 1\n \n \n −\n \n θ\n \n 2\n \n \n )\n +\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n cos\n \n (\n \n θ\n \n 1\n \n \n +\n \n θ\n \n 2\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (\\cos \\theta _{1})(\\cos \\theta _{2})={\\tfrac {1}{2}}\\cos(\\theta _{1}-\\theta _{2})+{\\tfrac {1}{2}}\\cos(\\theta _{1}+\\theta _{2})}The product on the left hand side represents the multiplication (\"mixing\") of a sine wave with another sine wave (both produced by cosine functions). The right hand side shows that the resulting signal is the sum of two sinusoidal terms, one at the sum of the two original frequencies, and one at the difference, which can be dealt with separately, since their (large) frequency difference makes it easy to cleanly filter out one signal's frequency, while leaving the other signal unchanged.Using this trigonometric identity, the result of multiplying two cosine wave signals \n \n \n \n \n cos\n \n \n (\n \n 2\n π\n \n f\n \n 1\n \n \n t\n \n )\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\ \\cos \\left(2\\pi f_{1}t\\right)\\ }\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n cos\n \n \n (\n \n 2\n π\n \n f\n \n 2\n \n \n t\n \n )\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\ \\cos \\left(2\\pi f_{2}t\\right)\\ }\n \n at different frequencies \n \n \n \n \n \n f\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\ f_{1}\\ }\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n \n f\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\ f_{2}\\ }\n \n can be calculated:cos\n \n (\n 2\n π\n \n f\n \n 1\n \n \n t\n )\n cos\n \n (\n 2\n π\n \n f\n \n 2\n \n \n t\n )\n =\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n cos\n \n [\n 2\n π\n (\n \n f\n \n 1\n \n \n −\n \n f\n \n 2\n \n \n )\n t\n ]\n +\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n cos\n \n [\n 2\n π\n (\n \n f\n \n 1\n \n \n +\n \n f\n \n 2\n \n \n )\n t\n ]\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\cos(2\\pi f_{1}t)\\cos(2\\pi f_{2}t)={\\tfrac {1}{2}}\\cos[2\\pi (f_{1}-f_{2})t]+{\\tfrac {1}{2}}\\cos[2\\pi (f_{1}+f_{2})t]}The result is the sum of two sinusoidal signals, one at the sum f1 + f2 and one at the difference f1 − f2 of the original frequencies.","title":"Mathematical principle"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"mixer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_mixer"},{"link_name":"Gilbert cell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_cell"},{"link_name":"nonlinear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_circuit"},{"link_name":"nonlinear function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_function"},{"link_name":"linear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_circuit"},{"link_name":"superposition principle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superposition_principle"},{"link_name":"harmonic mixers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonic_mixer"},{"link_name":"vacuum tubes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tube"},{"link_name":"transistors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor"},{"link_name":"class C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class_C_amplifier"},{"link_name":"diodes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode"},{"link_name":"Ferromagnetic core","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_core"},{"link_name":"inductors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductor"},{"link_name":"saturation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturation_(magnetic)"},{"link_name":"nonlinear optics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonlinear_optics"},{"link_name":"laser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser"},{"link_name":"optical heterodyne frequencies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_heterodyne_detection"}],"sub_title":"Mixer","text":"The two signals are combined in a device called a mixer. As seen in the previous section, an ideal mixer would be a device that multiplies the two signals. Some widely used mixer circuits, such as the Gilbert cell, operate in this way, but they are limited to lower frequencies. However, any nonlinear electronic component also multiplies signals applied to it, producing heterodyne frequencies in its output—so a variety of nonlinear components serve as mixers. A nonlinear component is one in which the output current or voltage is a nonlinear function of its input. Most circuit elements in communications circuits are designed to be linear. This means they obey the superposition principle; if \n \n \n \n \n F\n (\n v\n )\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\ F(v)\\ }\n \n is the output of a linear element with an input of \n \n \n \n \n v\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\ v\\ }\n \n:F\n (\n \n v\n \n 1\n \n \n +\n \n v\n \n 2\n \n \n )\n =\n F\n (\n \n v\n \n 1\n \n \n )\n +\n F\n (\n \n v\n \n 2\n \n \n )\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\ F(v_{1}+v_{2})=F(v_{1})+F(v_{2})\\ }So if two sine wave signals at frequencies f1 and f2 are applied to a linear device, the output is simply the sum of the outputs when the two signals are applied separately with no product terms. Thus, the function \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F}\n \n must be nonlinear to create mixer products. A perfect multiplier only produces mixer products at the sum and difference frequencies (f1 ± f2), but more general nonlinear functions produce higher order mixer products: n⋅f1 + m⋅f2 for integers n and m. Some mixer designs, such as double-balanced mixers, suppress some high order undesired products, while other designs, such as harmonic mixers exploit high order differences.Examples of nonlinear components that are used as mixers are vacuum tubes and transistors biased near cutoff (class C), and diodes. Ferromagnetic core inductors driven into saturation can also be used at lower frequencies. In nonlinear optics, crystals that have nonlinear characteristics are used to mix laser light beams to create optical heterodyne frequencies.","title":"Mathematical principle"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"power series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_series"},{"link_name":"MacLaurin series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacLaurin_series"},{"link_name":"trigonometric identities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigonometric_identity"},{"link_name":"harmonics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonics"},{"link_name":"intermodulation products","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermodulation_product"},{"link_name":"electronic filter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_filter"}],"sub_title":"Output of a mixer","text":"To demonstrate mathematically how a nonlinear component can multiply signals and generate heterodyne frequencies, the nonlinear function \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F}\n \n can be expanded in a power series (MacLaurin series):F\n (\n v\n )\n =\n \n α\n \n 1\n \n \n v\n +\n \n α\n \n 2\n \n \n \n v\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n α\n \n 3\n \n \n \n v\n \n 3\n \n \n +\n ⋯\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\ F(v)=\\alpha _{1}v+\\alpha _{2}v^{2}+\\alpha _{3}v^{3}+\\cdots \\ }To simplify the math, the higher order terms above α2 are indicated by an ellipsis (\n \n \n \n \n ⋯\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\ \\cdots \\ }\n \n) and only the first terms are shown. Applying the two sine waves at frequencies ω1 = 2πf1 and ω2 = 2πf2 to this device:v\n \n \n o\n u\n t\n \n \n \n =\n F\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n A\n \n 1\n \n \n cos\n \n (\n \n ω\n \n 1\n \n \n t\n )\n +\n \n A\n \n 2\n \n \n cos\n \n (\n \n ω\n \n 2\n \n \n t\n )\n \n \n )\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\ v_{\\mathsf {out}}=F{\\Bigl (}A_{1}\\cos(\\omega _{1}t)+A_{2}\\cos(\\omega _{2}t){\\Bigr )}\\ }v\n \n \n o\n u\n t\n \n \n \n =\n \n α\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n \n A\n \n 1\n \n \n cos\n \n (\n \n ω\n \n 1\n \n \n t\n )\n +\n \n A\n \n 2\n \n \n cos\n \n (\n \n ω\n \n 2\n \n \n t\n )\n \n \n )\n \n \n +\n \n α\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n \n A\n \n 1\n \n \n cos\n \n (\n \n ω\n \n 1\n \n \n t\n )\n +\n \n A\n \n 2\n \n \n cos\n \n (\n \n ω\n \n 2\n \n \n t\n )\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n +\n ⋯\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\ v_{\\mathsf {out}}=\\alpha _{1}{\\Bigl (}A_{1}\\cos(\\omega _{1}t)+A_{2}\\cos(\\omega _{2}t){\\Bigr )}+\\alpha _{2}{\\Bigl (}A_{1}\\cos(\\omega _{1}t)+A_{2}\\cos(\\omega _{2}t){\\Bigr )}^{2}+\\cdots \\ }v\n \n \n o\n u\n t\n \n \n \n =\n \n α\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n \n A\n \n 1\n \n \n cos\n \n (\n \n ω\n \n 1\n \n \n t\n )\n +\n \n A\n \n 2\n \n \n cos\n \n (\n \n ω\n \n 2\n \n \n t\n )\n \n \n )\n \n \n +\n \n α\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n \n A\n \n 1\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n cos\n \n 2\n \n \n \n (\n \n ω\n \n 1\n \n \n t\n )\n +\n 2\n \n A\n \n 1\n \n \n \n A\n \n 2\n \n \n cos\n \n (\n \n ω\n \n 1\n \n \n t\n )\n \n cos\n \n (\n \n ω\n \n 2\n \n \n t\n )\n +\n \n A\n \n 2\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n cos\n \n 2\n \n \n \n (\n \n ω\n \n 2\n \n \n t\n )\n \n \n )\n \n \n +\n ⋯\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\ v_{\\mathsf {out}}=\\alpha _{1}{\\Bigl (}A_{1}\\cos(\\omega _{1}t)+A_{2}\\cos(\\omega _{2}t){\\Bigr )}+\\alpha _{2}{\\Bigl (}A_{1}^{2}\\cos ^{2}(\\omega _{1}t)+2A_{1}A_{2}\\cos(\\omega _{1}t)\\ \\cos(\\omega _{2}t)+A_{2}^{2}\\cos ^{2}(\\omega _{2}t){\\Bigr )}+\\cdots \\ }It can be seen that the second term above contains a product of the two sine waves. Simplifying with trigonometric identities:v\n \n \n o\n u\n t\n \n \n \n =\n \n\n \n \n \n \n α\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n \n A\n \n 1\n \n \n cos\n \n (\n \n ω\n \n 1\n \n \n t\n )\n +\n \n A\n \n 2\n \n \n cos\n \n (\n \n ω\n \n 2\n \n \n t\n )\n \n \n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n +\n \n α\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n A\n \n 1\n \n \n 2\n \n \n [\n 1\n +\n cos\n \n (\n 2\n \n ω\n \n 1\n \n \n t\n )\n ]\n +\n \n A\n \n 1\n \n \n \n A\n \n 2\n \n \n [\n cos\n \n (\n \n ω\n \n 1\n \n \n t\n −\n \n ω\n \n 2\n \n \n t\n )\n +\n cos\n \n (\n \n ω\n \n 1\n \n \n t\n +\n \n ω\n \n 2\n \n \n t\n )\n ]\n +\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n A\n \n 2\n \n \n 2\n \n \n [\n 1\n +\n cos\n \n (\n 2\n \n ω\n \n 2\n \n \n t\n )\n ]\n \n \n )\n \n \n +\n ⋯\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}v_{\\mathsf {out}}={}&\\alpha _{1}{\\Bigl (}A_{1}\\cos(\\omega _{1}t)+A_{2}\\cos(\\omega _{2}t){\\Bigr )}\\\\&{}+\\alpha _{2}{\\Bigl (}{\\tfrac {1}{2}}A_{1}^{2}[1+\\cos(2\\omega _{1}t)]+A_{1}A_{2}[\\cos(\\omega _{1}t-\\omega _{2}t)+\\cos(\\omega _{1}t+\\omega _{2}t)]+{\\tfrac {1}{2}}A_{2}^{2}[1+\\cos(2\\omega _{2}t)]{\\Bigr )}+\\cdots \\end{aligned}}}Which leaves the two heterodyne frequencies as two among the many terms:v\n \n \n o\n u\n t\n \n \n \n =\n ⋯\n +\n \n α\n \n 2\n \n \n \n A\n \n 1\n \n \n \n A\n \n 2\n \n \n cos\n \n (\n \n ω\n \n 1\n \n \n −\n \n ω\n \n 2\n \n \n )\n t\n +\n \n α\n \n 2\n \n \n \n A\n \n 1\n \n \n \n A\n \n 2\n \n \n cos\n \n (\n \n ω\n \n 1\n \n \n +\n \n ω\n \n 2\n \n \n )\n t\n +\n ⋯\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\ v_{\\mathsf {out}}=\\cdots +\\alpha _{2}A_{1}A_{2}\\cos(\\omega _{1}-\\omega _{2})t+\\alpha _{2}A_{1}A_{2}\\cos(\\omega _{1}+\\omega _{2})t+\\cdots \\ }along with many other terms not shown.Among many other frequencies, the output contains sinusoidal terms with frequencies at the sum ω1 + ω2 and difference ω1 − ω2 of the two original frequencies. It also contains terms at the original frequencies and terms at multiples of the original frequencies 2 ω1 , 2 ω2 , 3 ω1 , 3 ω2 , etc., called harmonics. It also contains much more complicated terms at frequencies of M ω1 + N ω2 , called intermodulation products. These unwanted frequencies, along with the unwanted heterodyne frequency, must be removed from the mixer output by an electronic filter, to leave the desired heterodyne frequency.","title":"Mathematical principle"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"The Heterodyne Receiver\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/electricjournal18elecuoft"},{"link_name":"US 706740","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US706740"},{"link_name":"Fessenden, Reginald A.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reginald_Fessenden"},{"link_name":"US 1050728","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US1050728"},{"link_name":"Fessenden, Reginald A.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reginald_Fessenden"},{"link_name":"Authority control databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q760140#identifiers"},{"link_name":"Israel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007557898305171"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85060531"}],"text":"Hogan, John V. L. (April 1921). \"The Heterodyne Receiver\". Electric Journal. Vol. 18. p. 116.\nUS 706740, Fessenden, Reginald A., \"Wireless Signaling\", published September 28, 1901, issued August 12, 1902 \nUS 1050728, Fessenden, Reginald A., \"Method of Signaling\", published August 21, 1906, issued January 14, 1913Authority control databases: National \nIsrael\nUnited States","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"Frequency mixer symbol used in schematic diagrams","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/IdealMixer.svg/330px-IdealMixer.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Fessenden's heterodyne radio receiver circuit. The incoming radio frequency and local oscillator frequency mix in the crystal diode detector.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Heterodyne_radio_receiver_circuit_1920.png/220px-Heterodyne_radio_receiver_circuit_1920.png"},{"image_text":"Block diagram of a typical superheterodyne receiver. Red parts are those that handle the incoming radio frequency (RF) signal; green are parts that operate at the intermediate frequency (IF), while blue parts operate at the modulation (audio) frequency.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Superheterodyne_receiver_block_diagram_2.svg/350px-Superheterodyne_receiver_block_diagram_2.svg.png"}]
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[{"title":"Electroencephalography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroencephalography"},{"title":"Homodyne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homodyne"},{"title":"Intermodulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermodulation"},{"title":"Transverter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transverter"}]
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[{"reference":"Christopher E. Cooper (January 2001). Physics. Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers. pp. 25–. ISBN 978-1-57958-358-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=lEHsmDZigYMC&pg=PA25","url_text":"Physics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57958-358-3","url_text":"978-1-57958-358-3"}]},{"reference":"United States Bureau of Naval Personnel (1973). Basic Electronics. USA: Courier Dover. p. 338. ISBN 978-0-486-21076-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureau_of_Naval_Personnel","url_text":"United States Bureau of Naval Personnel"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=o6pn1Pdas1UC&q=heterodyne+mixer+modulation&pg=PA338","url_text":"Basic Electronics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-21076-6","url_text":"978-0-486-21076-6"}]},{"reference":"Graf, Rudolf F. (1999). Modern dictionary of electronics (7th ed.). USA: Newnes. p. 344. ISBN 978-0-7506-9866-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=uah1PkxWeKYC&q=heterodyning+frequencies&pg=PA344","url_text":"Modern dictionary of electronics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7506-9866-5","url_text":"978-0-7506-9866-5"}]},{"reference":"Horowitz, Paul; Hill, Winfield (1989). The Art of Electronics (2nd ed.). London: Cambridge University Press. pp. 885, 897. ISBN 978-0-521-37095-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Horowitz","url_text":"Horowitz, Paul"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winfield_Hill","url_text":"Hill, Winfield"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=bkOMDgwFA28C&q=heterodyning","url_text":"The Art of Electronics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-37095-0","url_text":"978-0-521-37095-0"}]},{"reference":"Strange, Allen; Strange, Patricia (2003). The Contemporary Violin: Extended Performance Techniques. Scarecrow Press. p. 216. ISBN 978-0-520-22409-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen_Strange","url_text":"Strange, Allen"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=HZtGs5_z4zIC&q=heterodyning+beat&pg=PA216","url_text":"The Contemporary Violin: Extended Performance Techniques"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-22409-4","url_text":"978-0-520-22409-4"}]},{"reference":"Ingard, Uno (2008). Acoustics. Jones and Bartlett. pp. 18–21. ISBN 978-1-934015-08-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=LD_wlUs2Fz0C&q=heterodyning+beat&pg=PA20","url_text":"Acoustics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-934015-08-7","url_text":"978-1-934015-08-7"}]},{"reference":"Ashley, Charles Grinnell; Heyward, Charles Brian (1912). Wireless Telegraphy and Wireless Telephony. Chicago: American School of Correspondence. pp. 103/15–104/16.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/wirelesstelegra00haywgoog","url_text":"Wireless Telegraphy and Wireless Telephony"}]},{"reference":"Charles, Poynton (2003). Digital Video and HDTV: Algorithms and Interfaces. San Francisco: Morgan Kaufmann Publishers. pp. 582–3. ISBN 978-1-55860-792-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Poynton","url_text":"Charles, Poynton"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ra1lcAwgvq4C","url_text":"Digital Video and HDTV: Algorithms and Interfaces"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55860-792-7","url_text":"978-1-55860-792-7"}]},{"reference":"Guerra, John M. (June 26, 1995). \"Super-resolution through illumination by diffraction-born evanescent waves\". Applied Physics Letters. 66 (26): 3555–3557. Bibcode:1995ApPhL..66.3555G. doi:10.1063/1.113814. ISSN 0003-6951.","urls":[{"url":"http://aip.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/1.113814","url_text":"\"Super-resolution through illumination by diffraction-born evanescent waves\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995ApPhL..66.3555G","url_text":"1995ApPhL..66.3555G"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.113814","url_text":"10.1063/1.113814"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0003-6951","url_text":"0003-6951"}]},{"reference":"Patel, R.; Achamfuo-Yeboah, S.; Light R.; Clark M. (2011). \"Widefield heterodyne interferometry using a custom CMOS modulated light camera\". Optics Express. 19 (24): 24546–24556. Bibcode:2011OExpr..1924546P. doi:10.1364/oe.19.024546. PMID 22109482.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.osapublishing.org/oe/abstract.cfm?uri=oe-19-24-24546","url_text":"\"Widefield heterodyne interferometry using a custom CMOS modulated light camera\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011OExpr..1924546P","url_text":"2011OExpr..1924546P"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1364%2Foe.19.024546","url_text":"10.1364/oe.19.024546"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22109482","url_text":"22109482"}]},{"reference":"Patel, R.; Achamfuo-Yeboah, S.; Light R.; Clark M. (2012). \"Ultrastable heterodyne interferometer system using a CMOS modulated light camera\". Optics Express. 20 (16): 17722–17733. Bibcode:2012OExpr..2017722P. doi:10.1364/oe.20.017722. PMID 23038324.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.osapublishing.org/oe/abstract.cfm?uri=oe-20-16-17722","url_text":"\"Ultrastable heterodyne interferometer system using a CMOS modulated light camera\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012OExpr..2017722P","url_text":"2012OExpr..2017722P"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1364%2Foe.20.017722","url_text":"10.1364/oe.20.017722"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23038324","url_text":"23038324"}]},{"reference":"Glinsky, Albert (2000). Theremin: Ether Music and Espionage. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-02582-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Glinsky","url_text":"Glinsky, Albert"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/thereminethermus00glin","url_text":"Theremin: Ether Music and Espionage"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-02582-2","url_text":"978-0-252-02582-2"}]},{"reference":"Nahin, Paul J. (2001). The Science of Radio with Matlab and Electronics Workbench Demonstrations (Second ed.). New York: Springer-Verlag, AIP Press. ISBN 978-0-387-95150-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_J._Nahin","url_text":"Nahin, Paul J."},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=V1GBW6UD4CcC","url_text":"The Science of Radio with Matlab and Electronics Workbench Demonstrations"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-95150-8","url_text":"978-0-387-95150-8"}]},{"reference":"Hogan, John V. L. (April 1921). \"The Heterodyne Receiver\". Electric Journal. Vol. 18. p. 116.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/electricjournal18elecuoft","url_text":"\"The Heterodyne Receiver\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_historic_Greek_countries_and_regions
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List of historical Greek countries and regions
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["1 Antiquity (to 330 AD)","1.1 Bronze Age","1.2 City states","1.3 Kingdoms, Empires and countries","2 Middle Ages (330–1453)","2.1 Byzantine Greek successor states","2.2 Crusader states","2.3 Other states","3 Modern era (after 1453)","3.1 Independent states","3.2 Autonomous, secessionist or unrecognised entities","4 References"]
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "List of historical Greek countries and regions" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
This is a list of Greek countries and regions throughout history. It includes empires, countries, states, regions and territories that have or had in the past one of the following characteristics:
An ethnic Greek majority
Greek language as an official language
A Greek ruling class or dynasty
Antiquity (to 330 AD)
Main article: Ancient Greece
Bronze Age
During the Bronze Age a number of entities were formed in Mycenean Greece (1600-1100 BC), each of them was ruled by a Wanax, including:
Iolcos
Mides
Mycenae
Orchomenos
Pylos
Thebes
Tiryns
Knossos, a Minoan palace centre, was later occupied by the Mycenaeans
City states
During the history of Ancient Greece a total of 1,500 to 2,000 city-states were established. These included:
Athens (1796–86 BC)
Chalcis (? – 146 BC)
Corinth (700 BC–146 BC)
Eretria (? – 146 BC)
Massalia (600–49 BC )
Sparta (900s– 146 BC)
Syracuse (734–212 BC)
Taras (706-201 BC)
Thebes (? – 146 BC)
Kingdoms, Empires and countries
Macedonian Empire (359 BC-323 BC)
Kingdom of Epirus (330 BC–167 BC)
Delian League (or Athenian Empire) (478-404 BC)
Kingdom of Cyrene (632–30 BC)
Thessalian League (?–170s BC): confederation of Greek city states
Chrysaorian League (? – 203 BC): confederation of Greek city states
Odrysian kingdom (480 BC–46 AD; under Greek rule since 340 BC until 46 AD)
Aetolian League (370–189 BC): confederation of Greek city states
Achaean League (256–146 BC): confederation of Greek city states
Antigonid dynasty (306 BC–168 BC)
Argead dynasty (700 BC-300 BC)
Antipatrid dynasty
Attalid kingdom (282 BC–133 BC)
Seleucid Empire (312–63 BC)
Ptolemaic Kingdom (305–30 BC)
Bosporan Kingdom (438 BC– 370 AD)
Kingdom of Pontus (302–64 BC): ruled by the Mithridatic dynasty of Persian origin, the kingdom was Hellenized in culture, and with Greek being the official language.
Greco-Bactrian Kingdom (250–125 BC)
Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BC – 10 AD)
Dayuan Kingdom (329 – 160 BC)
Parthian Empire (247 BC – 224 AD): ruled by the Arsacid dynasty of Parthia, it was partly Hellenized in culture, and with Greek being one of its official languages.
Kingdom of Cappadocia (320s BC – 17 AD): Hellenistic-era Iranian kingdom, with Greek the official language. The kingdom was founded by an Iranian dynasty, known as the Ariarathid dynasty (331–96 BC) and was succeeded by another one, the Ariobarzanid dynasty (96–36 BC). The last dynasty, that of Archelaus of Cappadocia (36 BC–17 AD), was of Greek origin.
Byzantine Empire (610 AD – 1204 AD; 1261 - 1453): The Greek language had official status
Epirus
Achaea
Macedonia
Thracia
Asia
Middle Ages (330–1453)
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "List of historical Greek countries and regions" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
The Greek Middle Ages are coterminous with the duration of the Byzantine Empire (330–1453).
After 395 the Roman Empire split in two. In the East, Greeks were the predominant national group and their language was the lingua franca of the region. Christianity was the official religion of this new Empire, spread through the region by the Greek language, the language in which the first gospels were written. The language of the aristocracy however remained Latin, until gradually replaced by Greek by 7th century. The East Roman Empire retained its status as the power at least in the Mediterranean world until the 12th century. Amongst its impacts was the spread of Christianity to Eastern Europe and the Slavs, the halting of the Persian, Slavic and Arab expansions towards Europe and the preservation of a significant body of the cultural heritage of Greek-Roman Antiquity. In 1204, after a civil struggleover the succession of throne among the members of ruling Angelid(Angeloi), the Fourth Crusade conquered the capital, Constantinople. The Empire was subject to partitions and crises from which it never recovered.
Byzantine Greek successor states
Despotate of Epirus (1205–1479)
Empire of Nicaea (1204–1261), which re-established the Byzantine Empire in 1261.
Empire of Trebizond (1204–1461)
Despotate of the Morea (1308/1348–1460)
Principality of Theodoro (early 14th century–1475)
Crusader states
Main article: Crusader states
County of Edessa (1098–1149): crusader state with a partly Greek population
Lordship of Turbessel: vassal of the County of Edessa
Principality of Antioch (1098–1268): crusader state with a partly Greek population
Kingdom of Jerusalem (1099–1291): crusader state with a partly Greek population
Vassals of the Kingdom of Jerusalem
County of Tripoli (1102–1289): crusader state with a partly Greek population
County palatine of Cephalonia and Zakynthos (1185–1479): as a vassal of the Kingdom of Sicily with an ethnic Greek majority
Kingdom of Cyprus (1192–1489): crusader state with an ethnic Greek majority and partly Greek dynasty
Latin Empire (1204–1261): crusader state with an ethnic Greek majority, established after the sack of Constantinople by the Crusaders of the Fourth Crusade
Kingdom of Thessalonica (1202–1224): crusader state with an ethnic Greek majority
Duchy of Neopatria (1204–1390): crusader state with an ethnic Greek majority
Margraviate of Bodonitsa (1204–1414): crusader state with an ethnic Greek majority
Principality of Achaea (1205–1432): crusader state with an ethnic Greek majority
Duchy of Athens (1205–1458): crusader state with an ethnic Greek majority
Lordship of Argos and Nauplia (1205–1388): crusader state with an ethnic Greek majority
Lordship of Salona (1205–1410): crusader state, established after the Fourth Crusade
Duchy of the Archipelago (1207–1579): crusader state with an ethnic Greek majority
Lordship of Chios (1304–1566): crusader state with an ethnic Greek majority
Knights Hospitaller of Rhodes (1310–1522): crusader state with an ethnic Greek majority
Knights of St. John of Kastellorizo (1309–1440): crusader state with an ethnic Greek majority
Principality of Lesbos (1355–1462)
Various possessions of the Republic of Venice in Greece:
Kingdom of Crete (1204–1669)
Kingdom of Cyprus (1489–1573)
Ionian Islands (acquired at various times, held until 1799)
Kingdom of the Morea (c. 1690–1715)
Lordship of Negroponte (1204–1470): crusader state with an ethnic Greek majority
Other states
Cretan Republic (1332–1371)
Modern era (after 1453)
Independent states
Septinsular Republic (1799–1815), independent under nominal Russian and Ottoman sovereignty. The Ionian Islands were under Venetian Sovereignty from 1386-1797. During this time, the main administrative body of the islands was the General Council of Corfu which was made up of aristocratic families, both Orthodox and Catholic. This led to the islands being ruled as a kind of oligarchic proto-republic until the formal establishment of the Septinsular Republic in 1799.
/ Greece (1822–present)
Cyprus (1960–present)
Autonomous, secessionist or unrecognised entities
Main article: List of historical unrecognized states and dependencies
Autonomous Monastic State of the Holy Mountain: autonomous region of Greece since 1913. Autonomy dated at least to 943.
Himara (15th century - 1912): autonomous region located in modern-day southern Albania.
Cycladic islands (1537-1828): most of the Cycladic islands in the Aegean Sea retained their distinct local governments and charters, being ruled by locally elected representatives or dukes.
Koinon of the Zagorisians (1431/1670–1868): the Zagori village mountains formed league of important villages in Epirus governed by a council of elders, located in the modern-day Zagori municipality of Greece.
Phanariote period in Wallachia & Moldavia (1560/1711–1822): autonomous principalities ruled by the Phanariotes. Greeks had been established as rulers in Wallachia as early as the 16th century. From 1701-1822 AD, the country was controlled exclusively by Greek Phanariotes appointed by Constantinople.
Mani (1461 – 1833): sovereign region in the Peloponnese. The first post-Byzantine lord of Mani is considered to be Michael Rallis, after his death in 1466 Krokodeilos Kladas succeeded him. From the 16th-18th centuries Mani was a heavily decentralised region ruled by local Orthodox Christian Captains. After 1776, the lordship of Mani was formally recognised by the Ottomans, and the local ruler was called a bey. Mani was famous for being a Christian stronghold and a trustworthy ally for the Holy League during their wars with the Ottoman Empire. By the late 1700s the Maniots controlled large swathes of land in the southern Peloponnese, and the area became a refuge for many Greeks who were fleeing from Albanian raiders in the aftermath of the Orlov Revolt. During the late 1600s, Limberakis Gerakaris was the most powerful Captain of Mani and was recognised as Bey by the Ottomans, he was famous for his numerous slave raids on Ottoman and Venetian ships. Tzanetos Grigorakis, who ruled Mani from 1782-1798 was famous for his attempts to centralise the region and his reign was romanticised by the poet Nikitas Niphakos who stayed at his court. Mani was governed according to a mixture of local oral law and Orthodox Church canon law. The first region in which the Greek Revolution began in 1821 was in Mani and it was orchestrated by Petrobey Mavromichalis. After 1833, Mani was integrated into the Kingdom of Greece.
United States of the Ionian Islands (1815–1864): amical protectorate of the United Kingdom.
Regional administrations during the Greek War of Independence (March 1821 – c. 1825):
Messenian Senate (1821)
Peloponnesian Senate (1821-1823)
Senate of Western Continental Greece (1821-1823)
Areopagus of Eastern Continental Greece (1821-1825)
Polity of Crete
Military-Political System of Samos (1821-1834)
Principality of Samos (1835–1912): incorporated into Greece.
Cretan State (1898–1913): incorporated into Greece.
Free State of Icaria (1912): short-lived independent state, incorporated into Greece.
Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus (1914): short-lived autonomous Greek state in modern-day Southern Albania (Northern Epirus) under a provisional government. Autonomy recognised in the Protocol of Corfu.
State of Thessaloniki (1916–1917): short-lived Venizelist Provisional Government established in Macedonia amidst the National Schism. It controlled northern Greece and the island of Crete. The rest of Greece was controlled by the government in Athens (State of Athens). Greece was reunited in 1917.
Republic of Pontus (1917–1922): Pontian Greek short-lived state.
Ionian autonomy (1922): short-lived Greek dependency in the region of Ionia, Asia Minor, during the final stages of the Asia Minor expedition.
Imbros and Tenedos: Aegean islands inhabited historically mainly by ethnic Greeks. Under Greek administration from 1912. Following the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923, Gökçeada (Imbros) and Bozcaada (Tenedos) became part of Turkey, but were exempted from the population exchange.
Political Committee of National Liberation (1944), otherwise known as the "Mountain Government": a provisional government established in liberated areas by the National Liberation Front in the last stages of the Axis occupation of Greece during World War II. It was integrated with the Greek government-in-exile in a national unity government at the Lebanon conference in May 1944, and existed until the full German withdrawal from the country in October.
Provisional Democratic Government (1947-1949): a Communist Party-dominated provisional government established during the Greek Civil War in opposition to the royal government in Athens. It ceased to exist with the victory of the royalist forces in the civil war.
References
^ Bury, J. B.; Meiggs, Russell (1975). A History of Greece (Fourth ed.). London: MacMillan Press. p. 19. ISBN 0-333-15492-4.
^ Hanson, Victor Davis (2004). "Rural Greece Under the Democracy". Times Literary Supplement – via www.victorhanson.com.
^ a b McGing, B. C. (1986). The Foreign Policy of Mithridates VI Eupator, King of Pontus. BRILL. p. 11. ISBN 978-9004075917.
^ a b Freely, John. Children of Achilles: The Greeks in Asia Minor Since the Days of Troy. pp. 69–70.
^ Dueck, Daniela. Strabo of Amasia: A Greek Man of Letters in Augustan Rome. p. 3.
^ Weiskopf, Michael (1990). "CAPPADOCIA". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Vol. IV, Fasc. 7-8. pp. 780–786. (...) Hellenistic-era Iranian kingdom (...) But all in all, Cappadocia remained an Iranian kingdom, one which developed from an Achaemenid satrapy.
^ McGing, Brian (1986). "Eupator in Asia before the first war with Rome". The Foreign Policy of Mithridates VI Eupator, King of Pontus. BRILL. p. 72. ISBN 978-9004075917. As in Pontus the ruling family was of Iranian descent.
^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 3 April 2015. Retrieved 22 February 2008. In May 1914, the Great Powers signed the Protocol of Corfu, which recognised the area as Greek.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
^ "Republic of Pontus (Greece, 1917-1922)". Flags of the World.
^ Gross, Andreas. "Gökçeada (Imbros) and Bozcaada (Tenedos): preserving the bicultural character of the two Turkish islands as a model for co-operation between Turkey and Greece in the interest of the people concerned". Council of Europe. Retrieved 4 September 2012.
vteGreece topics
Basic topics
Alphabetical index of topics
HistoryPrehistory (pre-1100 BC)
Neolithic Age
Bronze Age
Pelasgians
Cycladic civilization
Minoan civilization
Helladic period
Mycenaean period
Bronze Age collapse
Antiquity (1100 BC-330 AD)
Greek Dark Ages
Iron Age migrations
Archaic period
Greco-Persian Wars
Classical period
Delian and Peloponnesian League
Peloponnesian War
League of Corinth
Wars of Alexander the Great
Hellenistic period
Wars of the Diadochi
Roman–Greek wars
Roman era
Foundation of Constantinople
Middle Ages (330–1453)
Byzantine period
Persecution of paganism
Migration period
Plague of Justinian
Arab–Byzantine wars
Iconoclasm
Macedonian Renaissance
East–West Schism
Fourth Crusade
Frankokratia
Empire of Nicaea, Despotate of Epirus and Despotate of the Morea
Fall of Constantinople
Early modernand Modern era (post-1453)
Stato da Màr (Venetian Ionian islands, Kingdom of Candia)
Ottoman Greece
Modern Greek Enlightenment
Septinsular Republic
War of Independence
First Republic
Kingdom
Balkan Wars
World War I
National Schism
Greco-Turkish War
History of Greece (1923–1940)
Second Republic
4th of August Regime
World War II
Civil war
Military junta
Democratization
Third Republic
By topic
Ancient regions and tribes
Byzantine and Ottoman Greeks
Christianization
Colonization
Coups d'état
Demographic (Modern)
Economic
Geographical name changes
Greek countries and regions
Greek Muslims
Renaissance scholars
Hellenic languages and Proto-Greek
Inventions and discoveries
Language question
Military
Monarchy (Kings and royal family)
Phanariotes
Polis
Population exchange of 1923
GeographyOverview
Borders
Cities (capital and co-capital)
Extreme points
Place names
Regions
Central Greece (Aetolia-Acarnania (Aetolia, Acarnania), Attica, Boeotia, Euboea, Evrytania, Phocis, Phthiotis, Saronic Islands)
Crete (Chania, Heraklion, Rethymno, Lasithi)
Cyclades (Andros, Delos, Kea, Kythnos, Milos, Mykonos, Naxos, Paros, Santorini, Syros, Tinos)
Dodecanese (Agathonisi, Astypalaia, Chalki, Kalymnos, Karpathos, Kasos, Kos, Leipsoi, Leros, Nisyros, Patmos, Rhodes, Symi, Tilos, Kastellorizo)
Epirus (Arta, Ioannina, Preveza, Thesprotia)
Ionian Islands (Corfu, Ithaca, Kefalonia, Kythira, Lefkada, Paxi, Zakynthos)
Macedonia (Chalkidiki, Drama, Florina, Grevena, Imathia, Kastoria, Kavala, Kilkis, Kozani, Pella, Pieria, Serres, Thasos, Thessaloniki)
North Aegean islands (Chios, Ikaria, Lemnos, Lesbos, Samos)
Peloponnese (Arcadia, Argolis, Corinthia, Laconia, Messenia, Achaea, Elis)
Thessaly (Karditsa, Larissa, Magnesia, Trikala, Sporades)
Thrace (Evros, Rhodope, Xanthi)
Terrain
Canyons and gorges
Caves
Geology
Islands (Aegean, Ionian, Crete)
Mountains (Olympus, Pindus, Rhodopes)
Peninsulas
Plains
Volcanoes
Water
Coasts
Lakes
Rivers
Mediterranean Sea
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|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"history","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History"},{"link_name":"empires","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire"},{"link_name":"countries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Country"},{"link_name":"states","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereign_state"},{"link_name":"regions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_region"},{"link_name":"territories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Territory_(administrative_division)"},{"link_name":"ethnic Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks"},{"link_name":"Greek language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"official language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Official_language"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks"},{"link_name":"dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynasty"}],"text":"This is a list of Greek countries and regions throughout history. It includes empires, countries, states, regions and territories that have or had in the past one of the following characteristics:An ethnic Greek majority\nGreek language as an official language\nA Greek ruling class or dynasty","title":"List of historical Greek countries and regions"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Antiquity (to 330 AD)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mycenean Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycenean_Greece"},{"link_name":"Wanax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wanax"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Iolcos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iolcos"},{"link_name":"Mides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mides"},{"link_name":"Mycenae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycenae"},{"link_name":"Orchomenos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchomenus_(Boeotia)"},{"link_name":"Pylos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pylos"},{"link_name":"Thebes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Thebes_(Boeotia)"},{"link_name":"Tiryns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiryns"},{"link_name":"Knossos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knossos"},{"link_name":"Minoan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoan"},{"link_name":"palace centre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoan_palace"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BM19-1"}],"sub_title":"Bronze Age","text":"During the Bronze Age a number of entities were formed in Mycenean Greece (1600-1100 BC), each of them was ruled by a Wanax,[citation needed] including:Iolcos\nMides\nMycenae\nOrchomenos\nPylos\nThebes\nTirynsKnossos, a Minoan palace centre, was later occupied by the Mycenaeans [1]","title":"Antiquity (to 330 AD)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ancient Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Athens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Athens"},{"link_name":"Chalcis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcis"},{"link_name":"Corinth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Corinth"},{"link_name":"Eretria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eretria"},{"link_name":"Massalia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marseille#Antiquity"},{"link_name":"Sparta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta"},{"link_name":"Syracuse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syracuse,_Sicily"},{"link_name":"Taras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taranto"},{"link_name":"Thebes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Thebes_(Boeotia)"}],"sub_title":"City states","text":"During the history of Ancient Greece a total of 1,500 to 2,000[2] city-states were established. These included:Athens (1796–86 BC)\nChalcis (? – 146 BC)\nCorinth (700 BC–146 BC)\nEretria (? – 146 BC)\nMassalia (600–49 BC )\nSparta (900s– 146 BC)\nSyracuse (734–212 BC)\nTaras (706-201 BC)\nThebes (? – 146 BC)","title":"Antiquity (to 330 AD)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Macedonian Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Epirus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epirus_(ancient_state)"},{"link_name":"Delian League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delian_League"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Cyrene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrenaica#Greek_rule"},{"link_name":"Thessalian League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thessalian_League"},{"link_name":"Chrysaorian League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysaorian_League"},{"link_name":"Odrysian kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odrysian_kingdom"},{"link_name":"Aetolian League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aetolian_League"},{"link_name":"Achaean League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaean_League"},{"link_name":"Antigonid dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigonid_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Argead dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argead_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Antipatrid dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipatrid_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Attalid kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attalid_kingdom"},{"link_name":"Seleucid Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seleucid_Empire"},{"link_name":"Ptolemaic Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Bosporan Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosporan_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Pontus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus"},{"link_name":"Mithridatic dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithridatic_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Persian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_people"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McGing_p.11-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Freely-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Freely-4"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McGing_p.11-3"},{"link_name":"Greco-Bactrian Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Indo-Greek Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Dayuan Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dayuan"},{"link_name":"Parthian Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthian_Empire"},{"link_name":"Arsacid dynasty of Parthia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsacid_dynasty_of_Parthia"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Cappadocia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cappadocia"},{"link_name":"Hellenistic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic"},{"link_name":"Iranian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_peoples"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Ariarathid dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariarathid_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Archelaus of Cappadocia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archelaus_of_Cappadocia"},{"link_name":"Byzantine Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire"},{"link_name":"Epirus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epirus_(Roman_province)"},{"link_name":"Achaea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaea_(Roman_province)"},{"link_name":"Macedonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(Roman_province)"},{"link_name":"Thracia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thracia"},{"link_name":"Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia_(Roman_province)"}],"sub_title":"Kingdoms, Empires and countries","text":"Macedonian Empire (359 BC-323 BC)\nKingdom of Epirus (330 BC–167 BC)\nDelian League (or Athenian Empire) (478-404 BC)\nKingdom of Cyrene (632–30 BC)\nThessalian League (?–170s BC): confederation of Greek city states\nChrysaorian League (? – 203 BC): confederation of Greek city states\nOdrysian kingdom (480 BC–46 AD; under Greek rule since 340 BC until 46 AD)\nAetolian League (370–189 BC): confederation of Greek city states\nAchaean League (256–146 BC): confederation of Greek city states\nAntigonid dynasty (306 BC–168 BC)\nArgead dynasty (700 BC-300 BC)\nAntipatrid dynasty\nAttalid kingdom (282 BC–133 BC)\nSeleucid Empire (312–63 BC)\nPtolemaic Kingdom (305–30 BC)\nBosporan Kingdom (438 BC– 370 AD)\nKingdom of Pontus (302–64 BC): ruled by the Mithridatic dynasty of Persian origin,[3][4][5] the kingdom was Hellenized in culture,[4] and with Greek being the official language.[3]\nGreco-Bactrian Kingdom (250–125 BC)\nIndo-Greek Kingdom (180 BC – 10 AD)\nDayuan Kingdom (329 – 160 BC)\nParthian Empire (247 BC – 224 AD): ruled by the Arsacid dynasty of Parthia, it was partly Hellenized in culture, and with Greek being one of its official languages.\nKingdom of Cappadocia (320s BC – 17 AD): Hellenistic-era Iranian kingdom,[6][7] with Greek the official language. The kingdom was founded by an Iranian dynasty, known as the Ariarathid dynasty (331–96 BC) and was succeeded by another one, the Ariobarzanid dynasty (96–36 BC). The last dynasty, that of Archelaus of Cappadocia (36 BC–17 AD), was of Greek origin.\n Byzantine Empire (610 AD – 1204 AD; 1261 - 1453): The Greek language had official status\nEpirus\nAchaea\nMacedonia\nThracia\nAsia","title":"Antiquity (to 330 AD)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Middle Ages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages"},{"link_name":"Byzantine Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Roman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"lingua franca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca"},{"link_name":"Slavs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavs"},{"link_name":"Greek-Roman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greco-Roman_world"},{"link_name":"Antiquity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Antiquity"},{"link_name":"Angelid(Angeloi)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantium_under_the_Angeloi"},{"link_name":"Fourth Crusade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_Crusade"},{"link_name":"Constantinople","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinople"}],"text":"The Greek Middle Ages are coterminous with the duration of the Byzantine Empire (330–1453).[citation needed]After 395 the Roman Empire split in two. In the East, Greeks were the predominant national group and their language was the lingua franca of the region. Christianity was the official religion of this new Empire, spread through the region by the Greek language, the language in which the first gospels were written. The language of the aristocracy however remained Latin, until gradually replaced by Greek by 7th century. The East Roman Empire retained its status as the power at least in the Mediterranean world until the 12th century. Amongst its impacts was the spread of Christianity to Eastern Europe and the Slavs, the halting of the Persian, Slavic and Arab expansions towards Europe and the preservation of a significant body of the cultural heritage of Greek-Roman Antiquity. In 1204, after a civil struggleover the succession of throne among the members of ruling Angelid(Angeloi), the Fourth Crusade conquered the capital, Constantinople. The Empire was subject to partitions and crises from which it never recovered.","title":"Middle Ages (330–1453)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Despotate of Epirus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirus"},{"link_name":"Empire of Nicaea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Banner_of_the_Empire_of_Trebizond.svg"},{"link_name":"Empire of Trebizond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond"},{"link_name":"Despotate of the Morea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Despotate_of_the_Morea"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_Gothia.svg"},{"link_name":"Principality of Theodoro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principality_of_Theodoro"}],"sub_title":"Byzantine Greek successor states","text":"Despotate of Epirus (1205–1479)\nEmpire of Nicaea (1204–1261), which re-established the Byzantine Empire in 1261.\n Empire of Trebizond (1204–1461)\nDespotate of the Morea (1308/1348–1460)\n Principality of Theodoro (early 14th century–1475)","title":"Middle Ages (330–1453)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"County of Edessa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_of_Edessa"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arms_of_the_House_of_Courtenay_(undifferencied_arms).svg"},{"link_name":"Lordship of Turbessel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_of_Edessa#Lordship_of_Turbessel"},{"link_name":"vassal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vassal_state"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Prince_Boh%C3%A9mond_VI_of_Antioch.png"},{"link_name":"Principality of Antioch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principality_of_Antioch"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Jerusalem.svg"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Jerusalem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem"},{"link_name":"Vassals of the Kingdom of Jerusalem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vassals_of_the_Kingdom_of_Jerusalem"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Armoiries_Tripoli.svg"},{"link_name":"County of Tripoli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_of_Tripoli"},{"link_name":"County palatine of Cephalonia and Zakynthos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_palatine_of_Cephalonia_and_Zakynthos"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Sicily","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_the_House_of_Lusignan_(Kings_of_Armenia,_Cyprus_and_Jerusalem).svg"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Cyprus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cyprus"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arms_of_Courtenay-Constantinople.svg"},{"link_name":"Latin Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_Empire"},{"link_name":"Constantinople","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinople"},{"link_name":"Crusaders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusaders"},{"link_name":"Fourth Crusade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_Crusade"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Thessalonica.svg"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Thessalonica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Thessalonica"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Duchy_of_Neopatria.svg"},{"link_name":"Duchy of Neopatria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Neopatria"},{"link_name":"Margraviate of Bodonitsa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margraviate_of_Bodonitsa"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_Principality_of_Achaea.svg"},{"link_name":"Principality of Achaea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principality_of_Achaea"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arms_of_the_House_of_de_la_Roche.svg"},{"link_name":"Duchy of Athens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Athens"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_House_of_Brienne_(Counts_of_Brienne).svg"},{"link_name":"Lordship of Argos and Nauplia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argos_and_Nauplia"},{"link_name":"Lordship of Salona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lordship_of_Salona"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_the_House_of_Sanudo.svg"},{"link_name":"Duchy of the Archipelago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_the_Archipelago"},{"link_name":"Lordship of Chios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lordship_of_Chios"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta"},{"link_name":"Knights Hospitaller of Rhodes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knights_Hospitaller#Knights_of_Cyprus_and_Rhodes"},{"link_name":"Knights of St. John of Kastellorizo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta"},{"link_name":"Principality of Lesbos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gattilusi"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Venice"},{"link_name":"Republic of Venice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Venice"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Crete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Candia"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Cyprus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cyprus"},{"link_name":"Ionian Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionian_Islands"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of the Morea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Morea"},{"link_name":"Lordship of Negroponte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lordship_of_Negroponte"}],"sub_title":"Crusader states","text":"County of Edessa (1098–1149): crusader state with a partly Greek populationLordship of Turbessel: vassal of the County of EdessaPrincipality of Antioch (1098–1268): crusader state with a partly Greek population\n Kingdom of Jerusalem (1099–1291): crusader state with a partly Greek populationVassals of the Kingdom of JerusalemCounty of Tripoli (1102–1289): crusader state with a partly Greek population\nCounty palatine of Cephalonia and Zakynthos (1185–1479): as a vassal of the Kingdom of Sicily with an ethnic Greek majority\n Kingdom of Cyprus (1192–1489): crusader state with an ethnic Greek majority and partly Greek dynasty\n Latin Empire (1204–1261): crusader state with an ethnic Greek majority, established after the sack of Constantinople by the Crusaders of the Fourth Crusade\n Kingdom of Thessalonica (1202–1224): crusader state with an ethnic Greek majority\n Duchy of Neopatria (1204–1390): crusader state with an ethnic Greek majority\nMargraviate of Bodonitsa (1204–1414): crusader state with an ethnic Greek majority\n Principality of Achaea (1205–1432): crusader state with an ethnic Greek majority\n Duchy of Athens (1205–1458): crusader state with an ethnic Greek majority\n Lordship of Argos and Nauplia (1205–1388): crusader state with an ethnic Greek majority\nLordship of Salona (1205–1410): crusader state, established after the Fourth Crusade\n Duchy of the Archipelago (1207–1579): crusader state with an ethnic Greek majority\nLordship of Chios (1304–1566): crusader state with an ethnic Greek majority\n Knights Hospitaller of Rhodes (1310–1522): crusader state with an ethnic Greek majority\n Knights of St. John of Kastellorizo (1309–1440): crusader state with an ethnic Greek majority\nPrincipality of Lesbos (1355–1462)\n Various possessions of the Republic of Venice in Greece:Kingdom of Crete (1204–1669)\nKingdom of Cyprus (1489–1573)\nIonian Islands (acquired at various times, held until 1799)\nKingdom of the Morea (c. 1690–1715)\nLordship of Negroponte (1204–1470): crusader state with an ethnic Greek majority","title":"Middle Ages (330–1453)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cretan Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sfakians#Rebellions_.281332_-_1371.29"}],"sub_title":"Other states","text":"Cretan Republic (1332–1371)","title":"Middle Ages (330–1453)"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Modern era (after 1453)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Septinsular Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septinsular_Republic"},{"link_name":"Ionian Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionian_Islands"},{"link_name":"Corfu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corfu"},{"link_name":"Septinsular Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septinsular_Republic"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece"},{"link_name":"Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprus"},{"link_name":"Cyprus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprus"}],"sub_title":"Independent states","text":"Septinsular Republic (1799–1815), independent under nominal Russian and Ottoman sovereignty. The Ionian Islands were under Venetian Sovereignty from 1386-1797. During this time, the main administrative body of the islands was the General Council of Corfu which was made up of aristocratic families, both Orthodox and Catholic. This led to the islands being ruled as a kind of oligarchic proto-republic until the formal establishment of the Septinsular Republic in 1799.\n/ Greece (1822–present)\n Cyprus (1960–present)","title":"Modern era (after 1453)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Autonomous Monastic State of the Holy Mountain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Athos"},{"link_name":"Himara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himara"},{"link_name":"Cycladic islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycladic_islands"},{"link_name":"Koinon of the Zagorisians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koinon_of_the_Zagorisians"},{"link_name":"Zagori","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zagori"},{"link_name":"Phanariote","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phanariotes#Phanariotes_in_the_Danubian_Principalities"},{"link_name":"Wallachia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallachia"},{"link_name":"Moldavia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldavia"},{"link_name":"Phanariotes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phanariotes"},{"link_name":"Mani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mani_Peninsula"},{"link_name":"Peloponnese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peloponnese"},{"link_name":"Krokodeilos Kladas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krokodeilos_Kladas"},{"link_name":"bey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bey"},{"link_name":"Holy League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_League"},{"link_name":"Orlov Revolt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orlov_Revolt"},{"link_name":"Limberakis Gerakaris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limberakis_Gerakaris"},{"link_name":"Bey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bey"},{"link_name":"Tzanetos Grigorakis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tzanetos_Grigorakis"},{"link_name":"Nikitas Niphakos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nikitas_Niphakos&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Greek Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Revolution"},{"link_name":"Petrobey Mavromichalis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrobey_Mavromichalis"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Greece"},{"link_name":"United States of the Ionian Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_of_the_Ionian_Islands"},{"link_name":"amical protectorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protectorate"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Greek War of Independence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence"},{"link_name":"Messenian Senate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messenian_Senate"},{"link_name":"Peloponnesian Senate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peloponnesian_Senate"},{"link_name":"Senate of Western Continental Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senate_of_Western_Continental_Greece"},{"link_name":"Areopagus of Eastern Continental Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Areopagus_of_Eastern_Continental_Greece"},{"link_name":"Military-Political System of Samos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military-Political_System_of_Samos"},{"link_name":"Principality of Samos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principality_of_Samos"},{"link_name":"Cretan State","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretan_State"},{"link_name":"Free State of Icaria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikaria#Free_State_of_Icaria"},{"link_name":"Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_Republic_of_Northern_Epirus"},{"link_name":"Albania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albania"},{"link_name":"Northern Epirus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Epirus"},{"link_name":"provisional government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_Northern_Epirus"},{"link_name":"Protocol of Corfu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protocol_of_Corfu"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"State of Thessaloniki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_Thessaloniki"},{"link_name":"Venizelist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venizelism"},{"link_name":"Macedonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(Greece)"},{"link_name":"National Schism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Schism"},{"link_name":"Republic of Pontus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Pontus"},{"link_name":"Pontian Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontic_Greeks"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RoP-9"},{"link_name":"Ionian autonomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_administration_of_Smyrna_(1919-1922)"},{"link_name":"Ionia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionia"},{"link_name":"Asia Minor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia_Minor"},{"link_name":"Asia Minor expedition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greco-Turkish_War_(1919%E2%80%931922)"},{"link_name":"Imbros","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imbros"},{"link_name":"Tenedos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenedos"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Lausanne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Lausanne"},{"link_name":"population exchange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_Concerning_the_Exchange_of_Greek_and_Turkish_Populations"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-COE-10"},{"link_name":"Political Committee of National Liberation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_Committee_of_National_Liberation"},{"link_name":"National Liberation Front","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Liberation_Front_(Greece)"},{"link_name":"Axis occupation of Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_occupation_of_Greece"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Greek government-in-exile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_government-in-exile"},{"link_name":"national unity government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_unity_government"},{"link_name":"Lebanon conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanon_conference"},{"link_name":"Provisional Democratic Government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_Democratic_Government"},{"link_name":"Communist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Greece"},{"link_name":"Greek Civil War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Civil_War"},{"link_name":"royal government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Greece"}],"sub_title":"Autonomous, secessionist or unrecognised entities","text":"Autonomous Monastic State of the Holy Mountain: autonomous region of Greece since 1913. Autonomy dated at least to 943.\n Himara (15th century - 1912): autonomous region located in modern-day southern Albania.\n Cycladic islands (1537-1828): most of the Cycladic islands in the Aegean Sea retained their distinct local governments and charters, being ruled by locally elected representatives or dukes.\n Koinon of the Zagorisians (1431/1670–1868): the Zagori village mountains formed league of important villages in Epirus governed by a council of elders, located in the modern-day Zagori municipality of Greece.\n Phanariote period in Wallachia & Moldavia (1560/1711–1822): autonomous principalities ruled by the Phanariotes. Greeks had been established as rulers in Wallachia as early as the 16th century. From 1701-1822 AD, the country was controlled exclusively by Greek Phanariotes appointed by Constantinople.\n Mani (1461 – 1833): sovereign region in the Peloponnese. The first post-Byzantine lord of Mani is considered to be Michael Rallis, after his death in 1466 Krokodeilos Kladas succeeded him. From the 16th-18th centuries Mani was a heavily decentralised region ruled by local Orthodox Christian Captains. After 1776, the lordship of Mani was formally recognised by the Ottomans, and the local ruler was called a bey. Mani was famous for being a Christian stronghold and a trustworthy ally for the Holy League during their wars with the Ottoman Empire. By the late 1700s the Maniots controlled large swathes of land in the southern Peloponnese, and the area became a refuge for many Greeks who were fleeing from Albanian raiders in the aftermath of the Orlov Revolt. During the late 1600s, Limberakis Gerakaris was the most powerful Captain of Mani and was recognised as Bey by the Ottomans, he was famous for his numerous slave raids on Ottoman and Venetian ships. Tzanetos Grigorakis, who ruled Mani from 1782-1798 was famous for his attempts to centralise the region and his reign was romanticised by the poet Nikitas Niphakos who stayed at his court. Mani was governed according to a mixture of local oral law and Orthodox Church canon law. The first region in which the Greek Revolution began in 1821 was in Mani and it was orchestrated by Petrobey Mavromichalis. After 1833, Mani was integrated into the Kingdom of Greece.\n United States of the Ionian Islands (1815–1864): amical protectorate of the United Kingdom.\n Regional administrations during the Greek War of Independence (March 1821 – c. 1825):Messenian Senate (1821)\nPeloponnesian Senate (1821-1823)\nSenate of Western Continental Greece (1821-1823)\n Areopagus of Eastern Continental Greece (1821-1825)\nPolity of Crete\n Military-Political System of Samos (1821-1834)Principality of Samos (1835–1912): incorporated into Greece.\n Cretan State (1898–1913): incorporated into Greece.\n Free State of Icaria (1912): short-lived independent state, incorporated into Greece.\n Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus (1914): short-lived autonomous Greek state in modern-day Southern Albania (Northern Epirus) under a provisional government. Autonomy recognised in the Protocol of Corfu.[8]\n State of Thessaloniki (1916–1917): short-lived Venizelist Provisional Government established in Macedonia amidst the National Schism. It controlled northern Greece and the island of Crete. The rest of Greece was controlled by the government in Athens (State of Athens). Greece was reunited in 1917.\n Republic of Pontus (1917–1922): Pontian Greek short-lived state.[9]\n Ionian autonomy (1922): short-lived Greek dependency in the region of Ionia, Asia Minor, during the final stages of the Asia Minor expedition.\nImbros and Tenedos: Aegean islands inhabited historically mainly by ethnic Greeks. Under Greek administration from 1912. Following the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923, Gökçeada (Imbros) and Bozcaada (Tenedos) became part of Turkey, but were exempted from the population exchange.[10]\n Political Committee of National Liberation (1944), otherwise known as the \"Mountain Government\": a provisional government established in liberated areas by the National Liberation Front in the last stages of the Axis occupation of Greece during World War II. It was integrated with the Greek government-in-exile in a national unity government at the Lebanon conference in May 1944, and existed until the full German withdrawal from the country in October.\n Provisional Democratic Government (1947-1949): a Communist Party-dominated provisional government established during the Greek Civil War in opposition to the royal government in Athens. It ceased to exist with the victory of the royalist forces in the civil war.","title":"Modern era (after 1453)"}]
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[{"reference":"Bury, J. B.; Meiggs, Russell (1975). A History of Greece (Fourth ed.). London: MacMillan Press. p. 19. ISBN 0-333-15492-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._B._Bury","url_text":"Bury, J. B."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russell_Meiggs","url_text":"Meiggs, Russell"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-15492-4","url_text":"0-333-15492-4"}]},{"reference":"Hanson, Victor Davis (2004). \"Rural Greece Under the Democracy\". Times Literary Supplement – via www.victorhanson.com.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.victorhanson.com/wordpress/rural-greece-under-the-democracy/","url_text":"\"Rural Greece Under the Democracy\""}]},{"reference":"McGing, B. C. (1986). The Foreign Policy of Mithridates VI Eupator, King of Pontus. BRILL. p. 11. ISBN 978-9004075917.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004075917","url_text":"978-9004075917"}]},{"reference":"Freely, John. Children of Achilles: The Greeks in Asia Minor Since the Days of Troy. pp. 69–70.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Dueck, Daniela. Strabo of Amasia: A Greek Man of Letters in Augustan Rome. p. 3.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Weiskopf, Michael (1990). \"CAPPADOCIA\". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Vol. IV, Fasc. 7-8. pp. 780–786. (...) Hellenistic-era Iranian kingdom (...) But all in all, Cappadocia remained an Iranian kingdom, one which developed from an Achaemenid satrapy.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cappadocia","url_text":"Encyclopaedia Iranica"}]},{"reference":"McGing, Brian (1986). \"Eupator in Asia before the first war with Rome\". The Foreign Policy of Mithridates VI Eupator, King of Pontus. BRILL. p. 72. ISBN 978-9004075917. As in Pontus the ruling family was of Iranian descent.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004075917","url_text":"978-9004075917"}]},{"reference":"\"Archived copy\". Archived from the original on 3 April 2015. Retrieved 22 February 2008. In May 1914, the Great Powers signed the Protocol of Corfu, which recognised the area as Greek.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150403113627/http://www.da.mod.uk/colleges/csrc/document-listings/balkan/G97","url_text":"\"Archived copy\""},{"url":"http://www.da.mod.uk/colleges/csrc/document-listings/balkan/G97","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Republic of Pontus (Greece, 1917-1922)\". Flags of the World.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.flaggen.com/flags/gr_pont.html","url_text":"\"Republic of Pontus (Greece, 1917-1922)\""}]},{"reference":"Gross, Andreas. \"Gökçeada (Imbros) and Bozcaada (Tenedos): preserving the bicultural character of the two Turkish islands as a model for co-operation between Turkey and Greece in the interest of the people concerned\". Council of Europe. Retrieved 4 September 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://assembly.coe.int/Main.asp?link=/Documents/WorkingDocs/Doc08/EDOC11629.htm","url_text":"\"Gökçeada (Imbros) and Bozcaada (Tenedos): preserving the bicultural character of the two Turkish islands as a model for co-operation between Turkey and Greece in the interest of the people concerned\""}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22List+of+historical+Greek+countries+and+regions%22","external_links_name":"\"List of historical Greek countries and regions\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22List+of+historical+Greek+countries+and+regions%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22List+of+historical+Greek+countries+and+regions%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22List+of+historical+Greek+countries+and+regions%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22List+of+historical+Greek+countries+and+regions%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22List+of+historical+Greek+countries+and+regions%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22List+of+historical+Greek+countries+and+regions%22","external_links_name":"\"List of historical Greek countries and regions\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22List+of+historical+Greek+countries+and+regions%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22List+of+historical+Greek+countries+and+regions%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22List+of+historical+Greek+countries+and+regions%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22List+of+historical+Greek+countries+and+regions%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22List+of+historical+Greek+countries+and+regions%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"http://www.victorhanson.com/wordpress/rural-greece-under-the-democracy/","external_links_name":"\"Rural Greece Under the Democracy\""},{"Link":"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cappadocia","external_links_name":"Encyclopaedia Iranica"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150403113627/http://www.da.mod.uk/colleges/csrc/document-listings/balkan/G97","external_links_name":"\"Archived copy\""},{"Link":"http://www.da.mod.uk/colleges/csrc/document-listings/balkan/G97","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.flaggen.com/flags/gr_pont.html","external_links_name":"\"Republic of Pontus (Greece, 1917-1922)\""},{"Link":"http://assembly.coe.int/Main.asp?link=/Documents/WorkingDocs/Doc08/EDOC11629.htm","external_links_name":"\"Gökçeada (Imbros) and Bozcaada (Tenedos): preserving the bicultural character of the two Turkish islands as a model for co-operation between Turkey and Greece in the interest of the people concerned\""}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunwoody_College_of_Technology
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Dunwoody College of Technology
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["1 History","2 See also","3 References","4 External links"]
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Coordinates: 44°58′21″N 93°17′25″W / 44.97250°N 93.29028°W / 44.97250; -93.29028Private technology school in Minneapolis, Minnesota
Dunwoody College of TechnologyTypePrivate technical collegeEstablished1914PresidentRich Wagner, Ph.D.ProvostScott StallmanStudents1,548LocationMinneapolis, Minnesota, United States44°58′21″N 93°17′25″W / 44.97250°N 93.29028°W / 44.97250; -93.29028CampusUrban, 15 acres (6.1 ha)Colors Websitewww.dunwoody.edu
Carlson Commons
Dunwoody College of Technology is a private technology school in Minneapolis, Minnesota. It offers Bachelor of Science (B.S.), Bachelor of Architecture (B. Arch) and Associate of Applied Science (A.A.S.) degrees.
History
Dunwoody College was founded as a technical institute in 1914, when Minneapolis businessman William Hood Dunwoody left three million dollars in his will to "provide for all time a place where youth without distinction on account of race, color or religious prejudice, may learn the useful trades and crafts, and thereby fit themselves for the better performance of life's duties." When his widow, Kate L. Dunwoody, died a year later she left additional funds to the school.
In the spring of 1916, the Dunwoody Trustees purchased six city blocks, 3 long and 2 deep, facing the parade grounds. The Minneapolis City Council closed the streets and alleys that traversed the area creating a site of approximately 16 acres (6.5 ha). Hewitt and Brown Architects and Engineers were contracted to design a school building. Their draft included nine buildings: six shop buildings and a three-story administration facility with an auditorium on one side and a gymnasium on the other.
The first two buildings opened in August 1917 and still exist. The Minneapolis Public Library had a branch on campus. Located across from St. Mary’s Basilica and Loring Park, just west of downtown, the new facility was dedicated on October 31, 1917, and the space at Minneapolis Central High School was left empty. University of Minnesota President Marion L. Burton gave the address. Prosser’s May 1918 commencement address contrasted the new facility with the old one used in cooperation with the Minneapolis school district: “Roughly four years ago we were quartered in an old, tumble-down building that, with the kindness of the board of education, served us well in time of need.”
When the University of Minnesota perceived a need to prepare instructors to teach in the emerging area of vocational education, it began to look for partnerships. On April 22, 1920, U of M President Fred Snyder entered into a cooperative agreement with Dunwoody Institute allowing students enrolled at the University in teacher training courses to spend part of their class time at Dunwoody to observe and practice all types of trade and industrial education. This reciprocity allowed Dunwoody instructors to enroll in and receive credit for courses offered by the College of Education at the University that were part of the teacher training authorized by the Smith Hughes Act. These matriculations were considered scholarships and did not encumber the University or the Institute in monetary exchanges, only the awarding of credits. There were no other recognizable post-secondary technical institutes or colleges at this time in Minnesota.Dunwoody CollegeIn 1953 the Ford Foundation gave Dunwoody a grant to send representatives to consult with the Indonesian Ministry of Education. Under the leadership of Dunwoody’s second director, J. R. Kingman, an Indonesian Technical Teacher Training Institute was to be established in Bandung, Java. An American, Milton G Towner, was its advisor and director. He was on leave as director of the Staff College of the Federal Civil Defense Administration in Washington, DC. Six American teachers from Dunwoody were sent with Towner to work with indigenous Indonesians to make training available to prospective and interested teachers in the Indonesian technical school system. Seven Indonesian teachers were sent to Dunwoody for training so they could return and support Towner's efforts. On November 27, 1953, K. Nagaraja Rao, a graduate of the University of Mysore in India, became the head of Dunwoody Industrial Institute’s new International Services Division. He had previously taught at the Illinois Institute of Technology and Korean Technical Institute, where he opened a department of chemical engineering. His job was to be the liaison between the Indonesia project and the Ford Foundation. Since 1951, he had been a consultant to the Indonesian government on the development of indigenous industries.
Phillip S. Van Wyck became the senior advisor of the Government Technical Institute in Insein, Kale, Burma. The institute's development and operation was funded by the Ford Foundation and assisted with staffing from Dunwoody. In 1956 Dunwoody began its third technical assistance program, in the Union of Burma, establishing the first technical high school in Rangoon. In a government-sponsored building, four Dunwoody employees assisted the Burmese in developing shops, curriculum and demonstration materials. Burmese instructors were delivered the curriculum. The Annual Report of the Ford Foundation noted Dunwoody Institute’s efforts in Insein and Rangoon. It also noted that a second Teacher’s Institute was started in Jakarta.
The Central Training Institute in Bombay, India, opened in March 1963 with the assistance of a five-member team from Dunwoody, the Indian government and the US Department of Education. The March 29, 1963 issue of the Dunwoody News contains a facsimile of the formal invitation indicating that Prime Minister Nehru of India would address the institute's inauguration ceremony. That year another project began in Khartoum, Sudan, to establish the Khartoum Senior Trade school. It opened in December 1964. Rao left Dunwoody in 1965 to become a program officer for the Ford Foundation’s Latin American program after a 12-year tenure. Robert R. Minarik, a graduate of the Dunwoody electronics program and the University of Minnesota, replaced Rao, bringing his experience from Burma and Saudi Arabia.
In 1967 Dunwoody began overseas programs with funding from private industries rather than foundations or U.S. government sponsorship. The first initiative was with the Alumina Partners of Jamaica (ALPART). ALPART asked the institute to organize and implement a training school for construction and maintenance workers. This ALPART Training Center for Industrial Skills was to serve the ALPART aluminum plant in Nain, Jamaica. A senior team of Dunwoody employees would begin to train and set in place Jamaican personnel as trainers. Time-release training aimed at select job targets dovetailed with on-the-job training and specifically customized training manuals. This partnership came to a successful conclusion in the fall of 1972. During this time, a nine-member Dunwoody team worked with Esso Standard Libya Inc at the Marsa el Brega terminal in Libya. This refinery and production complex provided an opportunity to develop curricula for and operate ESSO’s Industrial Training Center. In Saudi Arabia, the Arabian American Oil Company (ARAMCO) began a long-term training relationship that lasted into the '80s. New hardware and software for basic and mid-level electric and electronic training at the Ras Tanura Industrial Training shops were targeted. The curriculum developed there was transferable to two other sites: one in Dhahran and the other in Abqaiq. Freeport Indonesia Inc hired a Dunwoody team to help with its copper mining project in Irian Jaya. The objective was to assist in training the indigenous Indonesian workforce as electrical, mechanical, and mobile machinery operators at the townsite of Tembaga Pura. These mining facilities were remote, the Indonesians from jungle tribes and the size of the enterprise larger than Dunwoody had ever attempted before.
In 2000 Jane Plihal, associate professor and chair of the Department of Work, Community and Family Education at the College of Education and Human Development, reevaluated the 1920 “Cooperative Agreement Between Dunwoody Industrial Institute and the University of Minnesota.” She proposed termination of the agreement, seeing it as anachronistic and no longer expressive of the ways in which the two institutions had been cooperating or could cooperate. A notice of termination for this agreement signed on December 28, 2000, by Robert H. Bruininks, Executive Vice President and Provost, voided the reciprocity agreement between the two institutions at the end of summer session 2001.
In 2003 Dunwoody merged with NEI College of Technology of Columbia Heights, Minnesota, which specialized in electronics and computer technology. NEI's operations were moved to the Dunwoody campus and the old campus sold and demolished. The combined institution was renamed the Dunwoody College of Technology.
In 2004 Dunwoody took decisive steps to diversify a student body that had long been almost exclusively white and male, hiring a director of diversity and increasing the percentage of students of color to 20%.
In 2007, the college sponsored a new charter high school in North Minneapolis, Dunwoody Academy.
See also
United States portal
List of colleges and universities in Minnesota
Higher education in Minnesota
Dunwoody Village#William Hood Dunwoody
References
^ History, Dunwoody College of Technology, Accessed Feb. 5, 2007.
^ E. H. Hewitt, “Physical Aspects of the New Dunwoody,” The Artisan 2/2 ( November, 1916): 1-8.
^ R. H. Bruininks letter addressed to Frank Starke, president of Dunwoody College December 28, 2000. Bruininks said the uniqueness of the agreement was outdated since the emergence of the AVTI’s and technical college system in the second half of the 20th century. These numbers of public institutions provide an inequity for the continuation of the agreement.
^ Art Hughes, Tech college sees future of Minnesota work force in minority students, Minnesota Public Radio, January 31, 2007.
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Arch) and Associate of Applied Science (A.A.S.) degrees.","title":"Dunwoody College of Technology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"technical institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_institute"},{"link_name":"William Hood Dunwoody","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hood_Dunwoody"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Minneapolis Public Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minneapolis_Public_Library"},{"link_name":"Loring Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loring_Park"},{"link_name":"University of Minnesota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Minnesota"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dunwoody_sign.JPG"},{"link_name":"Ford Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Foundation"},{"link_name":"University of Mysore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Mysore"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"Illinois Institute of Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illinois_Institute_of_Technology"},{"link_name":"Ford Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Foundation"},{"link_name":"Insein, Kale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insein,_Kale"},{"link_name":"Burma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma"},{"link_name":"Khartoum, Sudan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khartoum,_Sudan"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"NEI College of Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEI_College_of_Technology"},{"link_name":"Columbia Heights, Minnesota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_Heights,_Minnesota"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"charter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charter_schools"},{"link_name":"high school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_school"}],"text":"Dunwoody College was founded as a technical institute in 1914, when Minneapolis businessman William Hood Dunwoody left three million dollars in his will to \"provide for all time a place where youth without distinction on account of race, color or religious prejudice, may learn the useful trades and crafts, and thereby fit themselves for the better performance of life's duties.\"[1] When his widow, Kate L. Dunwoody, died a year later she left additional funds to the school.In the spring of 1916, the Dunwoody Trustees purchased six city blocks, 3 long and 2 deep, facing the parade grounds. The Minneapolis City Council closed the streets and alleys that traversed the area creating a site of approximately 16 acres (6.5 ha). Hewitt and Brown Architects and Engineers were contracted to design a school building. Their draft included nine buildings: six shop buildings and a three-story administration facility with an auditorium on one side and a gymnasium on the other.The first two buildings opened in August 1917 and still exist. The Minneapolis Public Library had a branch on campus. Located across from St. Mary’s Basilica and Loring Park, just west of downtown, the new facility was dedicated on October 31, 1917, and the space at Minneapolis Central High School was left empty. University of Minnesota President Marion L. Burton gave the address. Prosser’s May 1918 commencement address contrasted the new facility with the old one used in cooperation with the Minneapolis school district: “Roughly four years ago we were quartered in an old, tumble-down building that, with the kindness of the board of education, served us well in time of need.”[2]When the University of Minnesota perceived a need to prepare instructors to teach in the emerging area of vocational education, it began to look for partnerships. On April 22, 1920, U of M President Fred Snyder entered into a cooperative agreement with Dunwoody Institute allowing students enrolled at the University in teacher training courses to spend part of their class time at Dunwoody to observe and practice all types of trade and industrial education. This reciprocity allowed Dunwoody instructors to enroll in and receive credit for courses offered by the College of Education at the University that were part of the teacher training authorized by the Smith Hughes Act. These matriculations were considered scholarships and did not encumber the University or the Institute in monetary exchanges, only the awarding of credits. There were no other recognizable post-secondary technical institutes or colleges at this time in Minnesota.Dunwoody CollegeIn 1953 the Ford Foundation gave Dunwoody a grant to send representatives to consult with the Indonesian Ministry of Education. Under the leadership of Dunwoody’s second director, J. R. Kingman, an Indonesian Technical Teacher Training Institute was to be established in Bandung, Java. An American, Milton G Towner, was its advisor and director. He was on leave as director of the Staff College of the Federal Civil Defense Administration in Washington, DC. Six American teachers from Dunwoody were sent with Towner to work with indigenous Indonesians to make training available to prospective and interested teachers in the Indonesian technical school system. Seven Indonesian teachers were sent to Dunwoody for training so they could return and support Towner's efforts. On November 27, 1953, K. Nagaraja Rao, a graduate of the University of Mysore in India, became the head of Dunwoody Industrial Institute’s new International Services Division. He had previously taught at the Illinois Institute of Technology and Korean Technical Institute, where he opened a department of chemical engineering. His job was to be the liaison between the Indonesia project and the Ford Foundation. Since 1951, he had been a consultant to the Indonesian government on the development of indigenous industries.Phillip S. Van Wyck became the senior advisor of the Government Technical Institute in Insein, Kale, Burma. The institute's development and operation was funded by the Ford Foundation and assisted with staffing from Dunwoody. In 1956 Dunwoody began its third technical assistance program, in the Union of Burma, establishing the first technical high school in Rangoon. In a government-sponsored building, four Dunwoody employees assisted the Burmese in developing shops, curriculum and demonstration materials. Burmese instructors were delivered the curriculum. The Annual Report of the Ford Foundation noted Dunwoody Institute’s efforts in Insein and Rangoon. It also noted that a second Teacher’s Institute was started in Jakarta.The Central Training Institute in Bombay, India, opened in March 1963 with the assistance of a five-member team from Dunwoody, the Indian government and the US Department of Education. The March 29, 1963 issue of the Dunwoody News contains a facsimile of the formal invitation indicating that Prime Minister Nehru of India would address the institute's inauguration ceremony. That year another project began in Khartoum, Sudan, to establish the Khartoum Senior Trade school. It opened in December 1964. Rao left Dunwoody in 1965 to become a program officer for the Ford Foundation’s Latin American program after a 12-year tenure. Robert R. Minarik, a graduate of the Dunwoody electronics program and the University of Minnesota, replaced Rao, bringing his experience from Burma and Saudi Arabia.In 1967 Dunwoody began overseas programs with funding from private industries rather than foundations or U.S. government sponsorship. The first initiative was with the Alumina Partners of Jamaica (ALPART). ALPART asked the institute to organize and implement a training school for construction and maintenance workers. This ALPART Training Center for Industrial Skills was to serve the ALPART aluminum plant in Nain, Jamaica. A senior team of Dunwoody employees would begin to train and set in place Jamaican personnel as trainers. Time-release training aimed at select job targets dovetailed with on-the-job training and specifically customized training manuals. This partnership came to a successful conclusion in the fall of 1972. During this time, a nine-member Dunwoody team worked with Esso Standard Libya Inc at the Marsa el Brega terminal in Libya. This refinery and production complex provided an opportunity to develop curricula for and operate ESSO’s Industrial Training Center. In Saudi Arabia, the Arabian American Oil Company (ARAMCO) began a long-term training relationship that lasted into the '80s. New hardware and software for basic and mid-level electric and electronic training at the Ras Tanura Industrial Training shops were targeted. The curriculum developed there was transferable to two other sites: one in Dhahran and the other in Abqaiq. Freeport Indonesia Inc hired a Dunwoody team to help with its copper mining project in Irian Jaya. The objective was to assist in training the indigenous Indonesian workforce as electrical, mechanical, and mobile machinery operators at the townsite of Tembaga Pura. These mining facilities were remote, the Indonesians from jungle tribes and the size of the enterprise larger than Dunwoody had ever attempted before.In 2000 Jane Plihal, associate professor and chair of the Department of Work, Community and Family Education at the College of Education and Human Development, reevaluated the 1920 “Cooperative Agreement Between Dunwoody Industrial Institute and the University of Minnesota.” She proposed termination of the agreement, seeing it as anachronistic and no longer expressive of the ways in which the two institutions had been cooperating or could cooperate. A notice of termination for this agreement signed on December 28, 2000, by Robert H. Bruininks, Executive Vice President and Provost, voided the reciprocity agreement between the two institutions at the end of summer session 2001.[3]In 2003 Dunwoody merged with NEI College of Technology of Columbia Heights, Minnesota, which specialized in electronics and computer technology. NEI's operations were moved to the Dunwoody campus and the old campus sold and demolished. The combined institution was renamed the Dunwoody College of Technology.In 2004 Dunwoody took decisive steps to diversify a student body that had long been almost exclusively white and male, hiring a director of diversity and increasing the percentage of students of color to 20%.[4]In 2007, the college sponsored a new charter high school in North Minneapolis, Dunwoody Academy.","title":"History"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEO_(cryptocurrency)
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NEO (cryptocurrency)
|
["1 Technical specifications","2 History","3 References","4 External links"]
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "NEO" cryptocurrency – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (November 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Cryptocurrency
NeoDenominationsCodeNeo, formerly ANSDevelopmentOriginal author(s)Da Hongfei, Erik ZhangWhite paperhttps://docs.neo.org/docs/en-us/basic/whitepaper.htmlInitial releaseFebruary 2014; 10 years ago (2014-02) as AntShares and rebranded as Neo in June 2017Code repositoryNEO GithubWritten inC#LicenseMITLedgerBlock time15-25 secondsBlock explorerneotracker.io neoscan.ioCirculating supply70,530,000Supply limit100,000,000WebsiteWebsiteneo.org
Neo is a blockchain-based cryptocurrency and application platform used to run smart contracts and decentralized applications. The project, originally named Antshares, was founded in 2014 by Da HongFei and Erik Zhang and rebranded as Neo in 2017. In 2017 and 2018, the cryptocurrency maintained some success in the Chinese market despite the recently-enacted prohibition on cryptocurrency in that country.
Technical specifications
The Neo network runs on a proof-of-stake decentralized Byzantine fault tolerant (dBFT) consensus mechanism between a number of centrally approved nodes, and can support up to 10,000 transactions per second. The base asset of the Neo blockchain is the non-divisible Neo token which generates GAS tokens. These GAS tokens, a separate asset on the network, can be used to pay for transaction fees, and are divisible with the smallest unit of 0.00000001. The inflation rate of GAS is controlled with a decaying half-life algorithm that is designed to release 100 million GAS over approximately 22 years.
X.509 Digital Identities allow developers to tie tokens to real-world identities which aid in complying with KYC/AML and other regulatory requirements.
History
In 2014, Antshares was founded by Da Hongfei and Erik Zhang. In the following year, it was open-sourced on GitHub and by September 2015, the white paper was released.
A total of 100 million Neo were created in the genesis block. 50 million Neo were sold to early investors through an initial coin offering in 2016 that raised US 4.65 million, with the remaining 50 million Neo locked into a smart contract. Each year, a maximum of 15 million Neo tokens are unlocked which are used by the Neo development team to fund long-term development goals.
Neo was officially rebranded from Antshares in June 2017, with the idea of combining the past and the future.
Neo3 or N3 was first announced by Erik Zhang in 2018 as an upgrade to the previous Neo protocol (now known as Neo Legacy). Certain new features do not have backward compatibility with the Neo Legacy blockchain. N3 was implemented and launched with a new genesis block.
In March 2018, Neo's parent company Onchain distributed 1 Ontology token (ONT) for every 5 NEO held in a user's cryptocurrency wallet. These tokens were intended to be used to vote on system upgrades, identity verification mechanisms, and other governance issues on the Neo platform.
References
^ a b "Cryptocurrencies and blockchain" (PDF). European parliament.
^ a b "China's Largest Cryptocurrency Thrives Despite Intense Crackdown". Bloomberg News.
^ a b Glenn, Brenda Goh, Elias (2017-09-13). "Cryptocurrency chaos as China cracks down on ICOs". Reuters. Retrieved 2020-09-17.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Coelho, Igor M.; Coelho, Vitor N.; Araujo, Rodolfo P.; Yong Qiang, Wang; Rhodes, Brett D. (2020). "Challenges of PBFT-Inspired Consensus for Blockchain and Enhancements over Neo dBFT". Future Internet. 12 (8): 129. doi:10.3390/fi12080129.
^ a b c d Soeteman, Krijn (10 February 2018). "Operation of dBft mapped via Neo". Computable. Retrieved 23 March 2018.
^ neo-project. "Migration - Neo Smart Economy". neo.org. Retrieved 2021-05-07.
^ Chang, Evelyn (12 March 2018). "'Airdrops' are coming". CNBC. Retrieved 23 March 2018.
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List
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"blockchain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blockchain"},{"link_name":"cryptocurrency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptocurrency"},{"link_name":"smart contracts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_contracts"},{"link_name":"decentralized applications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decentralized_application"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-crypto-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bloomberg-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-reuters-3"}],"text":"CryptocurrencyNeo is a blockchain-based cryptocurrency and application platform used to run smart contracts and decentralized applications. The project, originally named Antshares, was founded in 2014 by Da HongFei and Erik Zhang and rebranded as Neo in 2017.[1] In 2017 and 2018, the cryptocurrency maintained some success in the Chinese market despite the recently-enacted prohibition on cryptocurrency in that country.[2][3]","title":"NEO (cryptocurrency)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"proof-of-stake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proof_of_stake"},{"link_name":"Byzantine fault","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_fault"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bloomberg-2"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-computable-5"},{"link_name":"X.509","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X.509"},{"link_name":"KYC/AML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Know_your_customer"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-computable-5"}],"text":"The Neo network runs on a proof-of-stake decentralized Byzantine fault tolerant (dBFT) consensus mechanism between a number of centrally approved nodes,[4] and can support up to 10,000 transactions per second.[2] The base asset of the Neo blockchain is the non-divisible Neo token which generates GAS tokens. These GAS tokens, a separate asset on the network, can be used to pay for transaction fees, and are divisible with the smallest unit of 0.00000001. The inflation rate of GAS is controlled with a decaying half-life algorithm that is designed to release 100 million GAS over approximately 22 years.[5]X.509 Digital Identities allow developers to tie tokens to real-world identities which aid in complying with KYC/AML and other regulatory requirements.[5]","title":"Technical specifications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"GitHub","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GitHub"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-computable-5"},{"link_name":"initial coin offering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initial_coin_offering"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-reuters-3"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-computable-5"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"backward compatibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backward_compatibility"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"cryptocurrency wallet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptocurrency_wallet"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cnbc1-7"}],"text":"In 2014, Antshares was founded by Da Hongfei and Erik Zhang. In the following year, it was open-sourced on GitHub and by September 2015, the white paper was released.[citation needed]A total of 100 million Neo were created in the genesis block.[5] 50 million Neo were sold to early investors through an initial coin offering in 2016 that raised US 4.65 million,[3] with the remaining 50 million Neo locked into a smart contract. Each year, a maximum of 15 million Neo tokens are unlocked which are used by the Neo development team to fund long-term development goals.[5]Neo was officially rebranded from Antshares in June 2017, with the idea of combining the past and the future.[citation needed]Neo3 or N3 was first announced by Erik Zhang in 2018 as an upgrade to the previous Neo protocol (now known as Neo Legacy).[citation needed] Certain new features do not have backward compatibility with the Neo Legacy blockchain. N3 was implemented and launched with a new genesis block.[6]In March 2018, Neo's parent company Onchain distributed 1 Ontology token (ONT) for every 5 NEO held in a user's cryptocurrency wallet. These tokens were intended to be used to vote on system upgrades, identity verification mechanisms, and other governance issues on the Neo platform.[7]","title":"History"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Cryptocurrencies and blockchain\" (PDF). European parliament.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.europarl.europa.eu/cmsdata/150761/TAX3%20Study%20on%20cryptocurrencies%20and%20blockchain.pdf","url_text":"\"Cryptocurrencies and blockchain\""}]},{"reference":"\"China's Largest Cryptocurrency Thrives Despite Intense Crackdown\". Bloomberg News.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-01-11/china-s-largest-cryptocurrency-thrives-despite-intense-crackdown","url_text":"\"China's Largest Cryptocurrency Thrives Despite Intense Crackdown\""}]},{"reference":"Glenn, Brenda Goh, Elias (2017-09-13). \"Cryptocurrency chaos as China cracks down on ICOs\". Reuters. Retrieved 2020-09-17.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-finance-digital-ico-analysis-idUSKCN1BN33R","url_text":"\"Cryptocurrency chaos as China cracks down on ICOs\""}]},{"reference":"Coelho, Igor M.; Coelho, Vitor N.; Araujo, Rodolfo P.; Yong Qiang, Wang; Rhodes, Brett D. (2020). \"Challenges of PBFT-Inspired Consensus for Blockchain and Enhancements over Neo dBFT\". Future Internet. 12 (8): 129. doi:10.3390/fi12080129.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.3390%2Ffi12080129","url_text":"\"Challenges of PBFT-Inspired Consensus for Blockchain and Enhancements over Neo dBFT\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.3390%2Ffi12080129","url_text":"10.3390/fi12080129"}]},{"reference":"Soeteman, Krijn (10 February 2018). \"Operation of dBft mapped via Neo\". Computable. Retrieved 23 March 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.computable.nl/artikel/achtergrond/technologie/6306817/5182002/werking-dbft-via-neo-in-kaart-gebracht.html","url_text":"\"Operation of dBft mapped via Neo\""}]},{"reference":"neo-project. \"Migration - Neo Smart Economy\". neo.org. Retrieved 2021-05-07.","urls":[{"url":"https://neo.org/migration","url_text":"\"Migration - Neo Smart Economy\""}]},{"reference":"Chang, Evelyn (12 March 2018). \"'Airdrops' are coming\". CNBC. Retrieved 23 March 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cnbc.com/2018/03/12/want-free-cryptocurrency-airdrops-is-coming.html","url_text":"\"'Airdrops' are coming\""}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22NEO%22+cryptocurrency","external_links_name":"\"NEO\" cryptocurrency"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22NEO%22+cryptocurrency+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22NEO%22+cryptocurrency&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22NEO%22+cryptocurrency+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22NEO%22+cryptocurrency","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22NEO%22+cryptocurrency&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://docs.neo.org/docs/en-us/basic/whitepaper.html","external_links_name":"https://docs.neo.org/docs/en-us/basic/whitepaper.html"},{"Link":"https://github.com/neo-project","external_links_name":"NEO Github"},{"Link":"https://neotracker.io/","external_links_name":"neotracker.io"},{"Link":"https://neoscan.io/","external_links_name":"neoscan.io"},{"Link":"https://neo.org/","external_links_name":"neo.org"},{"Link":"https://www.europarl.europa.eu/cmsdata/150761/TAX3%20Study%20on%20cryptocurrencies%20and%20blockchain.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Cryptocurrencies and blockchain\""},{"Link":"https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-01-11/china-s-largest-cryptocurrency-thrives-despite-intense-crackdown","external_links_name":"\"China's Largest Cryptocurrency Thrives Despite Intense Crackdown\""},{"Link":"https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-finance-digital-ico-analysis-idUSKCN1BN33R","external_links_name":"\"Cryptocurrency chaos as China cracks down on ICOs\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.3390%2Ffi12080129","external_links_name":"\"Challenges of PBFT-Inspired Consensus for Blockchain and Enhancements over Neo dBFT\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.3390%2Ffi12080129","external_links_name":"10.3390/fi12080129"},{"Link":"https://www.computable.nl/artikel/achtergrond/technologie/6306817/5182002/werking-dbft-via-neo-in-kaart-gebracht.html","external_links_name":"\"Operation of dBft mapped via Neo\""},{"Link":"https://neo.org/migration","external_links_name":"\"Migration - Neo Smart Economy\""},{"Link":"https://www.cnbc.com/2018/03/12/want-free-cryptocurrency-airdrops-is-coming.html","external_links_name":"\"'Airdrops' are coming\""},{"Link":"https://neo.org/","external_links_name":"Official Website"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidney_Hook
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Sidney Hook
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["1 Background","2 Career","2.1 Marxist","2.2 Anti-communist","2.3 Later years","2.4 Personal life and death","3 Awards","4 Legacy","4.1 Hero in History","4.2 \"Ethics of Controversy\"","5 Works","5.1 Books","5.2 Articles","5.3 Articles for New Leader","5.4 Occasional papers","6 See also","7 References","8 Further reading","9 External links"]
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20th-Century American philosopher
Sidney HookHook in late lifeBorn(1902-12-20)December 20, 1902New York City, USDiedJuly 12, 1989(1989-07-12) (aged 86)Stanford, California, USAlma materCity College of New YorkColumbia UniversityEra20th-century philosophyRegionWestern philosophySchoolPragmatismMarxism (early)Main interestsPolitical philosophy, philosophy of educationNotable ideasEthics of controversy
Sidney Hook (December 20, 1902 – July 12, 1989) was an American philosopher of pragmatism known for his contributions to the philosophy of history, the philosophy of education, political theory, and ethics. After embracing communism in his youth, Hook was later known for his criticisms of totalitarianism, both fascism and Marxism–Leninism. A social democrat, Hook sometimes cooperated with conservatives, particularly in opposing Marxism–Leninism. After World War II, he argued that members of such groups as the Communist Party USA and Leninists like democratic centralists could ethically be barred from holding the offices of public trust because they called for the violent overthrow of democratic governments.
Background
Albert Einstein, Sidney Hook et al. signed a 4 December 1948 letter published in the New York Times
Sidney Hook was born on December 20, 1902, in Brooklyn, New York City, to Jennie and Isaac Hook, Austrian Jewish immigrants. He became a supporter of the Socialist Party of America during the Debs era when he was in high school.
In 1923, he earned a BA at the City College of New York and in 1927 Ph.D. at Columbia University, where he studied under pragmatist philosopher John Dewey.
Career
In 1926, Hook became a professor of philosophy at New York University and was head of the Department of Philosophy from 1948 to 1969. He retired from the University in 1972.
In 1931, Hook began teaching at the New School for Social Research through 1936, after which he taught night school there until the 1960s. By 1933, Hook and New School colleague Horace M. Kallen were serving also on the ACLU's academic freedom committee.
Marxist
At the beginning of his career, Hook was a prominent expert on Karl Marx's philosophy and was himself a Marxist. He attended the lectures of Karl Korsch in Berlin in 1928 and conducted research at the Marx-Engels Institute in Moscow in the summer of 1929. At first, he wrote enthusiastically about the Soviet Union, and, in 1932, supported the Communist Party's candidate, William Z. Foster, when he ran for President of the United States. However, Hook broke completely with the Comintern in 1933, holding its policies responsible for the triumph of Nazism in Germany. He accused Joseph Stalin of putting "the needs of the Russian state" over the needs of the international revolution.
However, Hook remained active in some of the causes of the Marxist left during the Great Depression. In 1933, with James Burnham, Hook was one of the organizers of the American Workers Party, led by the Dutch-born pacifist minister A.J. Muste. Hook also debated the meaning of Marxism with radical Max Eastman in a series of public exchanges. Eastman, like Hook, had studied under John Dewey at Columbia University. In the late 1930s, Hook assisted Leon Trotsky in his efforts to clear his name in a special Commission of Inquiry headed by Dewey, which investigated charges made against Trotsky during the Moscow Trials.
Anti-communist
The Great Purge encouraged Hook's increasing ambivalence toward Marxism. In 1939, Hook formed the Committee for Cultural Freedom, a short-lived organization that set the stage for his postwar politics by opposing "totalitarianism" on the left and right. By the Cold War, Hook had become a prominent anti-Communist, although he continued to consider himself both a democratic socialist and a secular humanist throughout his life. He was, therefore, an anti-Communist socialist. In 1973, he was one of the signers of the Humanist Manifesto II.
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In the late 1940s and early 1950s, Hook helped found Americans for Intellectual Freedom, the Congress for Cultural Freedom (CCF), and the American Committee for Cultural Freedom. These bodies—of which the CCF was most central—were funded in part by the Central Intelligence Agency through a variety of fronts and sought to dissuade American leftists from continuing to advocate cooperation with the Soviet Union as some had previously. Hook later wrote in his memoirs that he, "like almost everyone else," had heard that "the CIA was making some contribution to the financing of the Congress."
On February 6, 1953, Hook discussed "The Threat to Academic Freedom" with Victor Riesel and others in the evening on WEVD radio (a Socialist radio station whose call letters referred to SPA founder Eugene V. Debs). In May 1953, the John Day Company published Heresy, Yes–Conspiracy, No, a 283-page book expanded from a 1952 pamphlet (Heresy, Yes–Conspiracy, No!), itself expanded from a 1950 New York Times article called "Heresy, Yes–But Conspiracy, No."
In the 1960s, Hook was a frequent critic of the New Left. He was opposed to a unilateral withdrawal of U.S. forces from the Vietnam War and defended California Governor Ronald Reagan's removal of Angela Davis from her professorship at UCLA because of her leadership role in the Communist Party USA.
Hook was elected a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1965 and ended his career in the 1970s and 1980s as a fellow of the conservative Hoover Institution in Stanford, California.
Later years
The National Endowment for the Humanities selected Hook for the 1984 Jefferson Lecture, the U.S. government's highest honor for achievement in the humanities. Hook's lecture was entitled "Education in Defense of a Free Society."
Personal life and death
Hook was a lifelong agnostic.
He married Carrie Katz in 1924, with whom he had one son. The couple separated in 1933. Katz had studied at the Rand School in the early 1920s. There, she studied under Scott Nearing and came to write a chapter in his book The Law of Social Revolution entitled "The Russian Revolution of 1917" (1926). Friends from the Rand School included Nerma Berman Oggins, wife of Cy Oggins. She was a Communist Party member who was a "Fosterite" (i.e., she supported William Z. Foster amidst Party factionalism in the last 1920s). She went on to work at the Labor Defense Council. In 1935, Hook married Ann Zinken, with whom he had two children.
Hook died age 86 on July 12, 1989, in Stanford, California.
Awards
1984: In Praise of Reason Award from the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal (CSICOP). awarded by CSICOP Chairman Paul Kurtz
1985: Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Ronald Reagan (May 23, 1985)
Legacy
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Hook's memoir, Out of Step, recounts his life, his activism for a number of educational causes, his controversies with other intellectuals such as Noam Chomsky, and his recollections of Mortimer J. Adler, Bertolt Brecht, Morris Cohen, John Dewey, Max Eastman, Albert Einstein and Bertrand Russell.
In October 2002, a conference marking the centennial of Hook's birth was organized by Matthew Cotter and Robert Talisse and held at the City University of New York Graduate Center in Manhattan.
In April 2011 the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI) (formerly known as CSICOP) again honored Hook. At a meeting of its executive council in Denver, Colorado he was selected for inclusion in their Pantheon of Skeptics. The Pantheon of Skeptics was created by CSI to remember the legacy of deceased fellows of CSI and their contributions to the cause of scientific skepticism.
Hero in History
Sidney Hook's book The Hero in History was a noticeable event in the studies devoted to the role of the hero, the Great Man in history and the influence of people of significant accomplishments.
Hook opposed all forms of determinism and argued, as had William James, that humans play a creative role in constructing the social world and to transforming their natural environment. Neither humanity nor its universe is determined or finished. For Hook this conviction was crucial. He argued that when a society is at the crossroads of choosing the direction of further development, an individual can play a dramatic role and even become an independent power on whom the choice of the historical pathway depends.
In his book, Hook provided a great number of examples of the influence of great people, and the examples are mostly associated with various crucial moments in history, such as revolutions and crises. Some scholars have critically responded because, as one of them claims, "he does not take into account that an individual's greatest influence can be revealed not so much in the period of the old regime's collapse, but in the formation period of a new one. Besides, he did not make clear the situation when alternatives appear either as the result of a crisis or as the result of Great Man's plan or intention without manifested crisis".
Hook introduced a theoretical division of historic personalities and especially leaders into the eventful man and the event-making man, depending on their influences on the historical process. For example, he considers Lenin as having been an event-making man, because of his having acted in an important circumstance to change the developmental direction not only of Russia but also of the whole world in the 20th century.
Hook attached great importance to accidents and contingencies in history, thus opposing, among others, Herbert Fisher, who made attempts to present history as "waves" of emergencies.
"Ethics of Controversy"
In 1954, Hook published an essay titled "The Ethics of Controversy" in which he set down ten ground rules for democratic discourse within a democracy.
Works
Books
The Metaphysics of Pragmatism Chicago, The Open Court Publishing Company, 1927.
Towards the Understanding of Karl Marx: A Revolutionary Interpretation New York City: John Day Company, 1933.
Christianity and Marxism: A Symposium New York City: Polemic Publishers, 1934.
The Meaning of Marx, an edited collection, 1934.
From Hegel to Marx, 1936.
John Dewey: An Intellectual Portrait, 1939.
Reason, Social Myths, and Democracy, 1940.
The Hero in History: A Study in Limitation and Possibility, 1943.
Education for Modern Man, 1946.
John Dewey: Philosopher of Science and Freedom, Hook, editor, 1950.
Heresy, Yes–Conspiracy, No, 1953 (originally published as soft-back in 1952 by American Committee for Cultural Freedom)
Marx and the Marxists: The Ambiguous Legacy, 1955.
Common Sense and the Fifth Amendment New York City: Criterion Books, 1957.
Political power and personal freedom: critical studies in democracy, communism, and civil rights, New York City: Criterion Books, 1959.
The Quest for Being, and Other Studies in Naturalism and Humanism, 1961.
The Fail-Safe Fallacy, 1962.
The Paradoxes of Freedom, 1963.
The Place of Religion in a Free Society, 1968.
Academic Freedom and Academic Anarchy, 1970.
Pragmatism and the Tragic Sense of Life, 1974.
Marxism and Beyond, 1983.
Out of Step, 1987.
Convictions, 1990.
Sidney Hook on Pragmatism, Democracy, and Freedom: The Essential Essays, Robert B. Talisse and Robert Tempio (eds.), Amherst: Prometheus Books, 2002.
World communism: key documentary material , 1990.
Articles
"Karl Marx and Moses Hess" (December 1934), New International, via Marxists Internet Archive
"Marx's Criticism of 'True Socialism'" (January 1935), New International, via Marxists Internet Archive
"Marx and Feuerbach" (April 1936), New International, via Marxists Internet Archive
"Academic Integrity and Academic Freedom", Commentary Magazine (1949)
"Heresy, Yes—But Conspiracy, No", The New York Times (1950)
"A Reply to the Editors' 'In Justice to Mr. Conant'", New York Times (typescript March 15, 1953)
Articles for New Leader
Hook's papers at Stanford include the following articles:
"Where the News Ends" (November 26, 1938)
"John Dewey at Eighty" (October 28, 1939)
"Socialists Face Need of Unified Action" (March 9, 1940)
"Social Change and Original Sin" (November 8, 1941)
"Russia's Military Successes Do Not Whitewash Crimes at Home" (January 31, 1942)
"An Apologist for St. John's College" (November 25, 1944)
"The Degradation of the Word" (January 27, 1945)
"Freedom and Socialism: Reply to Max Eastman" (March 3, 1945)
"Reflections on the Nuremberg Trial: A Summary Court-Martial for Nazi Criminals" (November 17, 1945)
"Fin du Mondisme: The Birth of a New World Mood in Face of Atombomb" (January 23, 1946)
"An Unanswered Letter to the American Jewish Congress" (July 5, 1947)
"Mr. Fly's Web of Confusions: An Analysis of a Befuddled Decision" (October 18, 1947)
"Mr. Fly Entangles Himself More Deeply" (November 22, 1947)
"The State: Servile or Free?" (March 13, 1948)
"John Dewey at Ninety: The Man and His Philosophy" (October 22, 1949)
"Communists in the Colleges"(May 6, 1950)
"Encounter in Berlin" (October 14, 1950)
"Russia by Moonshine" Part 1 (November 12, 1951)
"Russia by Moonshine" Part 2 (November 19, 1951)
"Is America in the Grip of Hysteria?" (Editorial reply to Bertrand Russell) (March 3, 1952)
"Letter to an English Friend" (October 13, 1952)
"Fall of the Town of Usher", (October 27, 1952)
"Lattimore on the Moscow Trials" (November 10, 1952)
"A Trans-Atlantic Dialogue" (December 8, 1952)
"Should We Stress Armaments or Political Warfare?" (February 23, 1953)
"Indoctrination and Academic Freedom" (March 9, 1953)
"Freedom in American Culture" (April 6, 1953)
"The Party Line in Psychology" (May 25, 1953)
"The Ethics of Controversy" (February 1, 1954)
"The Techniques of Controversy" (March 8, 1954)
"Robert Hutchins Rides Again" (April 19, 1954)
"The Substance of Controversy" (May 24, 1954)
"Uncommon Sense about Security and Freedom" (June 21, 1954)
"The Ethics of Controversy Again" (January 16, 1956)
"The Strategy of Truth" February 13, 1956)
"Six Fallacies of Robert Hutchins" (March 19, 1956)
"Hutchins" (April 23, 1956)
"Prospects for Cultural Freedom" (May 7, 1956)
"The AAUP and Academic Integrity" (May 21, 1956)
"Academic Freedom" (June 4, 1956)
"Logic and the Fifth Amendment" (October 1, 1956)
"Psychology and the Fifth Amendment" (October 8, 1956)
"Ethics and the Fifth Amendment" (October 15, 1956)
"Politics and the Fifth Amendment" (October 22, 1956)
"Logic, History and Law" (November 5, 1956)
"Abraham Lincoln, American Pragmatist" (March 18, 1957)
"The Fifth Amendment: A Crucial Case" (April 22, 1957)
"The Atom and Human Wisdom" (June 3, 1957)
"The Old Liberalism: The New Conservative" (July 8, 1957)
"Marx, Dewey and Lincoln" (October 21, 1957)
"Justice Black's Illogic" (December 2, 1957)
"Pragmatism" (December 9, 1957)
"A Debate on Pragmatism: Marx, Dewey and Eastman" (February 10, 1958)
"A Foreign Policy for Survival" (April 7, 1958)
"A Free Man's Choice" (May 26, 1958)
"Bertrand Russell Retreats" (July 1958)
"Education in Japan" (November 24, 1958)
Occasional papers
Lecture by Sidney Hook on "Freedom, Determinism and Sentimentality" (annual Horace M. Kallen Lectureship) (November 21, 1957)
See also
American philosophy
List of American philosophers
Heresy, Yes–Conspiracy, No
References
^ a b
Phelps, Christopher (1997). Young Sidney Hook: Marxist and Pragmatist. Cornell University Press. pp. 33–34 (Katz), 51 (Katz), 128-129 (Katz), 132 (influence). ISBN 0801433282. Retrieved 14 October 2018.
^
"New Palestine Party". New York Times. 4 December 1948. Retrieved 14 October 2018.
^
Cotter, Matthew J. (29 December 2015). "Place and Profession in the Intellectual History of the City: Sidney Hook and NYU". Gotham Center. Retrieved 14 October 2018.
^
"Oppose Teachers' Oath". New York Times. 9 April 1933. p. N3. Retrieved 14 October 2018.
^ Michael Denning, The Cultural Front, New York City: Verso, 1997, p. 425ff
^ Gordon, David (Fall 1998). "Letters of Sidney Hook". Ludwig von Mises Institute. Archived from the original on 2007-07-17. Retrieved 2016-03-18.
^ John P. Diggins, Up From Communism, New York City: Columbia University Press, 1974, then Harper & Row, 1975, pp. 169-170.
^ Diggins, Up From Communism, pp. 51-58.
^ "Humanist Manifesto II". American Humanist Association. Archived from the original on October 20, 2012. Retrieved October 18, 2012.
^ "The 'shocked' treatment". Washington Times. December 8, 2005.
^ Coleman, Peter (1989). The Liberal Conspiracy: The Congress for Cultural Freedom and the Struggle for the Mind of Postwar Europe. New York: The Free Press. p. 49.
^
"On the Radio". New York Times. 6 February 1953. p. 26.
^
Hook, Sidney (1953). Heresy, Yes–Conspiracy, No. John Day Company. pp. 283. LCCN 63006587.
^
Hook, Sidney (1952). Heresy, Yes–Conspiracy, No!. American Committee for Cultural Freedom. p. 29. LCCN 52036000.
^
Hook, Sidney (1950). "Heresy, Yes–But Conspiracy, No!". New York Times. Retrieved 3 September 2018.
^ "Book of Members, 1780-2010: Chapter H" (PDF). American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved 19 April 2011.
^ "Jefferson Humanities Speech to Be Given by Sidney Hook," The New York Times, December 26, 1983.
^ Jefferson Lecturers Archived 2011-10-20 at the Wayback Machine at NEH Web site (retrieved January 22, 2009).
^ "The Heroism of Sidney Hook," Archived 2009-03-06 at the Wayback Machine National Review, June 15, 1984.
^ Edward S. Shapiro, ed. (1995). Letters of Sidney Hook: democracy, communism, and the cold war. M.E. Sharpe. p. 2. ISBN 9781563244872. This faith in rationality emerged early in Hook's life. Even before he was a teenager he proclaimed himself to be an agnostic. It was simply irrational, he declared, to believe in the existence of a merciful and powerful God in the face of widespread human misery. Only the pleadings of his parents that he not embarrass them in front of relatives and friends convinced Hook to participate in a Bar Mitzvah ceremony on his thirteenth birthday. People frequently asked him in his later years what he would say if he discovered after death that God really existed. He answered that he would simply state, "God, you never gave me enough evidence."
^ a b
Hook, Sidney (1995). Edward S. Shapiro (ed.). Letters of Sidney Hook: Democracy, Communism, and the Cold War. M.E. Sharpe. p. 15.
^
Meier, Andrew (August 11, 2008). The Lost Spy: An American in Stalin's Secret Service. W. W. Norton. pp. 92–93. ISBN 978-0-393-06097-3.
^ "Scientific Facts and Fictions: On the Trail Of Paranormal Beliefs at CSICOP '84". The Skeptical Inquirer. 9 (3): 197. 1985.
^ Sidney Hook, Out of Step, New York City: Harper & Row, chapters 5, 7, 23, 28, and 29, 1987.
^ "The Pantheon of Skeptics". CSI. Committee for Skeptical Inquiry. Archived from the original on 31 January 2017. Retrieved 30 April 2017.
^ Hook, S., The Hero in History: A Study in Limitation and Possibility. Boston, Masachuestts: Beacon Press, 1943, p. 116
^ Grinin, Leonid, The Role of an Individual in History: A Reconsideration. Social Evolution and History, vol. 9, no. 2, 2010, pp. 95–136, 108.
^ Professor Walter Earl Fluker Discusses Leadership, Obama and Civil Rights Pioneers "Professor Discusses Leadership, Obama and Civil Rights Pioneers". Archived from the original on 2011-02-06. Retrieved 2011-02-03.
^ Hook, S., The Hero in History: A Study in Limitation and Possibility, Boston, Massachusetts: Beacon Press, 1955, p. 142.
^ Fisher, H., 1935. A History of Europe, vol. I, London, p. vii (reprint Fontana Press, 1984)
^ "The Ethics of Controversy," New Leader, February 1, 1954, republished in Sidney Hook on Pragmatism, Democracy and Freedom: The Essential Essays, (Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 2002), edited by Robert Talilsse and Robert Tempio, pp. 292-93.
^ "Sid Hook's Ethics of Controversy | Prosperity Now". 4 September 2007.
^
Hook, Sidney. Heresy, Yes; Conspiracy, No. New York: American Committee for Cultural Freedom. p. 29. LCCN 52036000.
^
Hook, Sidney (October 1949). "Academic Integrity and Academic Freedom". Commentary. Retrieved 14 October 2018.
^
Hook, Sidney (9 September 1950). "Heresy, Yes—But Conspiracy, No". New York Times. p. 7. Retrieved 2 September 2018.
^
"Register of the Sidney Hook". Hoover Institution Archives. Retrieved 14 October 2018.
^
"Press Release: Lecture by Sidney Hook on "Freedom, Determinism and Sentimentality"". New School for Social Science. 21 November 1957. Retrieved 14 October 2018.
Further reading
Cotter, Matthew J., ed., Sidney Hook Reconsidered, Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books, 2004.
Diggins, John Patrick, Up From Communism, New York City: Columbia University Press, then Harper & Row, 1975.
Kurtz, Paul, ed., Sidney Hook and the Contemporary World, New York: John Day and Co., 1968.
Kurtz, Paul, ed., Sidney Hook: Philosopher of Democracy and Humanism (a festschrift, for Hook's 80th birthday, containing four essays on his person and writings by Nicholas Capaldi, Milton R. Konvitz, Irving Kristol, and Paul Kurtz), Buffalo, New York: Prometheus Books, 1983.
Levine, Barbara, ed., Sidney Hook: A Checklist of Writings, Carbondale: Southern Illinois University, 1989.
Phelps, Christopher (1997). Young Sidney Hook: Marxist and Pragmatist. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0801433282. Retrieved 14 October 2018.
Sidorsky, David, "Charting the Intellectual Career of Sidney Hook: Five Major Steps", Partisan Review, vol. 70, no. 2, pp. 324–342, 2003.
Robert B. Talisse and Robert Tempio, eds., Sidney Hook on Pragmatism, Freedom, and Democracy: The Essential Essays, Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books, 2002.
External links
Wikisource has original works by or about:Sidney Hook
Wikiquote has quotations related to Sidney Hook.
Works by or about Sidney Hook at Internet Archive
Book review of new edition of Towards the Understanding of Karl Marx (1933)
"The Inevitability Of Communism" by Paul Mattick, 1936.
"Sidney Hook’s Attack on Trotskyism" in Fourth International, July 1943, via Marxists Internet Archive.
"Revising the History of Cold War Liberals" by Julius Jacobson from New Politics, winter 2000, via William Paterson University
"Sidney Hook, an Intellectual Street Fighter, Reconsidered", Chronicle of Higher Education, November 8, 2002, by Danny Postel
Christopher Phelps, "Left Hook, Right Hook: The Rules of Engagement", July 12, 2002, The Chronicle Review.
Review of Letters of Sidney Hook by David Gordon (Fall 1998), via Ludwig von Mises Institute.
"New Palestine Party - Visit of Menachen Begin and Aims of Political Movement Discussed", December 4, 1948, The New York Times
John Patrick Diggins, Ellen Frankel Paul, Fred Dycus Miller, Jeffrey Paul, eds., "Sidney Hook, Robert Nozick, and the Paradoxes of Freedom", Natural Rights Liberalism from Locke to Nozick (Social Philosophy and Policy, vol. 22, no. 1, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, pp. 200–220, 2005. ISBN 978-0-521-61514-3
David Sidorsky, essay on Sidney Hook, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, online
Sidney Hook papers at the Hoover Institution Archives.
A film clip "The Open Mind - An Unquiet Life, Part I (1987)" is available for viewing at the Internet Archive
A film clip "The Open Mind - An Unquiet Life, Part II (1987)" is available for viewing at the Internet Archive
"Sidney Hook Papers" at Tamiment Library and Robert F. Wagner Labor Archives at New York University
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"pragmatism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatism"},{"link_name":"philosophy of history","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_history"},{"link_name":"philosophy of education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_education"},{"link_name":"political theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_theory"},{"link_name":"ethics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics"},{"link_name":"communism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communism"},{"link_name":"totalitarianism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Totalitarianism"},{"link_name":"fascism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fascism"},{"link_name":"Marxism–Leninism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism"},{"link_name":"social democrat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_democrat"},{"link_name":"conservatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Communist Party USA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_Party_USA"},{"link_name":"Leninists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leninists"},{"link_name":"democratic centralists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_centralists"}],"text":"Sidney Hook (December 20, 1902 – July 12, 1989) was an American philosopher of pragmatism known for his contributions to the philosophy of history, the philosophy of education, political theory, and ethics. After embracing communism in his youth, Hook was later known for his criticisms of totalitarianism, both fascism and Marxism–Leninism. A social democrat, Hook sometimes cooperated with conservatives, particularly in opposing Marxism–Leninism. After World War II, he argued that members of such groups as the Communist Party USA and Leninists like democratic centralists could ethically be barred from holding the offices of public trust because they called for the violent overthrow of democratic governments.","title":"Sidney Hook"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Einstein_and_others_letter.jpg"},{"link_name":"Albert Einstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Brooklyn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brooklyn"},{"link_name":"New York City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City"},{"link_name":"Austrian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria"},{"link_name":"Jewish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaism"},{"link_name":"Socialist Party of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_Party_of_America"},{"link_name":"Debs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugene_V._Debs"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"BA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachelor%27s_degree"},{"link_name":"City College of New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_College_of_New_York"},{"link_name":"Ph.D.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy"},{"link_name":"Columbia University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_University"},{"link_name":"pragmatist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatism"},{"link_name":"John Dewey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dewey"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Albert Einstein, Sidney Hook et al. signed a 4 December 1948 letter published in the New York Times[2]Sidney Hook was born on December 20, 1902, in Brooklyn, New York City, to Jennie and Isaac Hook, Austrian Jewish immigrants. He became a supporter of the Socialist Party of America during the Debs era when he was in high school.[citation needed]In 1923, he earned a BA at the City College of New York and in 1927 Ph.D. at Columbia University, where he studied under pragmatist philosopher John Dewey.[citation needed]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"New York University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_University"},{"link_name":"Department of Philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_University_Department_of_Philosophy"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"New School for Social Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_School_for_Social_Research"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Horace M. Kallen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace_M._Kallen"},{"link_name":"ACLU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"In 1926, Hook became a professor of philosophy at New York University and was head of the Department of Philosophy from 1948 to 1969. He retired from the University in 1972.[citation needed]In 1931, Hook began teaching at the New School for Social Research through 1936, after which he taught night school there until the 1960s.[3] By 1933, Hook and New School colleague Horace M. Kallen were serving also on the ACLU's academic freedom committee.[4]","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Karl Marx","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Marx"},{"link_name":"Marxist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism"},{"link_name":"Karl Korsch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Korsch"},{"link_name":"Marx-Engels Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marx-Engels_Institute"},{"link_name":"Moscow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"Communist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_Party_USA"},{"link_name":"William Z. Foster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Z._Foster"},{"link_name":"President of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Comintern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comintern"},{"link_name":"Nazism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazism"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"Joseph Stalin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Stalin"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Great Depression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Depression"},{"link_name":"James Burnham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Burnham"},{"link_name":"American Workers Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Workers_Party"},{"link_name":"pacifist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacifism"},{"link_name":"A.J. Muste","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A.J._Muste"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Max Eastman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Eastman"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Leon Trotsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Trotsky"},{"link_name":"Commission of Inquiry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dewey_Commission"},{"link_name":"Moscow Trials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_Trials"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Marxist","text":"At the beginning of his career, Hook was a prominent expert on Karl Marx's philosophy and was himself a Marxist. He attended the lectures of Karl Korsch in Berlin in 1928 and conducted research at the Marx-Engels Institute in Moscow in the summer of 1929.[5] At first, he wrote enthusiastically about the Soviet Union, and, in 1932, supported the Communist Party's candidate, William Z. Foster, when he ran for President of the United States. However, Hook broke completely with the Comintern in 1933, holding its policies responsible for the triumph of Nazism in Germany. He accused Joseph Stalin of putting \"the needs of the Russian state\" over the needs of the international revolution.[6]However, Hook remained active in some of the causes of the Marxist left during the Great Depression. In 1933, with James Burnham, Hook was one of the organizers of the American Workers Party, led by the Dutch-born pacifist minister A.J. Muste.[7] Hook also debated the meaning of Marxism with radical Max Eastman in a series of public exchanges.[8] Eastman, like Hook, had studied under John Dewey at Columbia University. In the late 1930s, Hook assisted Leon Trotsky in his efforts to clear his name in a special Commission of Inquiry headed by Dewey, which investigated charges made against Trotsky during the Moscow Trials.[citation needed]","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Great Purge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Purge"},{"link_name":"Cold War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War"},{"link_name":"anti-Communist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Communism"},{"link_name":"democratic socialist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_socialism"},{"link_name":"secular humanist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secular_humanist"},{"link_name":"Humanist Manifesto II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanist_Manifesto_II"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Congress for Cultural Freedom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congress_for_Cultural_Freedom"},{"link_name":"American Committee for Cultural Freedom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Committee_for_Cultural_Freedom"},{"link_name":"Central Intelligence Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency"},{"link_name":"Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Victor Riesel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Riesel"},{"link_name":"WEVD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WEVD"},{"link_name":"Eugene V. Debs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugene_V._Debs"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"John Day Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Day_Company"},{"link_name":"Heresy, Yes–Conspiracy, No","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heresy,_Yes%E2%80%93Conspiracy,_No"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"New Left","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Left"},{"link_name":"Vietnam War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_War"},{"link_name":"Ronald Reagan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Reagan"},{"link_name":"Angela Davis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angela_Davis"},{"link_name":"UCLA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UCLA"},{"link_name":"Communist Party USA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_Party_USA"},{"link_name":"American Academy of Arts and Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AAAS-16"},{"link_name":"conservative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Hoover Institution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoover_Institution"},{"link_name":"Stanford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford,_California"},{"link_name":"California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California"}],"sub_title":"Anti-communist","text":"The Great Purge encouraged Hook's increasing ambivalence toward Marxism. In 1939, Hook formed the Committee for Cultural Freedom, a short-lived organization that set the stage for his postwar politics by opposing \"totalitarianism\" on the left and right. By the Cold War, Hook had become a prominent anti-Communist, although he continued to consider himself both a democratic socialist and a secular humanist throughout his life. He was, therefore, an anti-Communist socialist. In 1973, he was one of the signers of the Humanist Manifesto II.[9]In the late 1940s and early 1950s, Hook helped found Americans for Intellectual Freedom, the Congress for Cultural Freedom (CCF), and the American Committee for Cultural Freedom. These bodies—of which the CCF was most central—were funded in part by the Central Intelligence Agency through a variety of fronts and sought to dissuade American leftists from continuing to advocate cooperation with the Soviet Union as some had previously.[10] Hook later wrote in his memoirs that he, \"like almost everyone else,\" had heard that \"the CIA was making some contribution to the financing of the Congress.\"[11]On February 6, 1953, Hook discussed \"The Threat to Academic Freedom\" with Victor Riesel and others in the evening on WEVD radio (a Socialist radio station whose call letters referred to SPA founder Eugene V. Debs).[12] In May 1953, the John Day Company published Heresy, Yes–Conspiracy, No,[13] a 283-page book expanded from a 1952 pamphlet (Heresy, Yes–Conspiracy, No![14]), itself expanded from a 1950 New York Times article called \"Heresy, Yes–But Conspiracy, No.\"[15]In the 1960s, Hook was a frequent critic of the New Left. He was opposed to a unilateral withdrawal of U.S. forces from the Vietnam War and defended California Governor Ronald Reagan's removal of Angela Davis from her professorship at UCLA because of her leadership role in the Communist Party USA.Hook was elected a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1965[16] and ended his career in the 1970s and 1980s as a fellow of the conservative Hoover Institution in Stanford, California.","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"National Endowment for the Humanities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Endowment_for_the_Humanities"},{"link_name":"Jefferson Lecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jefferson_Lecture"},{"link_name":"humanities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanities"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jefflect-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"sub_title":"Later years","text":"The National Endowment for the Humanities selected Hook for the 1984 Jefferson Lecture, the U.S. government's highest honor for achievement in the humanities.[17] Hook's lecture was entitled \"Education in Defense of a Free Society.\"[18][19]","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shapiro-21"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Phelps-1"},{"link_name":"Rand School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rand_School"},{"link_name":"Scott Nearing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott_Nearing"},{"link_name":"Cy Oggins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cy_Oggins"},{"link_name":"William Z. Foster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Z._Foster"},{"link_name":"Labor Defense Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labor_Defense_Council"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shapiro-21"}],"sub_title":"Personal life and death","text":"Hook was a lifelong agnostic.[20]He married Carrie Katz in 1924, with whom he had one son. The couple separated in 1933.[21][1] Katz had studied at the Rand School in the early 1920s. There, she studied under Scott Nearing and came to write a chapter in his book The Law of Social Revolution entitled \"The Russian Revolution of 1917\" (1926). Friends from the Rand School included Nerma Berman Oggins, wife of Cy Oggins. She was a Communist Party member who was a \"Fosterite\" (i.e., she supported William Z. Foster amidst Party factionalism in the last 1920s). She went on to work at the Labor Defense Council.[22] In 1935, Hook married Ann Zinken, with whom he had two children.[21]Hook died age 86 on July 12, 1989, in Stanford, California.","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal (CSICOP)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_for_Skeptical_Inquiry"},{"link_name":"Paul Kurtz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Kurtz"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hook_award_1985-23"},{"link_name":"Presidential Medal of Freedom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential_Medal_of_Freedom"},{"link_name":"Ronald Reagan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Reagan"}],"text":"1984: In Praise of Reason Award from the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal (CSICOP). awarded by CSICOP Chairman Paul Kurtz[23]\n1985: Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Ronald Reagan (May 23, 1985)","title":"Awards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Noam Chomsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noam_Chomsky"},{"link_name":"Mortimer J. Adler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortimer_J._Adler"},{"link_name":"Bertolt Brecht","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertolt_Brecht"},{"link_name":"Morris Cohen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morris_Raphael_Cohen"},{"link_name":"John Dewey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dewey"},{"link_name":"Max Eastman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Eastman"},{"link_name":"Albert Einstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein"},{"link_name":"Bertrand Russell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Robert Talisse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_B._Talisse"},{"link_name":"City University of New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_University_of_New_York"},{"link_name":"Manhattan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan"},{"link_name":"Committee for Skeptical Inquiry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_for_Skeptical_Inquiry"},{"link_name":"Denver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denver"},{"link_name":"Colorado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"text":"Hook's memoir, Out of Step, recounts his life, his activism for a number of educational causes, his controversies with other intellectuals such as Noam Chomsky, and his recollections of Mortimer J. Adler, Bertolt Brecht, Morris Cohen, John Dewey, Max Eastman, Albert Einstein and Bertrand Russell.[24]In October 2002, a conference marking the centennial of Hook's birth was organized by Matthew Cotter and Robert Talisse and held at the City University of New York Graduate Center in Manhattan.In April 2011 the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI) (formerly known as CSICOP) again honored Hook. At a meeting of its executive council in Denver, Colorado he was selected for inclusion in their Pantheon of Skeptics. The Pantheon of Skeptics was created by CSI to remember the legacy of deceased fellows of CSI and their contributions to the cause of scientific skepticism.[25]","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"hero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero"},{"link_name":"Great Man","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Man_theory"},{"link_name":"determinism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Determinism"},{"link_name":"William James","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_James"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Lenin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin"},{"link_name":"Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Herbert Fisher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H._A._L._Fisher"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"}],"sub_title":"Hero in History","text":"Sidney Hook's book The Hero in History was a noticeable event in the studies devoted to the role of the hero, the Great Man in history and the influence of people of significant accomplishments.Hook opposed all forms of determinism and argued, as had William James, that humans play a creative role in constructing the social world and to transforming their natural environment. Neither humanity nor its universe is determined or finished. For Hook this conviction was crucial. He argued that when a society is at the crossroads of choosing the direction of further development, an individual can play a dramatic role and even become an independent power on whom the choice of the historical pathway depends.[26]In his book, Hook provided a great number of examples of the influence of great people, and the examples are mostly associated with various crucial moments in history, such as revolutions and crises. Some scholars have critically responded because, as one of them claims, \"he does not take into account that an individual's greatest influence can be revealed not so much in the period of the old regime's collapse, but in the formation period of a new one. [...] Besides, he did not make clear the situation when alternatives appear either as the result of a crisis or as the result of Great Man's plan or intention without [a] manifested crisis\".[27]Hook introduced a theoretical division of historic personalities and especially leaders into the eventful man and the event-making man, depending on their influences on the historical process.[28] For example, he considers Lenin as having been an event-making man, because of his having acted in an important circumstance to change the developmental direction not only of Russia but also of the whole world in the 20th century.Hook attached great importance to accidents and contingencies in history,[29] thus opposing, among others, Herbert Fisher,[30] who made attempts to present history as \"waves\" of emergencies.","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"}],"sub_title":"\"Ethics of Controversy\"","text":"In 1954, Hook published an essay titled \"The Ethics of Controversy\" in which he set down ten ground rules for democratic discourse within a democracy.[31][32]","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Metaphysics of Pragmatism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/001382942"},{"link_name":"Open Court Publishing Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Court_Publishing_Company"},{"link_name":"John Day Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Day_Company"},{"link_name":"Christianity and Marxism: A Symposium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/ChristianityAndMarxismASymposium"},{"link_name":"Reason, Social Myths, and Democracy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/reasonsocialmyth00hook"},{"link_name":"The Hero in History: A Study in Limitation and Possibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000665854"},{"link_name":"Education for Modern Man","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/001116624"},{"link_name":"Heresy, Yes–Conspiracy, No","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heresy,_Yes%E2%80%93Conspiracy,_No"},{"link_name":"American Committee for Cultural Freedom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Committee_for_Cultural_Freedom"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Common Sense and the Fifth Amendment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/001625573"},{"link_name":"Political power and personal freedom: critical studies in democracy, communism, and civil rights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/politicalpowerpe00hook"},{"link_name":"World communism: key documentary material","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/931259"}],"sub_title":"Books","text":"The Metaphysics of Pragmatism Chicago, The Open Court Publishing Company, 1927.\nTowards the Understanding of Karl Marx: A Revolutionary Interpretation New York City: John Day Company, 1933.\nChristianity and Marxism: A Symposium New York City: Polemic Publishers, 1934.\nThe Meaning of Marx, an edited collection, 1934.\nFrom Hegel to Marx, 1936.\nJohn Dewey: An Intellectual Portrait, 1939.\nReason, Social Myths, and Democracy, 1940.\nThe Hero in History: A Study in Limitation and Possibility, 1943.\nEducation for Modern Man, 1946.\nJohn Dewey: Philosopher of Science and Freedom, Hook, editor, 1950.\nHeresy, Yes–Conspiracy, No, 1953 (originally published as soft-back in 1952 by American Committee for Cultural Freedom[33])\nMarx and the Marxists: The Ambiguous Legacy, 1955.\nCommon Sense and the Fifth Amendment New York City: Criterion Books, 1957.\nPolitical power and personal freedom: critical studies in democracy, communism, and civil rights, New York City: Criterion Books, 1959.\nThe Quest for Being, and Other Studies in Naturalism and Humanism, 1961.\nThe Fail-Safe Fallacy, 1962.\nThe Paradoxes of Freedom, 1963.\nThe Place of Religion in a Free Society, 1968.\nAcademic Freedom and Academic Anarchy, 1970.\nPragmatism and the Tragic Sense of Life, 1974.\nMarxism and Beyond, 1983.\nOut of Step, 1987.\nConvictions, 1990.\nSidney Hook on Pragmatism, Democracy, and Freedom: The Essential Essays, Robert B. Talisse and Robert Tempio (eds.), Amherst: Prometheus Books, 2002.\nWorld communism: key documentary material , 1990.","title":"Works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"Karl Marx and Moses Hess\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.marxists.org/history/etol/writers/hook/1934/12/hess-marx.htm"},{"link_name":"\"Marx's Criticism of 'True Socialism'\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.marxists.org/history/etol/writers/hook/1935/01/truesoc.htm"},{"link_name":"\"Marx and Feuerbach\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.marxists.org/history/etol/writers/hook/1936/04/feuerbach.htm"},{"link_name":"Commentary Magazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commentary_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"}],"sub_title":"Articles","text":"\"Karl Marx and Moses Hess\" (December 1934), New International, via Marxists Internet Archive\n\"Marx's Criticism of 'True Socialism'\" (January 1935), New International, via Marxists Internet Archive\n\"Marx and Feuerbach\" (April 1936), New International, via Marxists Internet Archive\n\"Academic Integrity and Academic Freedom\", Commentary Magazine (1949)[34]\n\"Heresy, Yes—But Conspiracy, No\", The New York Times (1950)[35]\n\"A Reply to the Editors' 'In Justice to Mr. Conant'\", New York Times (typescript March 15, 1953)","title":"Works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"John Dewey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dewey"},{"link_name":"Max Eastman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Eastman"},{"link_name":"American Jewish Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Jewish_Congress"},{"link_name":"Bertrand Russell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell"},{"link_name":"Lattimore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Owen_Lattimore"},{"link_name":"Robert Hutchins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Maynard_Hutchins"},{"link_name":"Abraham Lincoln","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln"}],"sub_title":"Articles for New Leader","text":"Hook's papers at Stanford[36] include the following articles:\"Where the News Ends\" (November 26, 1938)\n\"John Dewey at Eighty\" (October 28, 1939)\n\"Socialists Face Need of Unified Action\" (March 9, 1940)\n\"Social Change and Original Sin\" (November 8, 1941)\n\"Russia's Military Successes Do Not Whitewash Crimes at Home\" (January 31, 1942)\n\"An Apologist for St. John's College\" (November 25, 1944)\n\"The Degradation of the Word\" (January 27, 1945)\n\"Freedom and Socialism: Reply to Max Eastman\" (March 3, 1945)\n\"Reflections on the Nuremberg Trial: A Summary Court-Martial for Nazi Criminals\" (November 17, 1945)\n\"Fin du Mondisme: The Birth of a New World Mood in Face of Atombomb\" (January 23, 1946)\n\"An Unanswered Letter to the American Jewish Congress\" (July 5, 1947)\n\"Mr. Fly's Web of Confusions: An Analysis of a Befuddled Decision\" (October 18, 1947)\n\"Mr. Fly Entangles Himself More Deeply\" (November 22, 1947)\n\"The State: Servile or Free?\" (March 13, 1948)\n\"John Dewey at Ninety: The Man and His Philosophy\" (October 22, 1949)\n\"Communists in the Colleges\"(May 6, 1950)\n\"Encounter in Berlin\" (October 14, 1950)\n\"Russia by Moonshine\" Part 1 (November 12, 1951)\n\"Russia by Moonshine\" Part 2 (November 19, 1951)\n\"Is America in the Grip of Hysteria?\" (Editorial reply to Bertrand Russell) (March 3, 1952)\n\"Letter to an English Friend\" (October 13, 1952)\n\"Fall of the Town of Usher\", (October 27, 1952)\n\"Lattimore on the Moscow Trials\" (November 10, 1952)\n\"A Trans-Atlantic Dialogue\" (December 8, 1952)\n\"Should We Stress Armaments or Political Warfare?\" (February 23, 1953)\n\"Indoctrination and Academic Freedom\" (March 9, 1953)\n\"Freedom in American Culture\" (April 6, 1953)\n\"The Party Line in Psychology\" (May 25, 1953)\n\"The Ethics of Controversy\" (February 1, 1954)\n\"The Techniques of Controversy\" (March 8, 1954)\n\"Robert Hutchins Rides Again\" (April 19, 1954)\n\"The Substance of Controversy\" (May 24, 1954)\n\"Uncommon Sense about Security and Freedom\" (June 21, 1954)\n\"The Ethics of Controversy Again\" (January 16, 1956)\n\"The Strategy of Truth\" February 13, 1956)\n\"Six Fallacies of Robert Hutchins\" (March 19, 1956)\n\"Hutchins\" (April 23, 1956)\n\"Prospects for Cultural Freedom\" (May 7, 1956)\n\"The AAUP and Academic Integrity\" (May 21, 1956)\n\"Academic Freedom\" (June 4, 1956)\n\"Logic and the Fifth Amendment\" (October 1, 1956)\n\"Psychology and the Fifth Amendment\" (October 8, 1956)\n\"Ethics and the Fifth Amendment\" (October 15, 1956)\n\"Politics and the Fifth Amendment\" (October 22, 1956)\n\"Logic, History and Law\" (November 5, 1956)\n\"Abraham Lincoln, American Pragmatist\" (March 18, 1957)\n\"The Fifth Amendment: A Crucial Case\" (April 22, 1957)\n\"The Atom and Human Wisdom\" (June 3, 1957)\n\"The Old Liberalism: The New Conservative\" (July 8, 1957)\n\"Marx, Dewey and Lincoln\" (October 21, 1957)\n\"Justice Black's Illogic\" (December 2, 1957)\n\"Pragmatism\" (December 9, 1957)\n\"A Debate on Pragmatism: Marx, Dewey and Eastman\" (February 10, 1958)\n\"A Foreign Policy for Survival\" (April 7, 1958)\n\"A Free Man's Choice\" (May 26, 1958)\n\"Bertrand Russell Retreats\" (July 1958)\n\"Education in Japan\" (November 24, 1958)","title":"Works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"}],"sub_title":"Occasional papers","text":"Lecture by Sidney Hook on \"Freedom, Determinism and Sentimentality\" (annual Horace M. Kallen Lectureship) (November 21, 1957)[37]","title":"Works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Diggins, John Patrick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Patrick_Diggins"},{"link_name":"Columbia University Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_University_Press"},{"link_name":"Harper & Row","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harper_%26_Row"},{"link_name":"Kurtz, Paul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Kurtz"},{"link_name":"festschrift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Festschrift"},{"link_name":"Milton R. Konvitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milton_R._Konvitz"},{"link_name":"Irving Kristol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irving_Kristol"},{"link_name":"Phelps, Christopher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Phelps"},{"link_name":"Young Sidney Hook: Marxist and Pragmatist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/youngsidneyhookm00phel"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0801433282","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0801433282"},{"link_name":"Robert B. Talisse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_B._Talisse"},{"link_name":"Prometheus Books","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prometheus_Books"}],"text":"Cotter, Matthew J., ed., Sidney Hook Reconsidered, Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books, 2004.\nDiggins, John Patrick, Up From Communism, New York City: Columbia University Press, then Harper & Row, 1975.\nKurtz, Paul, ed., Sidney Hook and the Contemporary World, New York: John Day and Co., 1968.\nKurtz, Paul, ed., Sidney Hook: Philosopher of Democracy and Humanism (a festschrift, for Hook's 80th birthday, containing four essays on his person and writings by Nicholas Capaldi, Milton R. Konvitz, Irving Kristol, and Paul Kurtz), Buffalo, New York: Prometheus Books, 1983.\nLevine, Barbara, ed., Sidney Hook: A Checklist of Writings, Carbondale: Southern Illinois University, 1989.\nPhelps, Christopher (1997). Young Sidney Hook: Marxist and Pragmatist. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0801433282. Retrieved 14 October 2018.\nSidorsky, David, \"Charting the Intellectual Career of Sidney Hook: Five Major Steps\", Partisan Review, vol. 70, no. 2, pp. 324–342, 2003.\nRobert B. Talisse and Robert Tempio, eds., Sidney Hook on Pragmatism, Freedom, and Democracy: The Essential Essays, Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books, 2002.","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"Albert Einstein, Sidney Hook et al. signed a 4 December 1948 letter published in the New York Times[2]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Albert_Einstein_and_others_letter.jpg/220px-Albert_Einstein_and_others_letter.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"American philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_philosophy"},{"title":"List of American philosophers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_American_philosophers"},{"title":"Heresy, Yes–Conspiracy, No","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heresy,_Yes%E2%80%93Conspiracy,_No"}]
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[{"reference":"Phelps, Christopher (1997). Young Sidney Hook: Marxist and Pragmatist. Cornell University Press. pp. 33–34 (Katz), 51 (Katz), 128-129 (Katz), 132 (influence). ISBN 0801433282. Retrieved 14 October 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Phelps","url_text":"Phelps, Christopher"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/youngsidneyhookm00phel","url_text":"Young Sidney Hook: Marxist and Pragmatist"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/youngsidneyhookm00phel/page/33","url_text":"33"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0801433282","url_text":"0801433282"}]},{"reference":"\"New Palestine Party\". New York Times. 4 December 1948. Retrieved 14 October 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1948/12/04/archives/new-palestine-party-visit-of-menachen-begin-and-aims-of-political.html","url_text":"\"New Palestine Party\""}]},{"reference":"Cotter, Matthew J. (29 December 2015). \"Place and Profession in the Intellectual History of the City: Sidney Hook and NYU\". Gotham Center. Retrieved 14 October 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gothamcenter.org/blog/place-and-profession-in-the-intellectual-history-of-the-city-sidney-hook-and-nyu","url_text":"\"Place and Profession in the Intellectual History of the City: Sidney Hook and NYU\""}]},{"reference":"\"Oppose Teachers' Oath\". New York Times. 9 April 1933. p. N3. Retrieved 14 October 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1933/04/09/archives/oppose-teachers-oath-educators-say-senate-bill-is-a-reflection-on.html","url_text":"\"Oppose Teachers' Oath\""}]},{"reference":"Gordon, David (Fall 1998). \"Letters of Sidney Hook\". Ludwig von Mises Institute. Archived from the original on 2007-07-17. Retrieved 2016-03-18.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070717160939/http://www.mises.org/misesreview_detail.asp?control=86&sortorder=issue","url_text":"\"Letters of Sidney Hook\""},{"url":"https://www.mises.org/misesreview_detail.asp?control=86&sortorder=issue","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Humanist Manifesto II\". American Humanist Association. Archived from the original on October 20, 2012. Retrieved October 18, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121020110719/http://www.americanhumanist.org/humanism/Humanist_Manifesto_II","url_text":"\"Humanist Manifesto II\""},{"url":"http://www.americanhumanist.org/Humanism/Humanist_Manifesto_II","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"The 'shocked' treatment\". Washington Times. December 8, 2005.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2005/dec/8/20051208-092510-1714r/","url_text":"\"The 'shocked' treatment\""}]},{"reference":"Coleman, Peter (1989). The Liberal Conspiracy: The Congress for Cultural Freedom and the Struggle for the Mind of Postwar Europe. New York: The Free Press. p. 49.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"On the Radio\". New York Times. 6 February 1953. p. 26.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Hook, Sidney (1953). Heresy, Yes–Conspiracy, No. John Day Company. pp. 283. LCCN 63006587.","urls":[{"url_text":"Hook, Sidney"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/heresyyesconspir0000hook","url_text":"Heresy, Yes–Conspiracy, No"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/heresyyesconspir0000hook/page/283","url_text":"283"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)","url_text":"LCCN"},{"url":"https://lccn.loc.gov/63006587","url_text":"63006587"}]},{"reference":"Hook, Sidney (1952). Heresy, Yes–Conspiracy, No!. American Committee for Cultural Freedom. p. 29. LCCN 52036000.","urls":[{"url_text":"Hook, Sidney"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)","url_text":"LCCN"},{"url":"https://lccn.loc.gov/52036000","url_text":"52036000"}]},{"reference":"Hook, Sidney (1950). \"Heresy, Yes–But Conspiracy, No!\". New York Times. Retrieved 3 September 2018.","urls":[{"url_text":"Hook, Sidney"},{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1950/07/09/archives/hersey-yesbut-conspiracy-no-the-crisis-arising-from-ideological.html","url_text":"\"Heresy, Yes–But Conspiracy, No!\""}]},{"reference":"\"Book of Members, 1780-2010: Chapter H\" (PDF). American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved 19 April 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterH.pdf","url_text":"\"Book of Members, 1780-2010: Chapter H\""}]},{"reference":"Edward S. Shapiro, ed. (1995). Letters of Sidney Hook: democracy, communism, and the cold war. M.E. Sharpe. p. 2. ISBN 9781563244872. This faith in rationality emerged early in Hook's life. Even before he was a teenager he proclaimed himself to be an agnostic. It was simply irrational, he declared, to believe in the existence of a merciful and powerful God in the face of widespread human misery. Only the pleadings of his parents that he not embarrass them in front of relatives and friends convinced Hook to participate in a Bar Mitzvah ceremony on his thirteenth birthday. People frequently asked him in his later years what he would say if he discovered after death that God really existed. He answered that he would simply state, \"God, you never gave me enough evidence.\"","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781563244872","url_text":"9781563244872"}]},{"reference":"Hook, Sidney (1995). Edward S. Shapiro (ed.). Letters of Sidney Hook: Democracy, Communism, and the Cold War. M.E. Sharpe. p. 15.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Meier, Andrew (August 11, 2008). The Lost Spy: An American in Stalin's Secret Service. W. W. Norton. pp. 92–93. ISBN 978-0-393-06097-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/lostspyamericani00meie/page/92","url_text":"The Lost Spy: An American in Stalin's Secret Service"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/lostspyamericani00meie/page/92","url_text":"92–93"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-06097-3","url_text":"978-0-393-06097-3"}]},{"reference":"\"Scientific Facts and Fictions: On the Trail Of Paranormal Beliefs at CSICOP '84\". The Skeptical Inquirer. 9 (3): 197. 1985.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"The Pantheon of Skeptics\". CSI. Committee for Skeptical Inquiry. Archived from the original on 31 January 2017. Retrieved 30 April 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.csicop.org/about/the_pantheon_of_skeptics","url_text":"\"The Pantheon of Skeptics\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_for_Skeptical_Inquiry","url_text":"Committee for Skeptical Inquiry"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170131054129/http://www.csicop.org/about/the_pantheon_of_skeptics","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Professor Discusses Leadership, Obama and Civil Rights Pioneers\". Archived from the original on 2011-02-06. Retrieved 2011-02-03.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110206212240/http://www.america.gov/st/washfile-english/2009/February/20090227164810eaifas0.1341669.html","url_text":"\"Professor Discusses Leadership, Obama and Civil Rights Pioneers\""},{"url":"https://www.america.gov/st/washfile-english/2009/February/20090227164810eaifas0.1341669.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Sid Hook's Ethics of Controversy | Prosperity Now\". 4 September 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://prosperitynow.org/blog/sid-hooks-ethics-controversy","url_text":"\"Sid Hook's Ethics of Controversy | Prosperity Now\""}]},{"reference":"Hook, Sidney. Heresy, Yes; Conspiracy, No. New York: American Committee for Cultural Freedom. p. 29. LCCN 52036000.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)","url_text":"LCCN"},{"url":"https://lccn.loc.gov/52036000","url_text":"52036000"}]},{"reference":"Hook, Sidney (October 1949). \"Academic Integrity and Academic Freedom\". Commentary. Retrieved 14 October 2018.","urls":[{"url_text":"Hook, Sidney"},{"url":"https://www.commentarymagazine.com/articles/academic-integrity-and-academic-freedomhow-to-deal-with-the-fellow-travelling-professor/","url_text":"\"Academic Integrity and Academic Freedom\""}]},{"reference":"Hook, Sidney (9 September 1950). \"Heresy, Yes—But Conspiracy, No\". New York Times. p. 7. Retrieved 2 September 2018.","urls":[{"url_text":"Hook, Sidney"},{"url":"https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1950/07/09/113165206.html?pageNumber=154","url_text":"\"Heresy, Yes—But Conspiracy, No\""}]},{"reference":"\"Register of the Sidney Hook\". Hoover Institution Archives. Retrieved 14 October 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/tf5n39n7hn/entire_text/","url_text":"\"Register of the Sidney Hook\""}]},{"reference":"\"Press Release: Lecture by Sidney Hook on \"Freedom, Determinism and Sentimentality\"\". New School for Social Science. 21 November 1957. Retrieved 14 October 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://digitalarchives.library.newschool.edu/index.php/Detail/objects/NS030107_000229","url_text":"\"Press Release: Lecture by Sidney Hook on \"Freedom, Determinism and Sentimentality\"\""}]},{"reference":"Phelps, Christopher (1997). Young Sidney Hook: Marxist and Pragmatist. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0801433282. Retrieved 14 October 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Phelps","url_text":"Phelps, Christopher"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/youngsidneyhookm00phel","url_text":"Young Sidney Hook: Marxist and Pragmatist"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0801433282","url_text":"0801433282"}]}]
|
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Reserve_Bank_of_Dallas
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Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas
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["1 Board of directors","1.1 Class A","1.2 Class B","1.3 Class C","2 History","3 Branches","4 Current Activity","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]
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Coordinates: 32°47′30″N 96°48′01″W / 32.791717°N 96.800162°W / 32.791717; -96.800162Member Bank of Federal Reserve
Federal Reserve Bank of DallasFederal Reserve SealHeadquartersHeadquarters2200 N. Pearl St. Dallas, Texas, USAEstablishedMay 18, 1914 (110 years ago) (1914-05-18)PresidentLorie K. LoganCentral bank of
Eleventh District
TexasParts of: Louisiana New Mexico
Preceded byRobert Steven KaplanWebsitewww.DallasFed.orgThe Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas is one of 12 regional banks that make up the Federal Reserve System
The Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas covers the Eleventh Federal Reserve District of the United States, which includes Texas, northern Louisiana and southern New Mexico, a district sometimes referred to as the Oil Patch.
The Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas is one of 12 regional Reserve Banks that, along with the Board of Governors in Washington, D.C., make up the U.S. central bank. The Dallas Fed is the only one where all external branches reside in the same state (although the region itself includes northern Louisiana as well as southern New Mexico).
The Dallas Fed has branch offices in El Paso, Houston, and San Antonio.
The Dallas bank is located at 2200 Pearl St. in the Uptown neighborhood of Oak Lawn, just north of downtown Dallas and the Dallas Arts District.
Prior to 1992, the bank was located at 400 S. Akard Street, in the Government District in Downtown Dallas. The older Dallas Fed building, which opened in 1921, was built in the Beaux-arts style, with large limestone structure with massive carved eagles and additional significant detailing; it is a City of Dallas Designated Landmark structure. The current Dallas Fed building, opened in September 1992, was designed by three architectural firms: Kohn Pedersen Fox Associates, New York; Sikes Jennings Kelly & Brewer, Houston; and John S. Chase, FAIA, Dallas and Houston, Dallas-based Austin Commercial Inc. served as project manager and general contractor.
Board of directors
Map of the Eleventh District
Former Dallas Fed Presidents Robert D. McTeer (1991–2004, left) and Richard W. Fisher (2005–2015, right)
The following people serve on the Board of Directors as of 2022:
Class A
(Elected by member banks to represent member banks)
Class A
Name
Title
Term Expires (Dec. 31)
Joe Quiroga
President
Texas National Bank
Edinburg, Texas
2022
Robert A. Hulsey
President and Chief Executive Officer
American National Bank of Texas
Terrell, Texas
2023
Kelly A. Barclay
President and Chief Executive Officer
Ozona Bank
Wimberley, Texas
2024
Class B
(Elected by member banks to represent the public)
Class B
Name
Title
Term Expires (Dec. 31)
Cynthia Taylor
President and Chief Executive Officer
Oil States International Inc.
Houston, Texas
2022
Gerald B. Smith
Chairman and Chief Executive Officer
Smith, Graham & Company Investment Advisors, L.P.
Houston, Texas
2023
Renard U. Johnson
President and Chief Executive Officer
Management & Engineering Technologies International, Inc.
El Paso, Texas
2024
Class C
(Appointed by the Federal Reserve Board of Governors to represent the public)
Class C
Name
Title
Term Expires (Dec. 31)
Thomas J. Falk
(Chair)
Retired Chairman and Chief Executive Officer
Kimberly-Clark Corporation
Dallas, Texas
2022
Claudia Aguirre(Deputy Chair)
President and Chief Executive Officer
BakerRipley
Houston, Texas
2023
Cindy Ramos-Davidson
Chief Executive Officer
El Paso Hispanic Chamber of Commerce
El Paso, Texas
2024
History
$20 1915 Dallas District FRBN.
Dallas was selected in 1914 to be the headquarters of the Eleventh District, in a somewhat surprising move. Originally, New Orleans was considered the favorite; however, while both cities had similarly sized banking operations, Dallas' activity had increased significantly while New Orleans' remained relatively flat, and therefore Dallas was chosen.
Branches
Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas El Paso Branch
Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas Houston Branch
Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas San Antonio Branch
Current Activity
The Dallas Fed is the nation's central processor for Treasury coupons and manages the national Electronic Transfer Account program, processes checks for federal benefit recipients.
The Dallas Fed also focused on research dealing with maquiladoras and other U.S.-Mexico border economics.
The current president is Lorie K. Logan, who assumed office in August 2022. Logan succeeded Robert Steven Kaplan, who resigned in October 2021.
See also
United States portalPolitics portalBanks portal
Federal Reserve Act
Federal Reserve System
Federal Reserve Bank
Federal Reserve Districts
Federal Reserve Branches
Structure of the Federal Reserve System
Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas El Paso Branch
Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas Houston Branch
Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas San Antonio Branch
References
^ Tracy Alloway (June 20, 2016). "A Quick Trip to the Oil Patch Shows Energy-Related Losses Rising". Bloomberg Markets.
^ "Federal Reserve Board - Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas". Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. Retrieved 2022-02-07.
^ "History of the Dallas Fed". Archived from the original on 2014-06-25.
^ "Lorie K. Logan Named President and CEO of Dallas Fed". www.dallasfed.org. Retrieved 2022-05-22.
^ "Meredith N. Black, Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas". www.dallasfed.org. Retrieved 2022-02-07.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas.
Dallas Fed home page
Map of the District
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Chairs
Charles S. Hamlin (1914–1916)
William P. G. Harding (1916–1922)
Daniel R. Crissinger (1923–1927)
Roy A. Young (1927–1930)
Eugene Meyer (1930–1933)
Eugene R. Black (1933–1934)
Marriner S. Eccles (1934–1948)
Thomas B. McCabe (1948–1951)
William M. Martin (1951–1970)
Arthur F. Burns (1970–1978)
G. William Miller (1978–1979)
Paul Volcker (1979–1987)
Alan Greenspan (1987–2006)
Ben Bernanke (2006–2014)
Janet Yellen (2014–2018)
Jerome Powell (2018–present)
Currentgovernors
Jerome Powell (Chair)
Philip Jefferson (Vice Chair)
Michael Barr (Vice Chair for Supervision)
Michelle Bowman
Christopher Waller
Lisa D. Cook
Adriana Kugler
Current presidents(by district)
Susan Collins (Boston)
John Williams (New York)
Patrick T. Harker (Philadelphia)
Loretta J. Mester (Cleveland)
Thomas Barkin (Richmond)
Raphael Bostic (Atlanta)
Austan Goolsbee (Chicago)
Alberto Musalem (St. Louis)
Neel Kashkari (Minneapolis)
Jeff Schmid (Kansas City)
Lorie Logan (Dallas)
Mary C. Daly (San Francisco)
Related
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History
vteFederal Reserve BanksThe Federal Reserve Banks of Boston and Philadelphia have no branches.New York branches
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32°47′30″N 96°48′01″W / 32.791717°N 96.800162°W / 32.791717; -96.800162
|
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Chase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_S._Chase"}],"text":"Member Bank of Federal ReserveThe Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas covers the Eleventh Federal Reserve District of the United States, which includes Texas, northern Louisiana and southern New Mexico, a district sometimes referred to as the Oil Patch.[1]\nThe Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas is one of 12 regional Reserve Banks that, along with the Board of Governors in Washington, D.C., make up the U.S. central bank. The Dallas Fed is the only one where all external branches reside in the same state (although the region itself includes northern Louisiana as well as southern New Mexico).\nThe Dallas Fed has branch offices in El Paso, Houston, and San Antonio.\nThe Dallas bank is located at 2200 Pearl St. in the Uptown neighborhood of Oak Lawn, just north of downtown Dallas and the Dallas Arts District.\nPrior to 1992, the bank was located at 400 S. Akard Street, in the Government District in Downtown Dallas. The older Dallas Fed building, which opened in 1921, was built in the Beaux-arts style, with large limestone structure with massive carved eagles and additional significant detailing; it is a City of Dallas Designated Landmark structure. The current Dallas Fed building, opened in September 1992, was designed by three architectural firms: Kohn Pedersen Fox Associates, New York; Sikes Jennings Kelly & Brewer, Houston; and John S. Chase, FAIA, Dallas and Houston, Dallas-based Austin Commercial Inc. served as project manager and general contractor.","title":"Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dallas_Fed_map.PNG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FRS_DALLAS_cent_grp_121613_0573_02832_(14079998541).jpg"},{"link_name":"Robert D. McTeer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_D._McTeer"},{"link_name":"Richard W. Fisher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_W._Fisher"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Federal_Reserve_Bank_of_Dallas&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Map of the Eleventh DistrictFormer Dallas Fed Presidents Robert D. McTeer (1991–2004, left) and Richard W. Fisher (2005–2015, right)The following people serve on the Board of Directors as of 2022[update]:[2]","title":"Board of directors"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Class A","text":"(Elected by member banks to represent member banks)","title":"Board of directors"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Class B","text":"(Elected by member banks to represent the public)","title":"Board of directors"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Federal Reserve Board of Governors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Reserve_Board_of_Governors"}],"sub_title":"Class C","text":"(Appointed by the Federal Reserve Board of Governors to represent the public)","title":"Board of directors"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US-$20-FRBN-1915-Fr.828.jpg"},{"link_name":"FRBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Reserve_Bank_Note"},{"link_name":"New Orleans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Orleans,_Louisiana"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"$20 1915 Dallas District FRBN.Dallas was selected in 1914 to be the headquarters of the Eleventh District, in a somewhat surprising move. Originally, New Orleans was considered the favorite; however, while both cities had similarly sized banking operations, Dallas' activity had increased significantly while New Orleans' remained relatively flat, and therefore Dallas was chosen.[3]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas El Paso Branch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Reserve_Bank_of_Dallas_El_Paso_Branch"},{"link_name":"Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas Houston Branch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Reserve_Bank_of_Dallas_Houston_Branch"},{"link_name":"Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas San Antonio Branch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Reserve_Bank_of_Dallas_San_Antonio_Branch"}],"text":"Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas El Paso Branch\nFederal Reserve Bank of Dallas Houston Branch\nFederal Reserve Bank of Dallas San Antonio Branch","title":"Branches"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US-Treasury-ElectronicTransferAccount-Logo.svg"},{"link_name":"maquiladoras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maquiladora"},{"link_name":"Lorie K. Logan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorie_K._Logan"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Robert Steven Kaplan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Steven_Kaplan"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"The Dallas Fed is the nation's central processor for Treasury coupons and manages the national Electronic Transfer Account program, processes checks for federal benefit recipients.\nThe Dallas Fed also focused on research dealing with maquiladoras and other U.S.-Mexico border economics.The current president is Lorie K. Logan, who assumed office in August 2022.[4] Logan succeeded Robert Steven Kaplan, who resigned in October 2021.[5]","title":"Current Activity"}]
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[{"reference":"Tracy Alloway (June 20, 2016). \"A Quick Trip to the Oil Patch Shows Energy-Related Losses Rising\". Bloomberg Markets.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-06-20/a-quick-trip-to-the-oil-patch-shows-energy-related-losses-rising","url_text":"\"A Quick Trip to the Oil Patch Shows Energy-Related Losses Rising\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloomberg_Markets","url_text":"Bloomberg Markets"}]},{"reference":"\"Federal Reserve Board - Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas\". Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. Retrieved 2022-02-07.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.federalreserve.gov/aboutthefed/federal-reserve-system-dallas.htm","url_text":"\"Federal Reserve Board - Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas\""}]},{"reference":"\"History of the Dallas Fed\". Archived from the original on 2014-06-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140625112036/http://www.dallasfed.org/fed/dalhistory.cfm","url_text":"\"History of the Dallas Fed\""},{"url":"http://www.dallasfed.org/fed/dalhistory.cfm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Lorie K. Logan Named President and CEO of Dallas Fed\". www.dallasfed.org. Retrieved 2022-05-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dallasfed.org/news/releases/2022/nr220511logan","url_text":"\"Lorie K. Logan Named President and CEO of Dallas Fed\""}]},{"reference":"\"Meredith N. Black, Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas\". www.dallasfed.org. Retrieved 2022-02-07.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dallasfed.org/fed/bios/black","url_text":"\"Meredith N. Black, Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kun-Damu
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Kun-Damu
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["1 See also","2 Notes","3 References","3.1 Citations","3.2 Bibliography"]
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King of Ebla
Kun-DamuKing of EblaReignc. 2400 BC. Middle chronologyPredecessorEshar-MalikSuccessorAdub-DamuKing of Ebla
Kun-Damu (also Qum-Damu) was a king (Malikum) of the first Eblaite kingdom ruling c. 2400 BC. The king's name is translated as "Arise, O Damu". Kun-Damu is attested in the archives of Ebla dated two generations after his reign. According to Alfonso Archi, he was a contemporary of Saʿumu of Mari. The archives of Ebla records the defeat of Mari in the 25th century BC, and based on the estimations for his reign, Kun-Damu might be the Eblaite king who inflicted this defeat upon Mari. Aleppo might have came under the rule of Ebla during his reign. Following his death, he was deified and his cult was attested in Ebla for at least 30 years after his reign.
King Kun-Damu of Ebla
Regnal titles
Preceded byEshar-Malik
King of Ebla 2400 BC
Succeeded byAdub-Damu
See also
Eblaite-Mariote war
Notes
^ Damu was probably an old Semitic deity and not identical with the Sumerian Damu.
References
Citations
^ William J. Hamblin (2006). Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC. pp. 241, 242. ISBN 9781134520626.
^ Cyrus Herzl Gordon; Gary Rendsburg (1990). Eblaitica: essays on the Ebla archives and Eblaite language, Volume 2. p. 81. ISBN 9780931464492.
^ Cyrus Herzl Gordon; Gary Rendsburg; Nathan H. Winter (2002). Eblaitica: Essays on the Ebla Archives and Eblaite Language, Volume 4. p. 219. ISBN 9781575060606.
^ a b c Hartmut Kühne; Rainer Maria Czichon; Florian Janoscha Kreppner (2008). 4 ICAANE. p. 68. ISBN 9783447057578.
^ Regine Pruzsinszky; Dahlia Shehata (2010). Musiker und Tradierung: Studien Zur Rolle Von Musikern Bei Der Verschriftlichung und Tradierung Von Literarischen Werken. p. 69. ISBN 9783643501318.
^ Archi 2010, p. 3.
^ Hans Gustav Güterbock; K. Aslihan Yener; Harry A. Hoffner; Simrit Dhesi (2002). Recent Developments in Hittite Archaeology and History: Papers in Memory of Hans G. Güterbock. p. 28. ISBN 9781575060538.
Bibliography
Archi, Alfonso (2010). "Hadda of Ḫalab and his Temple in the Ebla Period". IRAQ. 72: In Honour of the Seventieth Birthday of Professor David Hawkins. Cambridge University Press - On Behalf of The British Institute for the Study of Iraq (Gertrude Bell Memorial). ISSN 0021-0889. JSTOR 20779017.
vteRulers of the Ancient Near East
Territories/dates
Egypt
Canaan
Ebla
Mari
Kish/Assur
Akshak/Akkad
Uruk
Adab
Umma
Lagash
Ur
Elam
4000–3200 BCE
Naqada INaqada II
Egypt-Mesopotamia relations
Pre-Dynastic period (4000–2900 BCE)
Susa I
Uruk period(4000–3100 BCE)(Anu Ziggurat, 4000 BCE)(Anonymous "King-priests")
Susa II(Uruk influence or control)
3200–3100 BCE
Proto-Dynastic period(Naqada III)Early or legendary kings:
Upper EgyptFinger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes
Lower EgyptHedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash
3100–2900 BCE
Early Dynastic PeriodFirst Dynasty of EgyptNarmer PaletteNarmer Menes Neithhotep♀ (regent) Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ (regent) Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird
Canaanites
Jemdet Nasr period(3100–2900 BCE)
Proto-Elamiteperiod(Susa III)(3100–2700 BCE)
2900 BCE
Second Dynasty of EgyptHotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy
Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE)
First EblaiteKingdom
First kingdom of Mari
Kish I dynastyJushur, Kullassina-belNangishlishma,En-tarah-anaBabum, Puannum, Kalibum
2800 BCE
Kalumum Zuqaqip AtabMashda Arwium EtanaBalih En-me-nunaMelem-Kish Barsal-nuna
Uruk I dynastyMesh-ki-ang-gasher
Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta")
2700 BCE
Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE)
Zamug, Tizqar, IlkuIltasadum
LugalbandaDumuzid, the Fisherman
Enmebaragesi ("made the land of Elam submit")
Aga of Kish
Gilgamesh
Old Elamite period(2700–1500 BCE)Indus-Mesopotamia relations
2600 BCE
Third Dynasty of EgyptDjoser(First Egyptian pyramids)Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni
Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE)
SagisuAbur-limAgur-limIbbi-DamuBaba-Damu
Kish II dynasty(5 kings)UhubMesilim
Ur-NungalUdulkalamaLabashum
LagashEn-hegalLugal-shaengur
UrA-ImdugudUr-PabilsagMeskalamdug(Queen Puabi)Akalamdug
Enun-dara-annaMes-heMelamannaLugal-kitun
AdabNin-kisalsiMe-durbaLugal-dalu
2575 BCE
Old Kingdom of EgyptFourth Dynasty of EgyptSnefru KhufuDjedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis
Ur I dynastyMesannepada"King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk
2500 BCE
Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE)
Second kingdom of MariIkun-ShamashIku-ShamaganAnsudSa'umuIshtup-IsharIkun-MariIblul-IlNizi
Kish III dynastyKu-Baba♀
Akshak dynastyUnziUndalulu
Uruk II dynastyEnsha-kushanna
Mug-si
Umma I dynastyPabilgagaltuku
Lagash I dynastyUr-NansheAkurgal
A'annepadaMeskiagnunEluluBalulu
Awan dynastyPeliTataUkkutaheshHishur
2450 BCE
Fifth Dynasty of EgyptUserkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas
Enar-DamuIshar-Malik
UshEnakalle
Elamite invasions(3 kings)
Shushun-taranaNapilhush
2425 BCE
Kun-Damu
Eannatum(King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam)
2400 BCE
Adub-DamuIgrish-HalamIrkab-Damu
Kish IV dynastyPuzur-SuenUr-Zababa
Urur
Lugal-kinishe-duduLugal-kisalsi
E-iginimpa'eMeskigal
Ur-LummaIlGishakidu(Queen Bara-irnun)
EnannatumEntemenaEnannatum IIEnentarzi
Ur II dynastyNanniMesh-ki-ang-Nanna II
Kiku-siwe-tempti
2380 BCE
Sixth Dynasty of EgyptTeti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah
Adab dynastyLugalannemundu"King of the four quarters of the world"
2370 BCE
Isar-Damu
Enna-DaganIkun-IsharIshqi-Mari
Invasion by MariAnbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter
Ukush
LugalandaUrukagina
Luh-ishan
2350 BCE
Puzur-NirahIshu-IlShu-Sin
Uruk III dynastyLugalzagesi(Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer)
2340 BCE
Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE)
Akkadian EmpireSargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu
Akkadian Governors:EshpumIlshu-rabiEpirmupiIli-ishmani
2250 BCE
Naram-Sin
Lugal-ushumgal(vassal of the Akkadians)
2200 BCE
First Intermediate PeriodSeventh Dynasty of EgyptEighth Dynasty of EgyptMenkare Neferkare II Neferkare Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Ibi Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare
Second EblaiteKingdom
Third kingdom of Mari(Shakkanakkudynasty)IdidishShu-DaganIshma-Dagan(Vassals of the Akkadians)
Shar-Kali-Sharri
Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years)DuduShu-turul
Uruk IV dynastyUr-niginUr-gigir
Lagash II dynastyPuzer-MamaUr-Ningirsu IPirig-meLu-BabaLu-gulaKa-ku
Hishep-RatepHeluKhitaPuzur-Inshushinak
2150 BCE
Ninth Dynasty of EgyptMeryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut
Ur III period (2150–2000 BCE)
Nûr-MêrIshtup-IlumIshgum-AdduApil-kin
Gutian dynasty(21 kings)La-erabumSi'um
Kuda (Uruk)Puzur-iliUr-Utu
Umma II dynastyLugalannatum(vassal of the Gutians)
Ur-BabaGudeaUr-NingirsuUr-garNam-mahani
Tirigan
2125 BCE
Tenth Dynasty of EgyptMeryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare
Uruk V dynastyUtu-hengal
2100 BCE
(Vassals of UR III)
Iddi-ilumIli-IsharTura-DaganPuzur-Ishtar(Vassals of Ur III)
Ur III dynasty"Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad"Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin
2025-1763 BCE
Amorite invasions
Ibbi-Sin
Elamite invasionsKindattu (Shimashki Dynasty)
Middle Kingdom of EgyptEleventh Dynasty of EgyptMentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV
Third EblaiteKingdom (Amorites)Ibbit-LimImmeya Indilimma
(Amorite Shakkanakkus)Hitial-ErraHanun-Dagan(...)Lim Dynastyof Mari(Amorites)Yaggid-Lim Yahdun-Lim Yasmah-Adad Zimri-Lim (Queen Shibtu)
Old AssyriaPuzur-Ashur IShalim-ahumIlu-shumaErishum IIkunumSargon IPuzur-Ashur IINaram-SinErishum II
Isin-Larsa period(Amorites)Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishuDynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin IIUruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu
Sukkalmah dynastySiwe-Palar-Khuppak
Twelfth Dynasty of EgyptAmenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀
1800–1595 BCE
Thirteenth Dynasty of EgyptFourteenth Dynasty of Egypt
Abraham(Biblical)Kings of ByblosKings of TyreKings of Sidon
Yamhad(Yamhad dynasty)(Amorites)
Old Assyria
(Shamshi-Adad dynasty1808–1736 BCE)(Amorites)Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi
(Non-dynastic usurpers1735–1701 BCE)
Puzur-Sin Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi
(Adaside dynasty1700–722 BCE)Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II
First Babylonian dynasty("Old Babylonian Period")(Amorites)Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sin-muballitSabium Apil-Sin Sin-muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-DitanaEarly Kassite rulers
Second Babylonian dynasty("Sealand Dynasty")Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishuIshkibal Shushushi GulkisharmDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh AyadaragalamaAkurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil
Second Intermediate PeriodSixteenthDynasty
AbydosDynasty
SeventeenthDynasty
Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt("Hyksos")Pharaoh Ahmose I slaying a HyksosSemqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi
Mitanni(1600–1260 BCE)Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar
1531–1155 BCE
TutankhamunNew Kingdom of EgyptEighteenth Dynasty of EgyptAhmose I Amenhotep I
Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites)Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi
Middle Elamite period
(1500–1100 BCE)Kidinuid dynastyIgehalkid dynastyUntash-Napirisha
Thutmose I Thutmose II Hatshepsut♀ Thutmose III
Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb
Hittite EmpireUgarit
Nineteenth Dynasty of EgyptRamesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀
Elamite EmpireShutrukid dynastyShutruk-Nakhunte
1155–1025 BCE
Twentieth Dynasty of EgyptSetnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XIThird Intermediate Period
Twenty-first Dynasty of EgyptSmendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II
PhoeniciaKings of ByblosKings of TyreKings of SidonKingdom of IsraelSaulIsh-boshethDavidSolomon
Syro-Hittite states
Middle AssyriaEriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II
Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin")Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur
Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE)
1025–934 BCE
Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos")Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli
911–745 BCE
Twenty-second Dynasty of EgyptShoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV
Twenty-third Dynasty of EgyptHarsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini
Twenty-fourth Dynasty of EgyptTefnakht Bakenranef
Kingdom of SamariaKingdom of Judah
Neo-Assyrian EmpireAdad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat♀ (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V
Ninth Babylonian DynastyNinurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri
Humban-Tahrid dynastyUrtakTeummanUmmanigashTammaritu IIndabibiHumban-haltash III
745–609 BCE
Twenty-fifth Dynasty of EgyptTaharqa("Black Pharaohs")Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun
Neo-Assyrian Empire
(Sargonid dynasty)Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II
Assyrian conquest of Egypt
Assyrian conquest of Elam
626–539 BCE
Late PeriodTwenty-sixth Dynasty of EgyptNecho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III
Neo-Babylonian EmpireNabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus
Median EmpireDeioces Phraortes Madyes Cyaxares Astyages
539–331 BCE
Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt(First Achaemenid conquest of Egypt)
Kings of ByblosKings of TyreKings of Sidon
Achaemenid EmpireCyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III
Twenty-eighth Dynasty of EgyptTwenty-ninth Dynasty of EgyptThirtieth Dynasty of Egypt
Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt
331–141 BCE
Argead dynasty and Ptolemaic EgyptPtolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetis♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter♀ Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Lathyros Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra V♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Berenice IV Epiphanea♀ Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XV Caesarion Arsinoe IV♀
Hellenistic PeriodSeleukos I Nikator Tetradrachm from BabylonArgead dynasty: Alexander III Philip III Alexander IV Antigonid dynasty: Antigonus ISeleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes
141–30 BCE
Kingdom of JudeaSimon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra♀ Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias
Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus
Parthian EmpireMithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I
30 BCE–116 CE
Roman Empire
(Roman conquest of Egypt)Province of Egypt
Judea
Syria
116–117 CE
Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan
Parthamaspates of Parthia
117–224 CE
Syria Palaestina
Province of Mesopotamia
Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV
224–270 CE
Sasanian EmpireProvince of AsoristanCoin of Ardashir I, Hamadan mint.Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm
270–273 CE
Palmyrene EmpireVaballathus Zenobia♀ Antiochus
273–395 CE
Roman Empire
Province of Egypt
Syria Palaestina
Syria
Province of Mesopotamia
395–618 CE
Byzantine Empire
Byzantine Egypt
Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda
Byzantine Syria
Byzantine Mesopotamia
618–628 CE
(Sasanian conquest of Egypt)Province of EgyptShahrbaraz Sahralanyozan Shahrbaraz
Sasanian EmpireProvince of AsoristanKhosrow II Kavad II
628–641 CE
Byzantine Empire
Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran♀ Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht♀ Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh
Byzantine Egypt
Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda
Byzantine Syria
Byzantine Mesopotamia
639–651 CE
Muslim conquest of Egypt
Muslim conquest of the Levant
Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia
Chronology of the Neolithic period
Rulers of Ancient Central Asia
^ Rulers with names in italics are considered fictional.
^ Hallo, W.; Simpson, W. (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49.
^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS.
^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2.
^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7.
^ a b c Per Sumerian King List
^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4.
This biography of a member of a Middle Eastern royal house is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Malikum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebla#Government"},{"link_name":"Eblaite kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebla#Archive_period"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hamblin-1"},{"link_name":"[note 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-eblai666-4"},{"link_name":"archives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebla_tablets"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4ican-5"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Alfonso Archi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alfonso_Archi&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saʿumu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sa%CA%BFumu"},{"link_name":"Mari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mari,_Syria"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4ican-5"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4ican-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArchi20103-7"},{"link_name":"deified","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deified"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"Kun-Damu (also Qum-Damu) was a king (Malikum) of the first Eblaite kingdom ruling c. 2400 BC.[1] The king's name is translated as \"Arise, O Damu\".[note 1][3] Kun-Damu is attested in the archives of Ebla dated two generations after his reign.[4][5] According to Alfonso Archi, he was a contemporary of Saʿumu of Mari.[4] The archives of Ebla records the defeat of Mari in the 25th century BC, and based on the estimations for his reign, Kun-Damu might be the Eblaite king who inflicted this defeat upon Mari.[4] Aleppo might have came under the rule of Ebla during his reign.[6] Following his death, he was deified and his cult was attested in Ebla for at least 30 years after his reign.[7]","title":"Kun-Damu"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"Damu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damu"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"^ Damu was probably an old Semitic deity and not identical with the Sumerian Damu.[2]","title":"Notes"}]
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[{"image_text":"Narmer Palette","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg/40px-Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg/30px-Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_%281940%29.jpg/30px-Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_%281940%29.jpg"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg/40px-F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg"},{"image_text":"Pharaoh Ahmose I slaying a Hyksos","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_%28axe_of_Ahmose_I%2C_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II%29_Colorized_per_source.jpg/35px-Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_%28axe_of_Ahmose_I%2C_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II%29_Colorized_per_source.jpg"},{"image_text":"Tutankhamun","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg/30px-CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg/30px-Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg/45px-Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg"},{"image_text":"Taharqa","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg/30px-Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Darius_In_Parse.JPG/30px-Darius_In_Parse.JPG"},{"image_text":"Seleukos I Nikator Tetradrachm from Babylon","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Seleukos_I_Nikator_Tetradrachm_from_Babylon.jpg/60px-Seleukos_I_Nikator_Tetradrachm_from_Babylon.jpg"},{"image_text":"Coin of Ardashir I, Hamadan mint.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Coin_of_Ardashir_I_%28phase_3%29%2C_Hamadan_mint.jpg/40px-Coin_of_Ardashir_I_%28phase_3%29%2C_Hamadan_mint.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Eblaite-Mariote war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mari,_Syria#Mari%E2%80%93Ebla_war"}]
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[{"reference":"William J. Hamblin (2006). Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC. pp. 241, 242. ISBN 9781134520626.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=biyDDd0uKGMC&pg=PT239","url_text":"Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781134520626","url_text":"9781134520626"}]},{"reference":"Cyrus Herzl Gordon; Gary Rendsburg (1990). Eblaitica: essays on the Ebla archives and Eblaite language, Volume 2. p. 81. ISBN 9780931464492.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=_MVtAAAAMAAJ","url_text":"Eblaitica: essays on the Ebla archives and Eblaite language, Volume 2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780931464492","url_text":"9780931464492"}]},{"reference":"Cyrus Herzl Gordon; Gary Rendsburg; Nathan H. Winter (2002). Eblaitica: Essays on the Ebla Archives and Eblaite Language, Volume 4. p. 219. ISBN 9781575060606.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA219","url_text":"Eblaitica: Essays on the Ebla Archives and Eblaite Language, Volume 4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781575060606","url_text":"9781575060606"}]},{"reference":"Hartmut Kühne; Rainer Maria Czichon; Florian Janoscha Kreppner (2008). 4 ICAANE. p. 68. ISBN 9783447057578.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=J9eZToFfVJ0C&pg=PA68","url_text":"4 ICAANE"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783447057578","url_text":"9783447057578"}]},{"reference":"Regine Pruzsinszky; Dahlia Shehata (2010). Musiker und Tradierung: Studien Zur Rolle Von Musikern Bei Der Verschriftlichung und Tradierung Von Literarischen Werken. p. 69. ISBN 9783643501318.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=-H3iYPUc97YC&pg=PA69","url_text":"Musiker und Tradierung: Studien Zur Rolle Von Musikern Bei Der Verschriftlichung und Tradierung Von Literarischen Werken"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783643501318","url_text":"9783643501318"}]},{"reference":"Hans Gustav Güterbock; K. Aslihan Yener; Harry A. Hoffner; Simrit Dhesi (2002). Recent Developments in Hittite Archaeology and History: Papers in Memory of Hans G. Güterbock. p. 28. ISBN 9781575060538.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=5a8-NudlBx8C&pg=PA28","url_text":"Recent Developments in Hittite Archaeology and History: Papers in Memory of Hans G. 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New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_W._Hallo","url_text":"Hallo, W."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Kelly_Simpson","url_text":"Simpson, W."}]},{"reference":"\"Rulers of Mesopotamia\". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS.","urls":[{"url":"http://cdli.ox.ac.uk/wiki/rulers_of_mesopotamia","url_text":"\"Rulers of Mesopotamia\""}]},{"reference":"Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timothy_Potts","url_text":"Potts, Timothy"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=VsHEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR14","url_text":"Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60606-649-2","url_text":"978-1-60606-649-2"}]},{"reference":"Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technics_(brand)
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Technics (brand)
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["1 History","2 Notable products","2.1 Early 1960s","2.2 Late 1960s – early 1970s","2.3 Mid-1970s","2.4 Late 1970s","2.5 Early 1980s","2.6 Mid-1980s","2.7 1990s–2000s","2.8 Since 2014","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]
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Panasonic brand for audio equipment
TechnicsNative nameテクニクスIndustryElectronicsFounded1965; 59 years ago (1965)HeadquartersKadoma, Osaka, JapanKey peopleFumio Ohtsubo, presidentProductsDJ sets, headphones, synthesizers, turntablesParentPanasonicWebsitetechnics.com
Technics (テクニクス, Tekunikusu) is a Japanese audio brand established by Matsushita Electric (now Panasonic) in 1965. Since 1965, Matsushita has produced a variety of HiFi and other audio products under the brand name, such as turntables, amplifiers, radio receivers, tape recorders, CD players, loudspeakers, and digital pianos. Technics products were available for sale in various countries. The brand was originally conceived as a line of high-end audio equipment to compete against brands such as Nakamichi.
From 2002 onwards products were rebranded as Panasonic except in Japan and CIS countries (such as Russia), where the brand remained in high regard. Panasonic discontinued the brand for most products in October 2010, but it was revived in 2015 with new high-end turntables. The brand is best known for the SL-1200 DJ turntable, an industry standard for decades.
History
Technics was introduced as a brand name for premium loudspeakers marketed domestically by Matsushita in 1965. The name came to wider prominence with the international sales of direct-drive turntables. The first direct-drive turntable was invented by Shuichi Obata, an engineer at Matsushita, based in Osaka. It eliminated belts, and instead employed a motor to directly drive a platter on which a vinyl record rests. It is a significant advancement over older belt-drive turntables, which are unsuitable for turntablism, since they have a slow start-up time, and are prone to wear-and-tear and breakage, as the belt would break from backspinning or scratching. In 1969, Matsushita launched Obata's invention as the SP-10, the first direct-drive turntable on the professional market.
In 1971, Matsushita released the Technics SL-1100 for the consumer market. Due to its strong motor, durability, and fidelity, it was adopted by early hip hop artists. The SL-1100 was used by the influential DJ Kool Herc for the first sound system he set up after emigrating from Jamaica to the US.
It was followed by the SL-1200, the most influential turntable. It was developed in 1971 by a team led by Shuichi Obata at Matsushita, which then released it onto the market in 1972. It was adopted by New York City hip hop DJs such as Grand Wizard Theodore and Afrika Bambaataa in the 1970s. As they experimented with the SL-1200 decks, they developed scratching techniques when they found that the motor would continue to spin at the correct RPM even if the DJ wiggled the record back and forth on the platter.
As the upgraded SL-1200 MK2, it became a widely used turntable by DJs. A robust machine, the SL-1200 MK2 incorporated a pitch control mechanism (or vari-speed), and maintained a relatively constant speed with low variability, which proved popular with DJs. The SL-1200 series remained the most widely used turntable in DJ culture through to the 2000s. The SL-1200 model, often considered the industry standard turntable, continued to evolve with the M3D series, followed by the MK5 series in 2003.
Despite being originally created to market their high-end equipment, by the early 1980s Technics was offering an entire range of equipment from entry-level to high-end.
In 1972, Technics introduced the first autoreverse system in a cassette deck in its Technics RS-277US and in 1973 it introduced the first three-head recording technique in a cassette deck (Technics RS-279US).
In 1976, Technics introduced two belt-driven turntables for the mass market, the SL-20 and SL-23. The principal difference between the two models was the additional feature of semi-automatic operation in the SL-23, along with an adjustable speed control with built-in strobe light. They offered technical specifications and features rivaling much more expensive turntables, including well-engineered s-shaped tonearms with tracking weight and anti-skate adjustments. At the time they were introduced, the SL-20 and SL-23, which sold for $US100 and $US140 respectively, set a new performance standard for inexpensive turntables.
The Technics brand was discontinued in 2010, but reappeared at the 2014 consumer electronics trade fair IFA. In January 2016 on the occasion of the 50th Anniversary the Technics SL-1200 returned with the Technics SL-1200 G.
Notable products
Technics audio products
Technics SL-1200 with Directdrive (1972–2010, 2016)
Technics SL-10 with Directdrive and linear-tracking (1980–1984)
SU-C01 Stereo Preamplifier (1979)
SA-202, typical Receiver (c. 1980)
SE-A 5 Power amplifier (ca. 1982)
SU-Z980 120 W Stereo Amplifier and ST-Z980 AM/FM Tuner (mid 1980s)
Technics CD-player SL-P2 and Preamplifier SU-A8 (ca 1985)
Technics 60+1 cd changer SL-MC59 (circa 1998)
Digital amplifier SU-G700 (ca 2018)
Early 1960s
SX-601 Electronic Organ (1963) – an origin of Technics SX keyboard series, the result of cooperative works of National Electronic Organ Company (Panasonic group) and Ace Tone (precursor of Roland Corporation). After the 1970s, this product line was branded "Technitone" as a brother brand of Technics, and newer electronic musical instruments were branded Technics.
EAB-1204 loudspeakers (1965) – premium loudspeakers, later renamed to SB-1204. Nicknamed "Technics 1", and referred to as the origin of Technics brand.
Late 1960s – early 1970s
SP-10 Direct Drive Turntables (1969) – first direct-drive model for the professional market
SL-1100 Direct Drive Turntables (1971) – for the consumer market
SL-1200 Direct Drive Turntables (1972) – for the consumer market
RS-277US Autoreverse Cassette Deck (1972)
RS-279US Three-heads recording Cassette Deck (1973)
SA-6800X 4 Channel Receiver (1973) - also branded a Panasonic and National Panasonic. Each had different front panel styling
Mid-1970s
SA-8500X The biggest quadraphonic receiver Technics ever built with integrated CD4 demodulation
RS-858US quadraphonic 8-track player/recorder
SH-3433 4-channel Quadraphonic Audioscope
SA-50XX Budget amplifiers ranging from $150 (cheapest) to $600 (Most expensive)
SB-7000 Linear Phase 3 way loudspeaker (First Linear Phase Speaker system in the World)
SL-20 and SL-23 belt drive turntables. Their first belt drive series. Wooden (MDF) plinth. Intended as a cheaper alternative to their higher end direct drive. Main difference is that SL-20 is completely manual without any automatic function or pitch control. SL-23 is basically built on the same base, but has an auto return function, independent pitch control for 33 and 45 speeds and stroboscope for 50 and 60 Hz. Also known as SL-22 respectively SL-26 in some markets.
Late 1970s
RS-1500/1700 series of open-reel tape decks;
SA-100/400/600/800/1000 receivers
SL-1300, SL-1400, SL-1500, SL-1600, SL-1700, SL-1800 Direct Drive Turntables
SL-1300MK2, SL-1400MK2, SL-1500MK2, SL-150MK2 (No Tonearm) Quartz Synthesizer Direct Drive Turntables "Professional Series"
"New class A" Amplifier series launched featuring inter alia SE-A3/SE-A5 High Output Power Amplifiers
SU-C01, SU-C03, SU-C04 amplifiers (a "concise" line of home audio consisting of amplifier, tuner and cassette deck)
SB-F1, SB-F01, SB-F2 and SB-F3 monitor speakers (2-way, sealed casing, aluminum box speakers)
SY-1010 Analog Synthesizer (1977)
9000 Professional Series: A series of stack-able, or rack mountable, units included the SE-9060 Amp, SU-9070 Pre-Amp, SH-9010 Equalizer, SH-9020 Meter Unit and ST-9030 Tuner. These "Pro Series" components replaced the earlier SE-9600 Amp, SU-9700 Pre-Amp and ST-9300/9600/9700 Tuner that were deemed too large. The 9000 Pro Series was introduced because of demand for smaller, quality components. The European version of the Pro Series had a different faceplate than the US version: 18" vs. 19". Because of the narrower face plate, the European version required special rack brackets to be rack mountable. The brackets came with the European version of the SH-905ST Professional Series rack. The only difference between this rack and the US version was inclusion of those brackets. As a result, the brackets are ultra rare and even the rack was sold in limited numbers in the USA.
SB-10000 Loudspeaker: Top of the line Technics speaker at a cost of US$12,000. They featured a tweeter made of boron. A used pair sold for US$32,050 around 2010 in Germany.
SE-A1 Amp: Top of the line Technics amp at a cost of US$6,000.
SU-A2 Pre-Amp: Top of the line for Technics at a cost of US$8,000.
SB-E100 and SB-E200 Loudspeakers: These were both designed with the SB-10000 in mind. The SB-E100 looked like the 10000 with the bass enclosure turned on its end with the mid/tweeter section mounted on top. The SB-E100 was made of MDF with Rosewood veneer. The SB-E200 was made of Rosewood and, while more similar in design to the SB-10000, it was virtually the same as the SB-E100 except for the bass box configuration and solid wood. The SB-E100 was designed to sit on the floor while the SB-E200 could sit on a table or pedestal. The SB-E100 had slightly better specs than the SB-E200 due to construction. Neither of them were released for the US market.
RS-9900US Tape Deck: Top of the line tape deck at the time and quite at home with the 9600 Series components listed above. It was a two piece behemoth that sold for $2,000 in 1977–78.
RS-M95 Tape Deck: This deck replaced the 9600 in the same way as the 9000 Professional Series components replaced the 9600. It was much smaller, less expensive ($1400) and had better specs than the RS-9900US it replaced, resulting in better sound.
Early 1980s
1980s Technics SU-V5 stereo amplifier
SU-V3, V4 V5, V6, V7, V8, V9 Stereo Integrated Amplifiers
SE-A3MK2, SE-A5, SE-A5MK2, SE-A7 Power Amplifiers and SU-A4MK2, SU-A6 SU-A6MK2 and SU-A8 preamplifiers
SV-P100 digital audio recorder (using VHS tapes). Also available as the SV-100, a stand-alone PCM adaptor requiring a separate VCR;
cassette decks with dbx noise reduction
SB-2155 3-Way Stereo Speakers
SL-D212 Direct Drive Turntable
SU-Z65 Stereo Integrated Amplifier
SH-8015 Stereo Frequency Equalizer
ST-Z45 Synthesizer FM/AM Stereo Tuner
RS-M205 Cassette Deck
RS-M216 Cassette Deck
direct-drive linear tracking turntables SL-10, SL-15, SL-7, SL-6, SL-5, and SL-V5 (vertical)
Mid-1980s
Technitone E series (1983): one of the earliest PCM sampling organs in Japan
SX-PV10 PCM Digital Piano (1984): one of the earliest PCM sampling pianos in Japan
SL-J2: direct-drive turntable
SY-DP50 PCM Digital Drum Percussion (1985)
"Class AA" VC-4 stereo integrated amplifiers, starting with the SU-V40, V50 and V60 models (1986)
The SL range of Direct Drive turntables, like the SL-5
1990s–2000s
During the 90's, Technics launched a successful series of mini hi-fi systems (SC-EH series, SC-CA SC-CH series and SC-DV series with cd player and surround sound) and in the late 90's, the very successful series of micro hi-fi systems, SC-HD series (SC-HDV and SC-HDA, for series with dvd player and surround sound). These were manufactured until 2004, and after that, until 2005, were named Panasonic for the short time they were still kept in production after Technics brand was phased out. Technics had also created a 60+1 disc changer in 1998 under the model line SL-MC (excluding the last model, the SL-MC7, that being a 110+1 changer) that ran until 2002 across a total of 8 models before being shut down, the last 60+1 mechanisms being featured in Panasonic Mini-HiFi systems. The Technics badge was then relegated to turntables in 2005, including the low cost SL-BD20/22 manufactured well into the 2000's, and some higher quality headphones and speakers, although the same model names appeared under both Technics and Panasonic names in some countries, for a while. From 2002 onwards, receivers which once were known as Technics, were rebranded as Panasonic. Technics stopped manufacturing separates (cd players, cassette deck, tuners, amplifiers) in late 2001, but remained for a while in the home cinema market, with both dvd players and receivers and speakers until late 2002, when these were renamed Panasonic. From 2004 on, except turntables, a series of headphones, and some dj equipment, all audio products were by now bearing the Panasonic name, rather than Technics. Also, by 2004, both SL-BD20/22 turntables were phased out.
The two subwoofers listed below (SST-25/35HZ) along with the SST-1 Loudspeakers, weren't intended for home use.
SST-25HZ Super Bass Exciter (Sub-Woofer), top of the line Technics sub
SST-35HZ Super Bass Exciter (Sub-woofer), 1991 cost $2500
SST-1 Loudspeaker, 1991 cost $2000. These were meant to be mated with the SST-25HZ or 35HZ sub-woofers.
hi-quality power amps, Mainstream receivers, Dolby Pro Logic receivers
SX-KN series electronic keyboards, including the arranger keyboards KN3000, KN5000, KN6000 and KN7000, competing with the same market as the Yamaha Tyros
SX-WSA1/SX-WSA1R Digital Synthesizer (1995), utilizing Acoustic Modeling synthesis (PCM sample + physical modeling resonator)
Technics musical instruments
National SX-601 Electronic Organ (1963)
SX-PV10 PCM Digital Piano (1984)
SX-WSA1R Digital Synthesizer (1995)
SX-PR902 Digital Ensemble Piano (c.1998)
Since 2014
Developed version of the professional turntable SP-10 (1969) for Vinyl, Technics SP-10R (2018) Panasonic Corporation relaunched the Technics brand in late 2014, mainly because of increased market interest in high end hi-fi, and also due to renewed interest in vinyl. The brand was relaunched with a series of amplifiers, speakers and micro hi-fi systems, but no turntables were yet available. The turntables were relaunched in 2016.
As written above, in 2016, on the occasion of the 50th Anniversary of the SL-1200, Technics came back with the SL-1200 G. About 2017 a remarkable digital amplifier, the SU-G700, was announced.
Among their most successful products are the newly launched SL1500-C turntable series, and the Ottava micro hi-fi series, and also their active speakers series. The SL1200 is also successful.
Technics SL1500-C was launched as an alternative to the SL1200 series, being aimed at home use rather than DJ use. It has a quartz speed stabilizer, also it has no variable pitch and has no stroboscope for speed adjustment. Like 1200, it is manual; it only has an arm lift feature at the end of the record, which can be deactivated. It is available in silver and black versions. It has a built-in preamplifier, which can be completely deactivated if not needed. It also has a heavy damped platter. In the tradition of Technics, SL1500-C is a Direct Drive turntable. It is different, however, from the SL1500 models from the 1970s and it is not manufactured in Japan like its bigger brothers, the SL1200 and the SP10, but in Malaysia. In 2021 the production of all Technics turntables was moved to Malaysia. Although Technics previously manufactured a series of belt drive turntables (mainly cheaper versions), no new belt drive turntables from Technics are available now, and it seems that Technics will not launch a new belt drive series.
Technics also launched a successful series of wireless headphones, both earbuds and over the ear types. As of 2022, the earbuds series are: EAH-AZ40, EAH-AZ60, EAH-AZ70 and EAH-AZ80. The over the ear series are EAH-A800 and EAH-F70. All of them, except from EAH-F70, can be controlled with an application from Technics. All of them have noise canceling. EAH-F70 seems to be discontinued, although still available. The EAH-F70 and EAH-A800 models can also operate as wired headphones, in which case the microphone and active noise canceling features are lost.
See also
Companies portal
List of phonograph manufacturers
References
^ "Panasonic gives Technics a new spin but no sign of coveted turntables". Reuters.com. 3 September 2014. Retrieved 19 February 2022.
^ Billboard, May 21, 1977, page 140
^ a b c Brian Coleman, The Technics 1200 — Hammer Of The Gods, Medium
^ a b c d Trevor Pinch, Karin Bijsterveld, The Oxford Handbook of Sound Studies, page 515, Oxford University Press
^ The World of DJs and the Turntable Culture, page 43, Hal Leonard Corporation, 2003
^ "History of the Record Player Part II: The Rise and Fall". Reverb.com. October 2015. Retrieved 5 June 2016.
^ "History of the Record Player Part II: The Rise and Fall". reverb.com. October 2015. Retrieved 5 June 2016.
^ a b c Six Machines That Changed The Music World, Wired, May 2002
^ "Vintage Technics Database". Retrieved 8 March 2011.
^ a b technics.com News – Die Wiederauflage eines Klassikers, (German).
^ hifiengine.com 2020, Technics SL-P2 (englisch), retrieved 13 Mai 2020.
^ a b connect.de 8. August 2017, Technics SU-G700 im Test (German).
^ 松下電器ラジオ事業部50年史 . Matsushita Electric Industrial Co. Ltd. (not for sale) – The brand name "Technics" was formed in the conversations between Naraji Sakamoto (audio product designer of Panasonic) and chairman of Kawamoto Musen (a home electronics dealer in Nipponbashi, Osaka).
^ Dahl, Axel. "Technics C01 on thevintageknob.org". Thevintageknob.org. Retrieved 19 February 2022.
^ Dahl, Axel. "Technics SB-F1 on thevintageknob.org". Thevintageknob.org. Retrieved 19 February 2022.
^ "Technics SY-1010 Analog Synthesizer". Synthesizer Database (sequencer.de).
^ "SY-DP50 catalog (clip)" (in Japanese). Technics.
^ "Technics Digital Players & Recorders". vintagetechnics.audio. Retrieved 16 April 2022.
^ "Technics WSA1 Digital Synthesizer". Synthesizer Database (sequencer.de).
^ "Technics SX-WSA1". Sound On Sound. May 1995. Archived from the original on 6 June 2015.
^ "Technics SX-WSA1". Sound On Sound. December 1995. Archived from the original on 6 June 2015.
^ "Technics SX-WSA1R". Sound On Sound. December 1996. Archived from the original on 7 June 2015.
^ "Technics WSA1". Future Music. No. 38. December 1995. ISSN 0967-0378. OCLC 1032779031.
^ Technics SX-PR902 Service Manual. Matsushita Electric Industrial CO., LTD. 1998. ORDER NO.EMID981697 A4.
historical products
"Technics/Panasonic audio products list". オーディオの足跡 (in Japanese). — other older Technics products site in Japanese.
"Vintage Technics". Archived from the original on 22 July 2011. — information about older Technics products
"Technitone Forever" (in Japanese). Archived from the original on 2 September 2011.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) — Technitone Electronic Organ database including and models
Walmsley, Richard (May 1986). "Technics & Yamaha Electronic Pianos". International Musician & Recording World (May 1986): 87–89.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Technics (audio brand).
Official sites
General Technics DJ home page
Technics Musical Instruments home page
Technics Hi-Fi Audio
The Exclusive Online Audio Museum "TheVintageKnob" with Technics Audio Products History (1960–2000)
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"Panasonic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panasonic"},{"link_name":"HiFi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_fidelity"},{"link_name":"turntables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonograph"},{"link_name":"amplifiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplifier"},{"link_name":"radio receivers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_receiver"},{"link_name":"tape recorders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tape_recorder"},{"link_name":"CD players","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD_player"},{"link_name":"loudspeakers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loudspeaker"},{"link_name":"digital pianos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_piano"},{"link_name":"Nakamichi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nakamichi"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"CIS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States"},{"link_name":"Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"SL-1200","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technics_SL-1200"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Technics (テクニクス, Tekunikusu) is a Japanese audio brand established by Matsushita Electric (now Panasonic) in 1965. Since 1965, Matsushita has produced a variety of HiFi and other audio products under the brand name, such as turntables, amplifiers, radio receivers, tape recorders, CD players, loudspeakers, and digital pianos. Technics products were available for sale in various countries. The brand was originally conceived as a line of high-end audio equipment to compete against brands such as Nakamichi.[citation needed]From 2002 onwards products were rebranded as Panasonic except in Japan and CIS countries (such as Russia), where the brand remained in high regard. Panasonic discontinued the brand for most products in October 2010, but it was revived in 2015 with new high-end turntables.[1] The brand is best known for the SL-1200 DJ turntable, an industry standard for decades.[citation needed]","title":"Technics (brand)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"direct-drive turntables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct-drive_turntable"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-billboard-2"},{"link_name":"Osaka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osaka"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-medium-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-oxford-4"},{"link_name":"belt-drive turntables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belt-drive_turntable"},{"link_name":"turntablism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turntablism"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-medium-3"},{"link_name":"scratching","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scratching"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-oxford-4"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-reverb-6"},{"link_name":"hip hop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hip_hop"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-oxford-4"},{"link_name":"DJ Kool Herc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DJ_Kool_Herc"},{"link_name":"sound system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_reinforcement_system"},{"link_name":"Jamaica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamaica"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"SL-1200","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technics_SL-1200"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wired-8"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-medium-3"},{"link_name":"New York City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City"},{"link_name":"Grand Wizard Theodore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Wizard_Theodore"},{"link_name":"Afrika Bambaataa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrika_Bambaataa"},{"link_name":"RPM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutions_per_minute"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wired-8"},{"link_name":"SL-1200","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technics_SL-1200"},{"link_name":"DJs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disc_jockey"},{"link_name":"pitch control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitch_control"},{"link_name":"vari-speed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vari-speed"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-oxford-4"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wired-8"},{"link_name":"SL-1200","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technics_SL-1200"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"consumer electronics trade fair IFA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IFA_Berlin"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-technics.com-10"}],"text":"Technics was introduced as a brand name for premium loudspeakers marketed domestically by Matsushita in 1965. The name came to wider prominence with the international sales of direct-drive turntables. The first direct-drive turntable was invented by Shuichi Obata, an engineer at Matsushita,[2] based in Osaka.[3] It eliminated belts, and instead employed a motor to directly drive a platter on which a vinyl record rests.[4] It is a significant advancement over older belt-drive turntables, which are unsuitable for turntablism, since they have a slow start-up time, and are prone to wear-and-tear and breakage,[3] as the belt would break from backspinning or scratching.[5] In 1969, Matsushita launched Obata's invention as the SP-10,[4] the first direct-drive turntable on the professional market.[6]In 1971, Matsushita released the Technics SL-1100 for the consumer market. Due to its strong motor, durability, and fidelity, it was adopted by early hip hop artists.[4] The SL-1100 was used by the influential DJ Kool Herc for the first sound system he set up after emigrating from Jamaica to the US.[7]It was followed by the SL-1200, the most influential turntable.[8] It was developed in 1971 by a team led by Shuichi Obata at Matsushita, which then released it onto the market in 1972.[3] It was adopted by New York City hip hop DJs such as Grand Wizard Theodore and Afrika Bambaataa in the 1970s. As they experimented with the SL-1200 decks, they developed scratching techniques when they found that the motor would continue to spin at the correct RPM even if the DJ wiggled the record back and forth on the platter.[8]As the upgraded SL-1200 MK2, it became a widely used turntable by DJs. A robust machine, the SL-1200 MK2 incorporated a pitch control mechanism (or vari-speed), and maintained a relatively constant speed with low variability, which proved popular with DJs. The SL-1200 series remained the most widely used turntable in DJ culture through to the 2000s.[4][8] The SL-1200 model, often considered the industry standard turntable, continued to evolve with the M3D series, followed by the MK5 series in 2003.Despite being originally created to market their high-end equipment, by the early 1980s Technics was offering an entire range of equipment from entry-level to high-end.In 1972, Technics introduced the first autoreverse system in a cassette deck in its Technics RS-277US and in 1973 it introduced the first three-head recording technique in a cassette deck (Technics RS-279US).In 1976, Technics introduced two belt-driven turntables for the mass market, the SL-20 and SL-23. The principal difference between the two models was the additional feature of semi-automatic operation in the SL-23, along with an adjustable speed control with built-in strobe light. They offered technical specifications and features rivaling much more expensive turntables, including well-engineered s-shaped tonearms with tracking weight and anti-skate adjustments. At the time they were introduced, the SL-20 and SL-23, which sold for $US100 and $US140 respectively, set a new performance standard for inexpensive turntables.[9]The Technics brand was discontinued in 2010, but reappeared at the 2014 consumer electronics trade fair IFA. In January 2016 on the occasion of the 50th Anniversary the Technics SL-1200 returned with the Technics SL-1200 G.[10]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Technics_SL-1200MK2-2.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SL-10_DA26-04M182_4-2_IMG6634p.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Technics-suc01.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SA202LightsBlk.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Technics_Power_9465303794crop.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SU-Z980ampTuner.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Technics_SU-A8_preamplifier_and_SL-P2_CD-player.jpg"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Technics_SL-MC59_60%2B1_disc_changer.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Technics_SU-G700_stereo_amplifier_(25818171447).jpg"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-connect-2017-08-12"}],"text":"Technics audio products\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTechnics SL-1200 with Directdrive (1972–2010, 2016)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTechnics SL-10 with Directdrive and linear-tracking (1980–1984)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSU-C01 Stereo Preamplifier (1979)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSA-202, typical Receiver (c. 1980)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSE-A 5 Power amplifier (ca. 1982)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSU-Z980 120 W Stereo Amplifier and ST-Z980 AM/FM Tuner (mid 1980s)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTechnics CD-player SL-P2 and Preamplifier SU-A8 (ca 1985)[11]\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTechnics 60+1 cd changer SL-MC59 (circa 1998)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tDigital amplifier SU-G700 (ca 2018)[12]","title":"Notable products"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Electronic Organ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_organ"},{"link_name":"Ace Tone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ace_Tone"},{"link_name":"Roland Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"sub_title":"Early 1960s","text":"SX-601 Electronic Organ (1963) – an origin of Technics SX keyboard series, the result of cooperative works of National Electronic Organ Company (Panasonic group) and Ace Tone (precursor of Roland Corporation). After the 1970s, this product line was branded \"Technitone\" as a brother brand of Technics, and newer electronic musical instruments were branded Technics.\nEAB-1204 loudspeakers (1965) – premium loudspeakers, later renamed to SB-1204. Nicknamed \"Technics 1\", and referred to as the origin of Technics brand.[13]","title":"Notable products"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SL-1200","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SL-1200"}],"sub_title":"Late 1960s – early 1970s","text":"SP-10 Direct Drive Turntables (1969) – first direct-drive model for the professional market\nSL-1100 Direct Drive Turntables (1971) – for the consumer market\nSL-1200 Direct Drive Turntables (1972) – for the consumer market\nRS-277US Autoreverse Cassette Deck (1972)\nRS-279US Three-heads recording Cassette Deck (1973)\nSA-6800X 4 Channel Receiver (1973) - also branded a Panasonic and National Panasonic. Each had different front panel styling","title":"Notable products"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Mid-1970s","text":"SA-8500X The biggest quadraphonic receiver Technics ever built with integrated CD4 demodulation\nRS-858US quadraphonic 8-track player/recorder\nSH-3433 4-channel Quadraphonic Audioscope\nSA-50XX Budget amplifiers ranging from $150 (cheapest) to $600 (Most expensive)\nSB-7000 Linear Phase 3 way loudspeaker (First Linear Phase Speaker system in the World)\nSL-20 and SL-23 belt drive turntables. Their first belt drive series. Wooden (MDF) plinth. Intended as a cheaper alternative to their higher end direct drive. Main difference is that SL-20 is completely manual without any automatic function or pitch control. SL-23 is basically built on the same base, but has an auto return function, independent pitch control for 33 and 45 speeds and stroboscope for 50 and 60 Hz. Also known as SL-22 respectively SL-26 in some markets.","title":"Notable products"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-C01_tvk-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SBF1_tvk-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SY-1010-16"},{"link_name":"boron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boron"}],"sub_title":"Late 1970s","text":"RS-1500/1700 series of open-reel tape decks;\nSA-100/400/600/800/1000 receivers\nSL-1300, SL-1400, SL-1500, SL-1600, SL-1700, SL-1800 Direct Drive Turntables\nSL-1300MK2, SL-1400MK2, SL-1500MK2, SL-150MK2 (No Tonearm) Quartz Synthesizer Direct Drive Turntables \"Professional Series\"\n\"New class A\" Amplifier series launched featuring inter alia SE-A3/SE-A5 High Output Power Amplifiers\nSU-C01, SU-C03, SU-C04 amplifiers (a \"concise\" line of home audio consisting of amplifier, tuner and cassette deck)[14]\nSB-F1, SB-F01, SB-F2 and SB-F3 monitor speakers (2-way, sealed casing, aluminum box speakers)[15]\nSY-1010 Analog Synthesizer (1977)[16]\n9000 Professional Series: A series of stack-able, or rack mountable, units included the SE-9060 Amp, SU-9070 Pre-Amp, SH-9010 Equalizer, SH-9020 Meter Unit and ST-9030 Tuner. These \"Pro Series\" components replaced the earlier SE-9600 Amp, SU-9700 Pre-Amp and ST-9300/9600/9700 Tuner that were deemed too large. The 9000 Pro Series was introduced because of demand for smaller, quality components. The European version of the Pro Series had a different faceplate than the US version: 18\" vs. 19\". Because of the narrower face plate, the European version required special rack brackets to be rack mountable. The brackets came with the European version of the SH-905ST Professional Series rack. The only difference between this rack and the US version was inclusion of those brackets. As a result, the brackets are ultra rare and even the rack was sold in limited numbers in the USA.\nSB-10000 Loudspeaker: Top of the line Technics speaker at a cost of US$12,000. They featured a tweeter made of boron. A used pair sold for US$32,050 around 2010 in Germany.\nSE-A1 Amp: Top of the line Technics amp at a cost of US$6,000.\nSU-A2 Pre-Amp: Top of the line for Technics at a cost of US$8,000.\nSB-E100 and SB-E200 Loudspeakers: These were both designed with the SB-10000 in mind. The SB-E100 looked like the 10000 with the bass enclosure turned on its end with the mid/tweeter section mounted on top. The SB-E100 was made of MDF with Rosewood veneer. The SB-E200 was made of Rosewood and, while more similar in design to the SB-10000, it was virtually the same as the SB-E100 except for the bass box configuration and solid wood. The SB-E100 was designed to sit on the floor while the SB-E200 could sit on a table or pedestal. The SB-E100 had slightly better specs than the SB-E200 due to construction. Neither of them were released for the US market.\nRS-9900US Tape Deck: Top of the line tape deck at the time and quite at home with the 9600 Series components listed above. It was a two piece behemoth that sold for $2,000 in 1977–78.\nRS-M95 Tape Deck: This deck replaced the 9600 in the same way as the 9000 Professional Series components replaced the 9600. It was much smaller, less expensive ($1400) and had better specs than the RS-9900US it replaced, resulting in better sound.","title":"Notable products"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Technics_SU-V5_stereo_amplifier.jpg"},{"link_name":"PCM adaptor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PCM_adaptor"},{"link_name":"VCR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_cassette_recorder"},{"link_name":"dbx noise reduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dbx_(noise_reduction)"},{"link_name":"SL-10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technics_SL-10"}],"sub_title":"Early 1980s","text":"1980s Technics SU-V5 stereo amplifierSU-V3, V4 V5, V6, V7, V8, V9 Stereo Integrated Amplifiers\nSE-A3MK2, SE-A5, SE-A5MK2, SE-A7 Power Amplifiers and SU-A4MK2, SU-A6 SU-A6MK2 and SU-A8 preamplifiers\nSV-P100 digital audio recorder (using VHS tapes). Also available as the SV-100, a stand-alone PCM adaptor requiring a separate VCR;\ncassette decks with dbx noise reduction\nSB-2155 3-Way Stereo Speakers [1982]\nSL-D212 Direct Drive Turntable [1982]\nSU-Z65 Stereo Integrated Amplifier [1982]\nSH-8015 Stereo Frequency Equalizer [1982]\nST-Z45 Synthesizer FM/AM Stereo Tuner [1981]\nRS-M205 Cassette Deck [1980]\nRS-M216 Cassette Deck [1982]\ndirect-drive linear tracking turntables SL-10, SL-15, SL-7, SL-6, SL-5, and SL-V5 (vertical)","title":"Notable products"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SL-J2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technics_SL-J2"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SY-DP50-17"}],"sub_title":"Mid-1980s","text":"Technitone E series (1983): one of the earliest PCM sampling organs in Japan\nSX-PV10 PCM Digital Piano (1984): one of the earliest PCM sampling pianos in Japan\nSL-J2: direct-drive turntable\nSY-DP50 PCM Digital Drum Percussion (1985)[17]\n\"Class AA\" VC-4 stereo integrated amplifiers, starting with the SU-V40, V50 and V60 models (1986)\nThe SL range of Direct Drive turntables, like the SL-5","title":"Notable products"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Yamaha Tyros","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamaha_Tyros2"},{"link_name":"physical modeling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_modelling_synthesis"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WSA1-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:National_SX-601.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Technics_SX-PV10_PCM_Digital_Piano.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Technics_SX-WSA1R_(8057361751).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Technics_digital_piano_SX-PR902..jpg"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SXPR902-24"}],"sub_title":"1990s–2000s","text":"During the 90's, Technics launched a successful series of mini hi-fi systems (SC-EH series, SC-CA SC-CH series and SC-DV series with cd player and surround sound) and in the late 90's, the very successful series of micro hi-fi systems, SC-HD series (SC-HDV and SC-HDA, for series with dvd player and surround sound). These were manufactured until 2004, and after that, until 2005, were named Panasonic for the short time they were still kept in production after Technics brand was phased out. Technics had also created a 60+1 disc changer in 1998 under the model line SL-MC (excluding the last model, the SL-MC7, that being a 110+1 changer) that ran until 2002[18] across a total of 8 models before being shut down, the last 60+1 mechanisms being featured in Panasonic Mini-HiFi systems. The Technics badge was then relegated to turntables in 2005, including the low cost SL-BD20/22 manufactured well into the 2000's, and some higher quality headphones and speakers, although the same model names appeared under both Technics and Panasonic names in some countries, for a while. From 2002 onwards, receivers which once were known as Technics, were rebranded as Panasonic. Technics stopped manufacturing separates (cd players, cassette deck, tuners, amplifiers) in late 2001, but remained for a while in the home cinema market, with both dvd players and receivers and speakers until late 2002, when these were renamed Panasonic. From 2004 on, except turntables, a series of headphones, and some dj equipment, all audio products were by now bearing the Panasonic name, rather than Technics. Also, by 2004, both SL-BD20/22 turntables were phased out. \nThe two subwoofers listed below (SST-25/35HZ) along with the SST-1 Loudspeakers, weren't intended for home use.SST-25HZ Super Bass Exciter (Sub-Woofer), top of the line Technics sub\nSST-35HZ Super Bass Exciter (Sub-woofer), 1991 cost $2500\nSST-1 Loudspeaker, 1991 cost $2000. These were meant to be mated with the SST-25HZ or 35HZ sub-woofers.\nhi-quality power amps, Mainstream receivers, Dolby Pro Logic receivers\nSX-KN series electronic keyboards, including the arranger keyboards KN3000, KN5000, KN6000 and KN7000, competing with the same market as the Yamaha Tyros\nSX-WSA1/SX-WSA1R Digital Synthesizer (1995), utilizing Acoustic Modeling synthesis (PCM sample + physical modeling resonator)[19][20][21][22][23]Technics musical instruments\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tNational SX-601 Electronic Organ (1963)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSX-PV10 PCM Digital Piano (1984)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSX-WSA1R Digital Synthesizer (1995)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSX-PR902 Digital Ensemble Piano (c.1998)[24]","title":"Notable products"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Technics.SP-10R.jpg"},{"link_name":"turntable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turntable"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-technics.com-10"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-connect-2017-08-12"}],"sub_title":"Since 2014","text":"Developed version of the professional turntable SP-10 (1969) for Vinyl, Technics SP-10R (2018)Panasonic Corporation relaunched the Technics brand in late 2014, mainly because of increased market interest in high end hi-fi, and also due to renewed interest in vinyl. The brand was relaunched with a series of amplifiers, speakers and micro hi-fi systems, but no turntables were yet available. The turntables were relaunched in 2016.As written above, in 2016, on the occasion of the 50th Anniversary of the SL-1200, Technics came back with the SL-1200 G.[10] About 2017 a remarkable digital amplifier, the SU-G700, was announced.[12]\nAmong their most successful products are the newly launched SL1500-C turntable series, and the Ottava micro hi-fi series, and also their active speakers series. The SL1200 is also successful. \nTechnics SL1500-C was launched as an alternative to the SL1200 series, being aimed at home use rather than DJ use. It has a quartz speed stabilizer, also it has no variable pitch and has no stroboscope for speed adjustment. Like 1200, it is manual; it only has an arm lift feature at the end of the record, which can be deactivated. It is available in silver and black versions. It has a built-in preamplifier, which can be completely deactivated if not needed. It also has a heavy damped platter. In the tradition of Technics, SL1500-C is a Direct Drive turntable. It is different, however, from the SL1500 models from the 1970s and it is not manufactured in Japan like its bigger brothers, the SL1200 and the SP10, but in Malaysia. In 2021 the production of all Technics turntables was moved to Malaysia. Although Technics previously manufactured a series of belt drive turntables (mainly cheaper versions), no new belt drive turntables from Technics are available now, and it seems that Technics will not launch a new belt drive series.Technics also launched a successful series of wireless headphones, both earbuds and over the ear types. As of 2022, the earbuds series are: EAH-AZ40, EAH-AZ60, EAH-AZ70 and EAH-AZ80. The over the ear series are EAH-A800 and EAH-F70. All of them, except from EAH-F70, can be controlled with an application from Technics. All of them have noise canceling. EAH-F70 seems to be discontinued, although still available. The EAH-F70 and EAH-A800 models can also operate as wired headphones, in which case the microphone and active noise canceling features are lost.","title":"Notable products"}]
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[{"image_text":"1980s Technics SU-V5 stereo amplifier","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Technics_SU-V5_stereo_amplifier.jpg/220px-Technics_SU-V5_stereo_amplifier.jpg"},{"image_text":"Developed version of the professional turntable SP-10 (1969) for Vinyl, Technics SP-10R (2018)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Technics.SP-10R.jpg/220px-Technics.SP-10R.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Companies portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Companies"},{"title":"List of phonograph manufacturers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phonograph_manufacturers"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Panasonic gives Technics a new spin but no sign of coveted turntables\". Reuters.com. 3 September 2014. Retrieved 19 February 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.reuters.com/article/us-electronics-fair-technics-idUSKBN0GY23G20140903","url_text":"\"Panasonic gives Technics a new spin but no sign of coveted turntables\""}]},{"reference":"\"History of the Record Player Part II: The Rise and Fall\". Reverb.com. October 2015. Retrieved 5 June 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://reverb.com/news/history-of-the-record-player-part-ii-the-rise-and-fall","url_text":"\"History of the Record Player Part II: The Rise and Fall\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverb.com","url_text":"Reverb.com"}]},{"reference":"\"History of the Record Player Part II: The Rise and Fall\". reverb.com. October 2015. Retrieved 5 June 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://reverb.com/news/history-of-the-record-player-part-ii-the-rise-and-fall","url_text":"\"History of the Record Player Part II: The Rise and Fall\""}]},{"reference":"\"Vintage Technics Database\". Retrieved 8 March 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.vintagetechnics.info/","url_text":"\"Vintage Technics Database\""}]},{"reference":"松下電器ラジオ事業部50年史 [50 Years History of Radio Division.]. Matsushita Electric Industrial Co. Ltd.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Dahl, Axel. \"Technics C01 on thevintageknob.org\". Thevintageknob.org. Retrieved 19 February 2022.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.thevintageknob.org/technics-C01.html","url_text":"\"Technics C01 on thevintageknob.org\""}]},{"reference":"Dahl, Axel. \"Technics SB-F1 on thevintageknob.org\". Thevintageknob.org. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanian_Iberia
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Sasanian Iberia
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["1 History","2 Protection, construction activities and settlers","3 Sasanian coinage of Iberia (Georgia)","4 Sasanian governors of Iberia","5 See also","6 References","7 Sources"]
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Period of Sasanian suzerainty over Iberia
Sasanian Iberia255/6–299a363–580b580–627cMap of the Caucasus in 387–591StatusProvince of the Sasanian EmpireCapitalArmaziMtskhetaTbilisiCommon languages
Georgian (native language)
Middle Persian (royal administration and court)
Parthian
Greek and Syriac (religious)
GovernmentFully subordinate monarchy (up to 580), governorateHistorical eraAntiquity• Established 255/6• Roman conquest 299• Sasanian reconquest under Shapur II 363• Marzbanate period starts 580• Adarnase I declares independence 627
Preceded by
Succeeded by
Kingdom of Iberia (antiquity)
Byzantine Empire
Principality of Iberia
^ Shapur I conquers Iberia in ca. 255/6, and puts the country under the control of a bidaxsh. The Sasanian Empire later cedes Iberia to the Romans in 299 after a peace treaty.^ Shapur II invades Iberia in 363 and installs Aspacures II as his vassal. The Sasanians continue to rule Iberia for decades with two brief interruptions in 482-484 and 502-518. In 580, Hormizd IV decides to abolish the Iberian monarchy.^ The Kingdom of Iberia is once and for all abolished by Hormizd IV, who appoints a marzban of the country, thus starting the "Marzbanate period" of Iberia. In 591, Khosrow II cedes a large part of Iberia to the Romans, and later briefly regains it in 604 until ca. 624/5. In 627, the Iberian prince Adarnase I rebels against a heavily weakened Sasanian Empire, thus ending Sasanian rule in the country.
Part of a series on theHistory of Georgia
Prehistoric Georgia
Shulaveri–Shomu cultureKura–Araxes cultureLegend of KartlosTrialeti cultureColchian cultureDiauehiMushki
Ancient history
ColchisAryan KartliKingdom of IberiaPharnavazid dynastyGeorgia in the Roman eraArtaxiad dynasty of IberiaCampaign of PompeyIberian–Armenian WarLazicaArsacid dynasty of IberiaSasanian IberiaChosroid dynastyChristianization of Iberia
Middle Ages
Iberian WarLazic WarPrincipality of IberiaUmayyad invasion of GeorgiaArab rule in GeorgiaEmirate of TbilisiDuchy of TaoDuchy of KlarjetiBagrationi dynastyKingdom of HeretiKingdom of the IberiansKingdom of AbkhaziaTheme of IberiaDuchy of KldekariUnification of the Georgian realmKingdom of GeorgiaDuchy of RachaKingdom of Kakheti-HeretiByzantine–Georgian warsGreat Turkish InvasionGeorgian–Seljuk warsGeorgian Golden AgeMongol invasions of GeorgiaKingdom of Georgia (1256–1329)Kingdom of Western GeorgiaArmenia within the Kingdom of GeorgiaTimurid invasions of GeorgiaTurkoman invasions of GeorgiaDuchy of AragviCollapse of the Georgian realm
Early modern history
Duchy of KsaniSamtskhe-SaatabagoKingdom of KartliKingdom of KakhetiKingdom of ImeretiPrincipality of GuriaPrincipality of SvanetiPrincipality of MingreliaPrincipality of AbkhaziaSafavid GeorgiaChildir EyaletKingdom of Kartli-Kakheti
Modern history
Georgia within the Russian Empire1832 Georgian plotGurian RepublicTranscaucasian Democratic Federative RepublicDemocratic Republic of GeorgiaRed Army invasion of GeorgiaGeorgian Soviet Socialist RepublicGeorgia since 1991Russo-Georgian War
History by topic
Etymology
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Military history
Wars
Battles
Chronology
Sasanian Iberia (Georgian: სასანური ქართლი, romanized: sasanuri kartli; Middle Persian: 𐭥𐭫𐭥𐭰𐭠𐭭, wirōzān/wiruzān/wiručān) was the period the Kingdom of Iberia (Kartli, eastern Georgia) was under the suzerainty of the Sasanian Empire. The period includes when it was ruled by Marzbans (governors) appointed by the Sasanid Iranian king, and later through the Principality of Iberia.
History
The Georgian kingdoms were contested between the Sasanids and the neighboring rivalling Roman-Byzantine Empire ever since the 3rd century. Over the span of the next hundreds of years, both the Byzantines and the Sasanids managed to establish hegemony over these regions. At the few remaining times, the Georgian kings managed to retain their autonomy. Sasanian governance was established for the first time early on in the Sasanian era, during the reign of king Shapur I (r. 240-270). In 284, the Sasanians secured the Iberian throne for an Iranian prince from the House of Mihran, subsequently known by his dynastic name Mirian III. Mirian III became thus the first head of this branch of the Mihranid family in the Kingdom of Iberia, known as the Chosroid dynasty (otherwise known as the Iberian Mihranids, or Mihranids of Iberia), whose members would rule Iberia into the sixth century. In 363, Sasanian suzerainty was restored by king Shapur II (r. 309-379) when he invaded Iberia and installed Aspacures II as his vassal on the Iberian throne.
The continuing rivalry between Byzantium and Sasanian Persia for supremacy in the Caucasus, and the unsuccessful insurrection (523) of the Georgians under Gurgen had severe consequences for the country. Thereafter, the king of Iberia had only nominal power, while the country was effectively ruled by the Persians. By the time of Vezhan Buzmihr's tenure as marzban of Iberia, the hagiographies of the period implied that the "kings" in Tbilisi had only the status of mamasakhlisi, which means "head of the (royal) house". When Bakur III died in 580, the Sassanid government of Persia under Hormizd IV (578-590) seized on the opportunity to abolish the Iberian monarchy. Iberia became a Persian province, administrated through its direct rule by appointed marzbans, which in fact was, as Prof. Donald Rayfield states; "a de jure continuation of de facto abolition of Iberian kingship since the 520s".
The Iberian nobles acquiesced to this change without resistance, while the heirs of the royal house withdrew to their highland fortresses – the main Chosroid line in Kakheti, and the younger Guaramid branch in Klarjeti and Javakheti. However, the direct Persian control brought about heavy taxation and an energetic promotion of Zoroastrianism in a largely Christian country. Therefore, when the Eastern Roman emperor Maurice embarked upon a military campaign against Persia in 582, the Iberian nobles requested that he helped restore the monarchy. Maurice did respond, and, in 588, sent his protégé, Guaram I of the Guaramids, as a new ruler to Iberia. However, Guaram was not crowned as king, but recognized as a presiding prince and bestowed with the Eastern Roman title of curopalates. The Byzantine-Sassanid treaty of 591 confirmed this new rearrangement, but left Iberia divided into Roman- and Sassanid-dominated parts at the town of Tbilisi. Mtskheta came to be under Byzantine control.
Guaram's successor, the second presiding prince Stephen I (Stephanoz I), reoriented his politics towards Persia in a quest to reunite a divided Iberia, a goal he seems to have accomplished, but this cost him his life when the Byzantine emperor Heraclius attacked Tbilisi in 626, during the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628, marking the definite Byzantine predominance in most of Georgia by 627-628 at the expense of the Sasanids until the Muslim conquest of Persia.
Protection, construction activities and settlers
As the Sasanians established predominance in the Caucasus, they obtained an additional weapon that could be used against the Roman-Byzantines. The dynasty of governors (that is, the bidakhsh) headquartered at Armazi provided the Sasanians with protection of the route along the Kur river, as well as the more northern route that ran along the Aragvi (Aragus) river to the Darial pass (i.e. the Iberian/Caucasus/Alan Gates). Beyond this pass, lay an area that was known as "the country of the nomads" according to Strabo. With the established Sasanian hegemony, the incursion of nomads into the Sasanian realm could be hindered. The Iranologist Anahit Perikhanian explains that as time passed by, however, as the Hun tribes increased their pressure from the late 4th century, paying off the tribes had probably become an equally important tool of defense as well. The Sasanian King of Kings (Shahanshah) Khosrow I (r. 531–579) successfully recruited the Huns as auxiliaries as demonstrated in the Lazic War, but he also sponsored the construction of fortifications at numerous sites around the area of Tiflis-Gardman, Sughdabil, as well as al-Lāl.
The kingdoms of the Caucasus, as well as Armenia, had acquired an Iranian population element from the time of the early Scythian invasion of the area in the 1st millennium BC. By the time of Khosrow I's fortification activities, a large number of Iranians were settled in this region, including Iberia. The imposition of direct Sasanian rule by Khosrow I meant that, in all likelihood, numerous non-combatant settlers alongside troops and officials were moved to the area. It is due to these developments that the Georgian Passion of St. Eusthatius of Mtskheta makes mention of (amongst others) Persian shoemakers living in Mtskheta who adhered to the Zoroastrian religion and their own practises. Following conversion to Christianity, a number of these immigrants to this northwestern part of the empire could have adapted to the local culture.
Sasanian coinage of Iberia (Georgia)
Although various hoards have been found in what is present-day Georgia containing regular Sasanian coinage, no local mint mark has been identified thus far for these regular Sasanian coins. However, so-called Kartvelo-Sasanian coins were produced locally in Kartli during the later period of Sasanid suzerainty and rule over central-eastern Georgia (Iberia of the classical authors), that is, in the late 6th and first half of the 7th century. As all extant coins of this type are decorated on the obverse with an image of either Hormizd IV or Khosrow II, there are no Kartvelo-Sasanian coins that predate Hormizd IV's rule (which started in 579). The production of Kartvelo-Sasanian coins commenced after the suppression of the Iberian monarchy by the Sasanids, dated by Cyril Toumanoff to c. 580.
Kartvelo-Sasanian coins are usually decorated with asomtavruli letters and/or monograms. These monograms usually represented the names of the prominent and contemporaneous eristavis and presiding princes (eristavta-mtavaris) of Iberia. The earliest Kartvelo-Sasanian coins, as part of the first phase, were inscribed JO, which according to Stephen H. Rapp Jr translates as “O, Cross”. Once the Principality of Iberia was firmly established, the inscriptions, in this second phase, shifted to monograms which mentioned the name of the presiding princes. Examples amongst such are GN and GRG, i.e. "Gurgen/Guaram" respectively; both abbreviations are identified with prince Guaram I (r. 588-590). Presiding princes who followed after this phase were even bolder in the presentation of their religious affiliation. In this third and final phase of Kartvelo-Sasanian coins a small cross can be distinguished as a replacement for the sacred Zoroastrian flame atop the fire altar. This series commences with the abbreviation SPNS, i.e. "Stepanoz I", positioned around the image of the Sasanian Shahanshah Hormizd VI. The text does not obstruct the reading of the typically used Middle Persian legend. These adaptations develop further during Stepanoz I's reign (590–627), or perhaps during the reign of Stepanoz II (642–650). In this sub-phase, the full inscription of the name "Stepanoz" can be viewed on both sides of the head of the Sasanian Shahanshah, and the Middle Persian inscription depicting the name and regnal year of the Shahanshah is eliminated.
Sasanian type coin of prince Guaram I, with obverse bust of Hormizd IV and asomtavruli inscription GRG, i.e. Gurgen
Sasanian type coin of prince Stephen I, with obverse bust of Khosrow II and asomtavruli inscription STEP'ANOS
Sasanian governors of Iberia
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2016)
Piran Gushnasp
Arvand Gushnasp
Vezhan Buzmihr
See also
Atashgah of Tbilisi
Vistahm
Georgia in the Roman era
Muslim conquest of Persia
Principality of Iberia
Arab rule in Georgia
References
^ Rapp 2003, p. 12.
^ Toumanoff, Cyril (1963). Studies in Christian Caucasian history. Georgetown University Press. p. 149. (...) Sasanian diplomacy was successful in securing, at that very time, the throne of Iberia for a branch of the Iranian house of Mihran (...)
^ Rapp, Stephen H. (2003b). Corpus scriptorum christianorum orientalium: Subsidia. Peeters Publishers. p. 154. ISBN 978-9042913189. Mirian III, the first Christian king of the K'art'velians. He was a Mihranid Iranian prince who became king through his marriage to a K'art'velian princess.
^ Bowman, Alan; Peter, Garnsey; Cameron, Averill (2005). The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 12, The Crisis of Empire, AD 193-337. Cambridge University Press. p. 489. ISBN 978-0521301992. In 284 the Iberian throne passed to Meribanes III, a member of the Iranian Mihranid family.
^ a b Lenski, Noel. (2003) Failure of Empire: Valens and the Roman State in the Fourth Century A.D. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520928534 "(...) they successfully asserted their claim by crowning a Persian dynast named Mirian III. Mirian, founder of the Mihranid dynasty, which ruled Iberia into the sixth century (...)"
^ Baumer 2021, p. 188.
^ Daryaee 2009, p. 19.
^ a b Rayfield 2013, p. 51.
^ a b c Suny 1994, p. 25.
^ Yarshater 2001, p. 465.
^ Mikaberidze 2015, p. 529.
^ Suny 1994, p. 26.
^ Mikaberidze 2015, p. 28.
^ a b c d e f g h i j Perikhanian 1983, p. 764.
^ Perikhanian 1983, p. 763.
^ Rapp 2014, pp. 323–329.
^ Rapp 2014, pp. 326–329.
Sources
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sasanian Iberia.
Baumer, Christoph (2021). History of the Caucasus. Vol. 1: At the Crossroads of Empires. I.B. Tauris.
Brunner, Christopher (1983). "Geographical and Administrative divisions: Settlements and Economy". The Cambridge History of Iran: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian periods (2). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 747–778. ISBN 978-0-521-24693-4.
Daryaee, Touraj (2009). Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris.
Mikaberidze, Alexander (2015). Historical Dictionary of Georgia. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4422-4146-6.
Perikhanian, Anahit (1983). "Iranian society and law". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(2): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-24693-8.
Rapp, Stephen H. (2003). Studies in Medieval Georgian Historiography: Early Texts and Eurasian Contexts. Peeters. ISBN 978-2-87723-723-9.
Rapp, Stephen H. (2014). The Sasanian World through Georgian Eyes: Caucasia and the Iranian Commonwealth in Late Antique Georgian Literature. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-1472425522.
Rayfield, Donald (2013). Edge of Empires: A History of Georgia. Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-1780230702.
Suny, Ronald Grigor (1994). The Making of the Georgian Nation (2nd ed.). Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-20915-3.
Yarshater, Ehsan, ed. (2001). Encyclopaedia Iranica. Vol. 10. Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 978-0-933273-56-6.
vteProvinces of the Sasanian Empire
Abarshahr
Adurbadagan
Albania
Arbayistan
Armenia
Asoristan
Balasagan
Dihistan
Egypt*
Eran-Khwarrah-Yazdegerd*
Garamig ud Nodardashiragan
Garmekan
Gurgan
Harev
Hind
Iberia
Kadagistan*
Khuzistan
Kirman
Kushanshahr
Khwarazm
Lazica*
Machelonia
Makuran
Marw
Mazun
Media
Meshan
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Georgian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgian_language"},{"link_name":"romanized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Georgian"},{"link_name":"Middle Persian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Persian"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Iberia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iberia_(antiquity)"},{"link_name":"Kartli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kartli"},{"link_name":"Georgia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_(country)"},{"link_name":"Sasanian Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanian_Empire"},{"link_name":"Marzbans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marzban"},{"link_name":"Principality of Iberia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principality_of_Iberia"}],"text":"Sasanian Iberia (Georgian: სასანური ქართლი, romanized: sasanuri kartli; Middle Persian: 𐭥𐭫𐭥𐭰𐭠𐭭, wirōzān/wiruzān/wiručān) was the period the Kingdom of Iberia (Kartli, eastern Georgia) was under the suzerainty of the Sasanian Empire. The period includes when it was ruled by Marzbans (governors) appointed by the Sasanid Iranian king, and later through the Principality of Iberia.","title":"Sasanian Iberia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Roman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Byzantine Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERapp200312-1"},{"link_name":"Shapur I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shapur_I"},{"link_name":"Iranian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_peoples"},{"link_name":"House of Mihran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Mihran"},{"link_name":"Mirian III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirian_III_of_Iberia"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lenski-5"},{"link_name":"Chosroid dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chosroid_dynasty"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lenski-5"},{"link_name":"Shapur II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shapur_II"},{"link_name":"Aspacures II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspacures_II_of_Iberia"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaumer2021188-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200919-7"},{"link_name":"Caucasus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasus"},{"link_name":"Vezhan Buzmihr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vezhan_Buzmihr"},{"link_name":"marzban","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marzban"},{"link_name":"hagiographies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiographies"},{"link_name":"Tbilisi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tbilisi"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERayfield201351-8"},{"link_name":"Bakur III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacurius_III_of_Iberia"},{"link_name":"Hormizd IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hormizd_IV"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESuny199425-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYarshater2001465-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2015529-11"},{"link_name":"Donald Rayfield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Rayfield"},{"link_name":"de jure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_jure"},{"link_name":"de facto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_facto"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERayfield201351-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESuny199425-9"},{"link_name":"Chosroid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chosroids"},{"link_name":"Kakheti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kakheti"},{"link_name":"Guaramid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guaramids"},{"link_name":"Klarjeti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klarjeti"},{"link_name":"Javakheti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Javakheti"},{"link_name":"Zoroastrianism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoroastrianism"},{"link_name":"Christian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christians"},{"link_name":"Eastern Roman emperor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_emperor"},{"link_name":"Maurice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_(emperor)"},{"link_name":"military campaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_572%E2%80%93591"},{"link_name":"Guaram I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guaram_I_of_Iberia"},{"link_name":"Eastern Roman title","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_aristocracy_and_bureaucracy"},{"link_name":"curopalates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curopalates"},{"link_name":"Tbilisi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tbilisi"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESuny199425-9"},{"link_name":"Mtskheta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mtskheta"},{"link_name":"Stephen I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_I_of_Iberia"},{"link_name":"Heraclius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heraclius"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESuny199426-12"},{"link_name":"Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_602%E2%80%93628"},{"link_name":"Muslim conquest of Persia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze201528-13"}],"text":"The Georgian kingdoms were contested between the Sasanids and the neighboring rivalling Roman-Byzantine Empire ever since the 3rd century.[1] Over the span of the next hundreds of years, both the Byzantines and the Sasanids managed to establish hegemony over these regions. At the few remaining times, the Georgian kings managed to retain their autonomy. Sasanian governance was established for the first time early on in the Sasanian era, during the reign of king Shapur I (r. 240-270). In 284, the Sasanians secured the Iberian throne for an Iranian prince from the House of Mihran, subsequently known by his dynastic name Mirian III.[2][3][4][5] Mirian III became thus the first head of this branch of the Mihranid family in the Kingdom of Iberia, known as the Chosroid dynasty (otherwise known as the Iberian Mihranids, or Mihranids of Iberia), whose members would rule Iberia into the sixth century.[5] In 363, Sasanian suzerainty was restored by king Shapur II (r. 309-379) when he invaded Iberia and installed Aspacures II as his vassal on the Iberian throne.[6][7]The continuing rivalry between Byzantium and Sasanian Persia for supremacy in the Caucasus, and the unsuccessful insurrection (523) of the Georgians under Gurgen had severe consequences for the country. Thereafter, the king of Iberia had only nominal power, while the country was effectively ruled by the Persians. By the time of Vezhan Buzmihr's tenure as marzban of Iberia, the hagiographies of the period implied that the \"kings\" in Tbilisi had only the status of mamasakhlisi, which means \"head of the (royal) house\".[8] When Bakur III died in 580, the Sassanid government of Persia under Hormizd IV (578-590) seized on the opportunity to abolish the Iberian monarchy.[9] Iberia became a Persian province, administrated through its direct rule by appointed marzbans,[10][11] which in fact was, as Prof. Donald Rayfield states; \"a de jure continuation of de facto abolition of Iberian kingship since the 520s\".[8]The Iberian nobles acquiesced to this change without resistance,[9] while the heirs of the royal house withdrew to their highland fortresses – the main Chosroid line in Kakheti, and the younger Guaramid branch in Klarjeti and Javakheti. However, the direct Persian control brought about heavy taxation and an energetic promotion of Zoroastrianism in a largely Christian country. Therefore, when the Eastern Roman emperor Maurice embarked upon a military campaign against Persia in 582, the Iberian nobles requested that he helped restore the monarchy. Maurice did respond, and, in 588, sent his protégé, Guaram I of the Guaramids, as a new ruler to Iberia. However, Guaram was not crowned as king, but recognized as a presiding prince and bestowed with the Eastern Roman title of curopalates. The Byzantine-Sassanid treaty of 591 confirmed this new rearrangement, but left Iberia divided into Roman- and Sassanid-dominated parts at the town of Tbilisi.[9] Mtskheta came to be under Byzantine control.Guaram's successor, the second presiding prince Stephen I (Stephanoz I), reoriented his politics towards Persia in a quest to reunite a divided Iberia, a goal he seems to have accomplished, but this cost him his life when the Byzantine emperor Heraclius attacked Tbilisi in 626,[12] during the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628, marking the definite Byzantine predominance in most of Georgia by 627-628 at the expense of the Sasanids until the Muslim conquest of Persia.[13]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerikhanian1983764-14"},{"link_name":"bidakhsh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bidakhsh"},{"link_name":"Armazi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armazi"},{"link_name":"Kur river","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kura_(river)"},{"link_name":"Aragvi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aragvi"},{"link_name":"Darial pass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darial_Gorge"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerikhanian1983764-14"},{"link_name":"Strabo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strabo"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerikhanian1983764-14"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerikhanian1983764-14"},{"link_name":"Iranologist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_studies"},{"link_name":"Anahit Perikhanian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anahit_Perikhanian"},{"link_name":"Hun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huns"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerikhanian1983764-14"},{"link_name":"Khosrow I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khosrow_I"},{"link_name":"Tiflis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tbilisi"},{"link_name":"Gardman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardman"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerikhanian1983764-14"},{"link_name":"Scythian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scythians"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerikhanian1983763-15"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerikhanian1983764-14"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerikhanian1983764-14"},{"link_name":"St. Eusthatius of Mtskheta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eustathius_of_Mtskheta"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerikhanian1983764-14"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerikhanian1983764-14"}],"text":"As the Sasanians established predominance in the Caucasus, they obtained an additional weapon that could be used against the Roman-Byzantines.[14] The dynasty of governors (that is, the bidakhsh) headquartered at Armazi provided the Sasanians with protection of the route along the Kur river, as well as the more northern route that ran along the Aragvi (Aragus) river to the Darial pass (i.e. the Iberian/Caucasus/Alan Gates).[14] Beyond this pass, lay an area that was known as \"the country of the nomads\" according to Strabo.[14] With the established Sasanian hegemony, the incursion of nomads into the Sasanian realm could be hindered.[14] The Iranologist Anahit Perikhanian explains that as time passed by, however, as the Hun tribes increased their pressure from the late 4th century, paying off the tribes had probably become an equally important tool of defense as well.[14] The Sasanian King of Kings (Shahanshah) Khosrow I (r. 531–579) successfully recruited the Huns as auxiliaries as demonstrated in the Lazic War, but he also sponsored the construction of fortifications at numerous sites around the area of Tiflis-Gardman, Sughdabil, as well as al-Lāl.[14]The kingdoms of the Caucasus, as well as Armenia, had acquired an Iranian population element from the time of the early Scythian invasion of the area in the 1st millennium BC.[15] By the time of Khosrow I's fortification activities, a large number of Iranians were settled in this region, including Iberia.[14] The imposition of direct Sasanian rule by Khosrow I meant that, in all likelihood, numerous non-combatant settlers alongside troops and officials were moved to the area.[14] It is due to these developments that the Georgian Passion of St. Eusthatius of Mtskheta makes mention of (amongst others) Persian shoemakers living in Mtskheta who adhered to the Zoroastrian religion and their own practises.[14] Following conversion to Christianity, a number of these immigrants to this northwestern part of the empire could have adapted to the local culture.[14]","title":"Protection, construction activities and settlers"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sasanian coinage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanian_coinage"},{"link_name":"Kartvelo-Sasanian coins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kartvelo-Sasanian_coins&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Kartli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kartli"},{"link_name":"Hormizd IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hormizd_IV"},{"link_name":"Khosrow II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khosrow_II"},{"link_name":"Cyril Toumanoff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyril_Toumanoff"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERapp2014323%E2%80%93329-16"},{"link_name":"asomtavruli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgian_scripts#Asomtavruli"},{"link_name":"eristavis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eristavi"},{"link_name":"Stephen H. Rapp Jr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_H._Rapp_Jr"},{"link_name":"Principality of Iberia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principality_of_Iberia"},{"link_name":"Guaram I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guaram_I_of_Iberia"},{"link_name":"Stepanoz I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_I_of_Iberia"},{"link_name":"Stepanoz II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_II_of_Iberia"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERapp2014326%E2%80%93329-17"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kartvelo-Sasanian_coin_of_Gurgen_i.e._Guaram_I_of_Iberia.jpg"},{"link_name":"Guaram I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guaram_I_of_Iberia"},{"link_name":"Hormizd IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hormizd_IV"},{"link_name":"asomtavruli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgian_scripts#Asomtavruli"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Stephanoz_I_of_Georgia_6th_century.jpg"},{"link_name":"Stephen I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_I_of_Iberia"},{"link_name":"Khosrow II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khosrow_II"}],"text":"Although various hoards have been found in what is present-day Georgia containing regular Sasanian coinage, no local mint mark has been identified thus far for these regular Sasanian coins. However, so-called Kartvelo-Sasanian coins were produced locally in Kartli during the later period of Sasanid suzerainty and rule over central-eastern Georgia (Iberia of the classical authors), that is, in the late 6th and first half of the 7th century. As all extant coins of this type are decorated on the obverse with an image of either Hormizd IV or Khosrow II, there are no Kartvelo-Sasanian coins that predate Hormizd IV's rule (which started in 579). The production of Kartvelo-Sasanian coins commenced after the suppression of the Iberian monarchy by the Sasanids, dated by Cyril Toumanoff to c. 580.[16]Kartvelo-Sasanian coins are usually decorated with asomtavruli letters and/or monograms. These monograms usually represented the names of the prominent and contemporaneous eristavis and presiding princes (eristavta-mtavaris) of Iberia. The earliest Kartvelo-Sasanian coins, as part of the first phase, were inscribed JO, which according to Stephen H. Rapp Jr translates as “O, Cross”. Once the Principality of Iberia was firmly established, the inscriptions, in this second phase, shifted to monograms which mentioned the name of the presiding princes. Examples amongst such are GN and GRG, i.e. \"Gurgen/Guaram\" respectively; both abbreviations are identified with prince Guaram I (r. 588-590). Presiding princes who followed after this phase were even bolder in the presentation of their religious affiliation. In this third and final phase of Kartvelo-Sasanian coins a small cross can be distinguished as a replacement for the sacred Zoroastrian flame atop the fire altar. This series commences with the abbreviation SPNS, i.e. \"Stepanoz I\", positioned around the image of the Sasanian Shahanshah Hormizd VI. The text does not obstruct the reading of the typically used Middle Persian legend. These adaptations develop further during Stepanoz I's reign (590–627), or perhaps during the reign of Stepanoz II (642–650). In this sub-phase, the full inscription of the name \"Stepanoz\" can be viewed on both sides of the head of the Sasanian Shahanshah, and the Middle Persian inscription depicting the name and regnal year of the Shahanshah is eliminated.[17]Sasanian type coin of prince Guaram I, with obverse bust of Hormizd IV and asomtavruli inscription GRG, i.e. Gurgen\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSasanian type coin of prince Stephen I, with obverse bust of Khosrow II and asomtavruli inscription STEP'ANOS","title":"Sasanian coinage of Iberia (Georgia)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Piran Gushnasp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piran_Gushnasp"},{"link_name":"Arvand Gushnasp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arvand_Gushnasp"},{"link_name":"Vezhan Buzmihr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vezhan_Buzmihr"}],"text":"Piran Gushnasp\nArvand Gushnasp\nVezhan Buzmihr","title":"Sasanian governors of Iberia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sasanian Iberia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Sasanian_Iberia"},{"link_name":"\"Geographical and Administrative divisions: Settlements and Economy\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=hvx9jq_2L3EC&pg=PA747"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-521-24693-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24693-4"},{"link_name":"Mikaberidze, Alexander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Mikaberidze"},{"link_name":"Historical Dictionary of Georgia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=JNNQCgAAQBAJ"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-4422-4146-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-4146-6"},{"link_name":"Perikhanian, Anahit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anahit_Perikhanian"},{"link_name":"Yarshater, 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arms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Georgia_(country)"},{"link_name":"Flag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag_of_Georgia_(country)"},{"link_name":"Motto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dzala_ertobashia"},{"link_name":"Saint George","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_George"},{"link_name":"cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_George%27s_Cross"},{"link_name":"Saint Nino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Nino"},{"link_name":"cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grapevine_cross"},{"link_name":"Outline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Georgia_(country)"},{"link_name":"Index","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_Georgia_(country)-related_articles"},{"link_name":"Category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Georgia_(country)"},{"link_name":"Portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Georgia_(country)"}],"text":"Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sasanian Iberia.Baumer, Christoph (2021). History of the Caucasus. Vol. 1: At the Crossroads of Empires. I.B. Tauris.\nBrunner, Christopher (1983). \"Geographical and Administrative divisions: Settlements and Economy\". The Cambridge History of Iran: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian periods (2). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 747–778. ISBN 978-0-521-24693-4.\nDaryaee, Touraj (2009). Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris.\nMikaberidze, Alexander (2015). Historical Dictionary of Georgia. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4422-4146-6.\nPerikhanian, Anahit (1983). \"Iranian society and law\". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(2): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-24693-8.\nRapp, Stephen H. (2003). Studies in Medieval Georgian Historiography: Early Texts and Eurasian Contexts. Peeters. ISBN 978-2-87723-723-9.\nRapp, Stephen H. (2014). The Sasanian World through Georgian Eyes: Caucasia and the Iranian Commonwealth in Late Antique Georgian Literature. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-1472425522.\nRayfield, Donald (2013). Edge of Empires: A History of Georgia. Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-1780230702.\nSuny, Ronald Grigor (1994). The Making of the Georgian Nation (2nd ed.). Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-20915-3.\nYarshater, Ehsan, ed. (2001). Encyclopaedia Iranica. Vol. 10. Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 978-0-933273-56-6.vteProvinces of the Sasanian Empire\nAbarshahr\nAdurbadagan\nAlbania\nArbayistan\nArmenia\nAsoristan\nBalasagan\nDihistan\nEgypt*\nEran-Khwarrah-Yazdegerd*\nGaramig ud Nodardashiragan\nGarmekan\nGurgan\nHarev\nHind\nIberia\nKadagistan*\nKhuzistan\nKirman\nKushanshahr\nKhwarazm\nLazica*\nMachelonia\nMakuran\nMarw\nMazun\nMedia\nMeshan\nNodardashiragan\nParadan\nPadishkhwargar\nPars\nParthia\nSakastan\nSogdia\nSpahan\nSuristan\nTuran\nYemen\n* indicates short living provincesvteGeorgia articlesHistoryEarly\nPrehistoric Georgia\nShulaveri–Shomu culture\nKura–Araxes culture\nTrialeti culture\nColchian culture\nMushki\nDiauehi\nColchis\nKingdom of Iberia\nLazica\nRoman era\nSasanian Iberia\nChristianization of Iberia\nMiddle\nPrincipality of Iberia\nBagrationi dynasty\nArab rule\nEmirate of Tbilisi\nKingdom of Abkhazia\nKingdom of the Iberians\nUnification of the Georgian realm\nKingdom of Hereti\nFirst Kingdom of Kakheti\nKingdom of Georgia\nByzantine wars\nSeljuk wars\nBattle of Didgori\nGolden Age\nMongol invasions\nTimur's invasions\nSamtskhe atabegate\nTurkmen incursions\nKingdom of Imereti\nPrincipality of Abkhazia\nPrincipality of Svaneti\nPrincipality of Guria\nPrincipality of Mingrelia\nKingdom of Kartli\nKingdom of Kakheti\nSafavid Georgia\nShah Abbas I's invasions\nKingdom of Kartli-Kakheti\n1795 Persian Invasion\nAbsorption by the Russian Empire\nModern\nDemocratic Republic of Georgia\nArmenian War\nRed Army invasion\nGeorgian Soviet Socialist Republic\nApril 9 tragedy\nIndependent Georgia\nCivil War\nWar in Abkhazia\nRose Revolution\nRusso-Georgian War\nBy topic\nNames of Georgia\nMonarchs\nStates\nMilitary history\nWars\nBattles\nTimeline of Georgian history\nmore\nGeography\nBorders\nBirds\nBlack Sea\nClimate\nEarthquakes\nEnvironmental issues\nGlaciers\nGreater Caucasus\nLakes\nLesser Caucasus\nMammals\nNational parks\nProtected areas\nRivers\nVolcanoes\nmore\nSubdivisions\nAdministrative divisions\nCities and towns\nTbilisi\nRegions\nmore\nRussian-occupied territories\nAbkhazia\nSouth Ossetia\nPolitics\nConstitution\nElections\nForeign relations\nGovernment\nHuman rights\nLGBT\nLaw enforcement\nMilitary\nParliament\nPolitical parties\nPresident\nPrime Minister\nEconomy\nAgriculture\nCentral bank\nCompanies\nEnergy\nLari (currency)\nMining\nStock Exchange\nTelecommunications\nTourism\nTransport\nmore\nCulture\nAlphabet\nArchitecture\nArt\nChokha\nCinema\nCuisine\nWine\nDance\nGambling\nLanguages\nGeorgian\nLaz\nMingrelian\nSvan\nMedia\nMusic\nMythology\nNames\nPublic holidays\nReligion\nSports\nWorld Heritage Sites\nmore\nDemographics\nEducation\nEthnic minorities\nGeorgians\nList\nDiaspora\nHealth care\nWomen\nmore\nSymbols\nAnthem\nBolnisi cross\nBorjgali\nCoat of arms\nFlag\nMotto\nSaint George\ncross\nSaint Nino\ncross\nOutlineIndex\nCategory\nPortal","title":"Sources"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"Atashgah of Tbilisi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atashgah_of_Tbilisi"},{"title":"Vistahm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vistahm"},{"title":"Georgia in the Roman era","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_in_the_Roman_era"},{"title":"Muslim conquest of Persia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia"},{"title":"Principality of Iberia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principality_of_Iberia"},{"title":"Arab rule in Georgia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_rule_in_Georgia"}]
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[{"reference":"Toumanoff, Cyril (1963). Studies in Christian Caucasian history. Georgetown University Press. p. 149. (...) Sasanian diplomacy was successful in securing, at that very time, the throne of Iberia for a branch of the Iranian house of Mihran (...)","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=jlE1AAAAIAAJ&q=mirian+III+mihranid","url_text":"Studies in Christian Caucasian history"}]},{"reference":"Rapp, Stephen H. (2003b). Corpus scriptorum christianorum orientalium: Subsidia. Peeters Publishers. p. 154. ISBN 978-9042913189. Mirian III, the first Christian king of the K'art'velians. He was a Mihranid Iranian prince who became king through his marriage to a K'art'velian princess.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=nCFwaxMumWkC&q=mirian+III+mihranid","url_text":"Corpus scriptorum christianorum orientalium: Subsidia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9042913189","url_text":"978-9042913189"}]},{"reference":"Bowman, Alan; Peter, Garnsey; Cameron, Averill (2005). The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 12, The Crisis of Empire, AD 193-337. Cambridge University Press. p. 489. ISBN 978-0521301992. In 284 the Iberian throne passed to Meribanes III, a member of the Iranian Mihranid family.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521301992","url_text":"978-0521301992"}]},{"reference":"Baumer, Christoph (2021). History of the Caucasus. Vol. 1: At the Crossroads of Empires. I.B. Tauris.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Brunner, Christopher (1983). \"Geographical and Administrative divisions: Settlements and Economy\". The Cambridge History of Iran: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian periods (2). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 747–778. ISBN 978-0-521-24693-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=hvx9jq_2L3EC&pg=PA747","url_text":"\"Geographical and Administrative divisions: Settlements and Economy\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24693-4","url_text":"978-0-521-24693-4"}]},{"reference":"Daryaee, Touraj (2009). Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Mikaberidze, Alexander (2015). Historical Dictionary of Georgia. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4422-4146-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Mikaberidze","url_text":"Mikaberidze, Alexander"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=JNNQCgAAQBAJ","url_text":"Historical Dictionary of Georgia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-4146-6","url_text":"978-1-4422-4146-6"}]},{"reference":"Perikhanian, Anahit (1983). \"Iranian society and law\". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(2): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-24693-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anahit_Perikhanian","url_text":"Perikhanian, Anahit"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ehsan_Yarshater","url_text":"Yarshater, Ehsan"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=y7IHmyKcPtYC","url_text":"The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(2): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-24693-8","url_text":"0-521-24693-8"}]},{"reference":"Rapp, Stephen H. (2003). Studies in Medieval Georgian Historiography: Early Texts and Eurasian Contexts. Peeters. ISBN 978-2-87723-723-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=nHIwAAAAYAAJ","url_text":"Studies in Medieval Georgian Historiography: Early Texts and Eurasian Contexts"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-87723-723-9","url_text":"978-2-87723-723-9"}]},{"reference":"Rapp, Stephen H. (2014). The Sasanian World through Georgian Eyes: Caucasia and the Iranian Commonwealth in Late Antique Georgian Literature. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-1472425522.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_H._Rapp_Jr","url_text":"Rapp, Stephen H."},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=T8VIBQAAQBAJ&q=rapp+inscription+kartir","url_text":"The Sasanian World through Georgian Eyes: Caucasia and the Iranian Commonwealth in Late Antique Georgian Literature"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1472425522","url_text":"978-1472425522"}]},{"reference":"Rayfield, Donald (2013). Edge of Empires: A History of Georgia. Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-1780230702.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=PxQpmg_JIpwC&q=shalikashvili+brother+wife+tahmasp","url_text":"Edge of Empires: A History of Georgia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1780230702","url_text":"978-1780230702"}]},{"reference":"Suny, Ronald Grigor (1994). The Making of the Georgian Nation (2nd ed.). Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-20915-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Grigor_Suny","url_text":"Suny, Ronald Grigor"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=riW0kKzat2sC&pg=PA42","url_text":"The Making of the Georgian Nation"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-253-20915-3","url_text":"0-253-20915-3"}]},{"reference":"Yarshater, Ehsan, ed. (2001). Encyclopaedia Iranica. Vol. 10. Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 978-0-933273-56-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ehsan_Yarshater","url_text":"Yarshater, Ehsan"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=eUQOAQAAMAAJ","url_text":"Encyclopaedia Iranica"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-933273-56-6","url_text":"978-0-933273-56-6"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treherbert_railway_station
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Treherbert railway station
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["1 History","2 Services","3 References","4 Bibliography","5 External links"]
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Coordinates: 51°40′18″N 3°32′08″W / 51.6718°N 3.5356°W / 51.6718; -3.5356Railway station in Rhondda Cynon Taf, Wales
TreherbertTreherbert station in April 2024General informationLocationTreherbert, Rhondda Cynon TafWalesCoordinates51°40′18″N 3°32′08″W / 51.6718°N 3.5356°W / 51.6718; -3.5356Grid referenceSS938981Managed byTransport for WalesPlatforms2Other informationStation codeTRBClassificationDfT category F1HistoryOpened1863Passengers2018/19 0.458 million2019/20 0.396 million2020/21 27,5182021/22 95,9842022/23 0.121 million
LocationNotesPassenger statistics from the Office of Rail and Road
Treherbert railway station serves the village of Treherbert in Rhondda Cynon Taf, Wales. It is the northern terminus of the Rhondda Line.
History
A station was first opened on this site by the Taff Vale Railway on 12 January 1863, and was the connecting point of the Rhondda and Swansea Bay Railway with the collieries of the Rhondda Fawr via a 1-mile 1683 yard tunnel (completed in 1890) which was one of the longest in South Wales. The TVR had opened its Rhondda Fawr branch from Dinas (north of Pontypridd) in 1856 (to serve the Marquess of Bute's newly opened colliery) and began running passenger trains to the town seven years later.
Services over the R&SB via Aberavon to Swansea ended in December 1962, but the route through the Rhondda Tunnel and on to Maesteg and Bridgend via a connection at Cymmer Afan (over the Llynvi and Ogmore Railway) remained open until 1968, when the tunnel was closed due to roof distortion caused by mining subsidence. A replacement bus service then operated to Cymmer until the L&O route was formally closed to passenger traffic in June 1970. The tracks northwards remained in use for mineral traffic to the collieries at Blaenrhondda until 1978, but have since been lifted.
The TVR route towards Porth was singled in stages between 1972 and 1981 (with the portion from here as far as Cwmparc signal box the first to be so treated) and today only one platform remains. There is no longer a run round loop still in existence north of the station (part of the old line to Cymmer Afan). There are four carriage sidings for the Transport for Wales DMU fleet (several of which are stabled & serviced here overnight & at weekends).
Services
The basic service pattern on the route provides a departure every 30 minutes during the day Mondays to Saturdays, dropping to hourly in the evening. Trains run to (and terminate at) Cardiff Central via Porth, Radyr and Cardiff Queen Street, serving all stations except Trefforest Estate en route. One early morning service continues to Penarth. On Sundays, the frequency is two-hourly, but services run through to Barry Island. On 20 July 2018, previous franchise operator Arriva Trains Wales announced a trial period of extra Sunday services on the Rhondda Line to Cardiff and Barry Island. This was in response to a survey by Leanne Wood and the success of extra Sunday services on the Merthyr Line and the Rhymney Line. Services are operated using Class 150 Diesel Multiple Units.
The service from this station was suspended from April 2023 to February 2024, due to major route upgrade work being carried out at multiple locations as part of the Valley Lines electrification scheme. A replacement bus service was in operation from here to Pontypridd, calling at all local stations. Rail services resumed on 26 February 2024, ahead of the introduction of new rolling stock later in the year.
Preceding station
National Rail
Following station
Ynyswen
Transport for WalesRhondda Line
Terminus
Disused railways
YnyswenLine and station open
Rhondda and Swansea Bay Railway
BlaenrhonddaLine and station closed
References
^ Butt 1995, p. 234.
^ "Treherbert"Rhonndda Cynon Taf Library Service; Retrieved 24 March 2016
^ Forgotten Relics - The Rhondda Tunnel www.forgottenrelics.co.uk; Retrieved 2013-09-09
^ RCTS Mystery Photographs - Blaengwynfi Tunnel RCTS website; Retrieved 2013-09-09
^ GB National Rail Timetable 2022-23 Edition, Table 130 (Network Rail)
^ "Extra Sunday services between Treherbert and Barry Island". Archived from the original on 22 July 2018. Retrieved 19 July 2019.
^ South Wales Metro - Changes to train services (TfW)Transport for Wales website; Retrieved 2023-07-11
Bibliography
Butt, R. V. J. (October 1995). The Directory of Railway Stations: details every public and private passenger station, halt, platform and stopping place, past and present (1st ed.). Sparkford: Patrick Stephens Ltd. ISBN 978-1-85260-508-7. OCLC 60251199. OL 11956311M.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Treherbert railway station.
Train times and station information for Treherbert railway station from National Rail
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Treherbert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treherbert"},{"link_name":"Rhondda Cynon Taf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhondda_Cynon_Taf"},{"link_name":"Wales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wales"},{"link_name":"Rhondda Line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhondda_Line"}],"text":"Railway station in Rhondda Cynon Taf, WalesTreherbert railway station serves the village of Treherbert in Rhondda Cynon Taf, Wales. It is the northern terminus of the Rhondda Line.","title":"Treherbert railway station"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Taff Vale Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taff_Vale_Railway"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEButt1995234-1"},{"link_name":"Rhondda and Swansea Bay Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhondda_and_Swansea_Bay_Railway"},{"link_name":"Rhondda Fawr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhondda#Rhondda_Fawr"},{"link_name":"Dinas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinas_Rhondda_railway_station"},{"link_name":"Pontypridd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontypridd_railway_station"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-2"},{"link_name":"Aberavon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberavon_Town_railway_station"},{"link_name":"Rhondda Tunnel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhondda_Tunnel"},{"link_name":"Maesteg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maesteg_railway_station"},{"link_name":"Bridgend","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridgend_railway_station"},{"link_name":"Llynvi and Ogmore Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llynvi_and_Ogmore_Railway"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Blaenrhondda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blaenrhondda"}],"text":"A station was first opened on this site by the Taff Vale Railway on 12 January 1863,[1] and was the connecting point of the Rhondda and Swansea Bay Railway with the collieries of the Rhondda Fawr via a 1-mile 1683 yard tunnel (completed in 1890) which was one of the longest in South Wales. The TVR had opened its Rhondda Fawr branch from Dinas (north of Pontypridd) in 1856 (to serve the Marquess of Bute's newly opened colliery)[2] and began running passenger trains to the town seven years later.Services over the R&SB via Aberavon to Swansea ended in December 1962, but the route through the Rhondda Tunnel and on to Maesteg and Bridgend via a connection at Cymmer Afan (over the Llynvi and Ogmore Railway) remained open until 1968, when the tunnel was closed due to roof distortion caused by mining subsidence.[3][4] A replacement bus service then operated to Cymmer until the L&O route was formally closed to passenger traffic in June 1970. The tracks northwards remained in use for mineral traffic to the collieries at Blaenrhondda until 1978, but have since been lifted.The TVR route towards Porth was singled in stages between 1972 and 1981 (with the portion from here as far as Cwmparc signal box the first to be so treated) and today only one platform remains. There is no longer a run round loop still in existence north of the station (part of the old line to Cymmer Afan). There are four carriage sidings for the Transport for Wales DMU fleet (several of which are stabled & serviced here overnight & at weekends).","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cardiff Central","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiff_Central_railway_station"},{"link_name":"Porth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porth_railway_station"},{"link_name":"Radyr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radyr_railway_station"},{"link_name":"Cardiff Queen Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiff_Queen_Street_railway_station"},{"link_name":"Trefforest Estate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trefforest_Estate_railway_station"},{"link_name":"Penarth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penarth_railway_station"},{"link_name":"Barry Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barry_Island_railway_station"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Arriva Trains Wales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arriva_Trains_Wales"},{"link_name":"Rhondda Line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhondda_Line"},{"link_name":"Leanne Wood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leanne_Wood"},{"link_name":"Merthyr Line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merthyr_Line"},{"link_name":"Rhymney Line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhymney_Line"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Class 150","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Rail_Class_150"},{"link_name":"Diesel Multiple Units","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_Multiple_Units"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"The basic service pattern on the route provides a departure every 30 minutes during the day Mondays to Saturdays, dropping to hourly in the evening. Trains run to (and terminate at) Cardiff Central via Porth, Radyr and Cardiff Queen Street, serving all stations except Trefforest Estate en route. One early morning service continues to Penarth. On Sundays, the frequency is two-hourly, but services run through to Barry Island.[5] On 20 July 2018, previous franchise operator Arriva Trains Wales announced a trial period of extra Sunday services on the Rhondda Line to Cardiff and Barry Island. This was in response to a survey by Leanne Wood and the success of extra Sunday services on the Merthyr Line and the Rhymney Line.[6] Services are operated using Class 150 Diesel Multiple Units.The service from this station was suspended from April 2023 to February 2024, due to major route upgrade work being carried out at multiple locations as part of the Valley Lines electrification scheme. A replacement bus service was in operation from here to Pontypridd, calling at all local stations.[7] Rail services resumed on 26 February 2024, ahead of the introduction of new rolling stock later in the year.","title":"Services"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Butt, R. V. J.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond_Butt"},{"link_name":"The Directory of Railway Stations: details every public and private passenger station, halt, platform and stopping place, past and present","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=IwANAAAACAAJ"},{"link_name":"Sparkford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparkford"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-85260-508-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85260-508-7"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"60251199","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/60251199"},{"link_name":"OL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OL_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"11956311M","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//openlibrary.org/books/OL11956311M"}],"text":"Butt, R. V. J. (October 1995). The Directory of Railway Stations: details every public and private passenger station, halt, platform and stopping place, past and present (1st ed.). Sparkford: Patrick Stephens Ltd. ISBN 978-1-85260-508-7. OCLC 60251199. OL 11956311M.","title":"Bibliography"}]
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[]
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[{"reference":"\"Extra Sunday services between Treherbert and Barry Island\". Archived from the original on 22 July 2018. Retrieved 19 July 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180722125917/https://arrivatrainswales-newsroom.prgloo.com/news/extra-sunday-services-between-treherbert-and-barry-island-for-the-summer","url_text":"\"Extra Sunday services between Treherbert and Barry Island\""},{"url":"https://arrivatrainswales-newsroom.prgloo.com/news/extra-sunday-services-between-treherbert-and-barry-island-for-the-summer","url_text":"the original"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Campbell
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Donald Campbell
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["1 Family and personal life","2 Water speed records","3 Land speed record attempt","4 Double records","5 Rocket car plans and final water speed record attempt","5.1 Bluebird Mach 1.1","5.2 Final record attempt","6 Death","7 Recovery of Bluebird K7 and Campbell's body","8 Legacy","9 World speed records established by Campbell","10 References","11 Further reading","12 External links"]
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British land and water speed record holder (1921–1967)
For other people named Donald Campbell, see Donald Campbell (disambiguation).
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Donald Malcolm CampbellCBECampbell in c. 1960BornDonald Malcolm Campbell(1921-03-23)23 March 1921Kingston upon Thames, Surrey, EnglandDied4 January 1967(1967-01-04) (aged 45)Coniston Water, Lancashire, EnglandCause of deathHigh-speed crash during water speed record attemptBody discovered28 May 2001Resting placeParish Cemetery, Hawkshead Old Road, ConistonNationalityBritishOther names"The Skipper"OccupationSpeed record breakerKnown forMost prolific water speed record breaker of all timeSpouses
Daphne Harvey (m. 1945–1951)
Dorothy McKegg (m. 1952–1957)
Tonia Bern (m. 1958)
Children1Parent(s)Malcolm CampbellDorothy Evelyn WhittallAwardsSegrave Trophy (1955)
Donald Malcolm Campbell, CBE (23 March 1921 – 4 January 1967) was a British speed record breaker who broke eight absolute world speed records on water and on land in the 1950s and 1960s. He remains the only person to set both world land and water speed records in the same year (1964). He died during a water speed record attempt at Coniston Water in the Lake District, England.
Family and personal life
Donald Malcolm Campbell was born at Canbury House, Kingston upon Thames, Surrey, the son of Malcolm, later Sir Malcolm Campbell, holder of 13 world speed records in the 1920s and 1930s in the Bluebird cars and boats, and his second wife, Dorothy Evelyn (née Whittall).
Campbell attended St Peter's School, Seaford in East Sussex, and Uppingham School in Rutland. At the outbreak of the Second World War he volunteered for the Royal Air Force, but was unable to serve because of a case of childhood rheumatic fever. He joined Briggs Motor Bodies Ltd in West Thurrock, where he became a maintenance engineer. Subsequently, he was a shareholder in a small engineering company called Kine Engineering, producing machine tools. Following his father's death on 31 December 1948 and aided by Malcolm's chief engineer, Leo Villa, the younger Campbell strove to set speed records first on water and then land.
He married three times — to Daphne Harvey in 1945, producing daughter Georgina (Gina) Campbell, born on 19 September 1946; to Dorothy McKegg (1928–2008) in 1952; and to Tonia Bern (1928–2021) in December 1958, which union lasted until his death in 1967. Campbell was intensely superstitious, hating the colour green, the number thirteen and believing nothing good ever happened on a Friday. He also had some interest in the paranormal, which he nurtured as a member of the Ghost Club.
Water speed records
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Bluebird K7 on display at Goodwood Motor Racing circuit in 1960
Campbell began his speed record attempts in the summer of 1949, using his father's old boat, Blue Bird K4, which he renamed Bluebird K4. His initial attempts that summer were unsuccessful, although he did come close to raising his father's existing record. The team returned to Coniston Water, Lancashire in 1950 for further trials. While there, they heard that an American, Stanley Sayres, had raised the record from 141 to 160 mph (227 to 257 km/h), beyond K4's capabilities without substantial modification.
In late 1950 and 1951, Bluebird K4 was modified to make it a "prop-rider" as opposed to her original immersed propeller configuration. This greatly reduced hydrodynamic drag: The third planing point would now be the propeller hub, meaning one of the two propeller blades was always out of the water at high speed. She now sported two cockpits, the second one being for Leo Villa.
Bluebird K4 now had a chance of exceeding Sayres' record and also enjoyed success as a circuit racer, winning the Oltranza Cup in Italy in the spring of that year. Returning to Coniston in September, they finally got Bluebird up to 170 mph after further trials, only to suffer a structural failure at 170 mph (270 km/h) which wrecked the boat. Sayres raised the record the following year to 178 mph (286 km/h) in Slo-Mo-Shun IV.
Along with Campbell, Britain had another potential contender for water speed record honours — John Cobb. He had commissioned the world's first purpose-built turbojet Hydroplane, Crusader, with a target speed of over 200 mph (320 km/h), and began trials on Loch Ness in autumn 1952. Cobb was killed later that year, when Crusader broke up, during an attempt on the record. Campbell was devastated at Cobb's loss, but he resolved to build a new Bluebird boat to bring the water speed record back to Britain.
In early 1953, Campbell began development of his own advanced all-metal jet-powered Bluebird K7 hydroplane to challenge the record, by now held by the American prop rider hydroplane Slo-Mo-Shun IV. Designed by Ken and Lew Norris, the K7 was a steel-framed, aluminium-bodied, three-point hydroplane with a Metropolitan-Vickers Beryl axial-flow turbojet engine, producing 3,500-pound-force (16 kN) of thrust.
Like Slo-Mo-Shun, but unlike Cobb's tricycle Crusader, the three planing points were arranged with two forward, on outrigged sponsons and one aft, in a "pickle-fork" layout, prompting Bluebird's early comparison to a blue lobster. K7 was of very advanced design and construction, and its load bearing steel space frame ultra rigid and stressed to 25 g (exceeding contemporary military jet aircraft). It had a design speed of 250 miles per hour (400 kilometres per hour) and remained the only successful jet-boat in the world until the late 1960s.
The designation "K7" was derived from its Lloyd's unlimited rating registration. It was carried on a prominent white roundel on each sponson, underneath an infinity symbol. Bluebird K7 was the seventh boat registered at Lloyds in the "Unlimited" series.
Campbell set seven world water speed records in K7 between July 1955 and December 1964. The first of these marks was set at Ullswater on 23 July 1955, where he achieved a speed of 202.32 mph (325.60 km/h) but only after many months of trials and a major redesign of Bluebird's forward sponson attachments points. Campbell achieved a steady series of subsequent speed-record increases with the boat during the rest of the decade, beginning with a mark of 216 mph (348 km/h) in 1955 on Lake Mead in Nevada. Subsequently, four new marks were registered on Coniston Water, where Campbell and Bluebird became an annual fixture in the latter half of the 1950s, enjoying significant sponsorship from the Mobil oil company and then subsequently BP.
Campbell also made an attempt in the summer of 1957 at Canandaigua, New York, which failed due to lack of suitable calm water conditions. Bluebird K7 became a well known and popular attraction, and as well as her annual Coniston appearances, K7 was displayed extensively in the UK, United States, Canada and Europe, and then subsequently in Australia during Campbell's prolonged attempt on the land speed record in 1963–1964.
To extract more speed, and endow the boat with greater high-speed stability, in both pitch and yaw, K7 was subtly modified in the second half of the 1950s to incorporate more effective streamlining with a blown Perspex cockpit canopy and fluting to the lower part of the main hull. In 1958, a small wedge shaped tail fin, housing an arrester parachute, modified sponson fairings, that gave a significant reduction in forward aerodynamic lift, and a fixed hydrodynamic stabilising fin, attached to the transom to aid directional stability, and exert a marginal down-force on the nose were incorporated into the design to increase the safe operating envelope of the hydroplane. Thus she reached 225 mph (362 km/h) in 1956, where an unprecedented peak speed of 286.78 mph (461.53 km/h) was achieved on one run, 239 mph (385 km/h) in 1957, 248 mph (399 km/h) in 1958 and 260 mph (420 km/h) in 1959.
Campbell was awarded the Command of the British Empire (CBE) in January 1957 for his water speed record breaking, and in particular his record at Lake Mead in the United States which earned him and Britain very positive acclaim.
On 23 November 1964, Campbell achieved the Australian water speed record of 216 miles per hour (348 km/h) on Lake Bonney Riverland in South Australia, although he was unable to break the world record on that attempt.
Land speed record attempt
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Bluebird CN7 on display at the National Motor Museum in Beaulieu.
It was after the Lake Mead water speed record success in 1955 that the seeds of Campbell's ambition to hold the land speed record as well were planted. The following year, the serious planning was under way — to build a car to break the land speed record, which then stood at 394 mph (634 km/h) set by John Cobb in 1947. The Norris brothers designed Bluebird-Proteus CN7 with 500 mph (800 km/h) in mind.
The British motor industry, in the guise of Dunlop, BP, Smiths Industries, Lucas Automotive, Rubery Owen as well as many others, became heavily involved in the project to build the most advanced car the world had yet seen. CN7 was powered by a specially modified Bristol-Siddeley Proteus free-turbine engine of 4,450 shp (3,320 kW) driving all four wheels. Bluebird CN7 was designed to achieve 475–500 mph and was completed by the spring of 1960.
Following low-speed tests conducted at the Goodwood motor racing circuit in Sussex, in July, the CN7 was taken to the Bonneville Salt Flats in Utah, United States, scene of his father's last land speed record triumph, some 25 years earlier in September 1935. The trials initially went well, and various adjustments were made to the car. On the sixth run in CN7, Campbell lost control at over 360 mph and crashed. It was the car's tremendous structural integrity that saved his life. He was hospitalised with a fractured skull and a burst eardrum, as well as minor cuts and bruises, but CN7 was a write-off. Almost immediately, Campbell announced he was determined to have another go. Sir Alfred Owen, whose Rubery Owen industrial group had built CN7, offered to rebuild it for him. That single decision was to have a profound influence on the rest of Campbell's life. His original plan had been to break the land speed record at over 400 mph in 1960, return to Bonneville the following year to really bump up the speed to something near to 500 mph, get his seventh water speed record with K7 and then retire.
Campbell decided not to go back to Utah for the new trials. He felt the Bonneville course was too short at 11-mile (18 km) and the salt surface was in poor condition. BP offered to find another venue and eventually after a long search, Lake Eyre, in South Australia, was chosen. It hadn't rained there for nine years and the vast dry bed of the salt lake offered a course of up to 20-mile (32 km). By the summer of 1962, Bluebird CN7 was rebuilt, some nine months later than Campbell had hoped. It was essentially the same car, but with the addition of a large stabilising tail fin and a reinforced fibreglass cockpit cover. At the end of 1962, CN7 was shipped out to Australia ready for the new attempt. Low-speed runs had just started when the rains came. The course was compromised and further rain meant, that by May 1963, Lake Eyre was flooded to a depth of 3 inches, causing the attempt to be abandoned. Campbell was heavily criticised in the press for alleged time wasting and mismanagement of the project, despite the fact that he could hardly be held responsible for the unprecedented weather.
To make matters worse for Campbell, American Craig Breedlove drove his pure thrust jet car "Spirit of America" to a speed of 407.45 miles per hour (655.73 km/h) at Bonneville in July 1963. Although the "car" did not conform to FIA (Federation Internationale de L'Automobile) regulations, that stipulated it had to be wheel-driven and have a minimum of four wheels, in the eyes of the world, Breedlove was now the fastest man on Earth.
Campbell returned to Australia in March 1964, but the Lake Eyre course failed to fulfil the early promise it had shown in 1962 and there were further spells of rain. BP pulled out as his main sponsor after a dispute, but he was able to secure backing from Australian oil company Ampol.
The track never properly dried out and Campbell was forced to make the best of the conditions. Finally, in July 1964, he was able to post some speeds that approached the record. On the 17th of that month, he took advantage of a break in the weather and made two courageous runs along the shortened and still damp track, posting a new land speed record of 403.10 mph (648.73 km/h). The surreal moment was captured in a number of well-known images by photographers, including Australia's Jeff Carter.
Campbell was bitterly disappointed with the record as the vehicle had been designed for much higher speeds. CN7 covered the final third of the measured mile at an average of 429 mph (690 km/h), peaking as it left the measured distance at over 440 mph (710 km/h). He resented the fact that it had all been so difficult. "We've made it — we got the bastard at last," was his reaction to the success. Campbell's 403.1 mph represented the official land speed record.
In 1969, after Campbell's fatal accident, his widow, Tonia Bern-Campbell negotiated a deal with Lynn Garrison, president of Craig Breedlove and Associates, that would see Craig Breedlove run Bluebird on Bonneville's Salt Flats. This concept was cancelled when the parallel Spirit of America supersonic car project failed to find support.
Model of Donald Campbell Bluebird used in Breedlove promotion
Double records
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Campbell now planned to go after the water speed record one more time with Bluebird K7 — to do what he had aimed for so many years earlier, during the initial planning stages of CN7 — break both records in the same year. After more delays, he finally achieved his seventh water speed record at Lake Dumbleyung near Perth, Western Australia, on the last day of 1964, at a speed of 276.33 mph (444.71 km/h). He had become the first, and so far only, person to set both land and water speed records in the same year.
Campbell's land speed record was short-lived, because FIA rule changes meant that pure jet cars would be eligible to set records from October 1964. Campbell's 429 mph (690 km/h) speed on his final Lake Eyre run remained the highest speed achieved by a wheel-driven car until 2001; Bluebird CN7 is now on display at the National Motor Museum at Beaulieu in Hampshire, England, its potential only partly realised.
Rocket car plans and final water speed record attempt
Bluebird Mach 1.1
Promotional model of Bluebird Mach 1.1 displayed outside Campbell's house in spring 1966.
Campbell decided a massive jump in speed was called for following his successful 1964 land speed record attempt in Bluebird CN7. His vision was of a supersonic rocket car with a potential maximum speed of 840 mph (1,350 km/h). Norris Brothers were requested to undertake a design study. Bluebird Mach 1.1 was a design for a rocket-powered supersonic land speed record car. Campbell chose a lucky date to hold a press conference at the Charing Cross Hotel on 7 July 1965 to announce his future record breaking plans:
"... In terms of speed on the Earth's surface, my next logical step must be to construct a Bluebird car that can reach Mach 1.1. The Americans are already making plans for such a vehicle and it would be tragic for the world image of British technology if we did not compete in this great contest and win. The nation whose technologies are first to seize the 'faster than sound' record on land will be the nation whose industry will be seen to leapfrog into the '70s or '80s. We can have the car on the track within three years."
Bluebird Mach 1.1 was to be rocket-powered. Ken Norris had calculated using rocket motors would result in a vehicle with very low frontal area, greater density, and lighter weight than if he were to employ a jet engine. Bluebird Mach 1.1 would also be a relatively compact and simple design. Norris specified two off-the-shelf Bristol Siddeley BS.605 rocket engines. The 605 had been developed as a rocket-assisted take-off engine for military aircraft and was fuelled with kerosene, using hydrogen peroxide as the oxidiser. Each engine was rated at 8,000 lbf (36 kN) thrust. In Bluebird Mach 1.1 application, the combined 16,000 lbf (71 kN) thrust would be equivalent of 36,000 bhp (27,000 kW; 36,000 PS) at 840 mph (1,350 km/h).
Final record attempt
To increase publicity for his rocket car venture, in the spring of 1966, Campbell decided to try once more for a water speed record. This time the target was 300 mph (480 km/h). Bluebird K7 was fitted with a lighter and more powerful Bristol Orpheus engine, taken from a Folland Gnat jet aircraft, which developed 4,500 pounds-force (20,000 N) of thrust. The modified boat was taken back to Coniston in the first week of November 1966. The trials did not go well. The weather was very poor, and K7 suffered an engine failure when her air intakes collapsed and debris was drawn into the engine. By the middle of December, some high-speed runs were made, in excess of 250 mph (400 km/h) but still well below Campbell's existing record. Problems with Bluebird's fuel system meant that the engine could not reach full speed, and so would not develop maximum power. Eventually, by the end of December, after further modifications to her fuel system, and the replacement of a fuel pump, the fuel starvation problem was fixed, and Campbell awaited better weather to mount an attempt.
Death
Memorial plaque for Donald Campbell, in Coniston village
On 4 January 1967, weather conditions were finally suitable for an attempt. Campbell commenced the first run of his last record attempt at just after 8:45 am. Bluebird moved slowly out towards the middle of the lake, where she paused briefly as Campbell lined her up. With a deafening blast of power, Campbell now applied full throttle and Bluebird began to surge forward. Clouds of spray issued from the jet-pipe, water poured over the rear spar and after a few hundred yards, at 70 miles per hour (113 km/h), Bluebird unstuck from the surface and rocketed off towards the southern end of the lake, producing her characteristic comet's tail of spray. She entered the measured kilometre at 8:46 am. Leo Villa witnessed her passing the first marker buoy at about 285 mph (459 km/h) in perfect steady planing trim, her nose slightly down, still accelerating. 7.525 seconds later, Keith Harrison saw her leave the measured kilometre at a speed of over 310 mph (500 km/h).
The average speed for the first run was 297.6 mph (478.9 km/h). Campbell lifted his foot from the throttle about 3/10 of a second before passing the southern kilometre marker. As Bluebird left the measured kilometre, Keith Harrison and Eric Shaw in a course boat at the southern end of the measured kilometre both noticed that she was very light around the bows, riding on her front stabilising fins. Her planing trim was no worse than she had exhibited when equipped with the Beryl engine, but it was markedly different from that observed by Leo Villa at the northern end of the kilometre, when she was under full acceleration. Campbell had made his usual commentary throughout the run.
Campbell's words on his first run were, via radio intercom:
"... I'm under way, all systems normal; brake swept up, er ... air pressure warning light on ... I'm coming onto track now and er ... I'll open up just as soon as I am heading down the lake, er doesn't look too smooth from here, doesn't matter, here we go ... Here we go ... ... Passing through four ... five coming up ... a lot of water, nose beginning to lift, water all over the front of the engine again ... and the nose is up ... low pressure fuel warning light ... going left ... OK we're up and away ... and passing through er ... tramping very hard at 150 ... very hard indeed ... FULL POWER ... Passing through 2 ... 25 out of the way ... tramping like hell Leo, I don't think I can get over the top, but I'll try, FULL HOUSE ... and I can't see where I am ... FULL HOUSE – FULL HOUSE – FULL HOUSE ... POWER OFF NOW! ... I'M THROUGH! ... power ... (garbled) er passing through 25 vector off Peel Island ... passing through 2 ... I'm lighting like mad ... brake gone down ... er ... engine lighting up now ... relighting ... passing Peel Island ... relight made normal ... and now ... down at Brown Howe ... passing through 100 ... er ... nose hasn't dropped yet ... nose down."
Instead of refuelling and waiting for the wash of this run to subside, Campbell decided to make the return run immediately. This was not an unprecedented diversion from normal practice, as Campbell had used the advantage presented; i.e., no encroachment of water disturbances on the measured kilometre by the quick turnaround in many previous runs. The second run was even faster once severe tramping subsided on the run-up from Peel Island (caused by the water-brake disturbance). Once smooth water was reached some 700 metres (766 yd) or so from the start of the kilometre, K7 demonstrated cycles of ground effect hovering before accelerating hard at 0.63 g to a peak speed of 328 mph (528 km/h) some 200 metres or so from the southern marker buoy. Bluebird was now experiencing bouncing episodes of the starboard sponson with increasing ferocity.
At the peak speed, the most intense and long-lasting bounce precipitated a severe decelerating episode — 328 miles per hour (528 km/h) to 296 miles per hour (476 km/h), -1.86g — as K7 dropped back onto the water. Engine flame-out then occurred and, shorn of thrust nose-down momentum, K7 experienced a gliding episode in strong ground effect with increasing angle-of-attack, before completely leaving the water at her static stability pitch-up limit of 5.2°. Bluebird then executed an almost complete backflip (~ 320° and slightly off-axis) before plunging into the water (port sponson marginally in advance of the starboard), approximately 230 metres from the end of the measured kilometre. The boat then cartwheeled across the water before coming to rest. The impact killed Campbell instantly and broke K7 forward of the air intakes (where Campbell was sitting), and the main hull sank shortly afterwards.
Mr Whoppit, Campbell's teddy bear mascot, was found among the floating debris and the pilot's helmet was recovered. Royal Navy divers made efforts to find and recover the body but, although the wreck of K7 was found, they called off the search, after two weeks, without locating his body. Campbell's body was finally located in 2001.
Campbell's last words, during a 31-second transmission, on his final run were, via radio intercom:
"... Full nose up ... Pitching a bit down here ... coming through our own wash ... er getting straightened up now on track ... rather closer to Peel Island ... and we're tramping like mad ... and er ... FULL POWER ... er tramping like hell OVER. I can't see much and the water's very bad indeed ... I'm galloping over the top ... and she's giving a hell of a bloody row in here ... I can't see anything ... I've got the bows out ... I'm going ... U-hh ..."
The cause of the crash has been variously attributed to several possible causes (or a combination of these causes):
Campbell did not wait to refuel after doing a first run of 297.6 mph (478.9 km/h) and hence the boat was lighter and travelled through the wash caused by his first run, a wash made much worse by the use of the water brake. These factors have since been found to be not particularly important: The water brake was used well to the south of the measured distance, and only from approx. 200 mph (320 km/h). The area in the centre of the course where Bluebird was travelling at peak speed on her return run was flat calm, and not disturbed by the wash from the first run, which had not had time to be reflected back on the course. Campbell knew this and, as discussed previously, adopted his well-practised, "quick turn-around" strategy.
Bluebird may have exceeded its aerodynamic static stability limit, complicated by the additional destabilising influences of loss of engine thrust. There is also evidence to point to the fact that K7's dynamic stability limit had been exceeded. The cause(s) of the engine flame-out cannot be established unequivocally. It could have been due to fuel starvation, damage to some ancillary structural element associated with engine function (following the worst bouncing episode), disturbance of the airstream into the intakes during the pitching episodes, or indeed a combination of all three. Further evidence of lost engine thrust may be seen in both cinematographic and still film recordings of the latter part of the run — as Bluebird left the water, jet exhaust from a functioning engine would have severely disturbed the water surface; no such disturbance or accompanying spray is evident. Also, close examination of such records show no evidence to the effect that the water brake was deployed.
Analysis of film footage suggests that Bluebird may have hit a duck during test runs, which may have affected the aerodynamic shape of the boat, making it harder to control at extreme speeds.
On 28 January 1967, Campbell was posthumously awarded the Queen's Commendation for Brave Conduct "for courage and determination in attacking the world water speed record."
Recovery of Bluebird K7 and Campbell's body
The wreckage of Campbell's craft was recovered by Gilgeous Diving Services (GDS Extreme Engineering, Liverpool) along with amateur diver Bill Smith. Lifting K7 was run and overseen by GDS Extreme Engineering and Smith’s team. The main section/hull first raised in March 2001 and later in May 2001, when Campbell's body was recovered. The largest section, comprising approximately two-thirds of the centre hull, was raised on 8 March 2001. The project began when Smith was inspired to look for the wreck after hearing the Marillion song "Out of This World" (from the album Afraid of Sunlight), which was written about Campbell and Bluebird.
The remains of Campbell's body were located just over two months later and recovered from the lake on 28 May 2001, still wearing his blue nylon overalls. On the night before his death, while playing cards he had drawn the queen and the ace of spades. Reflecting upon the fact that Mary, Queen of Scots had drawn the same two cards the night before she was beheaded, he told his mechanics, who were playing cards with him, that he had a fearful premonition that he was going to "get the chop". It was not possible to determine the cause of Campbell's death, though a consultant engineer giving evidence to the inquest said that the force of the impact could have caused him to be decapitated.
Campbell's gravestone in Coniston
Campbell was buried in Coniston Cemetery on 12 September 2001 after his coffin was carried down the lake, and through the measured kilometre, on a launch, one last time. A funeral service was then held at St Andrew's Church in Coniston, after an earlier, and positive DNA examination had been carried out. The funeral was attended by his widow, Tonia, daughter Gina, other members of his family, members of his former team and admirers. The funeral was overshadowed in the media by coverage of the 9/11 attacks in the United States.
Campbell's sister, Jean Wales, had been against the recovery of her brother's body out of respect for his stated wish that, in the event of something going wrong, "Skipper and boat stay together".
When Campbell was buried in Coniston Cemetery on 12 September 2001 she did not attend the service. Steve Hogarth, lead singer for Marillion, was present at the funeral and performed the song "Out of This World" solo.
Legacy
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Between them, Campbell and his father had set 11 speed records on water and 10 on land.
The story of Campbell's last attempt at the water speed record on Coniston Water was told in the BBC television film Across the Lake in 1988, with Anthony Hopkins as Campbell. Nine years earlier, Robert Hardy had played Campbell's father, Sir Malcolm Campbell, in the BBC2 Playhouse television drama "Speed King"; both were written by Roger Milner and produced by Innes Lloyd. In 2003, the BBC showed a documentary reconstruction of Campbell's fateful water-speed record attempt in an episode of Days That Shook the World. It featured a mixture of modern reconstruction and original film footage. All of the original colour clips were taken from a film capturing the event, Campbell at Coniston by John Lomax, a local amateur filmmaker from Wallasey, England. Lomax's film won awards worldwide in the late 1960s for recording the final weeks of Campbell's life.
In 1956, Campbell was surprised by Eamonn Andrews for the seventh episode of the new television show This Is Your Life.
An English Heritage blue plaque commemorates Campbell and his father at Canbury School, Kingston Hill, Kingston upon Thames, where they lived.
In the village of Coniston, the Ruskin Museum has a display of Campbell memorabilia, and the Bristol Orpheus engine recovered in 2001 is also displayed. The engine's casing is mostly missing, having acted as a sacrificial anode in its time underwater, but the internals are preserved. Campbell's helmet from the ill-fated run is also on display.
Campbell’s legendary BLUEBIRD K7 is now also on display at the Coniston Ruskin Museum.
World speed records established by Campbell
Speed
Record
Vehicle
Location
Date
202.32 mph (325.60 km/h)
Water
Bluebird K7
Ullswater
23 July 1955
216.20 mph (347.94 km/h)
Water
Bluebird K7
Lake Mead
16 November 1955
225.63 mph (363.12 km/h)
Water
Bluebird K7
Coniston Water
19 September 1956
239.07 mph (384.75 km/h)
Water
Bluebird K7
Coniston Water
7 November 1957
248.62 mph (400.12 km/h)
Water
Bluebird K7
Coniston Water
10 November 1958
260.35 mph (418.99 km/h)
Water
Bluebird K7
Coniston Water
14 May 1959
276.33 mph (444.71 km/h)
Water
Bluebird K7
Lake Dumbleyung
31 December 1964
403.10 mph (648.73 km/h)
Land
Bluebird CN7
Lake Eyre
17 July 1964
References
^ "Donald Malcolm Campbell". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 27 December 2022.
^ "CAMPBELL, Donald (1921–1967) & CAMPBELL, Sir Malcolm (1885–1948)". English Heritage. Archived from the original on 8 June 2017. Retrieved 12 October 2016.
^ "Malcolm and Donald Campbell memorial unveiled". The Telegraph. London. 29 November 2010. Archived from the original on 29 January 2011. Retrieved 20 January 2011.
^ a b GRO Register of Births: JUN 1921 2a 815 KINGSTON — Donald M. Campbell, mmn = Whittall
^ Donald Campbell: The Man Behind The Mask, David Tremayne, Bantam Press, London, 2004.
^ "Donald & Malcolm Campbell — Donald". The Racing Campbells. Archived from the original on 3 October 2010. Retrieved 26 September 2010.
^ Kellaway, Barnaby (22 June 2021). "Singer, who married world speed record-breaker Campbell, dies aged 93". The Glasgow Herald. p. 7.
^ "About the Ghost Club". Archived from the original on 1 March 2009. Retrieved 30 July 2009. — "A Brief History" section
^ "Press Release - Bluebird Replica Build Begins". K7 Project Bluebird Barmera Australia. 31 December 2014. Retrieved 27 August 2020.
^ "Donald Campbell's Water Speed Record Attempt". Monument Australia. Retrieved 27 August 2020.
^ "On this day: World Land Speed Record broken". 17 July 2014. Archived from the original on 23 February 2015. Retrieved 23 February 2015.
^ "Speed king dies in crash". Spokesman-Review. Spokane, Washington. Associated Press. 5 January 1967. p. 13.
^ a b Sheppard, Neil (2011). Donald Campbell Bluebird and the Final Record Attempt. Stroud, UK: The History Press. p. 256. ISBN 978-0-7524-5973-8. Archived from the original on 4 June 2020. Retrieved 26 July 2020.
^ "Last words from Bluebird". BBC News. 10 December 2002. Archived from the original on 6 December 2008. Retrieved 31 December 2009.
^ a b Sheppard, Neil (2011). Donald Campbell Bluebird And The Final Record Attempt. Stroud, UK: The History Press. ISBN 978 0 7524 5973 8
^ Gray, Richard (9 October 2011). "Duck may have played role in fatal Bluebird crash". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 8 March 2017. Retrieved 8 March 2017.
^ "No. 44241". The London Gazette. 3 February 1967. p. 1299.
^ BBC TV 2001 lift documentary
^ Simon, Armstrong (7 March 2024). "Donald Campbell's Bluebird: The battle back to Coniston". BBC News.
^ Hogarth, Steve (8 March 2001). "A Day in the Lakes". marillion.com. Retrieved 12 August 2014.
^ "Disaster on the cards for the man who diced with death". www.telegraph.co.uk. 8 March 2001. Retrieved 28 June 2023.
^ "Final tribute to water speed king". BBC. 12 September 2001. Archived from the original on 2 January 2008. Retrieved 12 September 2010.
^ "Steve Hogarth Marillion eonmusic Interview September 2019". eonmusic: music for life. Retrieved 13 June 2024.
^ "Who Was Donald Campbell?". Ruskin Museum. Retrieved 26 April 2024.
^ "Malcolm & Donald Campbell | Speed Record Holders | Blue Plaques". English Heritage. Retrieved 26 April 2024.
^ "Campbell, Donald (1921–1967) & Campbell, Sir Malcolm (1885–1948)". English Heritage. Archived from the original on 25 July 2018. Retrieved 12 May 2018.
^ "'Bluebird effect' drives surge in tourism". The Westmorland Gazette. 10 May 2024. Retrieved 13 June 2024.
Further reading
Pearson, John (1965). Bluebird and the Dead Lake: The story of Donald Campbell's land speed record at Lake Eyre in 1964. London: Collins. OCLC 2922691.
External links
Biography portal
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Donald Campbell.
Footage of Donald Campbell Fateful Water Speed Record Attempt, 1967 on YouTube
https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1556039/Jean-Wales.html
Authority control databases International
FAST
ISNI
VIAF
WorldCat
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BnF data
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Donald Campbell (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Campbell_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"CBE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commander_of_the_Order_of_the_British_Empire"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"world land","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_speed_record"},{"link_name":"water speed records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_speed_record"},{"link_name":"Coniston Water","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coniston_Water"},{"link_name":"Lake District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_District"}],"text":"For other people named Donald Campbell, see Donald Campbell (disambiguation).Donald Malcolm Campbell, CBE (23 March 1921 – 4 January 1967) was a British speed record breaker who broke eight absolute world speed records on water and on land in the 1950s and 1960s.[1] He remains the only person to set both world land and water speed records in the same year (1964). He died during a water speed record attempt at Coniston Water in the Lake District, England.","title":"Donald Campbell"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Canbury House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canbury_School"},{"link_name":"Kingston upon Thames","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingston_upon_Thames"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GRO-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tremayne-5"},{"link_name":"Sir Malcolm Campbell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malcolm_Campbell"},{"link_name":"Bluebird","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Bluebird_record-breaking_vehicles"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GRO-4"},{"link_name":"St Peter's School, Seaford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Peter%27s_School,_Seaford"},{"link_name":"East Sussex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Sussex"},{"link_name":"Uppingham School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uppingham_School"},{"link_name":"Rutland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutland"},{"link_name":"Second World War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_World_War"},{"link_name":"Royal Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"West Thurrock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Thurrock"},{"link_name":"Leo Villa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Villa"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"paranormal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paranormal"},{"link_name":"the Ghost Club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ghost_Club"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"Donald Malcolm Campbell was born at Canbury House, Kingston upon Thames, Surrey,[2][3][4][5] the son of Malcolm, later Sir Malcolm Campbell, holder of 13 world speed records in the 1920s and 1930s in the Bluebird cars and boats, and his second wife, Dorothy Evelyn (née Whittall).[4]Campbell attended St Peter's School, Seaford in East Sussex, and Uppingham School in Rutland. At the outbreak of the Second World War he volunteered for the Royal Air Force, but was unable to serve because of a case of childhood rheumatic fever. He joined Briggs Motor Bodies Ltd in West Thurrock, where he became a maintenance engineer. Subsequently, he was a shareholder in a small engineering company called Kine Engineering, producing machine tools. Following his father's death on 31 December 1948 and aided by Malcolm's chief engineer, Leo Villa, the younger Campbell strove to set speed records first on water and then land.He married three times — to Daphne Harvey in 1945, producing daughter Georgina (Gina) Campbell, born on 19 September 1946; to Dorothy McKegg (1928–2008) in 1952; and to Tonia Bern (1928–2021) in December 1958, which union lasted until his death in 1967.[6][7] Campbell was intensely superstitious, hating the colour green, the number thirteen and believing nothing good ever happened on a Friday. He also had some interest in the paranormal, which he nurtured as a member of the Ghost Club.[8]","title":"Family and personal life"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bluebird_K7_in_1960_at_Goodwood.jpg"},{"link_name":"Blue Bird K4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Bird_K4"},{"link_name":"Coniston Water","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coniston_Water"},{"link_name":"Lancashire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Furness"},{"link_name":"Stanley Sayres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Sayres"},{"link_name":"John Cobb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Cobb_(racing_driver)"},{"link_name":"Hydroplane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroplane_(boat)"},{"link_name":"Crusader","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusader_(speedboat)"},{"link_name":"Loch Ness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loch_Ness"},{"link_name":"Bluebird K7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluebird_K7"},{"link_name":"Ullswater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ullswater"},{"link_name":"Canandaigua, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canandaigua_(city),_New_York"},{"link_name":"Command of the British Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Command_of_the_British_Empire&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Lake Mead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Mead"},{"link_name":"Lake Bonney Riverland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Bonney_Riverland"},{"link_name":"South Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Australia"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"Bluebird K7 on display at Goodwood Motor Racing circuit in 1960Campbell began his speed record attempts in the summer of 1949, using his father's old boat, Blue Bird K4, which he renamed Bluebird K4. His initial attempts that summer were unsuccessful, although he did come close to raising his father's existing record. The team returned to Coniston Water, Lancashire in 1950 for further trials. While there, they heard that an American, Stanley Sayres, had raised the record from 141 to 160 mph (227 to 257 km/h), beyond K4's capabilities without substantial modification.In late 1950 and 1951, Bluebird K4 was modified to make it a \"prop-rider\" as opposed to her original immersed propeller configuration. This greatly reduced hydrodynamic drag: The third planing point would now be the propeller hub, meaning one of the two propeller blades was always out of the water at high speed. She now sported two cockpits, the second one being for Leo Villa.Bluebird K4 now had a chance of exceeding Sayres' record and also enjoyed success as a circuit racer, winning the Oltranza Cup in Italy in the spring of that year. Returning to Coniston in September, they finally got Bluebird up to 170 mph after further trials, only to suffer a structural failure at 170 mph (270 km/h) which wrecked the boat. Sayres raised the record the following year to 178 mph (286 km/h) in Slo-Mo-Shun IV.Along with Campbell, Britain had another potential contender for water speed record honours — John Cobb. He had commissioned the world's first purpose-built turbojet Hydroplane, Crusader, with a target speed of over 200 mph (320 km/h), and began trials on Loch Ness in autumn 1952. Cobb was killed later that year, when Crusader broke up, during an attempt on the record. Campbell was devastated at Cobb's loss, but he resolved to build a new Bluebird boat to bring the water speed record back to Britain.In early 1953, Campbell began development of his own advanced all-metal jet-powered Bluebird K7 hydroplane to challenge the record, by now held by the American prop rider hydroplane Slo-Mo-Shun IV.[1] Designed by Ken and Lew Norris, the K7 was a steel-framed, aluminium-bodied, three-point hydroplane with a Metropolitan-Vickers Beryl axial-flow turbojet engine, producing 3,500-pound-force (16 kN) of thrust.Like Slo-Mo-Shun, but unlike Cobb's tricycle Crusader, the three planing points were arranged with two forward, on outrigged sponsons and one aft, in a \"pickle-fork\" layout, prompting Bluebird's early comparison to a blue lobster. K7 was of very advanced design and construction, and its load bearing steel space frame ultra rigid and stressed to 25 g (exceeding contemporary military jet aircraft). It had a design speed of 250 miles per hour (400 kilometres per hour) and remained the only successful jet-boat in the world until the late 1960s.The designation \"K7\" was derived from its Lloyd's unlimited rating registration. It was carried on a prominent white roundel on each sponson, underneath an infinity symbol. Bluebird K7 was the seventh boat registered at Lloyds in the \"Unlimited\" series.Campbell set seven world water speed records in K7 between July 1955 and December 1964. The first of these marks was set at Ullswater on 23 July 1955, where he achieved a speed of 202.32 mph (325.60 km/h) but only after many months of trials and a major redesign of Bluebird's forward sponson attachments points. Campbell achieved a steady series of subsequent speed-record increases with the boat during the rest of the decade, beginning with a mark of 216 mph (348 km/h) in 1955 on Lake Mead in Nevada. Subsequently, four new marks were registered on Coniston Water, where Campbell and Bluebird became an annual fixture in the latter half of the 1950s, enjoying significant sponsorship from the Mobil oil company and then subsequently BP.Campbell also made an attempt in the summer of 1957 at Canandaigua, New York, which failed due to lack of suitable calm water conditions. Bluebird K7 became a well known and popular attraction, and as well as her annual Coniston appearances, K7 was displayed extensively in the UK, United States, Canada and Europe, and then subsequently in Australia during Campbell's prolonged attempt on the land speed record in 1963–1964.To extract more speed, and endow the boat with greater high-speed stability, in both pitch and yaw, K7 was subtly modified in the second half of the 1950s to incorporate more effective streamlining with a blown Perspex cockpit canopy and fluting to the lower part of the main hull. In 1958, a small wedge shaped tail fin, housing an arrester parachute, modified sponson fairings, that gave a significant reduction in forward aerodynamic lift, and a fixed hydrodynamic stabilising fin, attached to the transom to aid directional stability, and exert a marginal down-force on the nose were incorporated into the design to increase the safe operating envelope of the hydroplane. Thus she reached 225 mph (362 km/h) in 1956, where an unprecedented peak speed of 286.78 mph (461.53 km/h) was achieved on one run, 239 mph (385 km/h) in 1957, 248 mph (399 km/h) in 1958 and 260 mph (420 km/h) in 1959.Campbell was awarded the Command of the British Empire (CBE) in January 1957 for his water speed record breaking, and in particular his record at Lake Mead in the United States which earned him and Britain very positive acclaim.On 23 November 1964, Campbell achieved the Australian water speed record of 216 miles per hour (348 km/h) on Lake Bonney Riverland in South Australia, although he was unable to break the world record on that attempt.[9][10]","title":"Water speed records"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1962_Bluebird_Campbell_CN7.JPG"},{"link_name":"National Motor Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Motor_Museum,_Beaulieu"},{"link_name":"land speed record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_speed_record"},{"link_name":"Bluebird-Proteus CN7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluebird-Proteus_CN7"},{"link_name":"Dunlop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunlop_Rubber"},{"link_name":"BP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BP"},{"link_name":"Smiths Industries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smiths_Industries"},{"link_name":"Lucas Automotive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucas_Automotive"},{"link_name":"Bristol-Siddeley Proteus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol_Proteus"},{"link_name":"free-turbine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free-turbine_turboshaft"},{"link_name":"Goodwood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goodwood_Circuit"},{"link_name":"Sussex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sussex"},{"link_name":"Bonneville Salt Flats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonneville_Salt_Flats"},{"link_name":"Alfred Owen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Owen"},{"link_name":"Rubery Owen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubery_Owen"},{"link_name":"Lake Eyre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Eyre"},{"link_name":"Craig Breedlove","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craig_Breedlove"},{"link_name":"Spirit of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_of_America_(automobile)"},{"link_name":"FIA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIA"},{"link_name":"Ampol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampol"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Craig Breedlove","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craig_Breedlove"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Model_of_Donald_Campbell_Bluebird_used_in_Breedlove_promotion.png"}],"text":"Bluebird CN7 on display at the National Motor Museum in Beaulieu.It was after the Lake Mead water speed record success in 1955 that the seeds of Campbell's ambition to hold the land speed record as well were planted. The following year, the serious planning was under way — to build a car to break the land speed record, which then stood at 394 mph (634 km/h) set by John Cobb in 1947. The Norris brothers designed Bluebird-Proteus CN7 with 500 mph (800 km/h) in mind.The British motor industry, in the guise of Dunlop, BP, Smiths Industries, Lucas Automotive, Rubery Owen as well as many others, became heavily involved in the project to build the most advanced car the world had yet seen. CN7 was powered by a specially modified Bristol-Siddeley Proteus free-turbine engine of 4,450 shp (3,320 kW) driving all four wheels. Bluebird CN7 was designed to achieve 475–500 mph and was completed by the spring of 1960.Following low-speed tests conducted at the Goodwood motor racing circuit in Sussex, in July, the CN7 was taken to the Bonneville Salt Flats in Utah, United States, scene of his father's last land speed record triumph, some 25 years earlier in September 1935. The trials initially went well, and various adjustments were made to the car. On the sixth run in CN7, Campbell lost control at over 360 mph and crashed. It was the car's tremendous structural integrity that saved his life. He was hospitalised with a fractured skull and a burst eardrum, as well as minor cuts and bruises, but CN7 was a write-off. Almost immediately, Campbell announced he was determined to have another go. Sir Alfred Owen, whose Rubery Owen industrial group had built CN7, offered to rebuild it for him. That single decision was to have a profound influence on the rest of Campbell's life. His original plan had been to break the land speed record at over 400 mph in 1960, return to Bonneville the following year to really bump up the speed to something near to 500 mph, get his seventh water speed record with K7 and then retire.Campbell decided not to go back to Utah for the new trials. He felt the Bonneville course was too short at 11-mile (18 km) and the salt surface was in poor condition. BP offered to find another venue and eventually after a long search, Lake Eyre, in South Australia, was chosen. It hadn't rained there for nine years and the vast dry bed of the salt lake offered a course of up to 20-mile (32 km). By the summer of 1962, Bluebird CN7 was rebuilt, some nine months later than Campbell had hoped. It was essentially the same car, but with the addition of a large stabilising tail fin and a reinforced fibreglass cockpit cover. At the end of 1962, CN7 was shipped out to Australia ready for the new attempt. Low-speed runs had just started when the rains came. The course was compromised and further rain meant, that by May 1963, Lake Eyre was flooded to a depth of 3 inches, causing the attempt to be abandoned. Campbell was heavily criticised in the press for alleged time wasting and mismanagement of the project, despite the fact that he could hardly be held responsible for the unprecedented weather.To make matters worse for Campbell, American Craig Breedlove drove his pure thrust jet car \"Spirit of America\" to a speed of 407.45 miles per hour (655.73 km/h) at Bonneville in July 1963. Although the \"car\" did not conform to FIA (Federation Internationale de L'Automobile) regulations, that stipulated it had to be wheel-driven and have a minimum of four wheels, in the eyes of the world, Breedlove was now the fastest man on Earth.Campbell returned to Australia in March 1964, but the Lake Eyre course failed to fulfil the early promise it had shown in 1962 and there were further spells of rain. BP pulled out as his main sponsor after a dispute, but he was able to secure backing from Australian oil company Ampol.The track never properly dried out and Campbell was forced to make the best of the conditions. Finally, in July 1964, he was able to post some speeds that approached the record. On the 17th of that month, he took advantage of a break in the weather and made two courageous runs along the shortened and still damp track, posting a new land speed record of 403.10 mph (648.73 km/h). The surreal moment was captured in a number of well-known images by photographers, including Australia's Jeff Carter.[11]Campbell was bitterly disappointed with the record as the vehicle had been designed for much higher speeds. CN7 covered the final third of the measured mile at an average of 429 mph (690 km/h), peaking as it left the measured distance at over 440 mph (710 km/h). He resented the fact that it had all been so difficult. \"We've made it — we got the bastard at last,\" was his reaction to the success. Campbell's 403.1 mph represented the official land speed record.In 1969, after Campbell's fatal accident, his widow, Tonia Bern-Campbell negotiated a deal with Lynn Garrison, president of Craig Breedlove and Associates, that would see Craig Breedlove run Bluebird on Bonneville's Salt Flats. This concept was cancelled when the parallel Spirit of America supersonic car project failed to find support.Model of Donald Campbell Bluebird used in Breedlove promotion","title":"Land speed record attempt"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lake Dumbleyung","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Dumbleyung"},{"link_name":"Perth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perth"},{"link_name":"Western Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Australia"},{"link_name":"National Motor Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Motor_Museum,_Beaulieu"},{"link_name":"Hampshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hampshire"}],"text":"Campbell now planned to go after the water speed record one more time with Bluebird K7 — to do what he had aimed for so many years earlier, during the initial planning stages of CN7 — break both records in the same year. After more delays, he finally achieved his seventh water speed record at Lake Dumbleyung near Perth, Western Australia, on the last day of 1964, at a speed of 276.33 mph (444.71 km/h). He had become the first, and so far only, person to set both land and water speed records in the same year.Campbell's land speed record was short-lived, because FIA rule changes meant that pure jet cars would be eligible to set records from October 1964. Campbell's 429 mph (690 km/h) speed on his final Lake Eyre run remained the highest speed achieved by a wheel-driven car until 2001; Bluebird CN7 is now on display at the National Motor Museum at Beaulieu in Hampshire, England, its potential only partly realised.","title":"Double records"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Rocket car plans and final water speed record attempt"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bluebird_Mach_1.1_at_Priors_Ford.tif"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"rocket-assisted take-off","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JATO"}],"sub_title":"Bluebird Mach 1.1","text":"Promotional model of Bluebird Mach 1.1 displayed outside Campbell's house in spring 1966.Campbell decided a massive jump in speed was called for following his successful 1964 land speed record attempt in Bluebird CN7. His vision was of a supersonic rocket car with a potential maximum speed of 840 mph (1,350 km/h). Norris Brothers were requested to undertake a design study. Bluebird Mach 1.1 was a design for a rocket-powered supersonic land speed record car. Campbell chose a lucky date to hold a press conference at the Charing Cross Hotel on 7 July 1965 to announce his future record breaking plans:\"... In terms of speed on the Earth's surface, my next logical step must be to construct a Bluebird car that can reach Mach 1.1. The Americans are already making plans for such a vehicle and it would be tragic for the world image of British technology if we did not compete in this great contest and win. The nation whose technologies are first to seize the 'faster than sound' record on land will be the nation whose industry will be seen to leapfrog into the '70s or '80s. We can have the car on the track within three years.\"[citation needed]Bluebird Mach 1.1 was to be rocket-powered. Ken Norris had calculated using rocket motors would result in a vehicle with very low frontal area, greater density, and lighter weight than if he were to employ a jet engine. Bluebird Mach 1.1 would also be a relatively compact and simple design. Norris specified two off-the-shelf Bristol Siddeley BS.605 rocket engines. The 605 had been developed as a rocket-assisted take-off engine for military aircraft and was fuelled with kerosene, using hydrogen peroxide as the oxidiser. Each engine was rated at 8,000 lbf (36 kN) thrust. In Bluebird Mach 1.1 application, the combined 16,000 lbf (71 kN) thrust would be equivalent of 36,000 bhp (27,000 kW; 36,000 PS) at 840 mph (1,350 km/h).","title":"Rocket car plans and final water speed record attempt"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bristol Orpheus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol_Orpheus"},{"link_name":"Folland Gnat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folland_Gnat"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Final record attempt","text":"To increase publicity for his rocket car venture, in the spring of 1966, Campbell decided to try once more for a water speed record. This time the target was 300 mph (480 km/h). Bluebird K7 was fitted with a lighter and more powerful Bristol Orpheus engine, taken from a Folland Gnat jet aircraft, which developed 4,500 pounds-force (20,000 N) of thrust. The modified boat was taken back to Coniston in the first week of November 1966. The trials did not go well. The weather was very poor, and K7 suffered an engine failure when her air intakes collapsed and debris was drawn into the engine. By the middle of December, some high-speed runs were made, in excess of 250 mph (400 km/h) but still well below Campbell's existing record. Problems with Bluebird's fuel system meant that the engine could not reach full speed, and so would not develop maximum power. Eventually, by the end of December, after further modifications to her fuel system, and the replacement of a fuel pump, the fuel starvation problem was fixed, and Campbell awaited better weather to mount an attempt.[citation needed]","title":"Rocket car plans and final water speed record attempt"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Donald_Campbell%27s_memorial_plaque.jpg"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-spkdicr-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sheppard_2011_256-13"},{"link_name":"ground effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground_effect_(aerodynamics)"},{"link_name":"Mr Whoppit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mr_Whoppit"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sheppard_2011_256-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sheppard-15"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sheppard-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gray-16"},{"link_name":"Queen's Commendation for Brave Conduct","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen%27s_Commendation_for_Brave_Conduct"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brave-17"}],"text":"Memorial plaque for Donald Campbell, in Coniston villageOn 4 January 1967,[12] weather conditions were finally suitable for an attempt. Campbell commenced the first run of his last record attempt at just after 8:45 am. Bluebird moved slowly out towards the middle of the lake, where she paused briefly as Campbell lined her up. With a deafening blast of power, Campbell now applied full throttle and Bluebird began to surge forward. Clouds of spray issued from the jet-pipe, water poured over the rear spar and after a few hundred yards, at 70 miles per hour (113 km/h), Bluebird unstuck from the surface and rocketed off towards the southern end of the lake, producing her characteristic comet's tail of spray. She entered the measured kilometre at 8:46 am. Leo Villa witnessed her passing the first marker buoy at about 285 mph (459 km/h) in perfect steady planing trim, her nose slightly down, still accelerating. 7.525 seconds later, Keith Harrison saw her leave the measured kilometre at a speed of over 310 mph (500 km/h).The average speed for the first run was 297.6 mph (478.9 km/h). Campbell lifted his foot from the throttle about 3/10 of a second before passing the southern kilometre marker. As Bluebird left the measured kilometre, Keith Harrison and Eric Shaw in a course boat at the southern end of the measured kilometre both noticed that she was very light around the bows, riding on her front stabilising fins. Her planing trim was no worse than she had exhibited when equipped with the Beryl engine, but it was markedly different from that observed by Leo Villa at the northern end of the kilometre, when she was under full acceleration. Campbell had made his usual commentary throughout the run.Campbell's words on his first run were, via radio intercom:\"... I'm under way, all systems normal; brake swept up, er ... air pressure warning light on ... I'm coming onto track now and er ... I'll open up just as soon as I am heading down the lake, er doesn't look too smooth from here, doesn't matter, here we go ... Here we go ... [pause 3 seconds] ... Passing through four ... five coming up ... a lot of water, nose beginning to lift, water all over the front of the engine again ... and the nose is up ... low pressure fuel warning light ... going left ... OK we're up and away ... and passing through er ... tramping very hard at 150 ... very hard indeed ... FULL POWER ... Passing through 2 ... 25 out of the way ... tramping like hell Leo, I don't think I can get over the top, but I'll try, FULL HOUSE ... and I can't see where I am ... FULL HOUSE – FULL HOUSE – FULL HOUSE ... POWER OFF NOW! ... I'M THROUGH! ... power ... (garbled) er passing through 25 vector off Peel Island ... passing through 2 ... I'm lighting like mad ... brake gone down ... er ... engine lighting up now ... relighting ... passing Peel Island ... relight made normal ... and now ... down at Brown Howe ... passing through 100 ... er ... nose hasn't dropped yet ... nose down.\"[13]Instead of refuelling and waiting for the wash of this run to subside, Campbell decided to make the return run immediately. This was not an unprecedented diversion from normal practice, as Campbell had used the advantage presented; i.e., no encroachment of water disturbances on the measured kilometre by the quick turnaround in many previous runs. The second run was even faster once severe tramping subsided on the run-up from Peel Island (caused by the water-brake disturbance). Once smooth water was reached some 700 metres (766 yd) or so from the start of the kilometre, K7 demonstrated cycles of ground effect hovering before accelerating hard at 0.63 g to a peak speed of 328 mph (528 km/h) some 200 metres or so from the southern marker buoy. Bluebird was now experiencing bouncing episodes of the starboard sponson with increasing ferocity.At the peak speed, the most intense and long-lasting bounce precipitated a severe decelerating episode — 328 miles per hour (528 km/h) to 296 miles per hour (476 km/h), -1.86g — as K7 dropped back onto the water. Engine flame-out then occurred and, shorn of thrust nose-down momentum, K7 experienced a gliding episode in strong ground effect with increasing angle-of-attack, before completely leaving the water at her static stability pitch-up limit of 5.2°. Bluebird then executed an almost complete backflip (~ 320° and slightly off-axis) before plunging into the water (port sponson marginally in advance of the starboard), approximately 230 metres from the end of the measured kilometre. The boat then cartwheeled across the water before coming to rest. The impact killed Campbell instantly and broke K7 forward of the air intakes (where Campbell was sitting), and the main hull sank shortly afterwards.Mr Whoppit, Campbell's teddy bear mascot, was found among the floating debris and the pilot's helmet was recovered. Royal Navy divers made efforts to find and recover the body but, although the wreck of K7 was found, they called off the search, after two weeks, without locating his body. Campbell's body was finally located in 2001.Campbell's last words, during a 31-second transmission, on his final run were, via radio intercom:\"... Full nose up ... Pitching a bit down here ... coming through our own wash ... er getting straightened up now on track ... rather closer to Peel Island ... and we're tramping like mad ... and er ... FULL POWER ... er tramping like hell OVER. I can't see much and the water's very bad indeed ... I'm galloping over the top ... and she's giving a hell of a bloody row in here ... I can't see anything ... I've got the bows out ... I'm going ... U-hh ...\"[13][14]The cause of the crash has been variously attributed to several possible causes (or a combination of these causes):Campbell did not wait to refuel after doing a first run of 297.6 mph (478.9 km/h) and hence the boat was lighter and travelled through the wash caused by his first run, a wash made much worse by the use of the water brake. These factors have since been found to be not particularly important:[15] The water brake was used well to the south of the measured distance, and only from approx. 200 mph (320 km/h). The area in the centre of the course where Bluebird was travelling at peak speed on her return run was flat calm, and not disturbed by the wash from the first run, which had not had time to be reflected back on the course. Campbell knew this and, as discussed previously, adopted his well-practised, \"quick turn-around\" strategy.\nBluebird may have exceeded its aerodynamic static stability limit, complicated by the additional destabilising influences of loss of engine thrust. There is also evidence to point to the fact that K7's dynamic stability limit had been exceeded. The cause(s) of the engine flame-out cannot be established unequivocally. It could have been due to fuel starvation, damage to some ancillary structural element associated with engine function (following the worst bouncing episode), disturbance of the airstream into the intakes during the pitching episodes, or indeed a combination of all three. Further evidence of lost engine thrust may be seen in both cinematographic and still film recordings of the latter part of the run — as Bluebird left the water, jet exhaust from a functioning engine would have severely disturbed the water surface; no such disturbance or accompanying spray is evident. Also, close examination of such records show no evidence to the effect that the water brake was deployed.[15]\nAnalysis of film footage suggests that Bluebird may have hit a duck during test runs, which may have affected the aerodynamic shape of the boat, making it harder to control at extreme speeds.[16]On 28 January 1967, Campbell was posthumously awarded the Queen's Commendation for Brave Conduct \"for courage and determination in attacking the world water speed record.\"[17]","title":"Death"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Marillion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marillion"},{"link_name":"Afraid of Sunlight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afraid_of_Sunlight"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Mary, Queen of Scots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary,_Queen_of_Scots"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DonaldCampbellsGravestone.jpg"},{"link_name":"Coniston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coniston,_Cumbria"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"9/11 attacks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_11_attacks"},{"link_name":"Steve Hogarth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Hogarth"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"text":"The wreckage of Campbell's craft was recovered by Gilgeous Diving Services (GDS Extreme Engineering, Liverpool)[18] along with amateur diver Bill Smith.[19] Lifting K7 was run and overseen by GDS Extreme Engineering and Smith’s team. The main section/hull first raised in March 2001 and later in May 2001, when Campbell's body was recovered. The largest section, comprising approximately two-thirds of the centre hull, was raised on 8 March 2001. The project began when Smith was inspired to look for the wreck after hearing the Marillion song \"Out of This World\" (from the album Afraid of Sunlight), which was written about Campbell and Bluebird.[20]The remains of Campbell's body were located just over two months later and recovered from the lake on 28 May 2001, still wearing his blue nylon overalls. On the night before his death, while playing cards he had drawn the queen and the ace of spades. Reflecting upon the fact that Mary, Queen of Scots had drawn the same two cards the night before she was beheaded, he told his mechanics, who were playing cards with him, that he had a fearful premonition that he was going to \"get the chop\".[21] It was not possible to determine the cause of Campbell's death, though a consultant engineer giving evidence to the inquest said that the force of the impact could have caused him to be decapitated.Campbell's gravestone in ConistonCampbell was buried in Coniston Cemetery on 12 September 2001 after his coffin was carried down the lake, and through the measured kilometre, on a launch, one last time. A funeral service was then held at St Andrew's Church in Coniston, after an earlier, and positive DNA examination had been carried out.[22] The funeral was attended by his widow, Tonia, daughter Gina, other members of his family, members of his former team and admirers. The funeral was overshadowed in the media by coverage of the 9/11 attacks in the United States.Campbell's sister, Jean Wales, had been against the recovery of her brother's body out of respect for his stated wish that, in the event of something going wrong, \"Skipper and boat stay together\".When Campbell was buried in Coniston Cemetery on 12 September 2001 she did not attend the service. Steve Hogarth, lead singer for Marillion, was present at the funeral and performed the song \"Out of This World\" solo.[23]","title":"Recovery of Bluebird K7 and Campbell's body"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"water speed record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_speed_record"},{"link_name":"Coniston Water","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coniston_Water"},{"link_name":"BBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC"},{"link_name":"Anthony Hopkins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Hopkins"},{"link_name":"Robert Hardy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hardy"},{"link_name":"Malcolm Campbell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malcolm_Campbell"},{"link_name":"BBC2 Playhouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC2_Playhouse"},{"link_name":"Innes Lloyd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innes_Lloyd"},{"link_name":"Eamonn Andrews","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eamonn_Andrews"},{"link_name":"This Is Your Life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/This_Is_Your_Life_(British_TV_series)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"English Heritage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Heritage"},{"link_name":"blue plaque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_plaque"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EngHet-26"},{"link_name":"Ruskin Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruskin_Museum"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"}],"text":"Between them, Campbell and his father had set 11 speed records on water and 10 on land.[24][25]The story of Campbell's last attempt at the water speed record on Coniston Water was told in the BBC television film Across the Lake in 1988, with Anthony Hopkins as Campbell. Nine years earlier, Robert Hardy had played Campbell's father, Sir Malcolm Campbell, in the BBC2 Playhouse television drama \"Speed King\"; both were written by Roger Milner and produced by Innes Lloyd. In 2003, the BBC showed a documentary reconstruction of Campbell's fateful water-speed record attempt in an episode of Days That Shook the World. It featured a mixture of modern reconstruction and original film footage. All of the original colour clips were taken from a film capturing the event, Campbell at Coniston by John Lomax, a local amateur filmmaker from Wallasey, England. Lomax's film won awards worldwide in the late 1960s for recording the final weeks of Campbell's life.In 1956, Campbell was surprised by Eamonn Andrews for the seventh episode of the new television show This Is Your Life.[citation needed]An English Heritage blue plaque commemorates Campbell and his father at Canbury School, Kingston Hill, Kingston upon Thames, where they lived.[26]In the village of Coniston, the Ruskin Museum has a display of Campbell memorabilia, and the Bristol Orpheus engine recovered in 2001 is also displayed. The engine's casing is mostly missing, having acted as a sacrificial anode in its time underwater, but the internals are preserved. Campbell's helmet from the ill-fated run is also on display.Campbell’s legendary BLUEBIRD K7 is now also on display at the Coniston Ruskin Museum.[27]","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"World speed records established by Campbell"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2922691","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/2922691"}],"text":"Pearson, John (1965). Bluebird and the Dead Lake: The story of Donald Campbell's land speed record at Lake Eyre in 1964. London: Collins. OCLC 2922691.","title":"Further reading"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Bluebird K7 on display at Goodwood Motor Racing circuit in 1960","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Bluebird_K7_in_1960_at_Goodwood.jpg/220px-Bluebird_K7_in_1960_at_Goodwood.jpg"},{"image_text":"Bluebird CN7 on display at the National Motor Museum in Beaulieu.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/1962_Bluebird_Campbell_CN7.JPG/220px-1962_Bluebird_Campbell_CN7.JPG"},{"image_text":"Model of Donald Campbell Bluebird used in Breedlove promotion","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Model_of_Donald_Campbell_Bluebird_used_in_Breedlove_promotion.png/220px-Model_of_Donald_Campbell_Bluebird_used_in_Breedlove_promotion.png"},{"image_text":"Promotional model of Bluebird Mach 1.1 displayed outside Campbell's house in spring 1966.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Bluebird_Mach_1.1_at_Priors_Ford.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Bluebird_Mach_1.1_at_Priors_Ford.tif.jpg"},{"image_text":"Memorial plaque for Donald Campbell, in Coniston village","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Donald_Campbell%27s_memorial_plaque.jpg/220px-Donald_Campbell%27s_memorial_plaque.jpg"},{"image_text":"Campbell's gravestone in Coniston","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/DonaldCampbellsGravestone.jpg/220px-DonaldCampbellsGravestone.jpg"}]
| null |
[{"reference":"\"Donald Malcolm Campbell\". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 27 December 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britannica.com/biography/Donald-Malcolm-Campbell","url_text":"\"Donald Malcolm Campbell\""}]},{"reference":"\"CAMPBELL, Donald (1921–1967) & CAMPBELL, Sir Malcolm (1885–1948)\". English Heritage. Archived from the original on 8 June 2017. Retrieved 12 October 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/blue-plaques/campbell-malcolm-donald","url_text":"\"CAMPBELL, Donald (1921–1967) & CAMPBELL, Sir Malcolm (1885–1948)\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170608212803/http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/blue-plaques/campbell-malcolm-donald","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Malcolm and Donald Campbell memorial unveiled\". The Telegraph. London. 29 November 2010. Archived from the original on 29 January 2011. Retrieved 20 January 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/motoring/news/8168731/Malcolm-and-Donald-Campbell-memorial-unveiled.html","url_text":"\"Malcolm and Donald Campbell memorial unveiled\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110129233637/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/motoring/news/8168731/Malcolm-and-Donald-Campbell-memorial-unveiled.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Donald & Malcolm Campbell — Donald\". The Racing Campbells. Archived from the original on 3 October 2010. Retrieved 26 September 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20101003155431/http://www.racingcampbells.com/content/donald.asp","url_text":"\"Donald & Malcolm Campbell — Donald\""},{"url":"http://www.racingcampbells.com/content/donald.asp","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Kellaway, Barnaby (22 June 2021). \"Singer, who married world speed record-breaker Campbell, dies aged 93\". The Glasgow Herald. p. 7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Herald_(Glasgow)","url_text":"The Glasgow Herald"}]},{"reference":"\"About the Ghost Club\". Archived from the original on 1 March 2009. Retrieved 30 July 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090301204630/http://www.ghostclub.org.uk/history.htm","url_text":"\"About the Ghost Club\""},{"url":"http://www.ghostclub.org.uk/history.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Press Release - Bluebird Replica Build Begins\". K7 Project Bluebird Barmera Australia. 31 December 2014. Retrieved 27 August 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bluebird-electric.net/bluebird_history/K7_Project_Bluebird_Barmera_Australia.htm","url_text":"\"Press Release - Bluebird Replica Build Begins\""}]},{"reference":"\"Donald Campbell's Water Speed Record Attempt\". Monument Australia. Retrieved 27 August 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.monumentaustralia.org.au/themes/culture/sport/display/50429-donald-campbell%60s-water-speed-record-attempt","url_text":"\"Donald Campbell's Water Speed Record Attempt\""}]},{"reference":"\"On this day: World Land Speed Record broken\". 17 July 2014. Archived from the original on 23 February 2015. Retrieved 23 February 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/blogs/on-this-day/2014/07/on-this-day-world-land-speed-record-broken","url_text":"\"On this day: World Land Speed Record broken\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150223070143/http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/blogs/on-this-day/2014/07/on-this-day-world-land-speed-record-broken","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Speed king dies in crash\". Spokesman-Review. Spokane, Washington. Associated Press. 5 January 1967. p. 13.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=6DhWAAAAIBAJ&pg=5871%2C1363609","url_text":"\"Speed king dies in crash\""}]},{"reference":"Sheppard, Neil (2011). Donald Campbell Bluebird and the Final Record Attempt. Stroud, UK: The History Press. p. 256. ISBN 978-0-7524-5973-8. Archived from the original on 4 June 2020. Retrieved 26 July 2020.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.thehistorypress.co.uk/","url_text":"Donald Campbell Bluebird and the Final Record Attempt"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-5973-8","url_text":"978-0-7524-5973-8"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200604233426/https://www.thehistorypress.co.uk/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Last words from Bluebird\". BBC News. 10 December 2002. Archived from the original on 6 December 2008. Retrieved 31 December 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/2560957.stm","url_text":"\"Last words from Bluebird\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20081206112328/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/2560957.stm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Gray, Richard (9 October 2011). \"Duck may have played role in fatal Bluebird crash\". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 8 March 2017. Retrieved 8 March 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/8815900/Duck-may-have-played-role-in-fatal-Bluebird-crash.html","url_text":"\"Duck may have played role in fatal Bluebird crash\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170308221620/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/8815900/Duck-may-have-played-role-in-fatal-Bluebird-crash.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"No. 44241\". The London Gazette. 3 February 1967. p. 1299.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/44241/page/1299","url_text":"\"No. 44241\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_London_Gazette","url_text":"The London Gazette"}]},{"reference":"Simon, Armstrong (7 March 2024). \"Donald Campbell's Bluebird: The battle back to Coniston\". BBC News.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-68434707","url_text":"\"Donald Campbell's Bluebird: The battle back to Coniston\""}]},{"reference":"Hogarth, Steve (8 March 2001). \"A Day in the Lakes\". marillion.com. Retrieved 12 August 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.marillion.com/news/newsitem.htm","url_text":"\"A Day in the Lakes\""}]},{"reference":"\"Disaster on the cards for the man who diced with death\". www.telegraph.co.uk. 8 March 2001. Retrieved 28 June 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1325433/Disaster-on-the-cards-for-the-man-who-diced-with-death.html","url_text":"\"Disaster on the cards for the man who diced with death\""}]},{"reference":"\"Final tribute to water speed king\". BBC. 12 September 2001. Archived from the original on 2 January 2008. Retrieved 12 September 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1537909.stm","url_text":"\"Final tribute to water speed king\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080102081922/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1537909.stm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Steve Hogarth Marillion eonmusic Interview September 2019\". eonmusic: music for life. Retrieved 13 June 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.eonmusic.co.uk/steve-hogarth-marillion-eonmusic-interview-september-2019.html","url_text":"\"Steve Hogarth Marillion eonmusic Interview September 2019\""}]},{"reference":"\"Who Was Donald Campbell?\". Ruskin Museum. Retrieved 26 April 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://ruskinmuseum.com/who-was-donald-campbell/","url_text":"\"Who Was Donald Campbell?\""}]},{"reference":"\"Malcolm & Donald Campbell | Speed Record Holders | Blue Plaques\". English Heritage. Retrieved 26 April 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/blue-plaques/malcolm-donald-campbell/","url_text":"\"Malcolm & Donald Campbell | Speed Record Holders | Blue Plaques\""}]},{"reference":"\"Campbell, Donald (1921–1967) & Campbell, Sir Malcolm (1885–1948)\". English Heritage. Archived from the original on 25 July 2018. Retrieved 12 May 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/blue-plaques/campbell-malcolm-donald","url_text":"\"Campbell, Donald (1921–1967) & Campbell, Sir Malcolm (1885–1948)\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180725063513/http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/blue-plaques/campbell-malcolm-donald","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"'Bluebird effect' drives surge in tourism\". The Westmorland Gazette. 10 May 2024. Retrieved 13 June 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thewestmorlandgazette.co.uk/news/24309035.visitors-flock-see-bluebird-k7-ruskin-museum/","url_text":"\"'Bluebird effect' drives surge in tourism\""}]},{"reference":"Pearson, John (1965). Bluebird and the Dead Lake: The story of Donald Campbell's land speed record at Lake Eyre in 1964. London: Collins. OCLC 2922691.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/2922691","url_text":"2922691"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Insubria
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Battle of Insubria
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["1 Preceding events","2 Mago's expedition","3 The battle in Insubria","4 Assessment","5 References","6 Basic literature and external links"]
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Coordinates: 45°28′0.001″N 9°10′0.001″E / 45.46666694°N 9.16666694°E / 45.46666694; 9.16666694Battle in the second Punic War
Battle of InsubriaPart of the Second Punic WarThe Mediterranean in 218 BCDate203 BCLocationInsubria, present-day northwestern Italy45°28′0.001″N 9°10′0.001″E / 45.46666694°N 9.16666694°E / 45.46666694; 9.16666694Result
Roman victoryBelligerents
Carthage
Roman RepublicCommanders and leaders
Mago Barca (WIA)
Publius Quintilius VarusMarcus Cornelius CethegusStrength
21,000 troops, 7 elephants, 25 warships
four legions plus allies (approximately 35,000)Casualties and losses
5,000 killedMago severely wounded22 ensigns captured
2,300+ killed3 tribunes killedclass=notpageimage| Location within ItalyShow map of ItalyBattle of Insubria (Mediterranean)Show map of MediterraneanvteSecond Punic War
Prelude
Saguntum
Rhone
Crossing of the Alps
Italy
Ticinus
Trebia
Mutina
Placentia
Victumulae
Lake Trasimene
Umbrian Lake
Crossing of the Apennines
Ager Falernus
Geronium
Cannae
Silva Litana
1st Nola
Nuceria Alfaterna
1st Casilinum
Hamae
1st Petelia
Cumae
2nd Nola
1st Beneventum
3rd Nola
2nd Casilinum
Lucania
Arpi
1st Tarentum
2nd Beneventum
Campi Veteres
1st Capua
Silarus
1st Herdonia
2nd Capua
Rome
Sapriportis
2nd Herdonia
Numistro
Canusium
Manduria
Caulonia
2nd Tarentum
Locri
2nd Petelia
Venusia
Grumentum
Metaurus
Crotona
Insubria
Iberia
Cissa
Ebro River
Ibera
Illiturgis
Munda
Orongi
Upper Baetis
1st New Carthage
Baria
Baecula
Ilipa
Sucro
1st Carteia
2nd Carteia
2nd New Carthage
Sicily and Sardinia
Lilybaeum
Malta
Decimomannu
Leontini
Syracuse
Himera
Agrigentum
North Africa
1st Utica
2nd Utica
Great Plains
Cirta
Zama
vtePunic Wars
First
Mercenary
Second
Third
The Battle of Insubria in 203 BC was the culmination of a major war, carried out by the Carthaginian commander Mago, brother of Hannibal Barca, at the end of the Second Punic war between Rome and Carthage in what is now northwestern Italy. Mago had landed at Genoa, Liguria, two years before, in an effort to keep the Romans busy to the North and thus hamper indirectly their plans to invade Carthage's hinterland in Africa (modern Tunisia). He was quite successful in reigniting the unrest among various peoples (Ligurians, Gauls, Etruscans) against the Roman dominance. Rome was forced to concentrate large forces against him which finally resulted in a battle fought in the land of the Insubres (Lombardy). Mago suffered defeat and had to retreat. The strategy to divert the enemy's forces failed as the Roman general Publius Cornelius Scipio laid waste to Africa and wiped out the Carthaginian armies that were sent to destroy the invader. To counter Scipio, the Carthaginian government recalled Mago from Italy (along with his brother Hannibal, who had been in Bruttium until then). However, the remnants of the Carthaginian forces in Cisalpine Gaul continued to harass the Romans for several years after the end of the war.
Preceding events
After the disastrous battle of Ilipa, Mago remained for some time in Gades, the last Punic base in Iberia. His hopes of regaining the province were definitely dashed when Scipio suppressed the resistance of the Iberians and the mutiny among the Roman troops. Then an order came from Carthage. It instructed Mago to abandon Iberia and go by sea to northern Italy with the objective to reinvigorate the war there in coordination with Hannibal who was in the south.
This undertaking was a last try of the Carthaginians to regain the initiative in the war, which had come to a very dangerous phase for them. With the reconquest of Sicily in 211/210 BC, the destruction of Hasdrubal Barca’s army on the Metaurus river (207 BC) and now with the conquest of Iberia (206 BC), the Romans were not only relieved from immediate pressure but were gaining more and more resources to continue the fight. For the first time since the beginning of the war Carthage was left directly vulnerable to attack, which it could not prevent because of the naval supremacy of Rome.
Along with the instructions, Mago received some money for mercenaries, but not enough to raise a stronger army. So he was forced to requisition not only the public treasury of Gades, but also the wealth from its temples. Search for additional resources was the apparent reason for an unsuccessful naval assault on Carthago Nova. Returning from there, Mago found the gates of Gades closed for him. He sailed to the Balearic Islands and settled for the winter in the smaller one, Minorca.
Mago's expedition
In the summer of 205 BC, a Carthaginian fleet emerged suddenly at the Ligurian coast. With about 30 warships and many transport vessels, Mago had brought a 14,000 strong army. He took Genua by surprise and then moved to the land of the Ingauni, forming an alliance with them against another Ligurian tribe, the Epanterii.
Liguria and Cisalpine Gaul presented a very suitable ground for Mago's operations. Despite the victorious campaigns in the Po valley before the outbreak of the Second Punic war and the extensive colonization, Rome did not entirely manage to subjugate the local Gauls. Led by the Insubres and Boii, they rose to arms once again just before the invasion of Hannibal (218 BC) and joined the latter's army by the thousands. The same happened on the arrival of Hasdrubal from Iberia in 207 BC and there was no exception in 205 BC, when the younger brother of Hannibal came. "His (Mago's) army grew in numbers every day; the Gauls, drawn by the spell of his name, flocked to him from all parts." Hearing such news, the senators in Rome were filled with "gravest apprehensions". They immediately sent two armies to Ariminum (modern Rimini) and Arretium (modern Arezzo) in order to block an eventual advance of Mago to the south.
It looked as if the Romans were going to pay for their failure to capitalize from the victory at the Metaurus river by conquering the Cisalpine Gauls once and for all, but the danger caused by Mago's landing was not to be overestimated. Even when he received reinforcements from Carthage in the form of about 7,000 troops, 7 elephants, and 25 warships, his strength was still far from enough to break the Roman defences. This is why Mago did not seem to actively pursue the goal set by Carthage – to march south and join Hannibal.
This call was spurred by the raids of C. Laelius, a legate of Scipio, on the African mainland, plundering the environs of Hippo Regius during the same summer (205 BC). Faced with the impending invasion of Scipio himself, the Carthaginians took all efforts to prevent it. To secure their rear, they consolidated their network of alliances with the Numidians. To keep the Romans in check, soldiers and supplies were sent to Hannibal in Bruttium and Mago, and an embassy to Philip V of Macedon with the mission to negotiate a Macedonian invasion of either Italy or Sicily. All these measures had little effect, because Philip had just concluded the peace of Phoenice with P. Sempronius Tuditanus, a Roman general, thereby bringing the First Macedonian war to an end, and the Carthaginian alliance with the most powerful Numidian king Syphax did not stop Scipio from sailing to Africa in 204 BC. Without sufficient help from outside, Hannibal and Mago were unable to exert greater pressure on Rome. The two brothers were separated by a vast space and the overwhelming Roman armies.
Mago had to accomplish the same task in which his other brother, Hasdrubal, had failed two years ago. Bearing in mind Hasdrubal's fate, he knew that an eventual offensive against the concentrating Roman forces had to be well-prepared. So he organized a meeting of Gallic and Ligurian chieftains and assured them that his mission was to liberate them, but for that he needed many more soldiers. The Ligurians committed themselves immediately, but the Gauls, threatened by the Roman armies on the borders and inside their homeland, declined to revolt openly. Nevertheless, they secretly provided supplies and mercenaries and his strength grew gradually.
In the meantime, the proconsul M. Livius moved from Etruria into Cisalpine Gaul and joined forces with the Roman commander there, Sp. Lucretius, blocking Mago's way to Rome. However, Livius remained on the defensive. Nothing changed dramatically in the following year (204 BC). Mago remained inactive for the said reasons, the Romans – because of the physical and moral exhaustion from the long war. They were preoccupied with problems such as forcing the Latin colonies, which had refused to provide any more money and soldiers several years before, to do their duty. This facilitated the recruitment of new troops. One of the new consuls, P. Sempronius Tuditanus, was sent against Hannibal in Bruttium. The other, M. Cornelius Cethegus, had to stay in Etruria and sever the conspiracy that Mago had formed with a number of rebellious Etrurian towns.
The battle in Insubria
In 203 BC, the time came for decisive action. The proconsul M. Cornelius Cethegus and the praetor P. Quintilius Varus led an army of four legions against Mago in a regular battle in the Insubrian land (not far from modern Milan). The description by Livy in his "History of Rome" (Ab urbe condita) shows that each of the opponents deployed their forces in two battle lines. Of the Roman army, two legions were in the front, the other two and the cavalry were left behind. Mago also took care for a possible reverse, keeping in the rear the Gallic levy and the few elephants he had. Some modern estimates put his overall strength at more than 30,000.
The course of the battle showed that the first Carthaginian line performed better and the Gauls were less reliable. From the onset, the Romans made futile attempts to break the enemy's resistance and were pressed hard themselves. Then Varus moved the cavalry (3,000 or 4,000 horsemen), hoping to repulse and confuse the Carthaginian lines. However, Mago was not surprised and moved forward the elephants just in time. The horses were stricken by fear and as a result the Roman cavalry was dispersed, chased by Mago's light Numidian cavalry. The elephants turned on the Roman infantry, which suffered heavy losses. The battle only took a bad turn for Mago when Cornelius brought into action the legions of the second line. The elephants were showered upon by darts, with most of them falling, the rest were forced to turn back against their own ranks. Mago ordered the Gauls to stop the Roman counter-attack, but they were routed.
According to Livy, all ended with a general retreating of the Carthaginians, who lost up to 5,000 men. Yet, as Livy himself states, the Romans owed their success to the wounding of the Carthaginian commander, who had to be carried away almost fainting from the field because his thigh was pierced. The victory was neither bloodless, nor complete. The first Roman line lost 2,300 men, and the second also took casualties, among them three military tribunes. The cavalry was not spared either, and many noble Equites were trampled to death by the elephants. During the night Mago withdrew his forces to the Ligurian coast, conceding the battlefield to the Romans.
Assessment
For Mago the setback was severe, considering what gains a victory would have brought. (In 218 BC, the victory in the battle of Trebia, in which Mago also distinguished himself, was followed by a general uprising of the Cisalpine Gauls, who joined Hannibal and made possible his march to the south.) The Romans were left in command of the Po Valley and all hopes for a repetition of the events from the beginning of the war faded. This was significant in view of the ongoing Roman advance in Africa. Scipio’s victories at Utica and the Great Plains and Mago's failure in Cisalpine Gaul meant not only that Scipio could remain in Africa, but that Mago had to return to save his homeland. Messengers from Carthage reached Mago in the land of the Ingauni, and he set sail for Africa with a part of his army.
Some sources claim that Mago died during this voyage from the wound that he suffered in the battle, but others state that he returned to Liguria soon after his departure and stayed there for at least two more years. It is certain that for five years after the end of the Second Punic war the Romans had to fight the remnants of the Carthaginian forces in Northern Italy. Mago's defeat in 203 BC had marked one of the last attempts to preserve the independence of this region from the Roman advance.
References
^ Livy, History of Rome, XXVIII, 36; Cassius Dio, Roman History, XVI
^ a b Livy, XXVIII, 46
^ Livy, XXIX, 4; Appian, The Punic Wars, II, 9
^ Livy, XXIX, 4; Cassius Dio, XVII
^ Mommsen, Theodor, The History of Rome, Book III
^ a b Livy, XXIX, 5
^ Mommsen, Theodor, The History of Rome, Book III, Chapter VI
^ Livy, XXIX, 15; Cassius Dio, XVII, 70
^ "Etruria... was almost wholly in sympathy with Mago, hoping to effect a revolution with his help." (Livy, XXIX, 36)
^ a b Livy, XXX, 18
^ Caven, Punic Wars, pp. 246-7
^ a b c Livy, XXX, 19
^ Cassius Dio, XVII
^ Appian, The Punic Wars, VIII, 49; IX, 59
^ Smith, William (ed.), Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, Vol. 2, pp. 330-331 Archived 2006-06-23 at the Wayback Machine
Basic literature and external links
In English:
Works related to From the Founding of the City (1905) by Livy, (transl. Canon Roberts) at Wikisource.
Livy, The History of Rome, Vol. IV (ed. E. Rhys, transl. C. Roberts), available at University of Virginia Library Electronic Text Center, retrieved on 2007-10-3
Cassius Dio, Roman History, on Bill Thayer's Web Site, LacusCurtius, retrieved on 2007-10-9
Appian, Roman History, The Punic Wars, retrieved from "Livius Articles on Ancient History" on 2007-10-9
Mommsen, Theodor, The History of Rome, Book III, The Gutenberg Project eBook, retrieved on 2007-09-30 (in German)
Caven, Brian, The Punic Wars, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London 1980, ISBN 0-297-77633-9
Smith, William (ed.), Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, made available by the University of Michigan, retrieved on 2007-10-3
In Russian:
Тит Ливий, История Рима от основания города
Кораблев, И.Ш., Ганнибал, Москва, "Наука", 1976, с. 284, 289-290, на сайте Студенческого научного общества
vteBattles of the Punic WarsFirst Punic War
Treaties
Messana
Agrigentum
Lipari Islands
Mylae
Thermae
Sulci
Tyndaris
Cape Ecnomus
Aspis
Adys
Bagradas (Tunis)
Cape Hermaeum
Panormus
Drepana
Lilybaeum
Drepana (siege)
Mount Ercte
1st Mt. Eryx
2nd Mt. Eryx
Aegates
Treaty of Lutatius
Mercenary War
Utica
Bagradas
Hamilcar's victory with Naravas
Carthage
The Saw
Tunis
Leptis Parva
Second Punic War(Battles)
Saguntum
Lilybaeum
Malta
Rhone
Crossing of the Alps
Cissa
Ticinus
Trebia
Ebro River
Lake Trasimene
Ager Falernus
Geronium
Cannae
Silva Litana
1st Nola
Ibera
2nd Nola
Decimomannu
3rd Nola
1st Beneventum
Syracuse
Heat ray and Claw of Archimedes
Sambuca
1st Tarentum
2nd Beneventum
1st Capua
Silarus
1st Herdonia
Upper Baetis
2nd Capua
2nd Herdonia
Numistro
Canusium
2nd Tarentum
New Carthage
Baecula
Petelia
Grumentum
Metaurus
Ilipa
Sucro
Carteia (land)
Carteia (naval)
Crotona
1st Utica
2nd Utica
Great Plains (Bagradas)
Cirta
Insubria
Zama
Third Punic War
Lake Tunis
1st Nepheris
Port of Carthage
2nd Nepheris
Carthage
Category
Military history
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Second Punic War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Punic_War"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mediterranean_at_218_BC-en.svg"},{"link_name":"Insubria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insubria"},{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"45°28′0.001″N 9°10′0.001″E / 45.46666694°N 9.16666694°E / 45.46666694; 9.16666694","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Battle_of_Insubria¶ms=45_28_0.001_N_9_10_0.001_E_"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Carthage_standard.svg"},{"link_name":"Carthage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Carthage"},{"link_name":"Roman Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Republic"},{"link_name":"Mago Barca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mago_Barca"},{"link_name":"WIA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wounded_in_action"},{"link_name":"Marcus Cornelius Cethegus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Cornelius_Cethegus"},{"link_name":"Mago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mago_(Barcid)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Italy_relief_location_map.jpg"},{"link_name":"class=notpageimage|","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Italy_relief_location_map.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Relief_Map_of_Mediterranean_Sea.png"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Second_Punic_War"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Second_Punic_War"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Second_Punic_War"},{"link_name":"Second Punic War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Punic_War"},{"link_name":"Saguntum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Saguntum"},{"link_name":"Rhone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Rhone_Crossing"},{"link_name":"Crossing of the Alps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hannibal%27s_crossing_of_the_Alps"},{"link_name":"Ticinus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ticinus"},{"link_name":"Trebia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Trebia"},{"link_name":"Mutina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Mutina_(218_BC)"},{"link_name":"Placentia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Placentia_(217_BC)"},{"link_name":"Victumulae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Victumulae"},{"link_name":"Lake Trasimene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Trasimene"},{"link_name":"Umbrian Lake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Umbrian_Lake&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Crossing of the Apennines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hannibal%27s_crossing_of_the_Apennines&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Ager Falernus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ager_Falernus"},{"link_name":"Geronium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Geronium"},{"link_name":"Cannae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Cannae"},{"link_name":"Silva Litana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Silva_Litana"},{"link_name":"1st Nola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Nola_(216_BC)"},{"link_name":"Nuceria Alfaterna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Nuceria_Alfaterna&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"1st Casilinum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Casilinum_(216%E2%80%93215_BC)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Hamae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Hamae&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"1st Petelia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Petelia&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Cumae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Cumae_(215_BC)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"2nd Nola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Nola_(215_BC)"},{"link_name":"1st Beneventum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Beneventum_(214_BC)"},{"link_name":"3rd Nola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Nola_(214_BC)"},{"link_name":"2nd Casilinum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Casilinum_(214_BC)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Lucania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Lucania&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Arpi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Arpi"},{"link_name":"1st Tarentum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tarentum_(212_BC)"},{"link_name":"2nd Beneventum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Beneventum_(212_BC)"},{"link_name":"Campi Veteres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Campi_Veteres&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"1st Capua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Capua"},{"link_name":"Silarus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Silarus"},{"link_name":"1st Herdonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Herdonia_(212_BC)"},{"link_name":"2nd Capua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Capua_(211_BC)"},{"link_name":"Rome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hannibal%27s_raid_to_Rome"},{"link_name":"Sapriportis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Sapriportis"},{"link_name":"2nd Herdonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Herdonia_(210_BC)"},{"link_name":"Numistro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Numistro"},{"link_name":"Canusium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Canusium"},{"link_name":"Manduria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Manduria&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Caulonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Caulonia&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"2nd Tarentum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tarentum_(209_BC)"},{"link_name":"Locri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Locri_(208_BC)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"2nd Petelia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Petelia"},{"link_name":"Venusia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Venusia&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Grumentum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Grumentum"},{"link_name":"Metaurus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Metaurus"},{"link_name":"Crotona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Crotona"},{"link_name":"Insubria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Cissa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Cissa"},{"link_name":"Ebro River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ebro_River"},{"link_name":"Ibera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ibera"},{"link_name":"Illiturgis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Illiturgis&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Munda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Munda_(214_BC)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Orongi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Orongi&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Upper Baetis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Upper_Baetis"},{"link_name":"1st New Carthage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_New_Carthage"},{"link_name":"Baria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Baria&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Baecula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Baecula"},{"link_name":"Ilipa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ilipa"},{"link_name":"Sucro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutiny_at_Sucro"},{"link_name":"1st Carteia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Carteia"},{"link_name":"2nd Carteia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Carteia_(naval)"},{"link_name":"2nd New Carthage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Cartagena_(206_BC)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Lilybaeum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Lilybaeum"},{"link_name":"Malta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capture_of_Malta_(218_BC)"},{"link_name":"Decimomannu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Decimomannu"},{"link_name":"Leontini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Leontini&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Syracuse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Syracuse_(213%E2%80%93212_BC)"},{"link_name":"Himera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Himera_(211_BC)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Agrigentum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Agrigentum_(210_BC)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"1st Utica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Utica_(204_BC)"},{"link_name":"2nd Utica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Utica_(203_BC)"},{"link_name":"Great Plains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Great_Plains"},{"link_name":"Cirta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Cirta"},{"link_name":"Zama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Zama"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Punic_Wars"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Punic_Wars"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Punic_Wars"},{"link_name":"Punic Wars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punic_Wars"},{"link_name":"First","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Punic_War"},{"link_name":"Mercenary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercenary_War"},{"link_name":"Second","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Punic_War"},{"link_name":"Third","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Punic_War"},{"link_name":"Mago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mago_(Barcid)"},{"link_name":"Hannibal Barca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hannibal"},{"link_name":"Second Punic war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Punic_war"},{"link_name":"Rome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome"},{"link_name":"Carthage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Carthage"},{"link_name":"Genoa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genoa"},{"link_name":"Liguria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liguria"},{"link_name":"Tunisia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunisia"},{"link_name":"Ligurians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligures"},{"link_name":"Gauls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauls"},{"link_name":"Etruscans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruscans"},{"link_name":"Insubres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insubres"},{"link_name":"Lombardy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lombardy"},{"link_name":"Publius Cornelius Scipio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scipio_Africanus_Major"},{"link_name":"Bruttium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruttium"}],"text":"Battle in the second Punic WarBattle of InsubriaPart of the Second Punic WarThe Mediterranean in 218 BCDate203 BCLocationInsubria, present-day northwestern Italy45°28′0.001″N 9°10′0.001″E / 45.46666694°N 9.16666694°E / 45.46666694; 9.16666694Result\nRoman victoryBelligerents\n Carthage\nRoman RepublicCommanders and leaders\nMago Barca (WIA)\nPublius Quintilius VarusMarcus Cornelius CethegusStrength\n21,000 troops, 7 elephants, 25 warships\nfour legions plus allies (approximately 35,000)Casualties and losses\n5,000 killedMago severely wounded22 ensigns captured[Livy XXX/XVIII]\n2,300+ killed3 tribunes killed[Livy XXX/XVIII]class=notpageimage| Location within ItalyShow map of ItalyBattle of Insubria (Mediterranean)Show map of MediterraneanvteSecond Punic War\nPrelude\nSaguntum\nRhone\nCrossing of the Alps\nItaly\nTicinus\nTrebia\nMutina\nPlacentia\nVictumulae\nLake Trasimene\nUmbrian Lake\nCrossing of the Apennines\nAger Falernus\nGeronium\nCannae\nSilva Litana\n1st Nola\nNuceria Alfaterna\n1st Casilinum\nHamae\n1st Petelia\nCumae\n2nd Nola\n1st Beneventum\n3rd Nola\n2nd Casilinum\nLucania\nArpi\n1st Tarentum\n2nd Beneventum\nCampi Veteres\n1st Capua\nSilarus\n1st Herdonia\n2nd Capua\nRome\nSapriportis\n2nd Herdonia\nNumistro\nCanusium\nManduria\nCaulonia\n2nd Tarentum\nLocri\n2nd Petelia\nVenusia\nGrumentum\nMetaurus\nCrotona\nInsubria\nIberia\nCissa\nEbro River\nIbera\nIlliturgis\nMunda\nOrongi\nUpper Baetis\n1st New Carthage\nBaria\nBaecula\nIlipa\nSucro\n1st Carteia\n2nd Carteia\n2nd New Carthage\nSicily and Sardinia\nLilybaeum\nMalta\nDecimomannu\nLeontini\nSyracuse\nHimera\nAgrigentum\nNorth Africa\n1st Utica\n2nd Utica\nGreat Plains\nCirta\nZama\nvtePunic Wars\nFirst\nMercenary\nSecond\nThirdThe Battle of Insubria in 203 BC was the culmination of a major war, carried out by the Carthaginian commander Mago, brother of Hannibal Barca, at the end of the Second Punic war between Rome and Carthage in what is now northwestern Italy. Mago had landed at Genoa, Liguria, two years before, in an effort to keep the Romans busy to the North and thus hamper indirectly their plans to invade Carthage's hinterland in Africa (modern Tunisia). He was quite successful in reigniting the unrest among various peoples (Ligurians, Gauls, Etruscans) against the Roman dominance. Rome was forced to concentrate large forces against him which finally resulted in a battle fought in the land of the Insubres (Lombardy). Mago suffered defeat and had to retreat. The strategy to divert the enemy's forces failed as the Roman general Publius Cornelius Scipio laid waste to Africa and wiped out the Carthaginian armies that were sent to destroy the invader. To counter Scipio, the Carthaginian government recalled Mago from Italy (along with his brother Hannibal, who had been in Bruttium until then). However, the remnants of the Carthaginian forces in Cisalpine Gaul continued to harass the Romans for several years after the end of the war.","title":"Battle of Insubria"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"battle of Ilipa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ilipa"},{"link_name":"Gades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A1diz"},{"link_name":"Punic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punic"},{"link_name":"Iberia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula"},{"link_name":"Scipio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scipio_Africanus_Major"},{"link_name":"the mutiny among the Roman troops","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutiny_at_Sucro"},{"link_name":"Carthage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carthage"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Hasdrubal Barca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasdrubal_Barca"},{"link_name":"Metaurus river","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Metaurus"},{"link_name":"Carthago Nova","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carthago_Nova"},{"link_name":"Balearic Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balearic_Islands"}],"text":"After the disastrous battle of Ilipa, Mago remained for some time in Gades, the last Punic base in Iberia. His hopes of regaining the province were definitely dashed when Scipio suppressed the resistance of the Iberians and the mutiny among the Roman troops. Then an order came from Carthage. It instructed Mago to abandon Iberia and go by sea to northern Italy with the objective to reinvigorate the war there in coordination with Hannibal who was in the south.[1]This undertaking was a last try of the Carthaginians to regain the initiative in the war, which had come to a very dangerous phase for them. With the reconquest of Sicily in 211/210 BC, the destruction of Hasdrubal Barca’s army on the Metaurus river (207 BC) and now with the conquest of Iberia (206 BC), the Romans were not only relieved from immediate pressure but were gaining more and more resources to continue the fight. For the first time since the beginning of the war Carthage was left directly vulnerable to attack, which it could not prevent because of the naval supremacy of Rome.Along with the instructions, Mago received some money for mercenaries, but not enough to raise a stronger army. So he was forced to requisition not only the public treasury of Gades, but also the wealth from its temples. Search for additional resources was the apparent reason for an unsuccessful naval assault on Carthago Nova. Returning from there, Mago found the gates of Gades closed for him. He sailed to the Balearic Islands and settled for the winter in the smaller one, Minorca.","title":"Preceding events"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Genua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genoa#History"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Livy_XXVIII46-2"},{"link_name":"Liguria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligures"},{"link_name":"Cisalpine Gaul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaul"},{"link_name":"Boii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boii"},{"link_name":"Rimini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimini"},{"link_name":"Arezzo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arezzo"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Livy_XXVIII46-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"legate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legatus"},{"link_name":"Hippo Regius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippo_Regius"},{"link_name":"Numidians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numidians"},{"link_name":"Bruttium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruttium"},{"link_name":"Philip V of Macedon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_V_of_Macedon"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"peace of Phoenice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peace_of_Phoenice"},{"link_name":"First Macedonian war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Macedonian_war"},{"link_name":"Syphax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syphax"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Hasdrubal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasdrubal_Barca"},{"link_name":"Hasdrubal's fate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Metaurus"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Livy_XXIX5-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Livy_XXIX5-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"against Hannibal in Bruttium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Crotona"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"In the summer of 205 BC, a Carthaginian fleet emerged suddenly at the Ligurian coast. With about 30 warships and many transport vessels, Mago had brought a 14,000 strong army. He took Genua by surprise and then moved to the land of the Ingauni, forming an alliance with them against another Ligurian tribe, the Epanterii.[2]Liguria and Cisalpine Gaul presented a very suitable ground for Mago's operations. Despite the victorious campaigns in the Po valley before the outbreak of the Second Punic war and the extensive colonization, Rome did not entirely manage to subjugate the local Gauls. Led by the Insubres and Boii, they rose to arms once again just before the invasion of Hannibal (218 BC) and joined the latter's army by the thousands. The same happened on the arrival of Hasdrubal from Iberia in 207 BC and there was no exception in 205 BC, when the younger brother of Hannibal came. \"His (Mago's) army grew in numbers every day; the Gauls, drawn by the spell of his name, flocked to him from all parts.\" Hearing such news, the senators in Rome were filled with \"gravest apprehensions\". They immediately sent two armies to Ariminum (modern Rimini) and Arretium (modern Arezzo) in order to block an eventual advance of Mago to the south.[2]It looked as if the Romans were going to pay for their failure to capitalize from the victory at the Metaurus river by conquering the Cisalpine Gauls once and for all, but the danger caused by Mago's landing was not to be overestimated. Even when he received reinforcements from Carthage in the form of about 7,000 troops, 7 elephants, and 25 warships,[3] his strength was still far from enough to break the Roman defences. This is why Mago did not seem to actively pursue the goal set by Carthage – to march south and join Hannibal.This call was spurred by the raids of C. Laelius, a legate of Scipio, on the African mainland, plundering the environs of Hippo Regius during the same summer (205 BC). Faced with the impending invasion of Scipio himself, the Carthaginians took all efforts to prevent it. To secure their rear, they consolidated their network of alliances with the Numidians. To keep the Romans in check, soldiers and supplies were sent to Hannibal in Bruttium and Mago, and an embassy to Philip V of Macedon with the mission to negotiate a Macedonian invasion of either Italy or Sicily.[4] All these measures had little effect, because Philip had just concluded the peace of Phoenice with P. Sempronius Tuditanus, a Roman general, thereby bringing the First Macedonian war to an end, and the Carthaginian alliance with the most powerful Numidian king Syphax did not stop Scipio from sailing to Africa in 204 BC. Without sufficient help from outside, Hannibal and Mago were unable to exert greater pressure on Rome.[5] The two brothers were separated by a vast space and the overwhelming Roman armies.Mago had to accomplish the same task in which his other brother, Hasdrubal, had failed two years ago. Bearing in mind Hasdrubal's fate, he knew that an eventual offensive against the concentrating Roman forces had to be well-prepared. So he organized a meeting of Gallic and Ligurian chieftains and assured them that his mission was to liberate them, but for that he needed many more soldiers. The Ligurians committed themselves immediately, but the Gauls, threatened by the Roman armies on the borders and inside their homeland, declined to revolt openly. Nevertheless, they secretly provided supplies and mercenaries and his strength grew gradually.[6]In the meantime, the proconsul M. Livius moved from Etruria into Cisalpine Gaul and joined forces with the Roman commander there, Sp. Lucretius, blocking Mago's way to Rome. However, Livius remained on the defensive.[6] Nothing changed dramatically in the following year (204 BC). Mago remained inactive for the said reasons, the Romans – because of the physical and moral exhaustion from the long war.[7] They were preoccupied with problems such as forcing the Latin colonies, which had refused to provide any more money and soldiers several years before, to do their duty. This facilitated the recruitment of new troops.[8] One of the new consuls, P. Sempronius Tuditanus, was sent against Hannibal in Bruttium. The other, M. Cornelius Cethegus, had to stay in Etruria and sever the conspiracy that Mago had formed with a number of rebellious Etrurian towns.[9]","title":"Mago's expedition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Milan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milan"},{"link_name":"Livy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livy"},{"link_name":"Ab urbe condita","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ab_urbe_condita_libri_(Livy)"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Livy_XXX18-10"},{"link_name":"legions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_legion"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Numidian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numidian"},{"link_name":"military tribunes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribune"},{"link_name":"Equites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equites"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Livy_XXX18-10"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Livy_XXX19-12"}],"text":"In 203 BC, the time came for decisive action. The proconsul M. Cornelius Cethegus and the praetor P. Quintilius Varus led an army of four legions against Mago in a regular battle in the Insubrian land (not far from modern Milan). The description by Livy in his \"History of Rome\" (Ab urbe condita)[10] shows that each of the opponents deployed their forces in two battle lines. Of the Roman army, two legions were in the front, the other two and the cavalry were left behind. Mago also took care for a possible reverse, keeping in the rear the Gallic levy and the few elephants he had. Some modern estimates put his overall strength at more than 30,000.[11]The course of the battle showed that the first Carthaginian line performed better and the Gauls were less reliable. From the onset, the Romans made futile attempts to break the enemy's resistance and were pressed hard themselves. Then Varus moved the cavalry (3,000 or 4,000 horsemen), hoping to repulse and confuse the Carthaginian lines. However, Mago was not surprised and moved forward the elephants just in time. The horses were stricken by fear and as a result the Roman cavalry was dispersed, chased by Mago's light Numidian cavalry. The elephants turned on the Roman infantry, which suffered heavy losses. The battle only took a bad turn for Mago when Cornelius brought into action the legions of the second line. The elephants were showered upon by darts, with most of them falling, the rest were forced to turn back against their own ranks. Mago ordered the Gauls to stop the Roman counter-attack, but they were routed.According to Livy, all ended with a general retreating of the Carthaginians, who lost up to 5,000 men. Yet, as Livy himself states, the Romans owed their success to the wounding of the Carthaginian commander, who had to be carried away almost fainting from the field because his thigh was pierced. The victory was neither bloodless, nor complete. The first Roman line lost 2,300 men, and the second also took casualties, among them three military tribunes. The cavalry was not spared either, and many noble Equites were trampled to death by the elephants.[10] During the night Mago withdrew his forces to the Ligurian coast, conceding the battlefield to the Romans.[12]","title":"The battle in Insubria"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"battle of Trebia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Trebia"},{"link_name":"Po Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Po_Valley"},{"link_name":"Scipio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scipio_Africanus"},{"link_name":"Great Plains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Great_Plains"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Livy_XXX19-12"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Livy_XXX19-12"},{"link_name":"Liguria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liguria"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Second Punic war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Punic_war"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"For Mago the setback was severe, considering what gains a victory would have brought. (In 218 BC, the victory in the battle of Trebia, in which Mago also distinguished himself, was followed by a general uprising of the Cisalpine Gauls, who joined Hannibal and made possible his march to the south.) The Romans were left in command of the Po Valley and all hopes for a repetition of the events from the beginning of the war faded. This was significant in view of the ongoing Roman advance in Africa. Scipio’s victories at Utica and the Great Plains and Mago's failure in Cisalpine Gaul meant not only that Scipio could remain in Africa, but that Mago had to return to save his homeland. Messengers from Carthage reached Mago in the land of the Ingauni, and he set sail for Africa with a part of his army.[12]Some sources claim that Mago died during this voyage from the wound that he suffered in the battle,[12] but others state that he returned to Liguria soon after his departure[13] and stayed there for at least two more years.[14] It is certain that for five years after the end of the Second Punic war the Romans had to fight the remnants of the Carthaginian forces in Northern Italy.[15] Mago's defeat in 203 BC had marked one of the last attempts to preserve the independence of this region from the Roman advance.","title":"Assessment"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg"},{"link_name":"From the Founding of the City (1905) by Livy, (transl. Canon Roberts)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/From_the_Founding_of_the_City_(1905)_by_Livy,_(transl._Canon_Roberts)"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-297-77633-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-297-77633-9"},{"link_name":"История Рима от основания города","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//fictionbook.ru/author/liviyi_tit/istoriya_rima_ot_osnovaniya_goroda/liviyi_istoriya_rima_ot_osnovaniya_goroda.html"},{"link_name":"с. 284, 289-290","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.sno.pro1.ru/lib/korab/5-6.htm"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Punic_Wars_navbox"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Punic_Wars_navbox"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Punic_Wars_navbox"},{"link_name":"Punic Wars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punic_Wars"},{"link_name":"First Punic War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Punic_War"},{"link_name":"Treaties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaties_between_Rome_and_Carthage"},{"link_name":"Messana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Messana"},{"link_name":"Agrigentum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Agrigentum"},{"link_name":"Lipari Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Lipari_Islands"},{"link_name":"Mylae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Mylae"},{"link_name":"Thermae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Thermae"},{"link_name":"Sulci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Sulci"},{"link_name":"Tyndaris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tyndaris"},{"link_name":"Cape Ecnomus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Ecnomus"},{"link_name":"Aspis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Aspis"},{"link_name":"Adys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Adys"},{"link_name":"Bagradas (Tunis)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bagradas_River_(255_BC)"},{"link_name":"Cape Hermaeum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_withdrawal_from_Africa,_255_BC"},{"link_name":"Panormus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Panormus"},{"link_name":"Drepana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Drepana"},{"link_name":"Lilybaeum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Lilybaeum_(250%E2%80%93241_BC)"},{"link_name":"Drepana (siege)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Drepana"},{"link_name":"Mount Ercte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Mount_Ercte&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"1st Mt. Eryx","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=First_Battle_of_Mount_Eryx&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"2nd Mt. Eryx","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Second_Battle_of_Mount_Eryx&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Aegates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Aegates"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Lutatius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Lutatius"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hannibal_Slodtz_Louvre_MR2093.png"},{"link_name":"Mercenary War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercenary_War"},{"link_name":"Utica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Utica"},{"link_name":"Bagradas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bagradas_River_(c._240_BC)"},{"link_name":"Hamilcar's victory with Naravas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamilcar%27s_victory_with_Naravas"},{"link_name":"Carthage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Carthage_(Mercenary_War)"},{"link_name":"The Saw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Saw"},{"link_name":"Tunis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Tunis_(Mercenary_War)"},{"link_name":"Leptis Parva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Leptis_Parva"},{"link_name":"Second Punic War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Punic_War"},{"link_name":"(Battles)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_battles_of_the_Second_Punic_War"},{"link_name":"Saguntum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Saguntum"},{"link_name":"Lilybaeum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Lilybaeum"},{"link_name":"Malta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capture_of_Malta_(218_BC)"},{"link_name":"Rhone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Rhone_Crossing"},{"link_name":"Crossing of the Alps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hannibal%27s_crossing_of_the_Alps"},{"link_name":"Cissa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Cissa"},{"link_name":"Ticinus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ticinus"},{"link_name":"Trebia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Trebia"},{"link_name":"Ebro River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ebro_River"},{"link_name":"Lake Trasimene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Trasimene"},{"link_name":"Ager Falernus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ager_Falernus"},{"link_name":"Geronium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Geronium"},{"link_name":"Cannae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Cannae"},{"link_name":"Silva Litana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Silva_Litana"},{"link_name":"1st Nola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Nola_(216_BC)"},{"link_name":"Ibera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ibera"},{"link_name":"2nd Nola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Nola_(215_BC)"},{"link_name":"Decimomannu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Decimomannu"},{"link_name":"3rd Nola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Nola_(214_BC)"},{"link_name":"1st Beneventum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Beneventum_(214_BC)"},{"link_name":"Syracuse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Syracuse_(213%E2%80%93212_BC)"},{"link_name":"Heat ray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes%27_heat_ray"},{"link_name":"Claw of Archimedes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claw_of_Archimedes"},{"link_name":"Sambuca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sambuca_(siege_engine)"},{"link_name":"1st Tarentum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tarentum_(212_BC)"},{"link_name":"2nd Beneventum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Beneventum_(212_BC)"},{"link_name":"1st Capua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Capua"},{"link_name":"Silarus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Silarus"},{"link_name":"1st Herdonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Herdonia_(212_BC)"},{"link_name":"Upper Baetis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Upper_Baetis"},{"link_name":"2nd Capua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Capua_(211_BC)"},{"link_name":"2nd Herdonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Herdonia_(210_BC)"},{"link_name":"Numistro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Numistro"},{"link_name":"Canusium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Canusium"},{"link_name":"2nd Tarentum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tarentum_(209_BC)"},{"link_name":"New Carthage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_New_Carthage"},{"link_name":"Baecula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Baecula"},{"link_name":"Petelia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Petelia"},{"link_name":"Grumentum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Grumentum"},{"link_name":"Metaurus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Metaurus"},{"link_name":"Ilipa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ilipa"},{"link_name":"Sucro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutiny_at_Sucro"},{"link_name":"Carteia (land)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Carteia"},{"link_name":"Carteia (naval)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Carteia_(naval)"},{"link_name":"Crotona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Crotona"},{"link_name":"1st Utica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Utica_(204_BC)"},{"link_name":"2nd Utica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Utica_(203_BC)"},{"link_name":"Great Plains (Bagradas)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Great_Plains"},{"link_name":"Cirta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Cirta"},{"link_name":"Insubria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Zama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Zama"},{"link_name":"Third Punic War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Punic_War"},{"link_name":"Lake Tunis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Tunis"},{"link_name":"1st Nepheris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Battle_of_Nepheris"},{"link_name":"Port of Carthage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Port_of_Carthage"},{"link_name":"2nd Nepheris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Nepheris_(147_BC)"},{"link_name":"Carthage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Carthage_(Third_Punic_War)"},{"link_name":"Category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Punic_Wars"},{"link_name":"Military history","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history"}],"text":"In English:Works related to From the Founding of the City (1905) by Livy, (transl. Canon Roberts) at Wikisource.\nLivy, The History of Rome, Vol. IV (ed. E. Rhys, transl. C. Roberts), available at University of Virginia Library Electronic Text Center, retrieved on 2007-10-3\nCassius Dio, Roman History, on Bill Thayer's Web Site, LacusCurtius, retrieved on 2007-10-9\nAppian, Roman History, The Punic Wars, retrieved from \"Livius Articles on Ancient History\" on 2007-10-9\nMommsen, Theodor, The History of Rome, Book III, The Gutenberg Project eBook, retrieved on 2007-09-30 (in German)\nCaven, Brian, The Punic Wars, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London 1980, ISBN 0-297-77633-9\nSmith, William (ed.), Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, made available by the University of Michigan, retrieved on 2007-10-3In Russian:Тит Ливий, История Рима от основания города\nКораблев, И.Ш., Ганнибал, Москва, \"Наука\", 1976, с. 284, 289-290, на сайте Студенческого научного обществаvteBattles of the Punic WarsFirst Punic War\nTreaties\nMessana\nAgrigentum\nLipari Islands\nMylae\nThermae\nSulci\nTyndaris\nCape Ecnomus\nAspis\nAdys\nBagradas (Tunis)\nCape Hermaeum\nPanormus\nDrepana\nLilybaeum\nDrepana (siege)\nMount Ercte\n1st Mt. Eryx\n2nd Mt. Eryx\nAegates\nTreaty of Lutatius\nMercenary War\nUtica\nBagradas\nHamilcar's victory with Naravas\nCarthage\nThe Saw\nTunis\nLeptis Parva\nSecond Punic War(Battles)\nSaguntum\nLilybaeum\nMalta\nRhone\nCrossing of the Alps\nCissa\nTicinus\nTrebia\nEbro River\nLake Trasimene\nAger Falernus\nGeronium\nCannae\nSilva Litana\n1st Nola\nIbera\n2nd Nola\nDecimomannu\n3rd Nola\n1st Beneventum\nSyracuse\nHeat ray and Claw of Archimedes\nSambuca\n1st Tarentum\n2nd Beneventum\n1st Capua\nSilarus\n1st Herdonia\nUpper Baetis\n2nd Capua\n2nd Herdonia\nNumistro\nCanusium\n2nd Tarentum\nNew Carthage\nBaecula\nPetelia\nGrumentum\nMetaurus\nIlipa\nSucro\nCarteia (land)\nCarteia (naval)\nCrotona\n1st Utica\n2nd Utica\nGreat Plains (Bagradas)\nCirta\nInsubria\nZama\nThird Punic War\nLake Tunis\n1st Nepheris\nPort of Carthage\n2nd Nepheris\nCarthage\n\n Category\nMilitary history","title":"Basic literature and external links"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Petersburg_Mathematical_Society
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Saint Petersburg Mathematical Society
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["1 Historical notes","1.1 Timeline of former presidents","1.2 Honorary members","2 Activities","2.1 \"Young mathematician\" prize","3 See also","4 Notes","5 References","6 External links"]
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Saint Petersburg Mathematical SocietyСанкт-Петербургское математическое обществоLogo of the Saint Petersburg Mathematical societyMeeting of the society in the St. Petersburg House of Scientists, 22 December 2005Formation1890; 134 years ago (1890)LocationFontanka 27, St. Petersburg, 191023, RussiaFieldsMathematicsOfficial language ruPresidentYuri MatiyasevichAffiliationsEuropean Mathematical SocietyWebsitewww.mathsoc.spb.ruFormerly called
Leningrad Mathematical Society (Russian: Ленинградское математическое общество) (1959–1990)
Leningrad Physical and Mathematical Society (Russian: Ленинградское физико-математическое общество) (1924–1930)
Petrograd Physical and Mathematical Society (Russian: Петроградское физико-математическое общество) (1921–1924)
Saint Petersburg Mathematical Society (Russian: Санкт-Петербургское математическое общество) (1890–1905)
The Saint Petersburg Mathematical Society (Russian: Санкт-Петербургское математическое общество) is a mathematical society run by Saint Petersburg mathematicians.
Historical notes
The St. Petersburg Mathematical Society was founded in 1890 and was the third founded mathematical society in Russia after those of Moscow (1867) and Khar'kov (1879). Its founder and first president was Vasily Imshenetskii, who also had founded earlier the Khar'kov Mathematical Society.
The Society was dissolved and subsequently revived twice, each time changing its name: sometime in between 1905 and 1917, the society ceased to function and by 1917 it had completely dissolved, perhaps due to the social agitations that destroyed many existing Russian scientific institutions. It was re-established by the initiative of Alexander Vasilyev in 1921 as the Petrograd Physical and Mathematical Society (subsequently called the Leningrad Physical and Mathematical Society). In 1930, the self-dissolution of the society was due to political reasons. Before the beginning of World War II in 1941, Leonid Kantorovich proposed to revive the society, and a similar failed attempt was made by Vladimir Smirnov in 1953: only in 1959 Yuri Linnik did succeed in reestablishing the society (then called the Leningrad Mathematical Society). It regained the original name the St. Petersburg Mathematical Society in 1991.
Timeline of former presidents
Years
President
Years
President
Years
President
1890–1892
Vasily Imshenetskii (rus)
1892–1905
Julian Sochocki
1921–1923
Alexander Vasilyev (rus)
1923–1930
Nikolai Günther
1959–1965
Yuri Linnik
1965–1985
Sergei Lozinskii (rus)
1985–1989
Dmitry Faddeev
1990–1998
Olga Ladyzhenskaya
1998–2008
Anatoly Vershik
2008–
Yuri Matiyasevich
Honorary members
Pafnuty Chebyshev
David Hilbert
Felix Klein
Konstantin Posse
Julian Sochocki
Vladimir Steklov
Orest Khvolson
Aleksey Krylov
Ivan Ivanov
Alexander Vasilyev (rus)
Aleksandr Aleksandrov
Sergei Bernstein
Leonid Kantorovich
Mark Krein
Olga Ladyzhenskaya
Andrey Markov
Solomon Mikhlin
Vladimir Smirnov
Victor Zalgaller
Nikolai Shanin
Anatoly Vershik
Ildar Ibragimov
Vasilii Babich (rus)
Activities
"Young mathematician" prize
The "Young Mathematician" prize has been awarded since 1962.
The list of the laureates:
V. G. Maz'ya, 1962
B. B. Venkov, 1963
V. S. Buslaev, 1964
A. V. Yakovlev, 1965
V. I. Derguzov, 1965
A. S. Blagoveshchenskii, 1966
V. P. Orevkov, 1967
V. V. Zhuk, 1968
Yu. V. Matiyasevich, 1970
S. A. Vinogradov, 1971
Ya. M. Eliashberg, 1973
Yu. A. Davydov, 1974
N. A. Shirokov, 1975
O. Ya. Viro, 1975
B. S. Tsirel'son, 1976
E. M. Dyn'kin, 1976
A. A. Suslin, 1977
M. D. Sterlin, 1977
S. V. Khrushchev, 1978
L. N. Gordeev, 1978
O. I. Reinov, 1980
N. L. Gordeev, 1980
N. E. Barabanov, 1980
E. D. Gluskin, 1981
A. R. Its, 1981
A. S. Merkur'ev, 1982
V. V. Peller, 1982
E. K. Sklyanin, 1983
D. Yu. Grigor'ev & A. L. Chistov, 1984
V. L. Kobel'skii, 1984
M. L. Lifshits, 1985
M. Yu. Lyubich, 1987
Yu. G. Safarov, 1987
V. A. Kaimanovich, 1988
N. Yu. Reshetikhin, 1988
A. A. Borichev, 1989
O. T. Izhboldin, 1989
A. I. Barvinok,1990
G. Ya. Perelman, 1991
D. Yu. Burago, 1992
I. B. Fesenko, 1992
F. L. Nazarov, 1993
S. M. Shimorin, 1994
S. V. Ivanov, 1995
T. N. Shilkin, 1997
S. K. Smirnov, 1997
O. L. Vinogradov, 1997
N. V. Tsilevich, 1998
A. B. Pushnitskii, 1998
G. B. Mikhalkin, 1999
O. V. Demchenko, 2000
S. G. Kryzhevich, 2001
A. V. Malyutin, 2001
A. G. Ershler, 2002
A. N. Zinoviev, 2003
A. D. Baranov, 2004
D. S. Chelkak, 2004
O. A. Tarakanov, 2005
N. V. Durov, 2006
K. V. Pervyshev, 2007
V. A. Petrov, 2007
A. Yu. Luzgarev, 2008
V. V. Vysotskii, 2008
A. K. Stavrova, 2009
S. B. Tikhomirov, 2009
P. N. Mnev, 2010
Yu. S. Belov, 2011
F. V. Petrov, 2011
A. S. Ananyevsky, 2012
R. S. Pusev, 2012
K. A. Izyurov, 2013
S. O. Ivanov, 2014
P. B. Zatitskiy & D. M. Stolyarov, 2015
A. A. Logunov, 2017
M. V. Dolgopolik, 2018
Yu. P. Petrova, 2019
M. V. Platonova, 2019
N. N. Senik, 2020
A. V. Alpeev, 2021
N. S. Ustinov, 2021
D. D. Cherkashin, 2022
G. A. Veprev, 2023
See also
List of Mathematical Societies
Notes
^ a b (Saint Petersburg Mathematical Society 2012).
^ a b (Vershik 1993, p. 21).
^ According to Ostrovskii (1999, p. 26)
^ See (Lorentz 2002, §4) for an account of the events leading to its closure.
^ (Lorentz 2002, p. 191).
^ The laureates of the annual Young Mathematician prize
of the St. Petersburg Mathematical Society
References
Протоколы Санкт-Петербургского математического общества (1890 - 1899) (PDF) (in Russian), St. Petersburg: Типография В. Киршбаума, 1899, p. 131.
Отчет о деятельности Ленинградского физико-математического общества в 1922-1927 гг. (PDF) (in Russian), Leningrad: Leningrad Physical and Mathematical Society, 1927, pp. XII.
Санкт-Петербургское математическое общество, Отчеты о работе Общества (in Russian).
Lorentz, G.G. (2002), "Mathematics and politics in the Soviet Union from 1928 to 1953", Journal of Approximation Theory, 116 (2): 169–223, doi:10.1006/jath.2002.3670, MR 1911079, Zbl 1006.01009. See also the final version available from the "George Lorentz" section of the Approximation Theory web page at the Mathematics Department of the Ohio State University (retrieved on 25 October 2009).
Saint Petersburg Mathematical Society (8 September 2012), From the history of the St. Petersburg Mathematical Society, retrieved 15 October 2016.
Vershik, A. M. (December 1993), "The St. Petersburg Mathematical Society" (PDF), European Mathematical Society Newsletter, 10: 26–27.
Ostrovskii, I. V. (December 1999), "Kharkov Mathematical Society" (PDF), European Mathematical Society Newsletter, 34: 26–27.
External links
O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "The Petrograd Physico-Mathematical Society", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews
O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "The St. Petersburg Mathematical Society", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews
vteThe European Mathematical SocietyInternational member societies
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|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Russian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language"},{"link_name":"mathematical society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_society"},{"link_name":"Saint Petersburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Petersburg"},{"link_name":"mathematicians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematician"}],"text":"The Saint Petersburg Mathematical Society (Russian: Санкт-Петербургское математическое общество) is a mathematical society run by Saint Petersburg mathematicians.","title":"Saint Petersburg Mathematical Society"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Moscow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_Mathematical_Society"},{"link_name":"Khar'kov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kharkov_Mathematical_Society"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-webhistory-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Vershik1993p21-2"},{"link_name":"Vasily Imshenetskii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vasily_Imshenetskii&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-webhistory-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Vershik1993p21-2"},{"link_name":"Alexander Vasilyev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B5%D0%B2,_%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80_%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87_(%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Leonid Kantorovich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonid_Kantorovich"},{"link_name":"Vladimir Smirnov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Smirnov_(mathematician)"},{"link_name":"Yuri Linnik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuri_Linnik"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"The St. Petersburg Mathematical Society was founded in 1890 and was the third founded mathematical society in Russia after those of Moscow (1867) and Khar'kov (1879).[1][2] Its founder and first president was Vasily Imshenetskii,[1] who also had founded earlier the Khar'kov Mathematical Society.[3]The Society was dissolved and subsequently revived twice, each time changing its name: sometime in between 1905 and 1917, the society ceased to function and by 1917 it had completely dissolved, perhaps due to the social agitations that destroyed many existing Russian scientific institutions.[2] It was re-established by the initiative of Alexander Vasilyev in 1921 as the Petrograd Physical and Mathematical Society (subsequently called the Leningrad Physical and Mathematical Society). In 1930, the self-dissolution of the society was due to political reasons.[4] Before the beginning of World War II in 1941, Leonid Kantorovich proposed to revive the society, and a similar failed attempt was made by Vladimir Smirnov in 1953: only in 1959 Yuri Linnik did succeed in reestablishing the society (then called the Leningrad Mathematical Society).[5] It regained the original name the St. Petersburg Mathematical Society in 1991.","title":"Historical notes"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Timeline of former presidents","title":"Historical notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pafnuty Chebyshev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pafnuty_Chebyshev"},{"link_name":"David Hilbert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Hilbert"},{"link_name":"Felix Klein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felix_Klein"},{"link_name":"Konstantin Posse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstantin_Posse"},{"link_name":"Julian Sochocki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_Sochocki"},{"link_name":"Vladimir Steklov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Steklov_(mathematician)"},{"link_name":"Orest Khvolson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orest_Khvolson"},{"link_name":"Aleksey Krylov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksey_Krylov"},{"link_name":"Ivan Ivanov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Ivanov_(mathematician)"},{"link_name":"Alexander Vasilyev (rus)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B5%D0%B2,_%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80_%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87_(%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA)"},{"link_name":"Aleksandr Aleksandrov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksandr_Danilovich_Aleksandrov"},{"link_name":"Sergei Bernstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergei_Natanovich_Bernstein"},{"link_name":"Leonid Kantorovich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonid_Kantorovich"},{"link_name":"Mark Krein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Grigoryevich_Krein"},{"link_name":"Olga Ladyzhenskaya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olga_Aleksandrovna_Ladyzhenskaya"},{"link_name":"Andrey Markov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrey_Markov"},{"link_name":"Solomon Mikhlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomon_Grigor%27evich_Mikhlin"},{"link_name":"Vladimir Smirnov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Ivanovich_Smirnov_(mathematician)"},{"link_name":"Victor Zalgaller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Zalgaller"},{"link_name":"Nikolai Shanin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolai_Aleksandrovich_Shanin"},{"link_name":"Anatoly Vershik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatoly_Vershik"},{"link_name":"Ildar Ibragimov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ildar_Ibragimov"},{"link_name":"Vasilii Babich (rus)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%87,_%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87"}],"sub_title":"Honorary members","text":"Pafnuty Chebyshev\nDavid Hilbert\nFelix Klein\nKonstantin Posse\nJulian Sochocki\nVladimir Steklov\nOrest Khvolson\nAleksey Krylov\nIvan Ivanov\nAlexander Vasilyev (rus)\nAleksandr Aleksandrov\nSergei Bernstein\nLeonid Kantorovich\nMark Krein\nOlga Ladyzhenskaya\nAndrey Markov\nSolomon Mikhlin\nVladimir Smirnov\nVictor Zalgaller\nNikolai Shanin\nAnatoly Vershik\nIldar Ibragimov\nVasilii Babich (rus)","title":"Historical notes"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Activities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"V. G. Maz'ya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Maz%27ya"},{"link_name":"B. B. Venkov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2,_%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81_%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87"},{"link_name":"Yu. V. Matiyasevich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuri_Matiyasevich"},{"link_name":"Ya. M. Eliashberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakov_Eliashberg"},{"link_name":"O. Ya. Viro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oleg_Viro"},{"link_name":"B. S. Tsirel'son","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Tsirelson"},{"link_name":"A. A. Suslin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrei_Suslin"},{"link_name":"A. R. Its","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Rudolfowitsch_Its"},{"link_name":"A. S. Merkur'ev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Merkurjev"},{"link_name":"E. K. Sklyanin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evgeny_Sklyanin"},{"link_name":"M. Yu. Lyubich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Lyubich"},{"link_name":"N. Yu. Reshetikhin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolai_Reshetikhin"},{"link_name":"G. Ya. Perelman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grigori_Perelman"},{"link_name":"D. Yu. Burago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE,_%D0%94%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%AE%D1%80%D1%8C%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87"},{"link_name":"I. B. Fesenko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Fesenko"},{"link_name":"S. V. Ivanov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2,_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B9_%D0%92%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87_(%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA)"},{"link_name":"S. K. Smirnov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanislav_Smirnov"},{"link_name":"N. V. Durov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolai_Durov"},{"link_name":"A. K. Stavrova","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anastasia_Stavrova"},{"link_name":"A. A. Logunov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksandr_Logunov_(mathematician)"}],"sub_title":"\"Young mathematician\" prize","text":"The \"Young Mathematician\" prize[6] has been awarded since 1962.The list of the laureates:V. G. Maz'ya, 1962\nB. B. Venkov, 1963\nV. S. Buslaev, 1964\nA. V. Yakovlev, 1965\nV. I. Derguzov, 1965\nA. S. Blagoveshchenskii, 1966\nV. P. Orevkov, 1967\nV. V. Zhuk, 1968\nYu. V. Matiyasevich, 1970\nS. A. Vinogradov, 1971\nYa. M. Eliashberg, 1973\nYu. A. Davydov, 1974\nN. A. Shirokov, 1975\nO. Ya. Viro, 1975\nB. S. Tsirel'son, 1976\nE. M. Dyn'kin, 1976\nA. A. Suslin, 1977\nM. D. Sterlin, 1977\nS. V. Khrushchev, 1978\nL. N. Gordeev, 1978\nO. I. Reinov, 1980\nN. L. Gordeev, 1980\nN. E. Barabanov, 1980\nE. D. Gluskin, 1981\nA. R. Its, 1981\nA. S. Merkur'ev, 1982\nV. V. Peller, 1982\nE. K. Sklyanin, 1983\nD. Yu. Grigor'ev & A. L. Chistov, 1984\nV. L. Kobel'skii, 1984\nM. L. Lifshits, 1985\nM. Yu. Lyubich, 1987\nYu. G. Safarov, 1987\nV. A. Kaimanovich, 1988\nN. Yu. Reshetikhin, 1988\nA. A. Borichev, 1989\nO. T. Izhboldin, 1989\nA. I. Barvinok,1990\nG. Ya. Perelman, 1991\nD. Yu. Burago, 1992\nI. B. Fesenko, 1992\nF. L. Nazarov, 1993\nS. M. Shimorin, 1994\nS. V. Ivanov, 1995\nT. N. Shilkin, 1997\nS. K. Smirnov, 1997\nO. L. Vinogradov, 1997\nN. V. Tsilevich, 1998\nA. B. Pushnitskii, 1998\nG. B. Mikhalkin, 1999\nO. V. Demchenko, 2000\nS. G. Kryzhevich, 2001\nA. V. Malyutin, 2001\nA. G. Ershler, 2002\nA. N. Zinoviev, 2003\nA. D. Baranov, 2004\nD. S. Chelkak, 2004\nO. A. Tarakanov, 2005\nN. V. Durov, 2006\nK. V. Pervyshev, 2007\nV. A. Petrov, 2007\nA. Yu. Luzgarev, 2008\nV. V. Vysotskii, 2008\nA. K. Stavrova, 2009\nS. B. Tikhomirov, 2009\nP. N. Mnev, 2010\nYu. S. Belov, 2011\nF. V. Petrov, 2011\nA. S. Ananyevsky, 2012\nR. S. Pusev, 2012\nK. A. Izyurov, 2013\nS. O. Ivanov, 2014\nP. B. Zatitskiy & D. M. Stolyarov, 2015\nA. A. Logunov, 2017\nM. V. Dolgopolik, 2018\nYu. P. Petrova, 2019\nM. V. Platonova, 2019\nN. N. Senik, 2020\nA. V. Alpeev, 2021\nN. S. Ustinov, 2021\nD. D. Cherkashin, 2022\nG. A. Veprev, 2023","title":"Activities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-webhistory_1-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-webhistory_1-1"},{"link_name":"Saint Petersburg Mathematical Society 2012","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFSaint_Petersburg_Mathematical_Society2012"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Vershik1993p21_2-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Vershik1993p21_2-1"},{"link_name":"Vershik 1993","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFVershik1993"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"Ostrovskii (1999","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFOstrovskii1999"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"Lorentz 2002","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFLorentz2002"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"Lorentz 2002","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFLorentz2002"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.mathsoc.spb.ru/mol_mat.html"}],"text":"^ a b (Saint Petersburg Mathematical Society 2012).\n\n^ a b (Vershik 1993, p. 21).\n\n^ According to Ostrovskii (1999, p. 26)\n\n^ See (Lorentz 2002, §4) for an account of the events leading to its closure.\n\n^ (Lorentz 2002, p. 191).\n\n^ The laureates of the annual Young Mathematician prize\nof the St. Petersburg Mathematical Society [1]","title":"Notes"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"List of Mathematical Societies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Mathematical_Societies"}]
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Attock_(1813)
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Battle of Attock (1813)
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["1 Background","2 Battle","3 Aftermath","4 Notes","5 References"]
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1813 battle during the Afghan-Sikh Wars
Battle of AttockPart of the Afghan-Sikh WarsDate13 July 1813LocationSiege at Attock, Battle at Haidaru on Mansur Plain, northeast of the fortResult
Sikh victory
Capture of AttockBelligerents
Sikh Empire
Durrani EmpireCommanders and leaders
Dewan Mokham Chand Hari Singh Nalwa Sham Singh Attariwala Sultan Mahmud Khan
Fateh Khan Barakzai Dost Mohammad KhanStrength
10,000
15,000Casualties and losses
Unknown
2,000vteConflicts in Afghanistan (1793–1973)
1st Civil War
1st Ghilzai
Chindawol
1st Herat
Shahda
Nimla
3rd Herat
Attock
4th Herat
Kafir Qal'eh
Multan
2nd Civil War
3rd Civil War
Shopian
Nowshera
5th Herat
1st Hazara
6th Herat
1st Shuja
Jalalabad
Peshawar
Jamrud
7th Herat
1st Afghan Turkestan
1st Britain, 2nd Shuja
2nd Hazara
1st Kandahar
Tagab
1st Chahar Wilayat
Balkh
2nd Kandahar, 8th Herat
Aqcha
2nd Afghan Turkestan
9th Herat
Sheberghan
3rd Kandahar
10th Herat
Maimana (1857)
1st Khost
Kunduz
11th Herat
2nd Civil War
12th Herat
13th Herat
2nd Chahar Wilayat
2nd Britain
14th Herat
3rd Civil War
1st Maimana
1st Ghilzai
2nd Turkestan
3rd Hazara
4th Hazara
Uruzgan
2nd Maimana
5th Hazara
Kafiristan
2nd Khost
1st Urtatagai
3rd Britain
Alizai
3rd Khost
2nd Urtatagai
4th Civil War
1st Soviet Union
Shinwari
1st Kuhistan
2nd Kuhistan
2nd Soviet Union
2nd Ghilzai
Tribal revolts
6th Hazara
7th Hazara
Republican coup
vteAfghan–Sikh Wars
Manupur (1748)
Amritsar (1757)
Mahilpur (1757)
Jalandhar (1757)
Sirhind (1758)
Lahore (1758)
Peshawar (1758)
2nd Lahore (1759)
Lahore (1760)
Sialkot (1761)
Gujranwala (1761)
Lahore (1761)
Jandiala (1762)
Kup (1762)
Amritsar (1762)
Harnaulgarh (1762)
Pipli Sahib (1762)
Lakhi Jungle (1762)
Ravi (1762)
Sialkot (1763)
Kasur (1763)
Urmar Tanda (1763)
Gujranwala (1763)
Malerkotla (1763)
Sirhind (1764)
Rohtas (1764)
Qarawal (1764)
Darbar Sahib (1764)
Jandiala (1764)
Batala (1764)
Adinanagar (1764)
Jullundur (1765)
Sutlej Ford (1765)
Nurmahal (1765)
Kapurthala (1765)
Beas Ford (1765)
Gujrat (1765)
Fatahbad (1766)
Jhelum Town (1766)
Amritsar (1767)
Meerut (1767)
Lahore (1767)
Jullundur (1767)
Rohtas (1767)
Kunjpura (1772)
Multan (1772)
Rohtas (1779)
Multan (1780)
Shujabad (1780)
Attock (1787)
Rohtas (1795)
Indus Ford (1795)
Gujrat (1796)
Rohtas (1796)
Attock (1796)
Lahore (1796)
Pind Dadan Khan (1796)
Amritsar (1797)
Battle near Amritsar (1797)
Gujrat (1797)
Sarae Kali (1798)
Wazirabad (1798)
Shahdara (1798)
Near Lahore (1798)
Amritsar (1798)
Rogheen (1798)
Kasur (1798)
Eminabad (1798)
Chunian (1798)
Ravi Ford (1798)
Battle in centre of Gujrat and Wazirabad (1798)
Kasur (1807)
Multan (1810)
Kashmir (1812-1813)
Hasan Abdal
Attock
Kashmir
Multan (1818)
Shopian
Mangal
Mankera
Taragarh
Nowshera
Akora
Shaidu
Haidru
Balakot
Peshawar
Ramkani
Khyber Pass
Panjtar
Jamrud
The Battle of Attock (also known as the Battle of Chuch or the Battle of Haidru) took place on 13 July 1813 between the Sikh Empire and the Durrani Empire. The battle was the first significant Sikh victory over the Durranis.
Background
In 1811–12, Ranjit Singh invaded the hill states of Bhimber, Rajauri, and Kullu in preparation for an invasion of Kashmir. In late 1812, Fateh Khan, the Vizier of Kabul, crossed the Indus river under orders from Mahmud Shah Durrani to raid Kashmir and to free Shuja Shah Durrani from its renegade vizier, Atta Muhammad Khan. In an 1812 interview with Ranjit Singh, Fateh Khan agreed to a joint invasion of Kashmir. He could not invade Kashmir if he was opposed by the Sikh Empire, and agreed that a small Sikh force under Dewan Mokham Chand Kochhar would receive one third of the plunder.
Both invasions began at Jhelum, but once the armies reached the Pir Panjal Range, Fateh Khan used a heavy snowfall to double march his veteran mountain troops through the range. However, Dewan Mokham Chand offered the Rajauri raja a large jagir if he could find a path through the range that would allow the Sikhs to reach the valley of Kashmir at the same time as the Afghan troops and was able to have a small body of troops under Jodh Singh Kalsia and Nihal Singh Attari present at the captures of Hari Parbat and Shergarh. The vizier of Kashmir, Atta Muhammad Khan, had offered no resistance to either army but Fateh Khan refused to share the spoils. Shuja Shah Durrani chose to be escorted by Dewan Mokham Chand kochhar to Lahore, the capital of the Sikh Empire, out of fear of becoming a prisoner at Kabul.
Ranjit Singh became annoyed at Fateh Khan's refusal to share the plunder and opened negotiations with the renegade governor of Attock, Jahandad Khan, brother to the recently deposed Atta Muhammad Khan of Kashmir, and took control of the fort at Attock. After Jahandad Khan accepted his jagir, Dia Singh, a Sardar with a small contingent of troops in the area, took control of Fort Attock including 3,510 Maunds of grain, 439 rounds of cannon shot, 70 cannon and small mortars, and 255 Maunds of rock salt. Hari Singh Nalwa arrived with Dewan Devi Das and a detachment of cavalry to support the garrison at an unknown date.
Battle
Attock Fort, whose capture by the Sikh Empire led to the Battle of Attock
Attock Fort
Fateh Khan set off from Kashmir in April 1813 and invested Attock Fort. At the same time Ranjit Singh rushed Dewan Mokham Chand and Karam Chand Chahal from Burhan with a force of cavalry, artillery, and a battalion of infantry to meet the Afghans.
Dewan Mokham Chand encamped 8 miles (13 km) from the Afghan camp, unwilling to risk a decisive engagement, although both sides engaged in numerous skirmishes and took losses. On 12 July 1812, the Afghans' supplies were exhausted and Dewan Mokham Chand marched 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) from Attock to Haidaru, on the banks of the Indus River, to offer battle. On 13 July 1812, Dewan Mokham Chand split the cavalry into four divisions, giving command of one division to Hari Singh Nalwa (and to General Sardar Gurmukh Singh Lamba <<see Sir Lepel Griffin book>>) and taking command of one division himself. The lone battalion of infantry formed an infantry square protecting the artillery, with Gouse Khan commanding the artillery. The Afghans took up positions opposite the Sikhs, with a portion of their cavalry under the command of Dost Mohammad Khan.
Fateh Khan opened the battle by sending his Pathans on a cavalry charge which was repulsed by heavy fire from the Sikh artillery. The Afghans rallied under Dost Mohammad Khan, and according to Griffin, led a "brilliant" cavalry charge which threw one wing of the Sikh army into disarray and captured some artillery. When it appeared the Sikhs had lost the battle, Dewan Mokham Chand led a cavalry charge atop a war elephant that repulsed the Afghans "at all points", and routed the remaining Afghan troops. Fateh Khan, fearing his brother, Dost Mohammad Khan, had died, escaped to Kabul and the Sikhs captured the Afghan camp, including the lost artillery pieces.
Aftermath
Amritsar, Lahore, and other large cities across the Sikh Empire were illuminated for two months afterwards in rejoicing over the victory. After his defeat at Attock, Fateh Khan made further multiple attempts to get back Attock, even writing a letter to Dewan Mokham Chand, asking to return Attock which could lead to good relations between two parties, but Mokham Chand refused and warned that the conquer-ship of Kashmir would be next.In 1814, Yar Mohammad Khan, governor of Peshawar, attacked on Attock but was repulsed, following which Fateh Khan again sent a letter in 1815 asking to hand over Attock and restore it under Mahmud Shah's authority in exchange for Multan and paying the tax revenue of Kashmir. During the last five years of his life from 1813 to 1818, Fateh Khan remained distressed over the loss of Attock.
Notes
^ Anil Chandra Banerjee, The Khalsa Raj, (Abhinav Publications, 1985), 78.
^ a b c Jaques 2006, p. 81
^ Gupta 1991, p. 100.
^ Johar, Surinder Singh (1985). The Secular Maharaja: A Biography of Maharaja Ranjit Singh. p. 125.
^ Gupta 1991, p. 101.
^ Cunningham 1918, pp. 152–153
^ Griffin 1892, p. 190
^ a b c Cunningham 1918, p. 152
^ a b c Griffin 1892, p. 191
^ a b c d Prakash 2002, p. 330
^ Prakash 2002, pp. 329–330
^ a b Griffin 1892, p. 192
^ a b M'Gregor 1846, p. 170
^ Prakash 2002, pp. 330–331
^ M'Gregor 1846, p. 171
^ Gupta, Hari Ram (1991). The History of the Sikhs Volume 5. Munshiram Manoharlal. p. 102. ISBN 9788121505154.
^ Gupta 1991, p. 103.
^ Gupta 1991, p. 102.
References
Cunningham, Joseph Davey (1918). A history of the Sikhs: from the origin of the nation to the battles of the Sutlej. London, New york: Oxford University Press.
Griffin, Lepel Henry (1892). Ranjit Singh. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
M'Gregor, William Lewis (1846). The history of the Sikhs; containing the lives of the Gooroos; the history of the independent Sirdars, or Missuls, and the life of the great founder of the Sikh monarchy, Maharajah Runjeet Singh. London: J. Madden.
Jaques, Tony (2006). Dictionary of Battles and Sieges: A-E. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-33537-2.
Prakash, Om (2002). Encyclopaedic History of Indian Freedom Movement. Anmol Publications. ISBN 978-81-261-0938-8.
vteSikh EmpireRulers
Ranjit Singh
Kharak Singh
Nau Nihal Singh
Chand Kaur
Sher Singh
Jind Kaur
Duleep Singh
MilitaryconflictsMughal-Sikh Wars
Battle of Bhangani
Nadaun
Basoli
1st Anandpur
2nd Anandpur
Chamkaur
Sarsa
Muktsar
Sonepat
Samana
Sirhind
Sadhaura
Chappar Chiri
Rahon
Lohgarh
Jalalabad
Jammu
Gurdas Nangal
Delhi
Afghan–Sikh wars
Battle of Attock
Battle of Multan
Battle of Shopian
Battle of Nowshera
Battle of Peshawar
Battle of Jamrud
First Anglo-Sikh War
Battle of Mudki
Battle of Ferozeshah
Battle of Aliwal
Battle of Sobraon
Second Anglo-Sikh War
Battle of Ramnagar
Battle of Chillianwala
Siege of Multan
Battle of Gujrat
OthersNepal–Sikh War, Sino-Sikh war, Katoch–Sikh War, Hill States–Sikh Wars, Panchayati Revolution, List of battles involving the Sikh EmpireMilitary forces
Sikh Khalsa Army
Fauj-i-Khas
Fauj-i-Ain
Adversaries
Mughal Empire
Durrani Empire
Emirate of Afghanistan
British East India Company
Kingdom of Nepal
Qing Empire
Hill States Alliance
Kingdom of Mankera
Namgyal dynasty
Barakzai dynasty
Sudhans of Poonch
Maqpon Dynasty
Forts
Jamrud Fort
Multan Fort
Harkishangarh
Lahore Fort
Zorawar Fort
Officials and warriorsNatives
Dhian Singh
Diwan Dina Nath
Diwan Bhawani Das
Diwan Buta Singh
Pratap Singh
Misr Diwan Chand
Diwan Mulraj
Hari Singh Nalwa
Mahan Singh Mirpuri
Dewan Mokham Chand
Khushal Singh Jamadar
Zorawar Singh
Tej Singh
Lal Singh
Gulab Singh
Balbhadra Kunwar
Jawahar Singh
Mehta Basti Ram
Sham Singh Attariwalla
Sher Singh Attariwalla
Chattar Singh Attariwalla
Amar Singh Majithia
Lehna Singh Majithia
Ranjodh Singh Majithia
Surat Singh Majithia
Mangal Singh Ramgarhia
Akali Phula Singh
Chandu Lal
Ajit Singh Sandhawalia
Kahan Singh Nakai
Sangat Singh Saini
Hukma Singh
Veer Singh
Jarnail Ghaus Khan
Ilahi Bakhsh
Fakir Azizuddin
Sultan Mahmud Khan
Malik Fateh Khan Tiwana
Foreigners
Jean-François Allard
Jean-Baptiste Ventura
Claude Auguste Court
François Henri Mouton
Alexander Gardner
Paolo Avitabile
Josiah Harlan
Johann Martin Honigberger
Henry Lawrence
Influential families
Sandhawalia family
Majithia family
Tiwana family
Treaties
Treaty of Amritsar (1809)
Treaty of Chushul (1842)
Treaty of Lahore (1846)
Treaty of Amritsar (1846)
|
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(1818)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Multan"},{"link_name":"Shopian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Shopian"},{"link_name":"Mangal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Mangal"},{"link_name":"Mankera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Mankera_(1821-1822)"},{"link_name":"Taragarh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Taragarh_(1822)"},{"link_name":"Nowshera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Nowshera"},{"link_name":"Akora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Akora_Khattak"},{"link_name":"Shaidu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Shaidu"},{"link_name":"Haidru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Haidru_(1828)"},{"link_name":"Balakot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Balakot"},{"link_name":"Peshawar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capture_of_Peshawar_(1834)"},{"link_name":"Ramkani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ramkani"},{"link_name":"Khyber Pass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standoff_at_the_Khyber_Pass_(1834%E2%80%931835)"},{"link_name":"Panjtar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Panjtar"},{"link_name":"Jamrud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Jamrud"},{"link_name":"Sikh Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikh_Empire"},{"link_name":"Durrani Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durrani_Empire"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Sikh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikh"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jaques81-2"}],"text":"Battle of AttockPart of the Afghan-Sikh WarsDate13 July 1813LocationSiege at Attock, Battle at Haidaru on Mansur Plain, northeast of the fortResult\nSikh victory\n\nCapture of Attock[1][2]Belligerents\n Sikh Empire\n Durrani EmpireCommanders and leaders\n Dewan Mokham Chand Hari Singh Nalwa Sham Singh Attariwala Sultan Mahmud Khan\n Fateh Khan Barakzai Dost Mohammad KhanStrength\n10,000[3]\n15,000[4]Casualties and losses\nUnknown\n2,000[5]vteConflicts in Afghanistan (1793–1973)\n1st Civil War\n1st Ghilzai\nChindawol\n1st Herat\nShahda\nNimla\n3rd Herat\nAttock\n4th Herat\nKafir Qal'eh\nMultan\n2nd Civil War\n3rd Civil War\nShopian\nNowshera\n5th Herat\n1st Hazara\n6th Herat\n1st Shuja\nJalalabad\nPeshawar\nJamrud\n7th Herat\n1st Afghan Turkestan\n1st Britain, 2nd Shuja\n2nd Hazara\n1st Kandahar\nTagab\n1st Chahar Wilayat\nBalkh\n2nd Kandahar, 8th Herat\nAqcha\n2nd Afghan Turkestan\n9th Herat\nSheberghan\n3rd Kandahar\n10th Herat\nMaimana (1857)\n1st Khost\nKunduz\n11th Herat\n2nd Civil War\n12th Herat\n13th Herat\n2nd Chahar Wilayat\n2nd Britain\n14th Herat\n3rd Civil War\n1st Maimana\n1st Ghilzai\n2nd Turkestan\n3rd Hazara\n4th Hazara\nUruzgan\n2nd Maimana\n5th Hazara\nKafiristan\n2nd Khost\n1st Urtatagai\n3rd Britain\nAlizai\n3rd Khost\n2nd Urtatagai\n4th Civil War\n1st Soviet Union\nShinwari\n1st Kuhistan\n2nd Kuhistan\n2nd Soviet Union\n2nd Ghilzai\nTribal revolts\n6th Hazara\n7th Hazara\nRepublican coupvteAfghan–Sikh Wars\nManupur (1748)\nAmritsar (1757)\nMahilpur (1757)\nJalandhar (1757)\nSirhind (1758)\nLahore (1758)\nPeshawar (1758)\n2nd Lahore (1759)\nLahore (1760)\nSialkot (1761)\nGujranwala (1761)\nLahore (1761)\nJandiala (1762)\nKup (1762)\nAmritsar (1762)\nHarnaulgarh (1762)\nPipli Sahib (1762)\nLakhi Jungle (1762)\nRavi (1762)\nSialkot (1763)\nKasur (1763)\nUrmar Tanda (1763)\nGujranwala (1763)\nMalerkotla (1763)\nSirhind (1764)\nRohtas (1764)\nQarawal (1764)\nDarbar Sahib (1764)\nJandiala (1764)\nBatala (1764)\nAdinanagar (1764)\nJullundur (1765)\nSutlej Ford (1765)\nNurmahal (1765)\nKapurthala (1765)\nBeas Ford (1765)\nGujrat (1765)\nFatahbad (1766)\nJhelum Town (1766)\nAmritsar (1767)\nMeerut (1767)\nLahore (1767)\n Jullundur (1767)\nRohtas (1767)\nKunjpura (1772)\nMultan (1772)\nRohtas (1779)\nMultan (1780)\nShujabad (1780)\nAttock (1787)\nRohtas (1795)\nIndus Ford (1795)\nGujrat (1796)\nRohtas (1796)\nAttock (1796)\nLahore (1796)\nPind Dadan Khan (1796)\nAmritsar (1797)\nBattle near Amritsar (1797)\nGujrat (1797)\nSarae Kali (1798)\nWazirabad (1798)\nShahdara (1798)\nNear Lahore (1798)\nAmritsar (1798)\nRogheen (1798)\nKasur (1798)\nEminabad (1798)\nChunian (1798)\nRavi Ford (1798)\nBattle in centre of Gujrat and Wazirabad (1798)\nKasur (1807)\nMultan (1810)\nKashmir (1812-1813)\nHasan Abdal\nAttock\nKashmir\nMultan (1818)\nShopian\nMangal\nMankera\nTaragarh\nNowshera\nAkora\nShaidu\nHaidru\nBalakot\nPeshawar\nRamkani\nKhyber Pass\nPanjtar\nJamrudThe Battle of Attock (also known as the Battle of Chuch or the Battle of Haidru) took place on 13 July 1813 between the Sikh Empire and the Durrani Empire.[6] The battle was the first significant Sikh victory over the Durranis.[2]","title":"Battle of Attock (1813)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Battle_of_Attock_or_Chuch_-_Military_system_of_the_Sikhs_during_the_period_1799-1849_-_Fauja_Singh.jpg"},{"link_name":"Ranjit Singh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranjit_Singh"},{"link_name":"Bhimber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhimber"},{"link_name":"Rajauri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajauri"},{"link_name":"Kullu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kullu"},{"link_name":"Kashmir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashmir"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Fateh Khan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fateh_Khan"},{"link_name":"Vizier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vizier"},{"link_name":"Kabul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabul"},{"link_name":"Indus river","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_river"},{"link_name":"Mahmud Shah Durrani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahmud_Shah_Durrani"},{"link_name":"Shuja Shah Durrani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuja_Shah_Durrani"},{"link_name":"vizier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vizier"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cunningham152-8"},{"link_name":"Dewan Mokham Chand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dewan_Mokham_Chand"},{"link_name":"Jhelum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jhelum"},{"link_name":"Pir Panjal Range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pir_Panjal_Range"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Griffin191-9"},{"link_name":"Rajauri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajauri"},{"link_name":"raja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raja"},{"link_name":"jagir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jagir"},{"link_name":"valley of Kashmir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valley_of_Kashmir"},{"link_name":"Hari Parbat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hari_Parbat"},{"link_name":"Shergarh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shergarh,_Punjab"},{"link_name":"vizier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vizier"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Griffin191-9"},{"link_name":"Lahore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lahore"},{"link_name":"Kabul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabul"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cunningham152-8"},{"link_name":"Attock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attock"},{"link_name":"deposed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deposition_(politics)"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Griffin191-9"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cunningham152-8"},{"link_name":"Sardar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sardar"},{"link_name":"Fort Attock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attock_Fort"},{"link_name":"Maunds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maund"},{"link_name":"grain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grain"},{"link_name":"cannon shot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannon"},{"link_name":"cannon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannon"},{"link_name":"mortars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortar_(weapon)"},{"link_name":"rock salt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_salt"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Prakash330-10"},{"link_name":"Hari Singh Nalwa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hari_Singh_Nalwa"},{"link_name":"cavalry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavalry"},{"link_name":"garrison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garrison"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"In 1811–12, Ranjit Singh invaded the hill states of Bhimber, Rajauri, and Kullu in preparation for an invasion of Kashmir.[7] In late 1812, Fateh Khan, the Vizier of Kabul, crossed the Indus river under orders from Mahmud Shah Durrani to raid Kashmir and to free Shuja Shah Durrani from its renegade vizier, Atta Muhammad Khan. In an 1812 interview with Ranjit Singh, Fateh Khan agreed to a joint invasion of Kashmir. He could not invade Kashmir if he was opposed by the Sikh Empire,[8] and agreed that a small Sikh force under Dewan Mokham Chand Kochhar would receive one third of the plunder.Both invasions began at Jhelum, but once the armies reached the Pir Panjal Range, Fateh Khan used a heavy snowfall to double march his veteran mountain troops through the range.[9] However, Dewan Mokham Chand offered the Rajauri raja a large jagir if he could find a path through the range that would allow the Sikhs to reach the valley of Kashmir at the same time as the Afghan troops and was able to have a small body of troops under Jodh Singh Kalsia and Nihal Singh Attari present at the captures of Hari Parbat and Shergarh. The vizier of Kashmir, Atta Muhammad Khan, had offered no resistance to either army but Fateh Khan refused to share the spoils.[9] Shuja Shah Durrani chose to be escorted by Dewan Mokham Chand kochhar to Lahore, the capital of the Sikh Empire, out of fear of becoming a prisoner at Kabul.[8]Ranjit Singh became annoyed at Fateh Khan's refusal to share the plunder and opened negotiations with the renegade governor of Attock, Jahandad Khan, brother to the recently deposed Atta Muhammad Khan of Kashmir,[9] and took control of the fort at Attock.[8] After Jahandad Khan accepted his jagir, Dia Singh, a Sardar with a small contingent of troops in the area, took control of Fort Attock including 3,510 Maunds of grain, 439 rounds of cannon shot, 70 cannon and small mortars, and 255 Maunds of rock salt.[10] Hari Singh Nalwa arrived with Dewan Devi Das and a detachment of cavalry to support the garrison at an unknown date.[11]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Attock_-_Picturesque_India_a_handbook_for_European_travellers_-_William_Sproston_Caine_-pg_246.jpg"},{"link_name":"Attock Fort","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attock_Fort"},{"link_name":"Sikh Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikh_Empire"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Attock_Fort.jpg"},{"link_name":"invested","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investment_(military)"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Griffin192-12"},{"link_name":"Burhan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burhan,_Pakistan"},{"link_name":"battalion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battalion"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Prakash330-10"},{"link_name":"Dewan Mokham Chand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dewan_Mokham_Chand"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MGregor170-13"},{"link_name":"infantry square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infantry_square"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Prakash330-10"},{"link_name":"Dost Mohammad Khan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dost_Mohammad_Khan"},{"link_name":"Pathans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathans"},{"link_name":"cavalry charge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavalry_charge"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Prakash330-10"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Griffin192-12"},{"link_name":"war elephant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_elephant"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MGregor170-13"},{"link_name":"routed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rout"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jaques81-2"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"Attock Fort, whose capture by the Sikh Empire led to the Battle of AttockAttock FortFateh Khan set off from Kashmir in April 1813 and invested Attock Fort.[12] At the same time Ranjit Singh rushed Dewan Mokham Chand and Karam Chand Chahal from Burhan with a force of cavalry, artillery, and a battalion of infantry to meet the Afghans.[10]Dewan Mokham Chand encamped 8 miles (13 km) from the Afghan camp,[13] unwilling to risk a decisive engagement, although both sides engaged in numerous skirmishes and took losses. On 12 July 1812, the Afghans' supplies were exhausted and Dewan Mokham Chand marched 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) from Attock to Haidaru, on the banks of the Indus River, to offer battle. On 13 July 1812, Dewan Mokham Chand split the cavalry into four divisions, giving command of one division to Hari Singh Nalwa (and to General Sardar Gurmukh Singh Lamba <<see Sir Lepel Griffin book>>) and taking command of one division himself. The lone battalion of infantry formed an infantry square protecting the artillery, with Gouse Khan commanding the artillery.[10] The Afghans took up positions opposite the Sikhs, with a portion of their cavalry under the command of Dost Mohammad Khan.Fateh Khan opened the battle by sending his Pathans on a cavalry charge which was repulsed by heavy fire from the Sikh artillery.[10] The Afghans rallied under Dost Mohammad Khan, and according to Griffin, led a \"brilliant\" cavalry charge which threw one wing of the Sikh army into disarray and captured some artillery.[12] When it appeared the Sikhs had lost the battle, Dewan Mokham Chand led a cavalry charge atop a war elephant that repulsed the Afghans \"at all points\",[13] and routed the remaining Afghan troops.[2] Fateh Khan, fearing his brother, Dost Mohammad Khan, had died, escaped to Kabul and the Sikhs captured the Afghan camp, including the lost artillery pieces.[14]","title":"Battle"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Amritsar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amritsar"},{"link_name":"Lahore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lahore"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGupta1991103-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGupta1991102-18"}],"text":"Amritsar, Lahore, and other large cities across the Sikh Empire were illuminated for two months afterwards in rejoicing over the victory.[15] After his defeat at Attock, Fateh Khan made further multiple attempts to get back Attock, even writing a letter to Dewan Mokham Chand, asking to return Attock which could lead to good relations between two parties, but Mokham Chand refused and warned that the conquer-ship of Kashmir would be next.[16]In 1814, Yar Mohammad Khan, governor of Peshawar, attacked on Attock but was repulsed, following which Fateh Khan again sent a letter in 1815 asking to hand over Attock and restore it under Mahmud Shah's authority in exchange for Multan and paying the tax revenue of Kashmir.[17] During the last five years of his life from 1813 to 1818, Fateh Khan remained distressed over the loss of Attock.[18]","title":"Aftermath"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Jaques81_2-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Jaques81_2-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Jaques81_2-2"},{"link_name":"Jaques 2006","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFJaques2006"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGupta1991100_3-0"},{"link_name":"Gupta 1991","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFGupta1991"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"The Secular Maharaja: A Biography of Maharaja Ranjit Singh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=04MeAAAAMAAJ&q=15,000+attock+fateh"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGupta1991101_5-0"},{"link_name":"Gupta 1991","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFGupta1991"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"Cunningham 1918","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFCunningham1918"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"Griffin 1892","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFGriffin1892"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Cunningham152_8-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Cunningham152_8-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Cunningham152_8-2"},{"link_name":"Cunningham 1918","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFCunningham1918"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Griffin191_9-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Griffin191_9-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Griffin191_9-2"},{"link_name":"Griffin 1892","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFGriffin1892"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Prakash330_10-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Prakash330_10-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Prakash330_10-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Prakash330_10-3"},{"link_name":"Prakash 2002","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFPrakash2002"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"},{"link_name":"Prakash 2002","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFPrakash2002"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Griffin192_12-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Griffin192_12-1"},{"link_name":"Griffin 1892","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFGriffin1892"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-MGregor170_13-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-MGregor170_13-1"},{"link_name":"M'Gregor 1846","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFM'Gregor1846"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-14"},{"link_name":"Prakash 2002","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFPrakash2002"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-15"},{"link_name":"M'Gregor 1846","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFM'Gregor1846"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-16"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9788121505154","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788121505154"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGupta1991103_17-0"},{"link_name":"Gupta 1991","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFGupta1991"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGupta1991102_18-0"},{"link_name":"Gupta 1991","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFGupta1991"}],"text":"^ Anil Chandra Banerjee, The Khalsa Raj, (Abhinav Publications, 1985), 78.\n\n^ a b c Jaques 2006, p. 81\n\n^ Gupta 1991, p. 100.\n\n^ Johar, Surinder Singh (1985). The Secular Maharaja: A Biography of Maharaja Ranjit Singh. p. 125.\n\n^ Gupta 1991, p. 101.\n\n^ Cunningham 1918, pp. 152–153\n\n^ Griffin 1892, p. 190\n\n^ a b c Cunningham 1918, p. 152\n\n^ a b c Griffin 1892, p. 191\n\n^ a b c d Prakash 2002, p. 330\n\n^ Prakash 2002, pp. 329–330\n\n^ a b Griffin 1892, p. 192\n\n^ a b M'Gregor 1846, p. 170\n\n^ Prakash 2002, pp. 330–331\n\n^ M'Gregor 1846, p. 171\n\n^ Gupta, Hari Ram (1991). The History of the Sikhs Volume 5. Munshiram Manoharlal. p. 102. ISBN 9788121505154.\n\n^ Gupta 1991, p. 103.\n\n^ Gupta 1991, p. 102.","title":"Notes"}]
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[{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/bc/Battle_of_Attock_or_Chuch_-_Military_system_of_the_Sikhs_during_the_period_1799-1849_-_Fauja_Singh.jpg/200px-Battle_of_Attock_or_Chuch_-_Military_system_of_the_Sikhs_during_the_period_1799-1849_-_Fauja_Singh.jpg"},{"image_text":"Attock Fort, whose capture by the Sikh Empire led to the Battle of Attock","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Attock_-_Picturesque_India_a_handbook_for_European_travellers_-_William_Sproston_Caine_-pg_246.jpg/220px-Attock_-_Picturesque_India_a_handbook_for_European_travellers_-_William_Sproston_Caine_-pg_246.jpg"},{"image_text":"Attock Fort","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Attock_Fort.jpg/220px-Attock_Fort.jpg"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Venetian_War_(1463%E2%80%931479)
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Ottoman–Venetian War (1463–1479)
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["1 Background","2 Outbreak of the war","3 Campaigns in the Morea and the Aegean, 1463–1470","4 The war in Albania, 1466–1467","5 Final Albanian campaigns, 1474–1479","6 Fate of the Despotate of Epirus","7 References","7.1 Notes","7.2 Bibliography"]
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Series of conflicts fought between the Ottoman Empire and the Republic of Venice from 1463 to 1479
Ottoman-Venetian WarPart of the Ottoman–Venetian WarsDate1463 – 25 January 1479LocationMorea (Peloponnese), Negroponte (Euboea), Albania, Aegean Sea, Anatolia, Balkan and the Black SeaResult
Ottoman victory
Treaty of Constantinople (1479)
Venetian naval supremacy challenged by the Ottoman navy
Several Venetian territories captured and annexed by the OttomansTerritorialchanges
Morea, Negroponte and Albania conquered by the Ottoman EmpireBelligerents
Republic of Venice Papal States Principality of Zeta Kingdom of Hungary Despotate of Epirus Knights Hospitaller Crown of Aragon Kingdom of Naples Aq Qoyunlu League of Lezhë Duchy of Burgundy Holy Roman Empire Principality of Moldavia Kingdom of Croatia Duchy of Saint Sava Kingdom of France Republic of Ragusa Grand Duchy of Lithuania Crown of Castile FlorenceKaramanidsManiotsGreek rebels
Ottoman EmpireCommanders and leaders
Alvise Loredan Giacomo Loredan Sigismondo Malatesta Vettore Cappello Antonio da Canal Pietro Mocenigo Skanderbeg Ivan Crnojević Uzun Hasan Matthias Corvinus Stephen the Great
Sultan Mehmed II Turahanoğlu Ömer Bey Mahmud Pasha Angelović
vteOttoman–Venetian wars
Gallipoli
Thessalonica
First
Second
Third
Fourth (War of Cyprus)
Fifth (War of Candia)
Sixth (Morean War)
Seventh
The Eastern Mediterranean in 1450, just before the Fall of Constantinople. Venetian possessions are in green and orange. By 1463, the Ottoman dominions would have expanded to include the Byzantine Empire (purple), and most of the smaller Balkan states.
The First Ottoman–Venetian War was fought between the Republic of Venice with its allies and the Ottoman Empire from 1463 to 1479. Fought shortly after the capture of Constantinople and the remnants of the Byzantine Empire by the Ottomans, it resulted in the loss of several Venetian holdings in Albania and Greece, most importantly the island of Negroponte (Euboea), which had been a Venetian protectorate for centuries. The war also saw the rapid expansion of the Ottoman navy, which became able to challenge the Venetians and the Knights Hospitaller for supremacy in the Aegean Sea. In the closing years of the war, however, the Republic managed to recoup its losses by the de facto acquisition of the Crusader Kingdom of Cyprus.
Background
Following the Fourth Crusade (1203–1204), the lands of the Byzantine Empire were divided among several western Catholic ("Latin") Crusader states, ushering in the period known in Greek as Latinokratia. Despite the resurgence of the Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty in the later 13th century, many of these "Latin" states survived until the rise of a new power, the Ottoman Empire. Chief among these was the Republic of Venice, which had founded an extensive maritime empire, controlling numerous coastal possessions and islands in the Adriatic, Ionian, and Aegean Seas. In its first conflict with the Ottomans, Venice had already lost the city of Thessalonica in 1430, following a long siege, but the resulting peace treaty left the other Venetian possessions intact.
In 1453, the Ottomans captured the Byzantine capital, Constantinople, and continued to expand their territories in the Balkans, Asia Minor, and the Aegean. Serbia was conquered in 1459, and the last Byzantine remnants, the Despotate of Morea and the Empire of Trebizond were subdued in 1460–1461. The Venetian-controlled Duchy of Naxos and the Genoese colonies of Lesbos and Chios became tributary in 1458, only for the latter to be directly annexed four years later. The Ottoman advance thus inevitably posed a threat to Venice's holdings in southern Greece, and, following the Ottoman conquest of Bosnia in 1463, in the Adriatic coast as well.
Outbreak of the war
According to the Greek historian Michael Critobulus, hostilities broke out because of the flight of an Albanian slave of the Ottoman commander of Athens to the Venetian fortress of Coron (Koroni) with 100,000 silver aspers from his master's treasure. The fugitive then converted to Christianity, and demands for his rendition by the Ottomans were therefore refused by the Venetian authorities. Using this as a pretext, in November 1462, Turahanoğlu Ömer Bey, the Ottoman commander in central Greece, attacked and very nearly succeeded in taking the strategically important Venetian fortress of Lepanto (Nafpaktos). On 3 April 1463 however, the governor of the Morea, Isa-Beg Ishaković, took the Venetian-held town of Argos by treason.
Although Venice, dependent on the trade with the Ottomans, had in the past been reluctant to confront them in war, the urgings of the papal legate, Cardinal Bessarion, and an impassioned speech by the distinguished Council member Vettore Cappello, tipped the balance, and on 28 July, the Senate narrowly voted for declaring war on the Porte. Pope Pius II used this opportunity to form yet another Crusade against the Ottomans: on 12 September 1463, Venice and Hungarian king Matthias Corvinus signed an alliance, followed on 19 October by an alliance with the Pope and Duke Philip the Good of Burgundy. According to its terms, upon victory, the Balkans would be divided among the allies. The Morea and the western Greek coast (Epirus) would fall to Venice, Hungary would acquire Bulgaria, Serbia, Bosnia, and Wallachia, the Albanian principality under Skanderbeg would expand into Macedonia, and the remaining European territories of the Ottomans, including Constantinople, would form a restored Byzantine Empire under the surviving members of the Palaiologos family. Negotiations were also begun with other rivals of the Ottomans, such as Karamanids, Uzun Hassan, and the Crimean Khanate.
Campaigns in the Morea and the Aegean, 1463–1470
The new alliance launched a two-pronged offensive against the Ottomans: a Venetian army, under the Captain General of the Sea Alvise Loredan, landed in the Morea, while Matthias Corvinus invaded Bosnia. At the same time, Pius II began assembling an army at Ancona, hoping to lead it in person.
Map of the Morea in the Middle Ages
In early August, the Venetians retook Argos and refortified the Isthmus of Corinth, restoring the Hexamilion wall and equipping it with many cannons. They then proceeded to besiege the fortress of the Acrocorinth, which controlled the northwestern Peloponnese. The Venetians engaged in repeated clashes with the defenders and with Ömer Bey's forces, until they suffered a major defeat on 20 October, which resulted in the wounding and subsequent death of the Marquis Bertoldo d'Este (son of Taddeo d'Este). The Venetians were then forced to lift the siege and retreat to the Hexamilion and to Nauplia (Nafplion). In Bosnia, Matthias Corvinus seized over sixty fortified places and succeeded in taking its capital, Jajce after a 3-month siege, on 16 December.
Ottoman reaction was swift and decisive: Sultan Mehmed II dispatched his Grand Vizier, Mahmud Pasha Angelović, with an army against the Venetians. To confront the Venetian fleet, which had taken station outside the entrance of the Dardanelles Straits, the Sultan further ordered the creation of the new shipyard of Kadirga Limani in the Golden Horn (named after the "kadirga" type of galley), and of two forts to guard the Straits, Kilidulbahr and Sultaniye. The Morean campaign was swiftly victorious for the Ottomans: although messages received from Ömer Bey had warned of the strength and firepower of the Venetian position at the Hexamilion, Mahmud Pasha decided to march on, hoping to catch them unawares. In the event, the Ottomans reached the Isthmus just in time to see the Venetian army, demoralized and riddled with dysentery, leave its positions and sail to Nauplia. The Ottoman army razed the Hexamilion, and advanced into the Morea. Argos fell, and several forts and localities that had recognized Venetian authority reverted to their Ottoman allegiance. Zagan Pasha was re-appointed governor of the Morea, while Ömer Bey was given Mahmud Pasha's army and tasked with taking the Republic's holdings in the southern Peloponnese, centered around the two forts of Coron and Modon (Methoni).
Sultan Mehmed II, who was following Mahmud Pasha with another army to reinforce him, had reached Zeitounion (Lamia) before being apprised of his Vizier's success. Immediately, he turned his men north, towards Bosnia. However, the Sultan's attempt to retake Jajce in July and August 1464 failed, with the Ottomans retreating hastily in the face of Corvinus' approaching army. A new Ottoman army under Mahmud Pasha then forced Corvinus to withdraw, but Jajce was not retaken for many years after. However, the death of Pope Pius II on 15 August in Ancona spelled the end of the Crusade.
The noted condottiere Sigismondo Malatesta, Lord of Rimini. His tenure in command of the land forces in the Morea (July 1464 to January 1466) failed to reverse the Republic's fortunes.
In the meantime, for the upcoming campaign of 1464, the Republic had appointed Sigismondo Malatesta, the ruler of Rimini and one of the ablest Italian generals, as land commander in the Morea. The forces available to him along with mercenaries and stratioti, however, were limited, and in his tenure in the Morea he was unable to achieve much. Upon his arrival in the Morea in mid-summer, he launched attacks against Ottoman forts, and engaged in a siege of Mistra in August–October. He failed to take the castle, however, and had to abandon the siege at the approach of a relief force under Ömer Bey. Small-scale warfare continued on both sides, with raids and counter-raids, but a shortage of manpower and money meant that the Venetians remained largely confined to their fortified bases, while Ömer Bey's army roamed the countryside. The mercenaries and stratioti in Venice's employ were becoming disgruntled at the lack of pay, while increasingly, the Morea was becoming desolate, as villages were abandoned and fields left untended. The bad supply situation in the Morea forced Ömer Bey to withdraw to Athens in fall 1465. Malatesta himself, disenchanted by the conditions he encountered in the Morea and increasingly anxious to return to Italy and attend to his family's affairs and the ongoing feud with the Papacy, remained largely inactive throughout 1465, in spite of the relative weakness of the Ottoman garrisons following the withdrawal of Ömer Bey from the peninsula.
In the Aegean, the new Venetian admiral, Orsato Giustinian, tried to take Lesbos in the spring of 1464, and besieged the capital Mytilene for six weeks, until the arrival of an Ottoman fleet under Mahmud Pasha on 18 May forced him to withdraw. Another attempt to capture the island shortly after also failed, and Giustinian died at Modon on 11 July. His successor, Jacopo Loredan, spent the remainder of the year in ultimately fruitless demonstrations of force before the Dardanelles. In early 1465, Mehmed II sent peace feelers to the Venetian Senate. Distrusting the Sultan's motives, these were rejected. Soon after, the Venetians were embroiled in a conflict with the Knights Hospitaller of Rhodes, who had attacked a Venetian convoy carrying Moorish merchants from the Mamluk Sultanate. This event enraged the Mamluks, who imprisoned all Venetian subjects living in the Levant, and threatened to enter the war on the Ottoman side. The Venetian fleet, under Loredan, sailed to Rhodes under orders to release the Moors, even by force. In the event, a potentially catastrophic war between the two major Christian powers of the Aegean was avoided, and the merchants were released to Venetian custody.
By 1465 the Maniot Kladas brothers, Krokodelos and Epifani, were leading bands of stratioti on behalf of Venice against the Ottomans in Southern Peloponnese. They put Vardounia and their lands into Venetian possession, for which Epifani then acted as governor.
In April 1466, Vettore Cappello, the most vociferous proponent of the war, replaced Loredan as Captain General of the Sea. Under his leadership, the Venetian war effort was reinvigorated: the fleet took the northern Aegean islands of Imbros, Thasos and Samothrace, and then sailed into the Saronic Gulf. On 12 July, Cappello landed at Piraeus, and marched against Athens, the Ottomans' major regional base. He failed to take the Acropolis, however, and was forced to retreat to Patras, which was being besieged by the Venetians under the provveditore of the Morea, Jacopo Barbarigo. Before Cappello could arrive there, and as the city seemed on the verge of falling, Omar Beg suddenly appeared with 12,000 cavalry, and drove the outnumbered Venetians off. Six hundred Venetians fell and a hundred were taken prisoner out of a force of 2,000, while Barbarigo himself was killed, and his body impaled. Cappello, who arrived some days later, attacked the Ottomans trying to avenge this disaster, but was heavily defeated. Demoralized, he returned to Negroponte with the remains of his army. There, the Captain General fell ill, and died on 13 March 1467.
In 1470,Sultan Mehmed II campaigned against Negroponte (Chalcis) on the island of Euboea. After a protracted and bloody siege (10 July – 5 August 1470), the well-fortified city was taken by the Ottoman troops. The whole island came under Ottoman control.
The war in Albania, 1466–1467
In spring 1466, Sultan Mehmed marched with a large army against the Albanians. Under their leader, Skenderbeg, they had long resisted the Ottomans, and had repeatedly sought assistance from Italy. For the Albanians, the outbreak of the Ottoman–Venetian War offered a golden opportunity to reassert their independence; for the Venetians, they provided a useful cover to the Venetian coastal holdings of Durazzo and Scutari. Notable Montenegrin feudal lord Ivan Crnojević was of high significance for the defence of Scutari, for which he gained fame in Venice. The major result of this campaign was the construction of the fortress of Elbasan, allegedly within just 25 days. This strategically-sited fortress, at the lowlands near the end of the old Via Egnatia, cut Albania effectively in half, isolating Skenderbeg's base in the northern highlands from the Venetian holdings in the south. However, following the Sultan's withdrawal Skanderbeg himself spent the winter in Italy, seeking aid. On his return in early 1467, his forces sallied from the highlands, defeated Ballaban Pasha and lifted the siege of the fortress of Croia (Krujë), attacked Elbasan but failed to capture it. Mehmed II responded by marching again against Albania. He energetically pursued the attacks against the Albanian strongholds, while sending detachments to raid the Venetian possessions to keep them isolated. The Ottomans failing again to take Croia, and they failed to subjugate the country but they overthrow Tomornitsa. However, the winter brought an outbreak of plague, which would recur annually and sap the strength of the local resistance. Skanderbeg himself died of malaria in the Venetian stronghold of Lissus (Lezhë), ending the ability of Venice to use the Albanian lords for its own advantage. The Albanians were left to their own devices, and were gradually subdued over the next decade.
Final Albanian campaigns, 1474–1479
After Skanderbeg died, some Venetian-controlled northern Albanian garrisons continued to hold territories coveted by the Ottomans, such as Žabljak Crnojevića, Drisht, Lezha, and Shkodra—the most significant. Mehmed II sent his armies to take Shkodra in 1474 but failed. Then he went personally to lead the siege of Shkodra of 1478-79. The Venetians and Shkodrans resisted the assaults and continued to hold the fortress until Venice ceded Shkodra to the Ottoman Empire in the Treaty of Constantinople on 25 January 1479 as a condition of ending the war.
After the Venetian War the Ottomans attacked Hungary, but their army was defeated in the Battle of Breadfield.
Fate of the Despotate of Epirus
The Despotate of Epirus, the last surviving rump state of the Byzantine Empire, helped the Venetians. However, Leonardo III Tocco, the ruler of Epirus at the time, wasn't a party in the peace treaty negotiations, or included in its terms. Although he had supported Venice during the war and provided accommodation to its refugees, he caused offence to Venice by seeking friendship and support with its rival, the royal house of Naples, since the latter claimed sovereignty in the Ionian islands. As such, the Despotate of Epirus was left undefended against the Ottomans, who conquered it in the summer of 1479, in order to create a base for the planned Ottoman invasion of Italy.
References
Notes
^ a b Osmanlı Kaynaklarına Göre Fatih Sultan Mehmed'in Siyasi ve Askeri Faaliyeti
Selahattin Tansel
^
"Mehmed II".
^ a b c "Haçli Koali̇syonu Ve Fâti̇h Sultan Mehmed".
^ TSK (1986). Battle of Otlukbeli (PDF). p. 17.
^ Finkel (2006), pp. 40–41
^ Finkel (2006), pp. 60–62
^ Finkel (2006), p. 60
^ a b c Finkel (2006), p. 63
^ Shaw (1976), pp. 64–65
^ a b Setton (1978), p. 241
^ Setton (1978), p. 243
^ a b c Setton (1978), p. 249
^ a b c d Shaw (1976), p. 65
^ a b c Setton (1978), p. 248
^ a b Setton (1978), p. 250
^ a b Setton, Hazard & Norman (1969), p. 326
^ Setton (1978), p. 270
^ Setton (1978), pp. 251–252
^ Setton (1978), pp. 252–253
^ Setton (1978), pp. 253–255
^ a b Setton (1978), p. 284
^ Setton (1978), pp. 255–257
^ a b Setton (1978), p. 251
^ Setton (1978), p. 273
^ a b Setton (1978), p. 277
^ a b Setton (1978), p. 283
^ Setton (1978), pp. 284–285
^ a b Finkel (2006), p. 64
^ a b Setton, Hazard & Norman (1969), p. 327
^ Setton (1978), p. 278
^ "1474 | George Merula: The Siege of Shkodra". Archived from the original on 2013-10-05. Retrieved 2013-09-17.
^ a b Nicol (1984), p. 212
Bibliography
Chasiotis, Ioannis (1974). "Πολεμικές συγκρούσεις στον ελληνικό χώρο και η συμμετοχή των Ελλήνων" . In Christopoulos, Georgios A. & Bastias, Ioannis K. (eds.). Ιστορία του Ελληνικού Έθνους, Τόμος Ι΄: Ο Ελληνισμός υπό ξένη κυριαρχία (περίοδος 1453 - 1669), Τουρκοκρατία - Λατινοκρατία (in Greek). Athens: Ekdotiki Athinon. pp. 252–323. ISBN 978-960-213-106-0.
Davies, Siriol; Davis, Jack L. (2007). Between Venice and Istanbul: Colonial Landscapes in Early Modern Greece. American School of Classical Studies at Athens. ISBN 978-0-87661-540-9.
Faroqhi, Suraiya (2004). The Ottoman Empire and the World Around It. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-85043-715-4.
Finkel, Caroline (2006). Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire 1300–1923. London: John Murray. ISBN 978-0-7195-6112-2.
Lane, Frederic Chapin (1973). Venice, a Maritime Republic. JHU Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-1460-0.
Nicol, Donald M. (1984). The Despotate of Epiros, 1267–1479: A Contribution to the History of Greece in the Middle Ages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-13089-9.
Parry, Vernon J.; Cook, M. A. (1976). A History of the Ottoman Empire to 1730: Chapters from the Cambridge History of Islam and the New Cambridge Modern History. CUP Archive. ISBN 978-0-521-09991-2.
Setton, Kenneth M.; Hazard, Harry W.; Zacour, Norman P., eds. (1989). A History of the Crusades, Volume VI: The Impact of the Crusades on Europe. Madison and London: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0-299-10740-X.
Setton, Kenneth M. (1978). The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571), Volume II: The Fifteenth Century. Philadelphia: The American Philosophical Society. ISBN 0-87169-127-2.
Shaw, Stanford Jay; Shaw, Ezel Kural (1976). History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey: Empire of the Gazis - The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire, 1280–1808. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29163-7.
Vakalopoulos, Apostolos E. (1968). Ιστορία του νέου ελληνισμού, Τόμος Γ′: Τουρκοκρατία 1453–1669 (in Greek). Thessaloniki: Emm. Sfakianakis & Sons.
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Ottoman%E2%80%93Venetian_Wars"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Ottoman%E2%80%93Venetian_Wars"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Ottoman%E2%80%93Venetian_Wars"},{"link_name":"Ottoman–Venetian wars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Venetian_wars"},{"link_name":"Gallipoli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Gallipoli_(1416)"},{"link_name":"Thessalonica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Thessalonica_(1422%E2%80%931430)"},{"link_name":"First","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Second","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Venetian_War_(1499%E2%80%931503)"},{"link_name":"Third","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Venetian_War_(1537%E2%80%931540)"},{"link_name":"Fourth (War of Cyprus)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Venetian_War_(1570%E2%80%931573)"},{"link_name":"Fifth (War of Candia)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretan_War_(1645%E2%80%931669)"},{"link_name":"Sixth (Morean War)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morean_War"},{"link_name":"Seventh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Venetian_War_(1714%E2%80%931718)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Eastern_Mediterranean_1450.svg"},{"link_name":"Republic of Venice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Venice"},{"link_name":"Ottoman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire"},{"link_name":"capture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople"},{"link_name":"Constantinople","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinople"},{"link_name":"Byzantine Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire"},{"link_name":"Euboea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euboea"},{"link_name":"Venetian protectorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lordship_of_Negroponte"},{"link_name":"Knights Hospitaller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knights_Hospitaller"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Cyprus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cyprus"}],"text":"vteOttoman–Venetian wars\nGallipoli\nThessalonica\nFirst\nSecond\nThird\nFourth (War of Cyprus)\nFifth (War of Candia)\nSixth (Morean War)\nSeventhThe Eastern Mediterranean in 1450, just before the Fall of Constantinople. Venetian possessions are in green and orange. By 1463, the Ottoman dominions would have expanded to include the Byzantine Empire (purple), and most of the smaller Balkan states.The First Ottoman–Venetian War was fought between the Republic of Venice with its allies and the Ottoman Empire from 1463 to 1479. Fought shortly after the capture of Constantinople and the remnants of the Byzantine Empire by the Ottomans, it resulted in the loss of several Venetian holdings in Albania and Greece, most importantly the island of Negroponte (Euboea), which had been a Venetian protectorate for centuries. The war also saw the rapid expansion of the Ottoman navy, which became able to challenge the Venetians and the Knights Hospitaller for supremacy in the Aegean Sea. In the closing years of the war, however, the Republic managed to recoup its losses by the de facto acquisition of the Crusader Kingdom of Cyprus.","title":"Ottoman–Venetian War (1463–1479)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fourth Crusade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_Crusade"},{"link_name":"Byzantine Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire"},{"link_name":"Catholic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latins_(Middle_Ages)"},{"link_name":"Crusader states","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusader_states"},{"link_name":"Latinokratia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinokratia"},{"link_name":"Palaiologos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palaiologos"},{"link_name":"Ottoman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Adriatic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adriatic_Sea"},{"link_name":"Ionian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionian_Sea"},{"link_name":"Aegean Seas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegean_Sea"},{"link_name":"Thessalonica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thessalonica"},{"link_name":"siege","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Thessalonica_(1422%E2%80%931430)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Constantinople","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinople"},{"link_name":"Balkans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkans"},{"link_name":"Asia Minor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia_Minor"},{"link_name":"Serbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbian_Despotate"},{"link_name":"Despotate of Morea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Despotate_of_Morea"},{"link_name":"Empire of Trebizond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Duchy of Naxos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Naxos"},{"link_name":"Genoese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa"},{"link_name":"Lesbos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesbos"},{"link_name":"Chios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chios"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Ottoman conquest of Bosnia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_conquest_of_Bosnia"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Finkel63-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"Following the Fourth Crusade (1203–1204), the lands of the Byzantine Empire were divided among several western Catholic (\"Latin\") Crusader states, ushering in the period known in Greek as Latinokratia. Despite the resurgence of the Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty in the later 13th century, many of these \"Latin\" states survived until the rise of a new power, the Ottoman Empire. Chief among these was the Republic of Venice, which had founded an extensive maritime empire, controlling numerous coastal possessions and islands in the Adriatic, Ionian, and Aegean Seas. In its first conflict with the Ottomans, Venice had already lost the city of Thessalonica in 1430, following a long siege, but the resulting peace treaty left the other Venetian possessions intact.[5]In 1453, the Ottomans captured the Byzantine capital, Constantinople, and continued to expand their territories in the Balkans, Asia Minor, and the Aegean. Serbia was conquered in 1459, and the last Byzantine remnants, the Despotate of Morea and the Empire of Trebizond were subdued in 1460–1461.[6] The Venetian-controlled Duchy of Naxos and the Genoese colonies of Lesbos and Chios became tributary in 1458, only for the latter to be directly annexed four years later.[7] The Ottoman advance thus inevitably posed a threat to Venice's holdings in southern Greece, and, following the Ottoman conquest of Bosnia in 1463, in the Adriatic coast as well.[8][9]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Michael Critobulus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Critobulus"},{"link_name":"Koroni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koroni"},{"link_name":"aspers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ak%C3%A7e"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Setton241-10"},{"link_name":"Turahanoğlu Ömer Bey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turahano%C4%9Flu_%C3%96mer_Bey"},{"link_name":"Nafpaktos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nafpaktos"},{"link_name":"Isa-Beg Ishaković","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isa-Beg_Ishakovi%C4%87"},{"link_name":"Argos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argos,_Peloponnese"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Setton241-10"},{"link_name":"Bessarion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessarion"},{"link_name":"Vettore Cappello","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vettore_Cappello"},{"link_name":"Porte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Porte"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Setton243-11"},{"link_name":"Pius II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pius_II"},{"link_name":"Hungarian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary"},{"link_name":"Matthias Corvinus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthias_Corvinus"},{"link_name":"Philip the Good","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_the_Good"},{"link_name":"Burgundy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Setton249-12"},{"link_name":"Epirus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epirus"},{"link_name":"Bulgaria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgaria"},{"link_name":"Wallachia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallachia"},{"link_name":"Skanderbeg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skanderbeg"},{"link_name":"Macedonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(region)"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shaw65-13"},{"link_name":"Karamanids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karamanids"},{"link_name":"Uzun Hassan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzun_Hassan"},{"link_name":"Crimean Khanate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimean_Khanate"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shaw65-13"}],"text":"According to the Greek historian Michael Critobulus, hostilities broke out because of the flight of an Albanian slave of the Ottoman commander of Athens to the Venetian fortress of Coron (Koroni) with 100,000 silver aspers from his master's treasure. The fugitive then converted to Christianity, and demands for his rendition by the Ottomans were therefore refused by the Venetian authorities.[10] Using this as a pretext, in November 1462, Turahanoğlu Ömer Bey, the Ottoman commander in central Greece, attacked and very nearly succeeded in taking the strategically important Venetian fortress of Lepanto (Nafpaktos). On 3 April 1463 however, the governor of the Morea, Isa-Beg Ishaković, took the Venetian-held town of Argos by treason.[10]Although Venice, dependent on the trade with the Ottomans, had in the past been reluctant to confront them in war, the urgings of the papal legate, Cardinal Bessarion, and an impassioned speech by the distinguished Council member Vettore Cappello, tipped the balance, and on 28 July, the Senate narrowly voted for declaring war on the Porte.[11] Pope Pius II used this opportunity to form yet another Crusade against the Ottomans: on 12 September 1463, Venice and Hungarian king Matthias Corvinus signed an alliance, followed on 19 October by an alliance with the Pope and Duke Philip the Good of Burgundy.[12] According to its terms, upon victory, the Balkans would be divided among the allies. The Morea and the western Greek coast (Epirus) would fall to Venice, Hungary would acquire Bulgaria, Serbia, Bosnia, and Wallachia, the Albanian principality under Skanderbeg would expand into Macedonia, and the remaining European territories of the Ottomans, including Constantinople, would form a restored Byzantine Empire under the surviving members of the Palaiologos family.[13] Negotiations were also begun with other rivals of the Ottomans, such as Karamanids, Uzun Hassan, and the Crimean Khanate.[13]","title":"Outbreak of the war"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Captain General of the Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captain_General_of_the_Sea"},{"link_name":"Alvise Loredan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alvise_Loredan"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Finkel63-8"},{"link_name":"Ancona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancona"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shaw65-13"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Peloponnese_Middle_Ages_map-en.svg"},{"link_name":"Argos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argos,_Peloponnese"},{"link_name":"Isthmus of Corinth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isthmus_of_Corinth"},{"link_name":"Hexamilion wall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexamilion_wall"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Setton248-14"},{"link_name":"Acrocorinth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acrocorinth"},{"link_name":"Bertoldo d'Este","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bertoldo_d%27Este&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"it","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertoldo_II_d%27Este"},{"link_name":"Taddeo d'Este","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taddeo_d%27Este"},{"link_name":"Nafplion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nafplion"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Setton248-14"},{"link_name":"Jajce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jajce"},{"link_name":"after a 3-month siege","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Jajce"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Setton250-15"},{"link_name":"Mehmed II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehmed_II"},{"link_name":"Grand Vizier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Vizier"},{"link_name":"Mahmud Pasha Angelović","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahmud_Pasha_Angelovi%C4%87"},{"link_name":"Dardanelles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dardanelles"},{"link_name":"Golden Horn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Horn"},{"link_name":"galley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galley"},{"link_name":"Kilidulbahr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilitbahir_Castle"},{"link_name":"Sultaniye","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87anakkale"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Crusades326-16"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Setton248-14"},{"link_name":"dysentery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysentery"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Setton249-12"},{"link_name":"Zagan Pasha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zagan_Pasha"},{"link_name":"Methoni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methoni,_Messenia"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Setton249-12"},{"link_name":"Lamia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamia_(city)"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Crusades326-16"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Setton250-15"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shaw65-13"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Piero,_ritratto_di_sigismondo_malatesta.jpg"},{"link_name":"condottiere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condottieri"},{"link_name":"Sigismondo Malatesta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigismondo_Pandolfo_Malatesta"},{"link_name":"Rimini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimini"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"stratioti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratioti"},{"link_name":"Mistra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mistra"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Setton284-21"},{"link_name":"family","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Malatesta"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Orsato Giustinian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Orsato_Giustinian&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Mytilene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mytilene"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Setton251-23"},{"link_name":"Jacopo Loredan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jacopo_Loredan&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Setton251-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Knights Hospitaller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knights_Hospitaller"},{"link_name":"Rhodes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhodes"},{"link_name":"Mamluk Sultanate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_(Cairo)"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Setton277-25"},{"link_name":"Levant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levant"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Setton277-25"},{"link_name":"Maniot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maniots"},{"link_name":"Krokodelos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krokodeilos_Kladas"},{"link_name":"Vardounia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vardounia&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Vettore Cappello","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vettore_Cappello"},{"link_name":"Imbros","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imbros"},{"link_name":"Thasos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thasos"},{"link_name":"Samothrace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samothrace"},{"link_name":"Saronic Gulf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saronic_Gulf"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Setton283-26"},{"link_name":"Piraeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piraeus"},{"link_name":"Athens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athens"},{"link_name":"Acropolis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acropolis"},{"link_name":"Patras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patras"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Setton284-21"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Mehmed II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehmed_II"},{"link_name":"Euboea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euboea"},{"link_name":"protracted and bloody siege","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Negroponte_(1470)"},{"link_name":"Ottoman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire"}],"text":"The new alliance launched a two-pronged offensive against the Ottomans: a Venetian army, under the Captain General of the Sea Alvise Loredan, landed in the Morea, while Matthias Corvinus invaded Bosnia.[8] At the same time, Pius II began assembling an army at Ancona, hoping to lead it in person.[13]Map of the Morea in the Middle AgesIn early August, the Venetians retook Argos and refortified the Isthmus of Corinth, restoring the Hexamilion wall and equipping it with many cannons.[14] They then proceeded to besiege the fortress of the Acrocorinth, which controlled the northwestern Peloponnese. The Venetians engaged in repeated clashes with the defenders and with Ömer Bey's forces, until they suffered a major defeat on 20 October, which resulted in the wounding and subsequent death of the Marquis Bertoldo d'Este [it] (son of Taddeo d'Este). The Venetians were then forced to lift the siege and retreat to the Hexamilion and to Nauplia (Nafplion).[14] In Bosnia, Matthias Corvinus seized over sixty fortified places and succeeded in taking its capital, Jajce after a 3-month siege, on 16 December.[15]Ottoman reaction was swift and decisive: Sultan Mehmed II dispatched his Grand Vizier, Mahmud Pasha Angelović, with an army against the Venetians. To confront the Venetian fleet, which had taken station outside the entrance of the Dardanelles Straits, the Sultan further ordered the creation of the new shipyard of Kadirga Limani in the Golden Horn (named after the \"kadirga\" type of galley), and of two forts to guard the Straits, Kilidulbahr and Sultaniye.[16] The Morean campaign was swiftly victorious for the Ottomans: although messages received from Ömer Bey had warned of the strength and firepower of the Venetian position at the Hexamilion, Mahmud Pasha decided to march on, hoping to catch them unawares.[14] In the event, the Ottomans reached the Isthmus just in time to see the Venetian army, demoralized and riddled with dysentery, leave its positions and sail to Nauplia.[12] The Ottoman army razed the Hexamilion, and advanced into the Morea. Argos fell, and several forts and localities that had recognized Venetian authority reverted to their Ottoman allegiance. Zagan Pasha was re-appointed governor of the Morea, while Ömer Bey was given Mahmud Pasha's army and tasked with taking the Republic's holdings in the southern Peloponnese, centered around the two forts of Coron and Modon (Methoni).[12]Sultan Mehmed II, who was following Mahmud Pasha with another army to reinforce him, had reached Zeitounion (Lamia) before being apprised of his Vizier's success. Immediately, he turned his men north, towards Bosnia.[16] However, the Sultan's attempt to retake Jajce in July and August 1464 failed, with the Ottomans retreating hastily in the face of Corvinus' approaching army. A new Ottoman army under Mahmud Pasha then forced Corvinus to withdraw, but Jajce was not retaken for many years after.[15] However, the death of Pope Pius II on 15 August in Ancona spelled the end of the Crusade.[13][17]The noted condottiere Sigismondo Malatesta, Lord of Rimini. His tenure in command of the land forces in the Morea (July 1464 to January 1466) failed to reverse the Republic's fortunes.In the meantime, for the upcoming campaign of 1464, the Republic had appointed Sigismondo Malatesta, the ruler of Rimini and one of the ablest Italian generals, as land commander in the Morea.[18] The forces available to him along with mercenaries and stratioti, however, were limited, and in his tenure in the Morea he was unable to achieve much. Upon his arrival in the Morea in mid-summer, he launched attacks against Ottoman forts, and engaged in a siege of Mistra in August–October. He failed to take the castle, however, and had to abandon the siege at the approach of a relief force under Ömer Bey.[19] Small-scale warfare continued on both sides, with raids and counter-raids, but a shortage of manpower and money meant that the Venetians remained largely confined to their fortified bases, while Ömer Bey's army roamed the countryside. The mercenaries and stratioti in Venice's employ were becoming disgruntled at the lack of pay, while increasingly, the Morea was becoming desolate, as villages were abandoned and fields left untended.[20] The bad supply situation in the Morea forced Ömer Bey to withdraw to Athens in fall 1465.[21] Malatesta himself, disenchanted by the conditions he encountered in the Morea and increasingly anxious to return to Italy and attend to his family's affairs and the ongoing feud with the Papacy, remained largely inactive throughout 1465, in spite of the relative weakness of the Ottoman garrisons following the withdrawal of Ömer Bey from the peninsula.[22]In the Aegean, the new Venetian admiral, Orsato Giustinian, tried to take Lesbos in the spring of 1464, and besieged the capital Mytilene for six weeks, until the arrival of an Ottoman fleet under Mahmud Pasha on 18 May forced him to withdraw.[23] Another attempt to capture the island shortly after also failed, and Giustinian died at Modon on 11 July. His successor, Jacopo Loredan, spent the remainder of the year in ultimately fruitless demonstrations of force before the Dardanelles.[23] In early 1465, Mehmed II sent peace feelers to the Venetian Senate. Distrusting the Sultan's motives, these were rejected.[24] Soon after, the Venetians were embroiled in a conflict with the Knights Hospitaller of Rhodes, who had attacked a Venetian convoy carrying Moorish merchants from the Mamluk Sultanate.[25] This event enraged the Mamluks, who imprisoned all Venetian subjects living in the Levant, and threatened to enter the war on the Ottoman side. The Venetian fleet, under Loredan, sailed to Rhodes under orders to release the Moors, even by force. In the event, a potentially catastrophic war between the two major Christian powers of the Aegean was avoided, and the merchants were released to Venetian custody.[25]By 1465 the Maniot Kladas brothers, Krokodelos and Epifani, were leading bands of stratioti on behalf of Venice against the Ottomans in Southern Peloponnese. They put Vardounia and their lands into Venetian possession, for which Epifani then acted as governor.In April 1466, Vettore Cappello, the most vociferous proponent of the war, replaced Loredan as Captain General of the Sea. Under his leadership, the Venetian war effort was reinvigorated: the fleet took the northern Aegean islands of Imbros, Thasos and Samothrace, and then sailed into the Saronic Gulf.[26] On 12 July, Cappello landed at Piraeus, and marched against Athens, the Ottomans' major regional base. He failed to take the Acropolis, however, and was forced to retreat to Patras, which was being besieged by the Venetians under the provveditore of the Morea, Jacopo Barbarigo. Before Cappello could arrive there, and as the city seemed on the verge of falling, Omar Beg suddenly appeared with 12,000 cavalry, and drove the outnumbered Venetians off. Six hundred Venetians fell and a hundred were taken prisoner out of a force of 2,000, while Barbarigo himself was killed, and his body impaled.[21] Cappello, who arrived some days later, attacked the Ottomans trying to avenge this disaster, but was heavily defeated. Demoralized, he returned to Negroponte with the remains of his army. There, the Captain General fell ill, and died on 13 March 1467.[27]In 1470,Sultan Mehmed II campaigned against Negroponte (Chalcis) on the island of Euboea. After a protracted and bloody siege (10 July – 5 August 1470), the well-fortified city was taken by the Ottoman troops. The whole island came under Ottoman control.","title":"Campaigns in the Morea and the Aegean, 1463–1470"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Skenderbeg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skenderbeg"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Finkel63-8"},{"link_name":"Durazzo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durr%C3%ABs"},{"link_name":"Scutari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shkod%C3%ABr"},{"link_name":"Ivan Crnojević","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Crnojevi%C4%87"},{"link_name":"Elbasan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elbasan"},{"link_name":"Via Egnatia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Via_Egnatia"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Finkel64-28"},{"link_name":"Ballaban Pasha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballaban_Badera"},{"link_name":"siege","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Siege_of_Kruj%C3%AB"},{"link_name":"Krujë","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kruj%C3%AB"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Crusades327-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Setton278-30"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Crusades327-29"},{"link_name":"failing again","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Siege_of_Kruj%C3%AB"},{"link_name":"Tomornitsa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tomornitsa&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Setton283-26"},{"link_name":"Lezhë","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lezh%C3%AB"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Finkel64-28"}],"text":"In spring 1466, Sultan Mehmed marched with a large army against the Albanians. Under their leader, Skenderbeg, they had long resisted the Ottomans, and had repeatedly sought assistance from Italy.[8] For the Albanians, the outbreak of the Ottoman–Venetian War offered a golden opportunity to reassert their independence; for the Venetians, they provided a useful cover to the Venetian coastal holdings of Durazzo and Scutari. Notable Montenegrin feudal lord Ivan Crnojević was of high significance for the defence of Scutari, for which he gained fame in Venice. The major result of this campaign was the construction of the fortress of Elbasan, allegedly within just 25 days. This strategically-sited fortress, at the lowlands near the end of the old Via Egnatia, cut Albania effectively in half, isolating Skenderbeg's base in the northern highlands from the Venetian holdings in the south.[28] However, following the Sultan's withdrawal Skanderbeg himself spent the winter in Italy, seeking aid. On his return in early 1467, his forces sallied from the highlands, defeated Ballaban Pasha and lifted the siege of the fortress of Croia (Krujë), attacked Elbasan but failed to capture it.[29][30] Mehmed II responded by marching again against Albania. He energetically pursued the attacks against the Albanian strongholds, while sending detachments to raid the Venetian possessions to keep them isolated.[29] The Ottomans failing again to take Croia, and they failed to subjugate the country but they overthrow Tomornitsa. However, the winter brought an outbreak of plague, which would recur annually and sap the strength of the local resistance.[26] Skanderbeg himself died of malaria in the Venetian stronghold of Lissus (Lezhë), ending the ability of Venice to use the Albanian lords for its own advantage.[28] The Albanians were left to their own devices, and were gradually subdued over the next decade.","title":"The war in Albania, 1466–1467"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Žabljak Crnojevića","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDabljak_Crnojevi%C4%87a"},{"link_name":"Drisht","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drisht"},{"link_name":"Lezha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lezha"},{"link_name":"Shkodra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shkodra"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"siege of Shkodra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Shkodra"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Constantinople","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Constantinople_(1479)"},{"link_name":"Hungary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungary"},{"link_name":"Battle of Breadfield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Breadfield"}],"text":"After Skanderbeg died, some Venetian-controlled northern Albanian garrisons continued to hold territories coveted by the Ottomans, such as Žabljak Crnojevića, Drisht, Lezha, and Shkodra—the most significant. Mehmed II sent his armies to take Shkodra in 1474[31] but failed. Then he went personally to lead the siege of Shkodra of 1478-79. The Venetians and Shkodrans resisted the assaults and continued to hold the fortress until Venice ceded Shkodra to the Ottoman Empire in the Treaty of Constantinople on 25 January 1479 as a condition of ending the war.After the Venetian War the Ottomans attacked Hungary, but their army was defeated in the Battle of Breadfield.","title":"Final Albanian campaigns, 1474–1479"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Byzantine Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire"},{"link_name":"Leonardo III Tocco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_III_Tocco"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-32"},{"link_name":"royal house of Naples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples"},{"link_name":"Ionian islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venetian_rule_in_the_Ionian_Islands"},{"link_name":"Ottoman invasion of Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_conquest_of_Otranto"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-32"}],"text":"The Despotate of Epirus, the last surviving rump state of the Byzantine Empire, helped the Venetians. However, Leonardo III Tocco, the ruler of Epirus at the time, wasn't a party in the peace treaty negotiations, or included in its terms.[32] Although he had supported Venice during the war and provided accommodation to its refugees, he caused offence to Venice by seeking friendship and support with its rival, the royal house of Naples, since the latter claimed sovereignty in the Ionian islands. As such, the Despotate of Epirus was left undefended against the Ottomans, who conquered it in the summer of 1479, in order to create a base for the planned Ottoman invasion of Italy.[32]","title":"Fate of the Despotate of Epirus"}]
|
[{"image_text":"The Eastern Mediterranean in 1450, just before the Fall of Constantinople. Venetian possessions are in green and orange. By 1463, the Ottoman dominions would have expanded to include the Byzantine Empire (purple), and most of the smaller Balkan states.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Eastern_Mediterranean_1450.svg/305px-Eastern_Mediterranean_1450.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Map of the Morea in the Middle Ages","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Peloponnese_Middle_Ages_map-en.svg/220px-Peloponnese_Middle_Ages_map-en.svg.png"},{"image_text":"The noted condottiere Sigismondo Malatesta, Lord of Rimini. His tenure in command of the land forces in the Morea (July 1464 to January 1466) failed to reverse the Republic's fortunes.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Piero%2C_ritratto_di_sigismondo_malatesta.jpg/220px-Piero%2C_ritratto_di_sigismondo_malatesta.jpg"}]
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ISBN 978-960-213-106-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-960-213-106-0","url_text":"978-960-213-106-0"}]},{"reference":"Davies, Siriol; Davis, Jack L. (2007). Between Venice and Istanbul: Colonial Landscapes in Early Modern Greece. American School of Classical Studies at Athens. ISBN 978-0-87661-540-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=YoZlbnrH2SEC","url_text":"Between Venice and Istanbul: Colonial Landscapes in Early Modern Greece"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_School_of_Classical_Studies_at_Athens","url_text":"American School of Classical Studies at Athens"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87661-540-9","url_text":"978-0-87661-540-9"}]},{"reference":"Faroqhi, Suraiya (2004). The Ottoman Empire and the World Around It. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-85043-715-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85043-715-4","url_text":"978-1-85043-715-4"}]},{"reference":"Finkel, Caroline (2006). Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire 1300–1923. London: John Murray. ISBN 978-0-7195-6112-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7195-6112-2","url_text":"978-0-7195-6112-2"}]},{"reference":"Lane, Frederic Chapin (1973). Venice, a Maritime Republic. JHU Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-1460-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=PQpU2JGJCMwC","url_text":"Venice, a Maritime Republic"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-1460-0","url_text":"978-0-8018-1460-0"}]},{"reference":"Nicol, Donald M. (1984). The Despotate of Epiros, 1267–1479: A Contribution to the History of Greece in the Middle Ages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-13089-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Nicol","url_text":"Nicol, Donald M."},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=XIj0FfKto9AC","url_text":"The Despotate of Epiros, 1267–1479: A Contribution to the History of Greece in the Middle Ages"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-13089-9","url_text":"978-0-521-13089-9"}]},{"reference":"Parry, Vernon J.; Cook, M. A. (1976). A History of the Ottoman Empire to 1730: Chapters from the Cambridge History of Islam and the New Cambridge Modern History. CUP Archive. ISBN 978-0-521-09991-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-09991-2","url_text":"978-0-521-09991-2"}]},{"reference":"Setton, Kenneth M.; Hazard, Harry W.; Zacour, Norman P., eds. (1989). A History of the Crusades, Volume VI: The Impact of the Crusades on Europe. Madison and London: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0-299-10740-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_Setton","url_text":"Setton, Kenneth M."},{"url":"https://search.library.wisc.edu/digital/AXM6SCNSNSQBQB85","url_text":"A History of the Crusades, Volume VI: The Impact of the Crusades on Europe"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-299-10740-X","url_text":"0-299-10740-X"}]},{"reference":"Setton, Kenneth M. (1978). The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571), Volume II: The Fifteenth Century. Philadelphia: The American Philosophical Society. ISBN 0-87169-127-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_Setton","url_text":"Setton, Kenneth M."},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=0Sz2VYI0l1IC","url_text":"The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571), Volume II: The Fifteenth Century"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87169-127-2","url_text":"0-87169-127-2"}]},{"reference":"Shaw, Stanford Jay; Shaw, Ezel Kural (1976). History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey: Empire of the Gazis - The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire, 1280–1808. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29163-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/historyofottoman00stan","url_text":"History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey: Empire of the Gazis - The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire, 1280–1808"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29163-7","url_text":"978-0-521-29163-7"}]},{"reference":"Vakalopoulos, Apostolos E. (1968). Ιστορία του νέου ελληνισμού, Τόμος Γ′: Τουρκοκρατία 1453–1669 [History of modern Hellenism, Volume III: Turkish rule 1453–1669] (in Greek). Thessaloniki: Emm. Sfakianakis & Sons.","urls":[]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annals
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Annals
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["1 Scope","2 History","2.1 Ancient","2.2 Medieval","2.3 Modern","3 See also","4 Notes","5 Additional notes","6 References","7 External links"]
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Historical record in which events are arranged year by year
For other uses, see Annals (Tacitus) and Annales (disambiguation).
Annals (Latin: annāles, from annus, "year") are a concise historical record in which events are arranged chronologically, year by year, although the term is also used loosely for any historical record.
Scope
The nature of the distinction between annals and history is a subject based on divisions established by the ancient Romans. Verrius Flaccus, quoted by Aulus Gellius, stated that the etymology of history (from Greek ιστορειν, historein, equated with Latin inspicere, "to inquire in person") properly restricts it to primary sources such as Thucydides's which have come from the author's own observations, while annals record the events of earlier times arranged according to years. White distinguishes annals from chronicles, which organize their events by topics such as the reigns of kings, and from histories, which aim to present and conclude a narrative implying the moral importance of the events recorded. Generally speaking, annalists record events drily, leaving the entries unexplained and equally weighted.
History
Ancient
Main article: Annalists
See also: The Annales Maximi and the Annals of Tacitus.
The chief sources of information in regard to the annals of ancient Rome are two passages in Cicero and in Servius which have been the subject of much discussion. Cicero states that, from the founding of the Republic down to the pontificate of Publius Mucius Scaevola (c. 132 BC), it was usual for the pontifex maximus to record the name of the magistrates and the noteworthy events of each year on a white tablet (an album), which was exhibited in an open place at his house so that the people might read it. Servius states the events were written for each day. In the late Republic, these were known as the Annales Maximi. After the pontificate of Publius, annals were compiled by various unofficial writers, of whom Cicero names Cato, Pictor, and Piso. These annals have been generally regarded as the same with the Commentarii Pontificum cited by Livy, but there seems reason to believe that the two were distinct, with the Commentarii being fuller and more circumstantial. Verrius Flaccus's division of genres is borne out in the common division of Tacitus's works into Annals and Histories, although he did not use those titles to refer to his own works.
Medieval
See also: The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the Chronicle of Ireland the Royal Frankish Annals, and the Annals of the Four Masters, of Ulster, of Innisfallen, of Wales, of Fulda, of St Bertin, and of Lorsch.
Among the early Christians, it was common to establish the date of Easter by asking local Jews for the date of Passover (Nisan 14 in the Jewish calendar) and either using that date or the nearest Sunday to it. By the end of the 3rd century, this date sometimes occurred before the spring equinox and frequently varied from city to city. Following the 325 Council of Nicaea, Easter tables began to be drawn up according to various methods of computing Easter, often running from the Passion until decades or centuries into the future. Beginning in Ireland, Wales, and England in the 7th century, monks began to briefly note important events of the year as marginalia in these tables. Thereafter the compilation of annals became by and large a monastic activity, with the earliest recorded monastic annals being compiled in Ireland and known as the Chronicle of Ireland. Not all early annalistic texts, however, were monastic, and some in fact were made under royal patronage. For example, what is now called the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a text concerned mainly with the activities of kings, was written in annalistic form. Other examples of insular annals, written under various kinds of patronage, include the Annals of the Four Masters, the Annals of Ulster, the Annals of Innisfallen, and the Annals of Wales (Annales Cambriæ).
Introduced by insular missionaries to the continent, these texts were recopied, augmented, and continued, especially in Austrasia. During the 9th-century Carolingian Renaissance, they became the usual form of contemporary history: major examples include the Royal Frankish Annals, the Annals of Fulda (Annales Fuldenses), the Annals of St Bertin (Annales Bertiniani), and the Annals of Lorsch (Annales Laureschamenses). As the annals developed into fuller and more descriptive entries, they became more indistinguishable from chronicles, although the term was still used for various works, such as the Annals of Waverley.
Modern
In modern literature, the term "annals" is similarly loosely applied to works which more or less strictly adhere to the order of years, both in western contexts (English Annual Registers, French Annuaires de la Revue, German Jahrbücher) and to equivalent styles in other cultures (such as the Chinese Spring and Autumn Annals).
It is also applied to various periodicals, particularly peer-reviewed journals in the sciences, after the model of Lavoisier's Annales de chimie et de physique.
See also
Works
Chinese annals
Spring and Autumn Annals
Zizhi Tongjian
Ming Veritable Records
The Annals of Tabari (10th century Tabaristan Abbasid Caliphate)
The German Annals (Annales Alamannici)
Annals of Joseon Dynasty in Korea
The Malay Annals (Sejarah Melayu)
Grotius's Annales et Historia de Rebus Belgicis (1557)
Bishop Ussher's Annals of the Old Testament
Cardinal Baronius's Annales Ecclesiastici (12 vols, 1788–1793)
Hailes's Annals of Scotland from the Accession of Malcolm III to the Accession of the House of Stuart
Chambers's Domestic Annals of Scotland
The annals of the emperors of Japan
Periodicals
The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science
The Annals of Basilica of Sainte-Anne-de-Beaupré
The Annals of Clinical Biochemistry
The Annals of Family Medicine
The IEEE Annals of the History of Computing
The Annals of Human Genetics
The Annals of Internal Medicine
The Annals of Mathematics
The Annals of Probability and Annals of Statistics
The Annals of the Faculty of Law in Belgrade
The Annals of Improbable Research, a parody of other peer-reviewed journals
Notes
^ Latin: per singulos dies.
Additional notes
^ a b c d e f g h i j EB (1878).
^ a b OED (1884).
^ Gellius (177).
^ a b White (1987), p. 16.
^ a b White (1987), p. 7.
^ White (1987), p. 11.
^ Cicero, De Oratore, ii.12.52.
^ a b Servius, ad Aen. i.373.
^ a b c d e f EB (1911).
^ Schwartz (1905), pp. 104 ff.
^ Gibson (1903), p. 100.
^ Eusebius, Hist. Eccl., 7.
^ Flechner (2013), pp. 422 ff.
References
Baynes, T. S., ed. (1878), "Annals" , Encyclopædia Britannica, vol. 2 (9th ed.), New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, pp. 60–61
"annals, n.", Oxford English Dictionary, Vol. I, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1888 , p. 338.
Flechner, Roy (2013), "The Chronicle of Ireland: Then and Now", Early Medieval Europe, 21 (4): 422–54, doi:10.1111/emed.12025, S2CID 162982334
Gellius, Aulus (177), Noctes Atticae, v.18
Gibson, Margaret Dunlop (1903), The Didascalia Apostolorum in Syriac, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Schwartz, E. (1905), Christliche und jüdische Ostertafeln , Berlin{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link). (in German)
White, Hayden V. (1987), The Content of Form: Narrative Discourse and Historical Representation, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press
Attribution:
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Bémont, Charles (1911), "Annals", in Chisholm, Hugh (ed.), Encyclopædia Britannica, vol. 2 (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press, p. 61
External links
"Annals" . The American Cyclopædia. 1879.
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|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Annals (Tacitus)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annals_(Tacitus)"},{"link_name":"Annales (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annales_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_language"},{"link_name":"annāles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/annales"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEB1878-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOED1884-2"},{"link_name":"historical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History"},{"link_name":"chronologically","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronology"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEB1878-1"},{"link_name":"historical record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_record"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOED1884-2"}],"text":"For other uses, see Annals (Tacitus) and Annales (disambiguation).Annals (Latin: annāles, from annus, \"year\")[1][2] are a concise historical record in which events are arranged chronologically, year by year,[1] although the term is also used loosely for any historical record.[2]","title":"Annals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEB1878-1"},{"link_name":"Verrius Flaccus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verrius_Flaccus"},{"link_name":"Aulus Gellius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aulus_Gellius"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGellius177-3"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin"},{"link_name":"Thucydides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thucydides"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEB1878-1"},{"link_name":"White","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayden_White"},{"link_name":"chronicles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronicle"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite198716-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite19877-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite198711-6"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite198716-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite19877-5"}],"text":"The nature of the distinction between annals and history is a subject based on divisions established by the ancient Romans.[1] Verrius Flaccus, quoted by Aulus Gellius,[3] stated that the etymology of history (from Greek ιστορειν, historein, equated with Latin inspicere, \"to inquire in person\") properly restricts it to primary sources such as Thucydides's which have come from the author's own observations, while annals record the events of earlier times arranged according to years.[1] White distinguishes annals from chronicles, which organize their events by topics such as the reigns of kings,[4] and from histories, which aim to present and conclude a narrative implying the moral importance of the events recorded.[5][6][4] Generally speaking, annalists record events drily, leaving the entries unexplained and equally weighted.[5]","title":"Scope"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Annales Maximi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annales_Maximi"},{"link_name":"Annals of Tacitus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annals_(Tacitus)"},{"link_name":"Rome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome"},{"link_name":"Cicero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chickpea-7"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEB1878-1"},{"link_name":"Servius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-server-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEB1911-9"},{"link_name":"founding of the Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Republic"},{"link_name":"Publius Mucius Scaevola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publius_Mucius_Scaevola_(pontifex_maximus)"},{"link_name":"pontifex maximus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifex_maximus"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEB1878-1"},{"link_name":"[n 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Annales Maximi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annales_Maximi"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEB1878-1"},{"link_name":"Cato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cato_the_elder"},{"link_name":"Pictor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Pictor"},{"link_name":"Piso","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucius_Calpurnius_Piso_Frugi_(consul_133_BC)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEB1878-1"},{"link_name":"Commentarii Pontificum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Commentarii_Pontificum&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Livy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livy"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEB1878-1"},{"link_name":"Annals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annals_(Tacitus)"},{"link_name":"Histories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histories_(Tacitus)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEB1878-1"}],"sub_title":"Ancient","text":"See also: The Annales Maximi and the Annals of Tacitus.The chief sources of information in regard to the annals of ancient Rome are two passages in Cicero[7][1] and in Servius[8][9] which have been the subject of much discussion. Cicero states that, from the founding of the Republic down to the pontificate of Publius Mucius Scaevola (c. 132 BC), it was usual for the pontifex maximus to record the name of the magistrates and the noteworthy events of each year on a white tablet (an album), which was exhibited in an open place at his house so that the people might read it.[1] Servius states the events were written for each day.[n 1] In the late Republic, these were known as the Annales Maximi.[1] After the pontificate of Publius, annals were compiled by various unofficial writers, of whom Cicero names Cato, Pictor, and Piso.[1] These annals have been generally regarded as the same with the Commentarii Pontificum cited by Livy, but there seems reason to believe that the two were distinct, with the Commentarii being fuller and more circumstantial.[1] Verrius Flaccus's division of genres is borne out in the common division of Tacitus's works into Annals and Histories,[1] although he did not use those titles to refer to his own works.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Anglo-Saxon Chronicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chronicle"},{"link_name":"Chronicle of Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronicle_of_Ireland"},{"link_name":"Royal Frankish Annals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Frankish_Annals"},{"link_name":"Annals of the Four Masters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annals_of_the_Four_Masters"},{"link_name":"of Ulster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annals_of_Ulster"},{"link_name":"of Innisfallen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annals_of_Innisfallen"},{"link_name":"of Wales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annales_Cambri%C3%A6"},{"link_name":"of Fulda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annales_Fuldenses"},{"link_name":"of St Bertin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annales_Bertiniani"},{"link_name":"of Lorsch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annales_Laureschamenses"},{"link_name":"Easter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easter"},{"link_name":"Passover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passover"},{"link_name":"Nisan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nisan"},{"link_name":"Jewish calendar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_calendar"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz1905104_ff-11"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson1903100-12"},{"link_name":"spring equinox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spring_equinox_(Northern_Hemisphere)"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"325 Council of Nicaea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea"},{"link_name":"Easter tables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easter_tables"},{"link_name":"various methods of computing Easter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computus"},{"link_name":"Passion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passion_of_Christ"},{"link_name":"Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_monasticism"},{"link_name":"marginalia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marginalia"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEB1911-9"},{"link_name":"Chronicle of Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronicle_of_Ireland"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlechner2013422_ff-14"},{"link_name":"Anglo-Saxon Chronicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chronicle"},{"link_name":"Annals of the Four Masters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annals_of_the_Four_Masters"},{"link_name":"Annals of Ulster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annals_of_Ulster"},{"link_name":"Annals of Innisfallen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annals_of_Innisfallen"},{"link_name":"Annals of Wales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annales_Cambri%C3%A6"},{"link_name":"insular missionaries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiberno-Scottish_mission"},{"link_name":"Austrasia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austrasia"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEB1911-9"},{"link_name":"Carolingian Renaissance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolingian_Renaissance"},{"link_name":"Royal Frankish Annals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Frankish_Annals"},{"link_name":"Annals of Fulda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annales_Fuldenses"},{"link_name":"Annals of St Bertin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annales_Bertiniani"},{"link_name":"Annals of Lorsch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annales_Laureschamenses"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEB1911-9"},{"link_name":"chronicles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronicle"},{"link_name":"Annals of Waverley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annals_of_Waverley"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEB1911-9"}],"sub_title":"Medieval","text":"See also: The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the Chronicle of Ireland the Royal Frankish Annals, and the Annals of the Four Masters, of Ulster, of Innisfallen, of Wales, of Fulda, of St Bertin, and of Lorsch.Among the early Christians, it was common to establish the date of Easter by asking local Jews for the date of Passover (Nisan 14 in the Jewish calendar) and either using that date or the nearest Sunday to it.[10][11] By the end of the 3rd century, this date sometimes occurred before the spring equinox and frequently varied from city to city.[12] Following the 325 Council of Nicaea, Easter tables began to be drawn up according to various methods of computing Easter, often running from the Passion until decades or centuries into the future. Beginning in Ireland, Wales, and England in the 7th century, monks began to briefly note important events of the year as marginalia in these tables.[9] Thereafter the compilation of annals became by and large a monastic activity, with the earliest recorded monastic annals being compiled in Ireland and known as the Chronicle of Ireland.[13] Not all early annalistic texts, however, were monastic, and some in fact were made under royal patronage. For example, what is now called the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a text concerned mainly with the activities of kings, was written in annalistic form. Other examples of insular annals, written under various kinds of patronage, include the Annals of the Four Masters, the Annals of Ulster, the Annals of Innisfallen, and the Annals of Wales (Annales Cambriæ).Introduced by insular missionaries to the continent, these texts were recopied, augmented, and continued, especially in Austrasia.[9] During the 9th-century Carolingian Renaissance, they became the usual form of contemporary history: major examples include the Royal Frankish Annals, the Annals of Fulda (Annales Fuldenses), the Annals of St Bertin (Annales Bertiniani), and the Annals of Lorsch (Annales Laureschamenses).[9] As the annals developed into fuller and more descriptive entries, they became more indistinguishable from chronicles, although the term was still used for various works, such as the Annals of Waverley.[9]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEB1911-9"},{"link_name":"Spring and Autumn Annals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_Annals"},{"link_name":"periodicals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodicals"},{"link_name":"peer-reviewed journals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer-reviewed_journal"},{"link_name":"sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciences"},{"link_name":"Lavoisier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier"},{"link_name":"Annales de chimie et de physique","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annales_de_chimie_et_de_physique"}],"sub_title":"Modern","text":"In modern literature, the term \"annals\" is similarly loosely applied to works which more or less strictly adhere to the order of years,[9] both in western contexts (English Annual Registers, French Annuaires de la Revue, German Jahrbücher) and to equivalent styles in other cultures (such as the Chinese Spring and Autumn Annals).It is also applied to various periodicals, particularly peer-reviewed journals in the sciences, after the model of Lavoisier's Annales de chimie et de physique.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_language"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-server-8"}],"text":"^ Latin: per singulos dies.[8]","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEB1878_1-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEB1878_1-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEB1878_1-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEB1878_1-3"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEB1878_1-4"},{"link_name":"f","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEB1878_1-5"},{"link_name":"g","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEB1878_1-6"},{"link_name":"h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEB1878_1-7"},{"link_name":"i","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEB1878_1-8"},{"link_name":"j","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEB1878_1-9"},{"link_name":"EB 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(1987)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFWhite1987"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite198711_6-0"},{"link_name":"White (1987)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFWhite1987"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-chickpea_7-0"},{"link_name":"Cicero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero"},{"link_name":"De Oratore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Oratore"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-server_8-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-server_8-1"},{"link_name":"Servius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEB1911_9-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEB1911_9-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEB1911_9-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEB1911_9-3"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEB1911_9-4"},{"link_name":"f","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEB1911_9-5"},{"link_name":"EB (1911)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFEB1911"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchwartz1905104_ff_11-0"},{"link_name":"Schwartz (1905)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFSchwartz1905"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGibson1903100_12-0"},{"link_name":"Gibson (1903)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFGibson1903"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-13"},{"link_name":"Eusebius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eusebius_of_Caesarea"},{"link_name":"Hist. Eccl.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_History_(Eusebius)"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlechner2013422_ff_14-0"},{"link_name":"Flechner (2013)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFFlechner2013"}],"text":"^ a b c d e f g h i j EB (1878).\n\n^ a b OED (1884).\n\n^ Gellius (177).\n\n^ a b White (1987), p. 16.\n\n^ a b White (1987), p. 7.\n\n^ White (1987), p. 11.\n\n^ Cicero, De Oratore, ii.12.52.\n\n^ a b Servius, ad Aen. i.373.\n\n^ a b c d e f EB (1911).\n\n^ Schwartz (1905), pp. 104 ff.\n\n^ Gibson (1903), p. 100.\n\n^ Eusebius, Hist. Eccl., 7.\n\n^ Flechner (2013), pp. 422 ff.","title":"Additional notes"}]
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[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/For-profit_education
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For-profit education
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["1 Australia","2 China","3 United Kingdom","4 United States","5 See also","6 References","7 Bibliography"]
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Education from a profit-making business
For-profit education (also known as the education services industry or proprietary education) refers to educational institutions operated by private, profit-seeking businesses. For-profit education is common in many parts of the world, making up more than 70% of the higher education sector in Malaysia, Japan, South Korea, Indonesia and the Philippines.
Australia
In 2011, Australia had over 170 for-profit higher education institutions, taking in 6% of the total student population. Their qualifications are legally equivalent to those issued by the public universities, but there have been concerns raised by external audits about the quality assurance and standards in for-profit colleges.
There are also concerns over the low representation of Indigenous students, students from low socio-economic status backgrounds and students from non-English speaking backgrounds in for-profit colleges, which falls behind that in public universities. However, for-profit colleges do give a second chance to many students who would not otherwise have access to higher education. Partnerships between for-profit "pathway" colleges and public universities have also proven effective in recruiting overseas students. In this model, students spend a year at the pathway college before transferring to the university for two years to complete their degree; 70% of students at the pathway colleges are foreign, going on to make up 45% of foreign students recruited by the partner universities.
China
In 2021, China banned for-profit tutoring companies.
United Kingdom
The UK does not permit for-profit schools (independent schools are mostly non-profit making trusts), but there are a number of for-profit institutions in higher education. In 2013, Michael Gove, then secretary of state for education, was said to have drawn up plans to allow free schools and academies to become for-profit businesses, and in 2014, his successor Nicky Morgan refused to rule out for-profit schools. However, the Conservative manifesto for the 2015 General Election committed the party not to introduce for-profit schools, and after the Conservative victory, Morgan ruled out any place for for-profit schools in the UK education system.
In higher education, by contrast, there are a large number of for-profit providers. A study by the Department for Business, Innovation and Skills identified 674 privately funded institutions and estimated that the majority were for-profit businesses (based on survey returns from 249 providers, of which 136 identified as for-profit). Most of the 136 for-profit colleges that returned the survey were either non-specialist (56) or specialized in business, management and accountancy (49). There are three for-profit universities in the UK: the University of Law, BPP University and Arden University, which are the only for-profit institutions with degree-awarding powers.
United States
See also: For-profit higher education in the United States
There are two types of for-profit schools. The first major category of for-profit schools is post-secondary institutions, which operate as businesses, receiving fees from each student they enroll. The second type of for-profit schools, which is less prevalent in the United States, are K–12 private schools which often operate as businesses.
However, in many public schools, private and for-profit forces still exist. One such force is known as an education management organization (EMO); these are management organizations for primary and secondary educational institutions. EMOs work with school districts or charter schools, using public funds to finance their operations. They typically offer schools back-office services, but may also provide teacher training, facility support, and other management related services. In the 2018–19 school year, roughly 10% of charter schools contracted with a for-profit EMO, while about 30% contracted with a non-profit charter management organization.
While supporters of EMOs argue that the profit motive encourages efficiency, this arrangement has also drawn controversy and criticism.
Kevin Carey of the New America Foundation said in a 2010 column in The Chronicle of Higher Education that "For-profits exist in large part to fix educational market failures left by traditional institutions, and they profit by serving students that public and private nonprofit institutions too often ignore." He also said that "There's no doubt that the worst for-profits are ruthlessly exploiting the commodified college degree. But they didn't commodify it in the first place."
See also
List of for-profit universities and colleges
List of unaccredited higher education institutions in Switzerland
Proprietary colleges
References
^ a b c Mahsood Shah; Sid Nair (2013). "Private for-profit higher education in Australia: Widening access, participation and opportunities for public-private collaboration". Higher Education Research and Development. 32 (5): 820–832. doi:10.1080/07294360.2013.777030. S2CID 144381078.
^ Fineman, Josh (Jul 25, 2021). "China confirms official ban on for-profit school tutoring companies". Seeking Alpha. Retrieved 25 July 2021.
^ Jon Stone (18 May 2015). "For-profit schools have no place in Britain, says Tory Education Secretary Nicky Morgan". The Independent.
^ "Privately funded providers of higher education in the UK" (PDF). Department for Business Innovation and Skills. June 2013. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 18, 2023.
^ Tristram Hughes; Aaron Porter; Stephen Jones; Jonathan Sheen (June 2013). Privately funded providers of higher education in the UK (Report). Department for Business Innovation and Skills.
^ Jamison White (August 11, 2020). "Are There For-Profit Charter Schools? Dispelling The Myth". The National Alliance for Public Charter Schools.
^ Kozol, Jonathan. The Shame of the Nation. Three Rivers Press, 2005. See chapter 4 "Preparing Minds for Markets" and others.
^ Kevin Carey (July 25, 2010). "Why Do You Think They're Called For-Profit Colleges?". The Chronicle of Higher Education.
Bibliography
Brown, H.; Henig, J.; Holyoke, T.; Lacireno-Paquet, N. (2004). "Scale of Operations and Locus of Control in Market- Versus Mission-Oriented Charter Schools" Social Science Quarterly; 85 (5) Special Issue Dec 2004. pp. 1035–1077
Halperin, D. (2014). Stealing America's Future: How For-Profit Colleges Scam Taxpayers and Ruin Students' Lives
Hentschke, G. et al. (2010). For-Profit Colleges and Universities: Their Markets, Regulation, Performance, and Place in Higher Education
Mettler, S. (2014). "Degrees of Inequality"
Blumenstyk, G. (2014). American Higher Education in Crisis?: What Everyone Needs to Know
Breneman, D. et al. (2006). Earnings from Learning: The Rise of For-profit Universities
Halperin, D. (2014). Stealing America's Future: How For-Profit Colleges Scam Taxpayers and Ruin Students' Lives
Hentschke, G. et al. (2010). For-Profit Colleges and Universities: Their Markets, Regulation, Performance, and Place in Higher Education
Kinser, K. (2006). From Main Street to Wall Street: The Transformation of For-Profit Higher Education
McGuire, M. (2012). Subprime Education: For-profit Colleges and the Problem with Title IV Student Aid Duke Law Journal, 62 (1): 119-160
Morey, A. (2004). Globalization and the Emergence of For-profit Education
Murphy, J. (2013). Mission Forsaken—The University of Phoenix Affair With Wall Street
Natale, S., Libertella, A., & Doran, C. (2015;2013). "For-profit education: The sleep of ethical reason." Journal of Business Ethics, 126(3), 415-421. doi:10.1007/s10551-013-1938-1
Ruch, R. (2003). Higher Ed Inc.: The Rise of the For-Profit University
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Their qualifications are legally equivalent to those issued by the public universities, but there have been concerns raised by external audits about the quality assurance and standards in for-profit colleges.[1]There are also concerns over the low representation of Indigenous students, students from low socio-economic status backgrounds and students from non-English speaking backgrounds in for-profit colleges, which falls behind that in public universities. However, for-profit colleges do give a second chance to many students who would not otherwise have access to higher education. Partnerships between for-profit \"pathway\" colleges and public universities have also proven effective in recruiting overseas students. In this model, students spend a year at the pathway college before transferring to the university for two years to complete their degree; 70% of students at the pathway colleges are foreign, going on to make up 45% of foreign students recruited by the partner universities.[1]","title":"Australia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"for-profit tutoring companies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cram_school"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"In 2021, China banned for-profit tutoring companies.[2]","title":"China"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"higher education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_education_in_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Michael Gove","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Gove"},{"link_name":"secretary of state for education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary_of_state_for_education"},{"link_name":"free schools","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_school_(England)"},{"link_name":"academies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_(English_school)"},{"link_name":"Nicky Morgan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicky_Morgan"},{"link_name":"Conservative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_Party_(UK)"},{"link_name":"2015 General Election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_United_Kingdom_general_election"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Department for Business, Innovation and Skills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_for_Business,_Innovation_and_Skills"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"University of Law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Law"},{"link_name":"BPP University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BPP_University"},{"link_name":"Arden University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arden_University"}],"text":"The UK does not permit for-profit schools (independent schools are mostly non-profit making trusts), but there are a number of for-profit institutions in higher education. In 2013, Michael Gove, then secretary of state for education, was said to have drawn up plans to allow free schools and academies to become for-profit businesses, and in 2014, his successor Nicky Morgan refused to rule out for-profit schools. However, the Conservative manifesto for the 2015 General Election committed the party not to introduce for-profit schools, and after the Conservative victory, Morgan ruled out any place for for-profit schools in the UK education system.[3]In higher education, by contrast, there are a large number of for-profit providers. A study by the Department for Business, Innovation and Skills identified 674 privately funded institutions and estimated that the majority were for-profit businesses (based on survey returns from 249 providers, of which 136 identified as for-profit).[4] Most of the 136 for-profit colleges that returned the survey were either non-specialist (56) or specialized in business, management and accountancy (49).[5] There are three for-profit universities in the UK: the University of Law, BPP University and Arden University, which are the only for-profit institutions with degree-awarding powers.","title":"United Kingdom"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"For-profit higher education in the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/For-profit_higher_education_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"schools","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School"},{"link_name":"post-secondary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-secondary"},{"link_name":"private schools","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_schools"},{"link_name":"education management organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_management_organization"},{"link_name":"school districts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_district"},{"link_name":"charter schools","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charter_school"},{"link_name":"charter management organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charter_management_organization"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jamison_White-6"},{"link_name":"profit motive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Profit_motive"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Kevin Carey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin_Carey"},{"link_name":"New America Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_America_Foundation"},{"link_name":"The Chronicle of Higher Education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Chronicle_of_Higher_Education"},{"link_name":"market failures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_failure"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kevin_Carey-8"}],"text":"See also: For-profit higher education in the United StatesThere are two types of for-profit schools. The first major category of for-profit schools is post-secondary institutions, which operate as businesses, receiving fees from each student they enroll. The second type of for-profit schools, which is less prevalent in the United States, are K–12 private schools which often operate as businesses.However, in many public schools, private and for-profit forces still exist. One such force is known as an education management organization (EMO); these are management organizations for primary and secondary educational institutions. EMOs work with school districts or charter schools, using public funds to finance their operations. They typically offer schools back-office services, but may also provide teacher training, facility support, and other management related services. In the 2018–19 school year, roughly 10% of charter schools contracted with a for-profit EMO, while about 30% contracted with a non-profit charter management organization.[6]While supporters of EMOs argue that the profit motive encourages efficiency, this arrangement has also drawn controversy and criticism.[7]Kevin Carey of the New America Foundation said in a 2010 column in The Chronicle of Higher Education that \"For-profits exist in large part to fix educational market failures left by traditional institutions, and they profit by serving students that public and private nonprofit institutions too often ignore.\" He also said that \"There's no doubt that the worst for-profits are ruthlessly exploiting the commodified college degree. But they didn't commodify it in the first place.\"[8]","title":"United States"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Social Science Quarterly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Science_Quarterly"},{"link_name":"Journal of Business Ethics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Business_Ethics"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1007/s10551-013-1938-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10551-013-1938-1"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Schools"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Schools"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Schools"},{"link_name":"School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School"},{"link_name":"educational stage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_stage"},{"link_name":"Early childhood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_childhood_education"},{"link_name":"Preschool","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preschool"},{"link_name":"Pre-kindergarten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-kindergarten"},{"link_name":"Kindergarten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kindergarten"},{"link_name":"Primary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_education"},{"link_name":"First school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_school"},{"link_name":"Infant school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infant_school"},{"link_name":"Junior school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junior_school"},{"link_name":"Primary school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_school"},{"link_name":"Secondary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_education"},{"link_name":"Adult high school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adult_high_school"},{"link_name":"Cadet college","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadet_college"},{"link_name":"College-preparatory school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College-preparatory_school"},{"link_name":"Collegiate institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collegiate_institute"},{"link_name":"Comprehensive high school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comprehensive_high_school"},{"link_name":"Comprehensive school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comprehensive_school"},{"link_name":"Continuation high school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuation_high_school"},{"link_name":"Grammar school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammar_school"},{"link_name":"Gymnasium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gymnasium_(school)"},{"link_name":"Hauptschule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hauptschule"},{"link_name":"Lyceum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyceum"},{"link_name":"Maths school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maths_school"},{"link_name":"Minor seminary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minor_seminary"},{"link_name":"Secondary school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_school"},{"link_name":"Sixth form college","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sixth_form_college"},{"link_name":"Studio school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Studio_school"},{"link_name":"University technical college","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_technical_college"},{"link_name":"Upper school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_school"},{"link_name":"Tertiary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertiary_education"},{"link_name":"Professional school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professional_school"},{"link_name":"Technical school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_school"},{"link_name":"Vocational school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocational_school"},{"link_name":"Higher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_education"},{"link_name":"Academy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy"},{"link_name":"College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College"},{"link_name":"Community college","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_college"},{"link_name":"Graduate school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postgraduate_education"},{"link_name":"Institute of technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_technology"},{"link_name":"Junior college","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junior_college"},{"link_name":"Liberal arts college","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_arts_college"},{"link_name":"Research university","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_university"},{"link_name":"Residential college","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Residential_college"},{"link_name":"Seminary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seminary"},{"link_name":"University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University"},{"link_name":"Collegiate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collegiate_university"},{"link_name":"Upper division college","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_division_college"},{"link_name":"Vocational university","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocational_university"},{"link_name":"All-through school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All-through_school"},{"link_name":"Middle school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_school"},{"link_name":"One-room school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One-room_school"},{"link_name":"Ranch school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranch_school"},{"link_name":"Academy (England)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_(English_school)"},{"link_name":"Charter school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charter_school"},{"link_name":"Community day school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_day_school"},{"link_name":"Comprehensive school (British)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comprehensive_school_(England_and_Wales)"},{"link_name":"For-profit education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Free education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_education"},{"link_name":"Free school (England)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_school_(England)"},{"link_name":"Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute"},{"link_name":"Private school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_school"},{"link_name":"UK private school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_schools_in_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"preparatory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preparatory_school_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"public","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_school_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"private","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_university"},{"link_name":"public","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_university"},{"link_name":"international","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_university"},{"link_name":"Selective school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_school"},{"link_name":"Separate school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separate_school"},{"link_name":"Sink school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sink_school"},{"link_name":"Specialist school (United Kingdom)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specialist_schools_in_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"State or public school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_school"},{"link_name":"State-integrated school (New Zealand)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State-integrated_school"},{"link_name":"Alternative school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_school"},{"link_name":"Democratic education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_education"},{"link_name":"Anarchistic free school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchistic_free_school"},{"link_name":"Sudbury school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudbury_school"},{"link_name":"International school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_school"},{"link_name":"Magnet school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnet_school"},{"link_name":"Music school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_school"},{"link_name":"Single-sex education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-sex_education"},{"link_name":"Specialist school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specialist_school"},{"link_name":"Vocal school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocal_school"},{"link_name":"Progressive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_education"},{"link_name":"Free school movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_school_movement"},{"link_name":"Folk high school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folk_high_school"},{"link_name":"Laboratory school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_school"},{"link_name":"Montessori school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montessori_education"},{"link_name":"Waldorf school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waldorf_education"},{"link_name":"Religious","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_school"},{"link_name":"Bible college","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible_college"},{"link_name":"Catholic school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_school"},{"link_name":"Christian school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_school"},{"link_name":"Female seminary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Female_seminary"},{"link_name":"Gurukula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gurukula"},{"link_name":"Parochial school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parochial_school"},{"link_name":"Madrasa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madrasa"},{"link_name":"Yeshiva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeshiva"},{"link_name":"Boarding school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boarding_school"},{"link_name":"Day school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Day_school"},{"link_name":"Distance education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distance_education"},{"link_name":"Homeschooling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeschooling"},{"link_name":"Prison education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prison_education"},{"link_name":"Virtual school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_school"},{"link_name":"College preparatory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College-preparatory_school"},{"link_name":"Compensatory education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compensatory_education"},{"link_name":"Compulsory education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compulsory_education"},{"link_name":"Continuing education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuing_education"},{"link_name":"Further education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Further_education"},{"link_name":"Gifted education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gifted_education"},{"link_name":"Inclusive education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inclusive_education"},{"link_name":"Remedial education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remedial_education"},{"link_name":"Special education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_education"},{"link_name":"Ancient higher-learning institutions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_higher-learning_institutions"},{"link_name":"Platonic Academy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platonic_Academy"},{"link_name":"Lyceum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyceum_(classical)"},{"link_name":"Monastic school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monastic_school"},{"link_name":"Cathedral school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathedral_school"},{"link_name":"Medieval university","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_university"},{"link_name":"indigenous peoples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_peoples"},{"link_name":"in Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Indian_residential_school_system"},{"link_name":"in New Zealand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_schools"},{"link_name":"in South Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_of_Bantu_Education"},{"link_name":"in the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Indian_boarding_schools"},{"link_name":"in Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedge_school"},{"link_name":"in Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krifo_scholio"},{"link_name":"in South Tyrol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katakombenschule"},{"link_name":"K–12","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%E2%80%9312"},{"link_name":"Educational institution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_institution"},{"link_name":"Schools portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Schools"},{"link_name":"Category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:School_types"},{"link_name":"Commons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Schools_by_type"}],"text":"Brown, H.; Henig, J.; Holyoke, T.; Lacireno-Paquet, N. (2004). \"Scale of Operations and Locus of Control in Market- Versus Mission-Oriented Charter Schools\" Social Science Quarterly; 85 (5) Special Issue Dec 2004. pp. 1035–1077\nHalperin, D. (2014). Stealing America's Future: How For-Profit Colleges Scam Taxpayers and Ruin Students' Lives\nHentschke, G. et al. (2010). For-Profit Colleges and Universities: Their Markets, Regulation, Performance, and Place in Higher Education\nMettler, S. (2014). \"Degrees of Inequality\"\nBlumenstyk, G. (2014). American Higher Education in Crisis?: What Everyone Needs to Know\nBreneman, D. et al. (2006). Earnings from Learning: The Rise of For-profit Universities\nHalperin, D. (2014). Stealing America's Future: How For-Profit Colleges Scam Taxpayers and Ruin Students' Lives\nHentschke, G. et al. (2010). For-Profit Colleges and Universities: Their Markets, Regulation, Performance, and Place in Higher Education\nKinser, K. (2006). From Main Street to Wall Street: The Transformation of For-Profit Higher Education\nMcGuire, M. (2012). Subprime Education: For-profit Colleges and the Problem with Title IV Student Aid Duke Law Journal, 62 (1): 119-160\nMorey, A. (2004). Globalization and the Emergence of For-profit Education\nMurphy, J. (2013). Mission Forsaken—The University of Phoenix Affair With Wall Street\nNatale, S., Libertella, A., & Doran, C. (2015;2013). \"For-profit education: The sleep of ethical reason.\" Journal of Business Ethics, 126(3), 415-421. doi:10.1007/s10551-013-1938-1\nRuch, R. (2003). Higher Ed Inc.: The Rise of the For-Profit UniversityvteSchool typesBy educational stageEarly childhood\nPreschool\nPre-kindergarten\nKindergarten\nPrimary\nFirst school\nInfant school\nJunior school\nPrimary school / Elementary school\nSecondary\nAdult high school\nCadet college\nCollege-preparatory school\nCollegiate institute\nComprehensive high school\nComprehensive school\nContinuation high school\nGrammar school\nGymnasium\nHauptschule\nLyceum\nMaths school\nMinor seminary\nSecondary school / High school\nSixth form college\nStudio school\nUniversity technical college\nUpper school\nTertiary\nProfessional school\nTechnical school\nVocational school\nHigher\nAcademy\nCollege\nCommunity college\nGraduate school\nInstitute of technology\nJunior college\nLiberal arts college\nResearch university\nResidential college\nSeminary\nUniversity\nCollegiate\nUpper division college\nVocational university\nCombined\nAll-through school\nMiddle school\nOne-room school\nRanch school\nBy funding / eligibility\nAcademy (England)\nCharter school\nCommunity day school\nComprehensive school (British)\nFor-profit education\nFree education\nFree school (England)\nInstitute\nPrivate school\nUK private school\npreparatory\npublic\nUniversity\nprivate\npublic\ninternational\nSelective school\nSeparate school\nSink school\nSpecialist school (United Kingdom)\nState or public school\nState-integrated school (New Zealand)\nBy style / purpose\nAlternative school\nDemocratic education\nAnarchistic free school\nSudbury school\nInternational school\nMagnet school\nMusic school\nSingle-sex education\nSpecialist school\nVocal school\nProgressive\nFree school movement\nFolk high school\nLaboratory school\nMontessori school\nWaldorf school\nReligious\nBible college\nCatholic school\nChristian school\nFemale seminary\nGurukula\nParochial school\nMadrasa\nYeshiva\nBy location\nBoarding school\nDay school\nDistance education\nHomeschooling\nPrison education\nVirtual school\nBy scope\nCollege preparatory\nCompensatory education\nCompulsory education\nContinuing education\nFurther education\nGifted education\nInclusive education\nRemedial education\nSpecial education\nHistorical\nAncient higher-learning institutions\nPlatonic Academy\nLyceum\nMonastic school\nCathedral school\nMedieval university\nSchools imposed onindigenous peoples\nin Canada\nin New Zealand\nin South Africa\nin the United States\nInformal or illegal\nin Ireland\nin Greece\nin South Tyrol\nRelated topics\nK–12\nEducational institution\n\n Schools portal\n Category\n Commons","title":"Bibliography"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"List of for-profit universities and colleges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_for-profit_universities_and_colleges"},{"title":"List of unaccredited higher education institutions in Switzerland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unaccredited_higher_education_institutions_in_Switzerland"},{"title":"Proprietary colleges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprietary_colleges"}]
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[{"reference":"Mahsood Shah; Sid Nair (2013). \"Private for-profit higher education in Australia: Widening access, participation and opportunities for public-private collaboration\". Higher Education Research and Development. 32 (5): 820–832. doi:10.1080/07294360.2013.777030. S2CID 144381078.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263720823","url_text":"\"Private for-profit higher education in Australia: Widening access, participation and opportunities for public-private collaboration\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F07294360.2013.777030","url_text":"10.1080/07294360.2013.777030"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144381078","url_text":"144381078"}]},{"reference":"Fineman, Josh (Jul 25, 2021). \"China confirms official ban on for-profit school tutoring companies\". Seeking Alpha. Retrieved 25 July 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://seekingalpha.com/news/3718825-china-confirms-official-ban-on-for-profit-school-tutoring-companies?source=content_type%3Areact%7Csource%3Ainbox_comment_notification&v=1627225616#comment-89577587","url_text":"\"China confirms official ban on for-profit school tutoring companies\""}]},{"reference":"Jon Stone (18 May 2015). \"For-profit schools have no place in Britain, says Tory Education Secretary Nicky Morgan\". The Independent.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/for-profit-schools-have-no-place-in-britain-says-tory-education-secretary-nicky-morgan-10257148.html","url_text":"\"For-profit schools have no place in Britain, says Tory Education Secretary Nicky Morgan\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Independent","url_text":"The Independent"}]},{"reference":"\"Privately funded providers of higher education in the UK\" (PDF). Department for Business Innovation and Skills. June 2013. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 18, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/207128/bis-13-900-privately-funded-providers-of-higher-education-in-the-UK.pdf","url_text":"\"Privately funded providers of higher education in the UK\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230518003604/https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/207128/bis-13-900-privately-funded-providers-of-higher-education-in-the-UK.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Tristram Hughes; Aaron Porter; Stephen Jones; Jonathan Sheen (June 2013). Privately funded providers of higher education in the UK (Report). Department for Business Innovation and Skills.","urls":[{"url":"https://core.ac.uk/display/15171732","url_text":"Privately funded providers of higher education in the UK"}]},{"reference":"Jamison White (August 11, 2020). \"Are There For-Profit Charter Schools? Dispelling The Myth\". The National Alliance for Public Charter Schools.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.publiccharters.org/latest-news/2020/08/11/are-there-profit-charter-schools-dispelling-myth","url_text":"\"Are There For-Profit Charter Schools? Dispelling The Myth\""}]},{"reference":"Kevin Carey (July 25, 2010). \"Why Do You Think They're Called For-Profit Colleges?\". The Chronicle of Higher Education.","urls":[{"url":"http://chronicle.com/article/Why-Do-You-Think-Theyre/123660/","url_text":"\"Why Do You Think They're Called For-Profit Colleges?\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArmaLite_AR-15
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ArmaLite AR-15
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["1 History","1.1 Scaling down the ArmaLite AR-10","1.2 Colt era","1.3 Colt ArmaLite AR-15 (Model 601 and 602)","2 Design details","3 See also","4 Notes","5 References","6 Further reading","7 External links"]
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American assault rifle
This article is about the select-fire military rifle. For semi-automatic civilian rifles based on this design, see Colt AR-15 and AR-15–style rifle. For other uses, see AR-15 (disambiguation) and Black rifle.
ArmaLite AR-15 ArmaLite AR-15 with 25-round magazineTypeAssault riflePlace of originUnited StatesService historyIn service1962–1963WarsVietnam War Indonesia–Malaysia confrontationProduction historyDesignerEugene Stoner (AR-10)L. James SullivanBob FremontDesigned1956Manufacturer
ArmaLite
Colt's Manufacturing Company
Produced1959–1964SpecificationsMass6.55 lb (2.97 kg) with 20-round magazineLength39 in (991 mm)Barrel length20 in (508 mm)Cartridge.223 RemingtonActionGas-operated, rotating bolt (direct expansion of gas on surfaces of bolt carrier)Muzzle velocity3,300 ft/s (1,006 m/s)Effective firing range500 yd (457 m)SightsIron sights
The ArmaLite AR-15 is a select-fire, gas-operated, air-cooled, magazine-fed rifle manufactured in the United States between 1959 and 1964. Designed by American gun manufacturer ArmaLite in 1956, it was based on its AR-10 rifle. The ArmaLite AR-15 was designed to be a lightweight rifle and to fire a new high-velocity, lightweight, small-caliber cartridge to allow infantrymen to carry more ammunition.
In 1959, ArmaLite sold its rights to the AR-15 to Colt due to financial difficulties and limitations in terms of manpower and production capacity. After modifications (most notably, the charging handle was re-located from under the carrying handle like AR-10 to the rear of the receiver), Colt rebranded it the Colt 601, however, it still carried the Armalite markings due to contractual obligations to Armalite/Fairchild Aircraft Co. Colt marketed the redesigned rifle to various military services around the world and was eventually adopted by the U.S. military in January 1962 and subsequently designated as M16 rifle in December 1963, which went into production and service in 1964.
Colt continued to use the AR-15 trademark for its line of semi-automatic-only rifles marketed to civilian and law-enforcement customers, known as Colt AR-15. The Armalite AR-15 is the parent of a variety of Colt AR-15 and M16 rifle variants.
History
After World War II, the United States military started looking for a single automatic rifle to replace the M1 Garand, M1/M2 Carbines, M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle, M3 "Grease Gun" and Thompson submachine gun. However, early experiments with select-fire versions of the M1 Garand proved disappointing. During the Korean War, the select-fire M2 Carbine largely replaced the submachine gun in US service and became the most widely used Carbine variant. However, combat experience suggested that the .30 Carbine round was under-powered. American weapons designers concluded that an intermediate round was necessary, and recommended a small-caliber, high-velocity cartridge.
However, senior American commanders having faced fanatical enemies and experienced major logistical problems during WWII and the Korean War, insisted that a single powerful .30 caliber cartridge be developed, that could not only be used by the new automatic rifle, but by the new general-purpose machine gun (GPMG) in concurrent development. This culminated in the development of the 7.62×51mm NATO cartridge.
The United States Army then began testing several rifles to replace the obsolete M1 Garand. Springfield Armory's T44E4 and heavier T44E5 were essentially updated versions of the Garand chambered for the new 7.62×51mm NATO round, while Fabrique Nationale submitted their FN FAL as the T48. ArmaLite entered the competition late, hurriedly submitting several AR-10 prototype rifles in the fall of 1956 to the United States Army's Springfield Armory for testing.
ArmaLite AR-10 made by Artillerie Inrichtingen (A.I.)
The ArmaLite AR-10 featured an innovative combination of a straight-line barrel/stock design, a new patent-filed gas-operated bolt, forged aluminum alloy receivers and with phenolic composite stocks resulting in a small arm significantly easier to control in automatic fire than other infantry rifles of the day. It had rugged elevated sights, an oversized aluminum flash suppressor and recoil compensator, and an adjustable gas system. The final prototype, featured an upper and lower receiver with the now-familiar hinge and takedown pins, and the charging handle was on top of the receiver placed inside of the carry handle. For a 1950s 7.62×51mm NATO rifle, the AR-10 was incredibly lightweight at only 6.85 pounds (3.11 kilograms) empty. Initial comments by Springfield Armory test staff were favorable, and some testers commented that the AR-10 was the best lightweight automatic rifle ever tested by the Armory.
In the end, the United States Army chose the T44, which entered service as the M14 rifle, which was an improved M1 Garand with a 20-round magazine and automatic fire capability. The U.S. also adopted the M60 general purpose machine gun (GPMG). Its NATO partners adopted the FN FAL and HK G3 rifles, and the FN MAG and Rheinmetall MG3 GPMGs.
The first confrontations between the AK-47 and the M14 came in the early part of the Vietnam War. Battlefield reports indicated that the M14 was uncontrollable in full-auto and that soldiers could not carry enough ammo to maintain fire superiority over the AK-47. While the M2 Carbine offered a high rate of fire, it was under-powered and ultimately outclassed by the AK-47. A replacement was needed: a medium between the traditional preference for high-powered rifles, such as the M14, and the lightweight firepower of the M2 Carbine.
Scaling down the ArmaLite AR-10
As a result, the Army was forced to reconsider a 1957 request by General Willard G. Wyman, commander of the U.S. Continental Army Command (CONARC), to develop a .223 caliber (5.56 mm) select-fire rifle weighing 6 lb (2.7 kg) when loaded with a 20-round magazine. The 5.56mm round had to penetrate a standard U.S. M1 helmet at 500 yards (460 meters) and retain a velocity in excess of the speed of sound, while matching or exceeding the wounding ability of the .30 Carbine cartridge. This request ultimately resulted in the development of a scaled-down version of the ArmaLite AR-10, called the ArmaLite AR-15 rifle.
In 1958, ArmaLite submitted ten AR-15s and one hundred 25-round magazines for CONARC testing. The tests found that a five to seven man team armed with AR-15s had the same firepower as an 11-man team armed with M14s and soldiers armed with AR-15s could also carry three times more ammunition than those armed with M14s (649 rounds vs. 220 rounds). The AR-15 was found to be three times more reliable than the M14 rifle. However, General Maxwell Taylor, then Army Chief of Staff, "vetoed" the AR-15 in favor of the M14. In 1959, ArmaLite—now frustrated with the lack of results and suffering ongoing financial difficulties—sold its rights to the AR-10 and AR-15 to Colt.
Early ArmaLite AR-15 without flash hider or magazine
Early ArmaLite AR-15 without magazine or flash hider
ArmaLite AR-15 with 25-round magazine and flash hider
Colt era
After acquiring the AR-15, Colt promptly redesigned the rifle to facilitate mass production. Based on the final ArmaLite design, most notably, the charging handle was re-located from under the carrying handle, like the earlier AR-10 to the rear of the receiver, like the later M16 rifle. Colt then renamed and rebranded the rifle "Colt ArmaLite AR-15 Model 01". After a Far East tour, Colt made its first sale of Colt ArmaLite AR-15 rifles to Malaya on September 30, 1959. Colt manufactured their first batch of 300 Colt ArmaLite AR-15 rifles in December 1959. Colt would go on to market the Colt ArmaLite AR-15 rifle to military services around the world.
In July 1960, General Curtis LeMay, then Vice Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force, was impressed by a demonstration of the AR-15 and ordered 8500 rifles. In the meantime, the Army would continue testing the AR-15, finding that the intermediate cartridge .223 (5.56 mm) rifle is much easier to shoot than the standard 7.62×51mm NATO M14 rifle. In 1961 marksmanship testing, the U.S. Army found that 43% of AR-15 shooters achieved Expert, while only 22% of M14 rifle shooters did so. Also, a lower recoil impulse, allows for more controllable automatic weapons fire.
In the summer of 1961, General LeMay was promoted to Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force and requested an additional 80,000 AR-15s. However, General Maxwell D. Taylor, now Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, (who repeatedly clashed with LeMay) advised President John F. Kennedy that having two different calibers within the military system at the same time would be problematic and the request was rejected. In October 1961, William Godel, a senior man at the Advanced Research Projects Agency, sent 10 AR-15s to South Vietnam. The reception was enthusiastic, and in 1962, another 1,000 AR-15s were sent. United States Army Special Forces personnel filed battlefield reports lavishly praising the AR-15 and the stopping-power of the 5.56 mm cartridge and pressed for its adoption.
By intentionally choosing a slow twist rate the 55 grain bullet used in the 5.56 Ball M193 cartridge was only just stable in flight. The damage caused by the 5.56 mm bullet was originally believed to be caused by instantaneous "tumbling" on impact and render a wide, incapacitating wound due to the slow 1 in 14-inch (360 mm) rifling twist rate. However, any pointed lead core bullet will "tumble" after penetration in flesh, because the center of gravity is towards the rear of the bullet. The large wounds observed by soldiers in Vietnam were actually caused by bullet fragmentation, which was created by a combination of the bullet's velocity and construction. These wounds were so devastating that the photographs remained classified into the 1980s.
However, despite overwhelming evidence that the AR-15 could bring more firepower to bear than the M14, the Army opposed the adoption of the new rifle. U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara now had two conflicting views: the USAF's (General LeMay's) repeated requests for additional AR-15s and the ARPA report favoring the AR-15, versus the Army's position favoring the M14. Even President Kennedy expressed concern, so McNamara ordered Secretary of the Army Cyrus Vance to test the M14, the AR-15 and the AK-47. The Army reported that only the M14 was suitable for service, but Vance wondered about the impartiality of those conducting the tests. He ordered the Army Inspector General to investigate the testing methods used; the Inspector General confirmed that the testers were biased towards the M14.
In January 1963, Secretary McNamara received reports that M14 production was insufficient to meet the needs of the armed forces and ordered a halt to M14 production. At the time, the AR-15 was the only rifle that could fulfill a requirement of a "universal" infantry weapon for issue to all services. McNamara ordered its adoption, despite receiving reports of several deficiencies, most notably the lack of a chrome-plated chamber.
After minor modifications, the new redesigned rifle was renamed the "Rifle, Caliber 5.56 mm, M16". Meanwhile, the Army relented and recommended the adoption of the M16 for jungle warfare operations. However, the Army insisted on the inclusion of a forward assist to help push the bolt into battery in the event that a cartridge failed to seat into the chamber. The Air Force, Colt and Eugene Stoner believed that the addition of a forward assist was an unjustified expense. As a result, the design was split into two variants: the Air Force's M16 without the forward assist, and the "XM16E1 (AKA: M16A1)" with the forward assist for the other service branches.
In November 1963, McNamara approved the U.S. Army's order of 85,000 XM16E1s; and to appease LeMay, the Air Force was granted an order for another 19,000 M16s. In March 1964, the M16 rifle went into production and the Army accepted delivery of the first batch of 2129 rifles later that year, and an additional 57,240 rifles the following year.
The Colt ArmaLite AR-15 was discontinued with the adoption of the M16 rifle. Most AR-15 rifles in U.S. service have long ago been upgraded to M16 configuration. The Colt ArmaLite AR-15 was also used by the United States Secret Service and other U.S. federal, state and local law enforcement agencies.
Shortly after the United States military adopted the M16 rifle, Colt introduced its line semi-automatic-only Colt AR-15 rifles, which it markets to civilians and law enforcement. Colt continues to use the AR-15 name for these rifles.
Colt ArmaLite AR-15 Model 01 with 20-round magazine
Colt ArmaLite AR-15 Model 02 without magazine and new 1 in 12-inch (300 mm) rifling twist rate
An early M16 rifle without forward assist
Secret Service agent George W. Hickey with an ArmaLite AR-15 Model 01 moments after President Kennedy was shot in Dallas on November 22, 1963
Colt ArmaLite AR-15 (Model 601 and 602)
Colt's first two models produced after the acquisition of the rifle from ArmaLite were the 601 and 602, and these rifles were in many ways clones of the original ArmaLite rifle (in fact, these rifles were often found stamped Colt ArmaLite AR-15, Property of the U.S. Government caliber .223, with no reference to them being M16s).
The 601 and 602 are virtually identical to the later M16 rifle without the forward-assist. Like the later M16 rifle their charging handle was re-located from under the carrying handle like AR-10 to the rear of the receiver. They were equipped with triangular fore-stocks and occasionally green or brown furniture. Their front sight had a more triangular shape. They had flat lower receivers without raised surfaces around the magazine well. Their bolt hold open device lacked a raised lower engagement surface and had a slanted and serrated surface that had to be engaged with a bare thumb, index finger, or thumb nail because of the lack of this surface. Their fire-selector was also changed from upward = safe, backward = semi-auto and forward = full-auto, to the now familiar forward = safe, upward = semi-auto, and backward = full-auto of the M16 rifle.
The only major difference between the 601 and 602 is the switch from the original four grooves, right-hand 1:14-inch (1:355.6 mm or 64 calibers) rifling twist rate to the more common four grooves, right-hand 1:12-inch (1:304.8 mm or 54.8 calibers) twist. This was done as the original 1:14-inch twist rate to just stabilize the 55 grain bullet used in the 5.56 Ball M193 cartridge under unfavorable conditions could induce too much yaw and due to the resulting excessive in flight bullet destabilization become inaccurate. The one turn in 12 inches increased accuracy and was optimized to adequately stabilize the M193 ball and longer M196 tracer bullets.
Colt ArmaLite AR-15 Model 01 with 20-round magazine, made from 1959 to 1964
Colt ArmaLite AR-15 Model 02 without magazine and new 1 in 12-inch (300 mm) rifling twist rate, made in 1964
Design details
The ArmaLite AR-15 internal piston action was derived from the original ArmaLite AR-10 action and was later used in the M16 rifle action. This internal piston action system designed by Eugene Stoner is commonly called a direct impingement system, but it does not utilize a conventional direct impingement system. In U.S. patent 2,951,424, the designer states:
This invention is a true expanding gas system instead of the conventional impinging gas system.
The gas system, bolt carrier, and bolt-locking design were patented at for the time and is ammunition specific, since it does not have an adjustable gas port or valve to adjust the weapon to various propellant and projectile or barrel length specific pressure behavior.
The AR-15 is a modular weapon system. It is easy to assemble, modify and repair using a few simple hand tools, and a flat surface to work on. The AR-15's upper receiver incorporates the fore stock, the charging handle, the gas operating system, the barrel, the bolt and bolt carrier assembly. The lower receiver incorporates the magazine well, the pistol grip and the buttstock. The lower receiver also contains the trigger, disconnector, hammer and fire selector (collectively known as the fire control group). The AR-15's "duckbill" flash suppressor had three tines or prongs and was designed to preserve the shooter's night vision by disrupting the flash. Early AR-15's had a 25-round magazine. Later model AR-15s used a 20-round waffle-patterned magazine that was meant to be a lightweight, disposable item. As such, it is made of pressed/stamped aluminum and was not designed to be durable.
The AR-15's most distinctive ergonomic feature is the carrying handle and rear sight assembly on top of the receiver. This is a by-product of the design, where the carry handle serves to protect the charging handle. The AR-15 rifle has a 500 mm (19.75 inches) sight radius. The AR-15 uses an L-type flip, aperture rear sight and it is adjustable with two settings, 0 to 300 meters and 300 to 400 meters. The front sight is a post adjustable for elevation. The rear sight can be adjusted for windage. The sights can be adjusted with a bullet tip or pointed tool.
The Stoner system provides a very symmetric design that allows straight line movement of the operating components. This allows recoil forces to drive straight to the rear. Instead of connecting or other mechanical parts driving the system, high pressure gas performs this function, reducing the weight of moving parts and the rifle as a whole.— Armalite Technical Note 54: Direct Impingement Versus Piston Drive
The AR-15's straight-line recoil design, where the recoil spring is located in the stock directly behind the action, and serves the dual function of operating spring and recoil buffer. The stock being in line with the bore also reduces muzzle rise, especially during automatic fire. Because recoil does not significantly shift the point of aim, faster follow-up shots are possible and user fatigue is reduced.
See also
List of ArmaLite rifles
List of AR platform cartridges
Notes
^ a b The original ArmaLite AR-15 is unique among all rifles using the "AR-15" trademark, in that it is capable of selective fire and is an assault rifle. All other AR-15 style rifles are semi-automatic-only and descend from the civilian version, the Colt AR-15.
^ Used by Indonesian forces.
^ The AR prefix is short for ArmaLite rifle.
^ The British briefly adopted an intermediate cartridge weapon, the EM-2 rifle before the FN FAL for standardisation
References
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^ Dockery, Kevin (2007). Future Weapons. Penguin. p. 56. ISBN 9780425217504.
^ Zimba, Jeff W. "Colt ArmaLite AR-15 Rifle #000106 The Coconut Rifle". smallarmsreview.com. Archived from the original on July 21, 2022. Retrieved November 13, 2017.
^ a b "An Improved Battlesight Zero for the M4 Carbine and M16A2 Rifle". Archived from the original on April 9, 2023. Retrieved September 11, 2007.
^ a b "TM 9-1005-319-10 (2010) - Operator's Manual for Rifle, 5.56 MM, M16A2/M16A3/M4 (Battlesight Zero pages 48-55)" (PDF). AR15.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 7, 2023. Retrieved June 3, 2014.
^ a b c Rose 2009, p. 372.
^ a b Rose 2009, p. 373.
^ Fackler, Martin L. (January 1989), "Wounding patterns of military rifle bullets" (PDF), International Defense Review, archived from the original (PDF) on October 13, 2022, retrieved January 17, 2020 – via AR15.com
^ Sweeney, Patrick (February 28, 2011). Modern Law Enforcement Weapons & Tactics, 3rd Edition. Iola, Wisconsin: Krause Publications. p. 240. ISBN 978-1-4402-2684-7. Retrieved June 6, 2013.
^ Rose 2009, pp. 380, 392.
^ Rose 2009, p. 380.
^ Pages 744–759 "Small Arms of the World" 12th Revised Edition by Edward Clinton Ezell.
^ McCollum, Ian (December 26, 2016). "Explaining the AR Safety Lever Design (Video)". Forgotten Weapons. Archived from the original on March 28, 2018. Retrieved March 27, 2018.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
^ Lilja, Carson (January 23, 2015). "Effects of Altitude and Temperature on Rifling Twist". Lilja. Archived from the original on February 16, 2022.
^ Simpson, Layne (January 4, 2011). "Handloading The .223 Remington for the AR-15". Shootingtimes.com. Archived from the original on December 3, 2013. Retrieved July 13, 2014.
^ "5.56mm (5.56 x 45 mm) Ammunition". netres.comm. May 3, 2001. Archived from the original on August 19, 2022. Retrieved February 18, 2022.
^ "Patent US2951424 - Gas Operated Bolt And Carrier System". Retrieved April 11, 2013 – via google.
^ a b Ehrhart, Thomas P., Increasing Small Arms Lethality in Afghanistan: Taking Back the Infantry Half-Kilometer (PDF), archived from the original on December 1, 2012 – via DTIC
^ Bartocci, Christopher R. (July 20, 2011). "Feeding the Modern Semi-Automatic Rifle". Americanrifleman.org. Archived from the original on April 14, 2013. Retrieved August 23, 2012.
^ a b c Ezell, Edward Clinton (1983). Small Arms of the World. New York: Stackpole Books. pp. 746–762. ISBN 978-0-88029-601-4.
^ "Armalite Technical Note 54: Direct Impingement Versus Piston Drive" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on May 17, 2012. Retrieved February 12, 2014.
Rose, Alexander (2009). American Rifle: A Biography. Random House Publishing Group. ISBN 9780553384383.
Pikula, Major Sam (1998), The ArmaLite AR-10, Regnum Fund Press, ISBN 9986-494-38-9
Further reading
Chivers, C. J. (2010). "Chapter 7: The Accidental Rifle". The Gun. New York: Simon & Schuster. pp. 263–336, see also "A Note About the M16 Series of Rifles in 2010", pp. 415–416. ISBN 978-0743270762. OCLC 795609613. -->
Fallows, James (1981). National Defense. Random House. ISBN 0-394-51824-1. 1983 National Book Award winner.
Fallows, James (June 1981). "M-16: A Bureaucratic Horror Story: Why the Rifles Jammed". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on November 8, 2017. One of three excerpts from National Defense published in The Atlantic; includes the origin of the Armalite AR-15.
McWhirter, Cameron and Zusha Elinson. American Gun: The True Story of the AR-15. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2023.
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Colt AR-15","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colt_AR-15"},{"link_name":"AR-15–style rifle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AR-15%E2%80%93style_rifle"},{"link_name":"AR-15 (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AR-15_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Black rifle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_rifle_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"[note 3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"select-fire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Select-fire"},{"link_name":"[note 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-select_fire_explanation-4"},{"link_name":"gas-operated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas-operated_reloading"},{"link_name":"magazine-fed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magazine_(firearms)"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-m-14parts.com-13"},{"link_name":"ArmaLite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArmaLite"},{"link_name":"AR-10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArmaLite_AR-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Colt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colt%27s_Manufacturing_Company"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gundigest-1"},{"link_name":"charging handle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocking_handle"},{"link_name":"receiver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Receiver_(firearms)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nodakspud.com-3"},{"link_name":"M16 rifle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M16_rifle"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-m-14parts.com-13"},{"link_name":"page needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated5-15"},{"link_name":"page needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"},{"link_name":"semi-automatic-only rifles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-automatic_rifle"},{"link_name":"Colt AR-15","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colt_AR-15"},{"link_name":"Colt AR-15 and M16 rifle variants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Colt_AR-15_and_M16_rifle_variants"}],"text":"American assault rifleThis article is about the select-fire military rifle. For semi-automatic civilian rifles based on this design, see Colt AR-15 and AR-15–style rifle. For other uses, see AR-15 (disambiguation) and Black rifle.The ArmaLite AR-15[note 3] is a select-fire,[note 1] gas-operated, air-cooled, magazine-fed rifle manufactured in the United States between 1959 and 1964.[10] Designed by American gun manufacturer ArmaLite in 1956, it was based on its AR-10 rifle. The ArmaLite AR-15 was designed to be a lightweight rifle and to fire a new high-velocity, lightweight, small-caliber cartridge to allow infantrymen to carry more ammunition.[11]In 1959, ArmaLite sold its rights to the AR-15 to Colt due to financial difficulties and limitations in terms of manpower and production capacity.[1] After modifications (most notably, the charging handle was re-located from under the carrying handle like AR-10 to the rear of the receiver),[3] Colt rebranded it the Colt 601, however, it still carried the Armalite markings due to contractual obligations to Armalite/Fairchild Aircraft Co. Colt marketed the redesigned rifle to various military services around the world and was eventually adopted by the U.S. military in January 1962 and subsequently designated as M16 rifle in December 1963, which went into production and service in 1964.[10][page needed][12][page needed]Colt continued to use the AR-15 trademark for its line of semi-automatic-only rifles marketed to civilian and law-enforcement customers, known as Colt AR-15. The Armalite AR-15 is the parent of a variety of Colt AR-15 and M16 rifle variants.","title":"ArmaLite AR-15"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"United States military","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_military"},{"link_name":"M1 Garand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M1_Garand"},{"link_name":"M1/M2 Carbines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M1_carbine"},{"link_name":"M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M1918_Browning_Automatic_Rifle"},{"link_name":"M3 \"Grease Gun\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M3_submachine_gun"},{"link_name":"Thompson submachine gun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thompson_submachine_gun"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceA-16"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Korean War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_War"},{"link_name":"M2 Carbine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M2_Carbine"},{"link_name":"submachine gun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submachine_gun"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rottman2011-19"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":".30 Carbine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.30_Carbine"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"intermediate round","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermediate_cartridge"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"general-purpose machine gun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General-purpose_machine_gun"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-independencearmory1-28"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"7.62×51mm NATO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7.62%C3%9751mm_NATO"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-independencearmory1-28"},{"link_name":"Fabrique Nationale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabrique_Nationale"},{"link_name":"FN FAL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FN_FAL"},{"link_name":"ArmaLite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArmaLite"},{"link_name":"AR-10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AR-10"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pikula36,_38-30"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:AR10_Armalite_vue_d%27ensemble_noBG.jpg"},{"link_name":"phenolic composite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenol_formaldehyde_resin#Applications"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pikula,_Sam_pp._27-29-31"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"flash suppressor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_suppressor"},{"link_name":"recoil compensator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muzzle_brake"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pikula27-30-33"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pikula36,_38-30"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pikula36,_38-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pikula39-40-35"},{"link_name":"M14 rifle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M14_rifle"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-independencearmory1-28"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-smallarmsreview.com-36"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"M60 general purpose machine gun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M60_machine_gun"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-independencearmory1-28"},{"link_name":"HK G3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HK_G3"},{"link_name":"[note 4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"FN MAG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FN_MAG"},{"link_name":"Rheinmetall MG3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rheinmetall_MG3"},{"link_name":"AK-47","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AK-47"},{"link_name":"Vietnam War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_War"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-smallarmsreview.com-36"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"}],"text":"After World War II, the United States military started looking for a single automatic rifle to replace the M1 Garand, M1/M2 Carbines, M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle, M3 \"Grease Gun\" and Thompson submachine gun.[13][14] However, early experiments with select-fire versions of the M1 Garand proved disappointing.[15] During the Korean War, the select-fire M2 Carbine largely replaced the submachine gun in US service[16] and became the most widely used Carbine variant.[17] However, combat experience suggested that the .30 Carbine round was under-powered.[18] American weapons designers concluded that an intermediate round was necessary, and recommended a small-caliber, high-velocity cartridge.[19]However, senior American commanders having faced fanatical enemies and experienced major logistical problems during WWII and the Korean War,[20][21][22][23][24] insisted that a single powerful .30 caliber cartridge be developed, that could not only be used by the new automatic rifle, but by the new general-purpose machine gun (GPMG) in concurrent development.[25][26] This culminated in the development of the 7.62×51mm NATO cartridge.[25]The United States Army then began testing several rifles to replace the obsolete M1 Garand. Springfield Armory's T44E4 and heavier T44E5 were essentially updated versions of the Garand chambered for the new 7.62×51mm NATO round, while Fabrique Nationale submitted their FN FAL as the T48. ArmaLite entered the competition late, hurriedly submitting several AR-10 prototype rifles in the fall of 1956 to the United States Army's Springfield Armory for testing.[27]ArmaLite AR-10 made by Artillerie Inrichtingen (A.I.)The ArmaLite AR-10 featured an innovative combination of a straight-line barrel/stock design, a new patent-filed gas-operated bolt, forged aluminum alloy receivers and with phenolic composite stocks resulting in a small arm significantly easier to control in automatic fire than other infantry rifles of the day.[28] It had rugged elevated sights, an oversized aluminum[29] flash suppressor and recoil compensator, and an adjustable gas system.[30] The final prototype, featured an upper and lower receiver with the now-familiar hinge and takedown pins, and the charging handle was on top of the receiver placed inside of the carry handle.[27] For a 1950s 7.62×51mm NATO rifle, the AR-10 was incredibly lightweight at only 6.85 pounds (3.11 kilograms) empty.[27] Initial comments by Springfield Armory test staff were favorable, and some testers commented that the AR-10 was the best lightweight automatic rifle ever tested by the Armory.[31][32]In the end, the United States Army chose the T44, which entered service as the M14 rifle,[25] which was an improved M1 Garand with a 20-round magazine and automatic fire capability.[33][34][35] The U.S. also adopted the M60 general purpose machine gun (GPMG).[25] Its NATO partners adopted the FN FAL and HK G3 rifles[note 4], and the FN MAG and Rheinmetall MG3 GPMGs.The first confrontations between the AK-47 and the M14 came in the early part of the Vietnam War. Battlefield reports indicated that the M14 was uncontrollable in full-auto and that soldiers could not carry enough ammo to maintain fire superiority over the AK-47.[33][36] While the M2 Carbine offered a high rate of fire, it was under-powered and ultimately outclassed by the AK-47.[37] A replacement was needed: a medium between the traditional preference for high-powered rifles, such as the M14, and the lightweight firepower of the M2 Carbine.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Willard G. Wyman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_G._Wyman"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceA-16"},{"link_name":"M1 helmet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M1_helmet"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hutton,_Robert_1971-42"},{"link_name":"ArmaLite AR-10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArmaLite_AR-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-m-14parts.com-13"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nodakspud.com-3"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SAOW-43"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nodakspud.com-3"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-forgot-44"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-forgot-44"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nodakspud.com-3"},{"link_name":"General Maxwell Taylor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell_Taylor"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nodakspud.com-3"},{"link_name":"Colt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colt%27s_Manufacturing_Company"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gundigest-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ArmaLite_AR-15_Left_Side_SPAR8367_DEC._20._2004.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ArmaLite_AR-15_SPAR8367_DEC._20._2004.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ArmaLite_AR-15_Left_Side_SPAR3240_DEC._17._2004.png"}],"sub_title":"Scaling down the ArmaLite AR-10","text":"As a result, the Army was forced to reconsider a 1957 request by General Willard G. Wyman, commander of the U.S. Continental Army Command (CONARC), to develop a .223 caliber (5.56 mm) select-fire rifle weighing 6 lb (2.7 kg) when loaded with a 20-round magazine.[13] The 5.56mm round had to penetrate a standard U.S. M1 helmet at 500 yards (460 meters) and retain a velocity in excess of the speed of sound, while matching or exceeding the wounding ability of the .30 Carbine cartridge.[38] This request ultimately resulted in the development of a scaled-down version of the ArmaLite AR-10, called the ArmaLite AR-15 rifle.[10][3][39]In 1958, ArmaLite submitted ten AR-15s and one hundred 25-round magazines for CONARC testing.[3] The tests found that a five to seven man team armed with AR-15s had the same firepower as an 11-man team armed with M14s[40] and soldiers armed with AR-15s could also carry three times more ammunition than those armed with M14s (649 rounds vs. 220 rounds).[40] The AR-15 was found to be three times more reliable than the M14 rifle.[3] However, General Maxwell Taylor, then Army Chief of Staff, \"vetoed\" the AR-15 in favor of the M14.[3] In 1959, ArmaLite—now frustrated with the lack of results and suffering ongoing financial difficulties—sold its rights to the AR-10 and AR-15 to Colt.[1]Early ArmaLite AR-15 without flash hider or magazine\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tEarly ArmaLite AR-15 without magazine or flash hider\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tArmaLite AR-15 with 25-round magazine and flash hider","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nodakspud.com-3"},{"link_name":"Malaya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federation_of_Malaya"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"General Curtis LeMay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curtis_LeMay"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ar15.com-47"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TM9-48"},{"link_name":"recoil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_recoil"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ar15.com-47"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TM9-48"},{"link_name":"Maxwell D. Taylor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell_D._Taylor"},{"link_name":"Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chairman_of_the_Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff"},{"link_name":"John F. Kennedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_F._Kennedy"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERose2009372-49"},{"link_name":"Advanced Research Projects Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DARPA"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-No13A-2"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERose2009373-50"},{"link_name":"United States Army Special Forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army_Special_Forces"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-smallarmsreview.com-36"},{"link_name":"twist rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twist_rate"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-smallarmsreview.com-36"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERose2009372-49"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-smallarmsreview.com-36"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERose2009372-49"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERose2009373-50"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-m-14parts.com-13"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-smallarmsreview.com-36"},{"link_name":"Secretary of Defense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense"},{"link_name":"Robert McNamara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_McNamara"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-No13A-2"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-smallarmsreview.com-36"},{"link_name":"Cyrus Vance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrus_Vance"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-smallarmsreview.com-36"},{"link_name":"chrome-plated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrome_plating"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sweeney2011-52"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nodakspud.com-3"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-m-14parts.com-13"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated5-15"},{"link_name":"forward assist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forward_assist"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-smallarmsreview.com-36"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERose2009380,_392-53"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SAOW-43"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERose2009380-54"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated5-15"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Colt_ArmaLite_AR-15_Model_01_SPAR1372_DEC._22._2004.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Colt_ArmaLite_AR-15_Model_02_SPAR1373_DEC._22._2004.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Armamento_-_Museo_de_Armas_de_la_Naci%C3%B3n_05.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hickey-ar-15_jfk.jpg"},{"link_name":"President Kennedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_F._Kennedy"},{"link_name":"shot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy"}],"sub_title":"Colt era","text":"After acquiring the AR-15, Colt promptly redesigned the rifle to facilitate mass production. Based on the final ArmaLite design, most notably, the charging handle was re-located from under the carrying handle, like the earlier AR-10 to the rear of the receiver, like the later M16 rifle.[3] Colt then renamed and rebranded the rifle \"Colt ArmaLite AR-15 Model 01\". After a Far East tour, Colt made its first sale of Colt ArmaLite AR-15 rifles to Malaya on September 30, 1959. Colt manufactured their first batch of 300 Colt ArmaLite AR-15 rifles in December 1959.[41] Colt would go on to market the Colt ArmaLite AR-15 rifle to military services around the world.In July 1960, General Curtis LeMay, then Vice Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force, was impressed by a demonstration of the AR-15 and ordered 8500 rifles.[42] In the meantime, the Army would continue testing the AR-15, finding that the intermediate cartridge .223 (5.56 mm) rifle is much easier to shoot than the standard 7.62×51mm NATO M14 rifle.[43][44] In 1961 marksmanship testing, the U.S. Army found that 43% of AR-15 shooters achieved Expert, while only 22% of M14 rifle shooters did so. Also, a lower recoil impulse, allows for more controllable automatic weapons fire.[43][44]In the summer of 1961, General LeMay was promoted to Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force and requested an additional 80,000 AR-15s. However, General Maxwell D. Taylor, now Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, (who repeatedly clashed with LeMay) advised President John F. Kennedy that having two different calibers within the military system at the same time would be problematic and the request was rejected.[45] In October 1961, William Godel, a senior man at the Advanced Research Projects Agency, sent 10 AR-15s to South Vietnam. The reception was enthusiastic, and in 1962, another 1,000 AR-15s were sent.[2][46] United States Army Special Forces personnel filed battlefield reports lavishly praising the AR-15 and the stopping-power of the 5.56 mm cartridge and pressed for its adoption.[33]By intentionally choosing a slow twist rate the 55 grain bullet used in the 5.56 Ball M193 cartridge was only just stable in flight. The damage caused by the 5.56 mm bullet was originally believed to be caused by instantaneous \"tumbling\" on impact and render a wide, incapacitating wound due to the slow 1 in 14-inch (360 mm) rifling twist rate.[33][45] However, any pointed lead core bullet will \"tumble\" after penetration in flesh, because the center of gravity is towards the rear of the bullet. The large wounds observed by soldiers in Vietnam were actually caused by bullet fragmentation, which was created by a combination of the bullet's velocity and construction.[47][33][45] These wounds were so devastating that the photographs remained classified into the 1980s.[46]However, despite overwhelming evidence that the AR-15 could bring more firepower to bear than the M14, the Army opposed the adoption of the new rifle.[10][33] U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara now had two conflicting views: the USAF's (General LeMay's) repeated requests for additional AR-15s and the ARPA report[2] favoring the AR-15, versus the Army's position favoring the M14.[33] Even President Kennedy expressed concern, so McNamara ordered Secretary of the Army Cyrus Vance to test the M14, the AR-15 and the AK-47. The Army reported that only the M14 was suitable for service, but Vance wondered about the impartiality of those conducting the tests. He ordered the Army Inspector General to investigate the testing methods used; the Inspector General confirmed that the testers were biased towards the M14.[citation needed]In January 1963, Secretary McNamara received reports that M14 production was insufficient to meet the needs of the armed forces and ordered a halt to M14 production.[33] At the time, the AR-15 was the only rifle that could fulfill a requirement of a \"universal\" infantry weapon for issue to all services. McNamara ordered its adoption, despite receiving reports of several deficiencies, most notably the lack of a chrome-plated chamber.[48]After minor modifications,[3] the new redesigned rifle was renamed the \"Rifle, Caliber 5.56 mm, M16\".[10][12] Meanwhile, the Army relented and recommended the adoption of the M16 for jungle warfare operations. However, the Army insisted on the inclusion of a forward assist to help push the bolt into battery in the event that a cartridge failed to seat into the chamber. The Air Force, Colt and Eugene Stoner believed that the addition of a forward assist was an unjustified expense. As a result, the design was split into two variants: the Air Force's M16 without the forward assist, and the \"XM16E1 (AKA: M16A1)\" with the forward assist for the other service branches.In November 1963, McNamara approved the U.S. Army's order of 85,000 XM16E1s;[33][49] and to appease LeMay, the Air Force was granted an order for another 19,000 M16s.[39][50] In March 1964, the M16 rifle went into production and the Army accepted delivery of the first batch of 2129 rifles later that year, and an additional 57,240 rifles the following year.[12]The Colt ArmaLite AR-15 was discontinued with the adoption of the M16 rifle. Most AR-15 rifles in U.S. service have long ago been upgraded to M16 configuration. The Colt ArmaLite AR-15 was also used by the United States Secret Service and other U.S. federal, state and local law enforcement agencies.Shortly after the United States military adopted the M16 rifle, Colt introduced its line semi-automatic-only Colt AR-15 rifles, which it markets to civilians and law enforcement. Colt continues to use the AR-15 name for these rifles.Colt ArmaLite AR-15 Model 01 with 20-round magazine\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tColt ArmaLite AR-15 Model 02 without magazine and new 1 in 12-inch (300 mm) rifling twist rate\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tAn early M16 rifle without forward assist\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSecret Service agent George W. Hickey with an ArmaLite AR-15 Model 01 moments after President Kennedy was shot in Dallas on November 22, 1963","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nodakspud.com-3"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"rifling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rifling"},{"link_name":"twist rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twist_rate"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Colt_ArmaLite_AR-15_Model_01._Left_Side_SPAR1372_DEC._22._2004.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Colt_ArmaLite_AR-15_Model_02_Left_Side_SPAR1373_DEC._22._2004.jpg"}],"sub_title":"Colt ArmaLite AR-15 (Model 601 and 602)","text":"Colt's first two models produced after the acquisition of the rifle from ArmaLite were the 601 and 602, and these rifles were in many ways clones of the original ArmaLite rifle (in fact, these rifles were often found stamped Colt ArmaLite AR-15, Property of the U.S. Government caliber .223, with no reference to them being M16s).[51]The 601 and 602 are virtually identical to the later M16 rifle without the forward-assist. Like the later M16 rifle their charging handle was re-located from under the carrying handle like AR-10 to the rear of the receiver.[3] They were equipped with triangular fore-stocks and occasionally green or brown furniture. Their front sight had a more triangular shape. They had flat lower receivers without raised surfaces around the magazine well. Their bolt hold open device lacked a raised lower engagement surface and had a slanted and serrated surface that had to be engaged with a bare thumb, index finger, or thumb nail because of the lack of this surface. Their fire-selector was also changed from upward = safe, backward = semi-auto and forward = full-auto, to the now familiar forward = safe, upward = semi-auto, and backward = full-auto of the M16 rifle.[52]The only major difference between the 601 and 602 is the switch from the original four grooves, right-hand 1:14-inch (1:355.6 mm or 64 calibers) rifling twist rate to the more common four grooves, right-hand 1:12-inch (1:304.8 mm or 54.8 calibers) twist. This was done as the original 1:14-inch twist rate to just stabilize the 55 grain bullet used in the 5.56 Ball M193 cartridge under unfavorable conditions could induce too much yaw and due to the resulting excessive in flight bullet destabilization become inaccurate.[53][54] The one turn in 12 inches increased accuracy and was optimized to adequately stabilize the M193 ball and longer M196 tracer bullets.[55]Colt ArmaLite AR-15 Model 01 with 20-round magazine, made from 1959 to 1964\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tColt ArmaLite AR-15 Model 02 without magazine and new 1 in 12-inch (300 mm) rifling twist rate, made in 1964","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"M16 rifle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M16_rifle"},{"link_name":"Eugene Stoner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugene_Stoner"},{"link_name":"direct impingement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_impingement"},{"link_name":"U.S. patent 2,951,424","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//patents.google.com/patent/US2951424"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"modular weapon system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modular_weapon_system"},{"link_name":"fire control group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_control_group"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated6-61"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-americanrifleman1-62"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated6-61"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SAOW2-63"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SAOW2-63"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SAOW2-63"}],"text":"The ArmaLite AR-15 internal piston action was derived from the original ArmaLite AR-10 action and was later used in the M16 rifle action. This internal piston action system designed by Eugene Stoner is commonly called a direct impingement system, but it does not utilize a conventional direct impingement system. In U.S. patent 2,951,424, the designer states:This invention is a true expanding gas system instead of the conventional impinging gas system.[56]The gas system, bolt carrier, and bolt-locking design were patented at for the time and is ammunition specific, since it does not have an adjustable gas port or valve to adjust the weapon to various propellant and projectile or barrel length specific pressure behavior.The AR-15 is a modular weapon system. It is easy to assemble, modify and repair using a few simple hand tools, and a flat surface to work on. The AR-15's upper receiver incorporates the fore stock, the charging handle, the gas operating system, the barrel, the bolt and bolt carrier assembly. The lower receiver incorporates the magazine well, the pistol grip and the buttstock. The lower receiver also contains the trigger, disconnector, hammer and fire selector (collectively known as the fire control group). The AR-15's \"duckbill\" flash suppressor had three tines or prongs and was designed to preserve the shooter's night vision by disrupting the flash. Early AR-15's had a 25-round magazine. Later model AR-15s used a 20-round waffle-patterned magazine that was meant to be a lightweight, disposable item.[57][58] As such, it is made of pressed/stamped aluminum and was not designed to be durable.[57]The AR-15's most distinctive ergonomic feature is the carrying handle and rear sight assembly on top of the receiver. This is a by-product of the design, where the carry handle serves to protect the charging handle.[59] The AR-15 rifle has a 500 mm (19.75 inches) sight radius. The AR-15 uses an L-type flip, aperture rear sight and it is adjustable with two settings, 0 to 300 meters and 300 to 400 meters. The front sight is a post adjustable for elevation. The rear sight can be adjusted for windage. The sights can be adjusted with a bullet tip or pointed tool.The Stoner system provides a very symmetric design that allows straight line movement of the operating components. This allows recoil forces to drive straight to the rear. Instead of connecting or other mechanical parts driving the system, high pressure gas performs this function, reducing the weight of moving parts and the rifle as a whole.— Armalite Technical Note 54: Direct Impingement Versus Piston Drive[60]The AR-15's straight-line recoil design, where the recoil spring is located in the stock directly behind the action,[59] and serves the dual function of operating spring and recoil buffer.[59] The stock being in line with the bore also reduces muzzle rise, especially during automatic fire. Because recoil does not significantly shift the point of aim, faster follow-up shots are possible and user fatigue is reduced.","title":"Design details"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-select_fire_explanation_4-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-select_fire_explanation_4-1"},{"link_name":"selective fire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_fire"},{"link_name":"assault rifle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assault_rifle"},{"link_name":"AR-15 style rifles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AR-15_style_rifle"},{"link_name":"semi-automatic-only","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-automatic_rifle"},{"link_name":"Colt AR-15","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colt_AR-15"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gundigest-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-No13A-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nodakspud.com-3"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-12"},{"link_name":"ArmaLite rifle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ArmaLite_rifles"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Myre-2018-10"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sobieck-2015-11"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-39"},{"link_name":"EM-2 rifle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EM-2_rifle"}],"text":"^ a b The original ArmaLite AR-15 is unique among all rifles using the \"AR-15\" trademark, in that it is capable of selective fire and is an assault rifle. All other AR-15 style rifles are semi-automatic-only and descend from the civilian version, the Colt AR-15.[1][2][3]\n\n^ Used by Indonesian forces.[4]\n\n^ The AR prefix is short for ArmaLite rifle.[8][9]\n\n^ The British briefly adopted an intermediate cartridge weapon, the EM-2 rifle before the FN FAL for standardisation","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"Chapter 7: The Accidental Rifle\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=aZLL_XTEnigC&pg=PA263"},{"link_name":"The Gun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gun_(Chivers_book)"},{"link_name":"415–416","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=aZLL_XTEnigC&pg=PA415"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0743270762","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0743270762"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"795609613","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/795609613"},{"link_name":"Fallows, James","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Fallows"},{"link_name":"National Defense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/nationaldefense00fall_0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-394-51824-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-51824-1"},{"link_name":"National Book Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Book_Award"},{"link_name":"Fallows, James","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Fallows"},{"link_name":"\"M-16: A Bureaucratic Horror Story: Why the Rifles Jammed\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20171108053333/https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1981/06/m-16-a-bureaucratic-horror-story/545153/"},{"link_name":"The Atlantic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Atlantic"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1981/06/m-16-a-bureaucratic-horror-story/545153/"},{"link_name":"The Atlantic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Atlantic"}],"text":"Chivers, C. J. (2010). \"Chapter 7: The Accidental Rifle\". The Gun. New York: Simon & Schuster. pp. 263–336, see also \"A Note About the M16 Series of Rifles in 2010\", pp. 415–416. ISBN 978-0743270762. OCLC 795609613. -->\nFallows, James (1981). National Defense. Random House. ISBN 0-394-51824-1. 1983 National Book Award winner.\nFallows, James (June 1981). \"M-16: A Bureaucratic Horror Story: Why the Rifles Jammed\". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on November 8, 2017. One of three excerpts from National Defense published in The Atlantic; includes the origin of the Armalite AR-15.\nMcWhirter, Cameron and Zusha Elinson. American Gun: The True Story of the AR-15. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2023.","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"ArmaLite AR-10 made by Artillerie Inrichtingen (A.I.)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/AR10_Armalite_vue_d%27ensemble_noBG.jpg/220px-AR10_Armalite_vue_d%27ensemble_noBG.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"List of ArmaLite rifles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ArmaLite_rifles"},{"title":"List of AR platform cartridges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_AR_platform_cartridges"}]
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[{"reference":"Bartocci, Christopher R. (July 16, 2012). \"AR-15/M16: The Rifle That Was Never Supposed to Be\". Gun Digest. Archived from the original on March 4, 2014. Retrieved May 24, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140304091323/http://www.gundigest.com/article/the-ar-16m16-the-rifle-that-was-never-supposed-to-be","url_text":"\"AR-15/M16: The Rifle That Was Never Supposed to Be\""},{"url":"http://www.gundigest.com/article/the-ar-16m16-the-rifle-that-was-never-supposed-to-be","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Report of Task No. 13a. Test of ArmaLite Rifle. AR-15 (U)\" (PDF). Research & Development Field Unit. Advanced Research Projects Agency. July 31, 1962. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 17, 2023. A lever above the grip on the left side of the receiver provides a selector for the trigger safety, semi-automatic and automatic fire. ... The AR-15 Rifle is a lightweight, gas-operated rifle equipped with a 20-round, detachable magazine. It is chambered for Cartridge, Caliber .223.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230517152712/https://s3.documentcloud.org/documents/2859676/ARPA-AR-15.pdf","url_text":"\"Report of Task No. 13a. Test of ArmaLite Rifle. AR-15 (U)\""},{"url":"https://assets.documentcloud.org/documents/2859676/ARPA-AR-15.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Hobart, F. W. A., ed. (1974). Jane's Infantry Weapons 1975 (First Year of Issue). London, UK: Jane's Yearbooks. p. 246.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/janesinfantrywea0000unse_o0m0","url_text":"Jane's Infantry Weapons 1975 (First Year of Issue)"}]},{"reference":"Ezell, Virginia Hart (November 2001). \"Focus on Basics, Urges Small Arms Designer\". National Defense. National Defense Industrial Association. Archived from the original on December 7, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20101207022745/http://www.nationaldefensemagazine.org/ARCHIVE/2001/NOVEMBER/Pages/Focus_on4174.aspx","url_text":"\"Focus on Basics, Urges Small Arms Designer\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Defense_Industrial_Association","url_text":"National Defense Industrial Association"},{"url":"http://www.nationaldefensemagazine.org/archive/2001/November/Pages/Focus_on4174.aspx","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Hogg, Ian V.; Weeks, John S. (2000). Military Small Arms of the 20th Century (7th ed.). Iola, Wisconsin: Krause Publications. ISBN 978-0-87341-824-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_V._Hogg","url_text":"Hogg, Ian V."},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=teAAHt1GaE8C","url_text":"Military Small Arms of the 20th Century"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87341-824-9","url_text":"978-0-87341-824-9"}]},{"reference":"Myre, Greg (February 28, 2018). \"A Brief History Of The AR-15\". National Public Radio. Archived from the original on May 13, 2023. Retrieved November 20, 2021. AR\" comes from the name of the gun's original manufacturer, ArmaLite, Inc. The letters stand for ArmaLite Rifle — and not for \"assault rifle\" or \"automatic rifle.\" ... The National Rifle Association estimates there are some eight million AR-15s and its variations in circulation, and says they are so popular that the \"AR\" should stand for \"America's Rifle.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greg_Myre","url_text":"Myre, Greg"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230513122636/https://www.npr.org/2018/02/28/588861820/a-brief-history-of-the-ar-15","url_text":"\"A Brief History Of The AR-15\""},{"url":"https://www.npr.org/2018/02/28/588861820/a-brief-history-of-the-ar-15","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Sobieck, Benjamin (2015). The Writer's Guide to Weapons. Penguin. p. 202. ISBN 978-1599638157.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Sobieck&action=edit&redlink=1","url_text":"Sobieck, Benjamin"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1599638157","url_text":"978-1599638157"}]},{"reference":"Kern, Danford Allan (2006). The influence of organizational culture on the acquisition of the m16 rifle (PDF) (Master of Military Art and Science). Fort Leavenworth, Kansas: US Army Command and General Staff College. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 5, 2013. 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Archived (PDF) from the original on February 19, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA512331.pdf","url_text":"Increasing Small Arms Lethality in Afghanistan: Taking Back the Infantry Half-Kilometer"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100219165722/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA512331&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Schreier, Philip. \"Cut Down in its Youth, Arguably Americas Best Service Rifle, the M14 Never Had the Chance to Prove Itself\" (PDF). SSUSA. pp. 24–29, 46. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 4, 2013. Retrieved August 19, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131204025725/http://www.nramuseum.com/media/940585/m14.pdf","url_text":"\"Cut Down in its Youth, Arguably Americas Best Service Rifle, the M14 Never Had the Chance to Prove Itself\""},{"url":"http://www.nramuseum.com/media/940585/m14.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Rottman, Gordon (2011). The M16. Osprey Publishing. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-84908-690-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=oRhIaYrN3sYC&pg=PA6","url_text":"The M16"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84908-690-5","url_text":"978-1-84908-690-5"}]},{"reference":"\"Arms of the Chosin Few\". Americanrifleman.org. Archived from the original on March 16, 2023. Retrieved November 23, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230316143904/https://www.americanrifleman.org/articles/arms-chosin-few/","url_text":"\"Arms of the Chosin Few\""},{"url":"http://www.americanrifleman.org/articles/arms-chosin-few/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Hall, Donald L. (March 1952). \"An effectiveness study of the infantry rifle. Report No. 593\" (PDF). Maryland: Ballistic Research Laboratories (published March 29, 1973). Archived from the original (PDF) on September 24, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150924051902/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/377335.pdf","url_text":"\"An effectiveness study of the infantry rifle. Report No. 593\""},{"url":"http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/377335.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"An Attempt To Explain Japanese War Crimes\". Pacificwar.org.au. Archived from the original on March 30, 2023. Retrieved August 23, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230330192415/http://www.pacificwar.org.au/JapWarCrimes/Explaining_JapWarCrimes.html","url_text":"\"An Attempt To Explain Japanese War Crimes\""},{"url":"http://www.pacificwar.org.au/JapWarCrimes/Explaining_JapWarCrimes.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"South to the Naktong - North to the Yalu\". History.army.mil. Archived from the original on February 7, 2014. 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Retrieved November 23, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150622011454/http://www.almc.army.mil/alog/issues/NovDec03/Logistics_of_Invasion.htm","url_text":"\"The Logistics of Invasion\""},{"url":"http://www.almc.army.mil/alog/issues/NovDec03/Logistics_of_Invasion.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Harrison (NRA Technical Staff), E. H. (Col.) (June 1957). \"New Service Rifle\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on November 7, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151107045353/http://independencearmory.com/downloads/M14_Articles/American%20Rifleman%20-%20New%20Service%20Rifle_%20Amer.%20Rifleman%20June%2C%201957.pdf","url_text":"\"New Service Rifle\""},{"url":"http://independencearmory.com/downloads/M14_Articles/American%20Rifleman%20-%20New%20Service%20Rifle_%20Amer.%20Rifleman%20June,%201957.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Williams, Anthony G. (February 3, 2012). \"Assault Rifles And Their Ammunition: History and Prospects\". Quarry.nildram.co.uk. Archived from the original on June 2, 2014. Retrieved November 23, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140602021550/http://www.quarry.nildram.co.uk/Assault.htm","url_text":"\"Assault Rifles And Their Ammunition: History and Prospects\""},{"url":"http://www.quarry.nildram.co.uk/Assault.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Pikula, Major Sam (1998). The ArmaLite AR-10 Rifle: The Saga of the First Modern Combat Rifle. Regnum Fund Press. pp. 27–29. ISBN 9986-494-38-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.amazon.com/ArmaLite-AR-10-Rifle-Modern-Combat-ebook/dp/B0723C9CJ9","url_text":"The ArmaLite AR-10 Rifle: The Saga of the First Modern Combat Rifle"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9986-494-38-9","url_text":"9986-494-38-9"}]},{"reference":"Lewis, Jack (1963). \"The M-14: Boon or Blunder\". Gun World. 3 (4).","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Lewis_(screenwriter)","url_text":"Lewis, Jack"}]},{"reference":"Bruce, Robert. \"M14 vs. M16 in Vietnam\". Small Arms Review. Archived from the original on January 25, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230125155012/https://smallarmsreview.com/m14-vs-m16-in-vietnam/","url_text":"\"M14 vs. M16 in Vietnam\""},{"url":"http://www.smallarmsreview.com/display.article.cfm?idarticles=2434","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Jane's International Defence Review. 36. Jane's Information Group: 43. 2003. The M14 is basically an improved M1 with a modified gas system and detachable 20-round magazine.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"M14 7.62mm Rifle\". Globalsecurity.org. November 5, 2001. Archived from the original on March 26, 2019. Retrieved November 23, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190326191810/https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/m14.htm","url_text":"\"M14 7.62mm Rifle\""},{"url":"http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/m14.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Emerson, Lee (October 10, 2006). \"M14 Rifle History and Development\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on December 15, 2017. Retrieved August 19, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171215062553/http://www.imageseek.com/m1a/M14_RHAD_Online_Edition_061010.pdf","url_text":"\"M14 Rifle History and Development\""},{"url":"http://www.imageseek.com/m1a/M14_RHAD_Online_Edition_061010.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Rottman, Gordon (2002). Green Beret in Vietnam: 1957-73. Osprey Publishing. p. 41. ISBN 9781855325685.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/greenberetvietna00rott","url_text":"Green Beret in Vietnam: 1957-73"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/greenberetvietna00rott/page/n41","url_text":"41"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781855325685","url_text":"9781855325685"}]},{"reference":"Ezell, Edward Clinton (1983). Small Arms of the World. New York: Stackpole Books. pp. 46–47. 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(January 1989), \"Wounding patterns of military rifle bullets\" (PDF), International Defense Review, archived from the original (PDF) on October 13, 2022, retrieved January 17, 2020 – via AR15.com","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20221013223550/http://www.ar15.com/ammo/project/Fackler_Articles/wounding_patterns_military_rifles.pdf","url_text":"\"Wounding patterns of military rifle bullets\""},{"url":"https://www.ar15.com/ammo/project/Fackler_Articles/wounding_patterns_military_rifles.pdf","url_text":"the original"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AR15.com","url_text":"AR15.com"}]},{"reference":"Sweeney, Patrick (February 28, 2011). Modern Law Enforcement Weapons & Tactics, 3rd Edition. Iola, Wisconsin: Krause Publications. p. 240. ISBN 978-1-4402-2684-7. 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ISBN 0-394-51824-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Fallows","url_text":"Fallows, James"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/nationaldefense00fall_0","url_text":"National Defense"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-51824-1","url_text":"0-394-51824-1"}]},{"reference":"Fallows, James (June 1981). \"M-16: A Bureaucratic Horror Story: Why the Rifles Jammed\". The Atlantic. 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Report No. 593\""},{"Link":"http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/377335.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230330192415/http://www.pacificwar.org.au/JapWarCrimes/Explaining_JapWarCrimes.html","external_links_name":"\"An Attempt To Explain Japanese War Crimes\""},{"Link":"http://www.pacificwar.org.au/JapWarCrimes/Explaining_JapWarCrimes.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140207235336/http://www.history.army.mil/books/korea/20-2-1/toc.htm","external_links_name":"\"South to the Naktong - North to the Yalu\""},{"Link":"http://www.history.army.mil/books/korea/20-2-1/toc.htm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230511153406/https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/BigL/index.html","external_links_name":"\"The Big 'L'-American Logistics in World War II\""},{"Link":"http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/BigL/index.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150622011454/http://www.almc.army.mil/alog/issues/NovDec03/Logistics_of_Invasion.htm","external_links_name":"\"The Logistics of Invasion\""},{"Link":"http://www.almc.army.mil/alog/issues/NovDec03/Logistics_of_Invasion.htm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151107045353/http://independencearmory.com/downloads/M14_Articles/American%20Rifleman%20-%20New%20Service%20Rifle_%20Amer.%20Rifleman%20June%2C%201957.pdf","external_links_name":"\"New Service Rifle\""},{"Link":"http://independencearmory.com/downloads/M14_Articles/American%20Rifleman%20-%20New%20Service%20Rifle_%20Amer.%20Rifleman%20June,%201957.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140602021550/http://www.quarry.nildram.co.uk/Assault.htm","external_links_name":"\"Assault Rifles And Their Ammunition: History and Prospects\""},{"Link":"http://www.quarry.nildram.co.uk/Assault.htm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.amazon.com/ArmaLite-AR-10-Rifle-Modern-Combat-ebook/dp/B0723C9CJ9","external_links_name":"The ArmaLite AR-10 Rifle: The Saga of the First Modern Combat Rifle"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230125155012/https://smallarmsreview.com/m14-vs-m16-in-vietnam/","external_links_name":"\"M14 vs. M16 in Vietnam\""},{"Link":"http://www.smallarmsreview.com/display.article.cfm?idarticles=2434","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190326191810/https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/m14.htm","external_links_name":"\"M14 7.62mm Rifle\""},{"Link":"http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/m14.htm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171215062553/http://www.imageseek.com/m1a/M14_RHAD_Online_Edition_061010.pdf","external_links_name":"\"M14 Rifle History and Development\""},{"Link":"http://www.imageseek.com/m1a/M14_RHAD_Online_Edition_061010.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/greenberetvietna00rott","external_links_name":"Green Beret in Vietnam: 1957-73"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/greenberetvietna00rott/page/n41","external_links_name":"41"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/smallarmsofworld0000ezel_12ed","external_links_name":"Small Arms of the World"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230315130308/https://www.forgottenweapons.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/1959-Rifle-Squad-Armed-with-a-Light-Weight-High-Velocity-Rifle.pdf","external_links_name":"Rifle Squad Armed with a Light Weight High Velocity Rifle"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=8RxJxY7wQn0C","external_links_name":"Future Weapons"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220721013944/https://smallarmsreview.com/display.article.cfm?idarticles=254","external_links_name":"\"Colt ArmaLite AR-15 Rifle #000106 The Coconut Rifle\""},{"Link":"http://www.smallarmsreview.com/display.article.cfm?idarticles=254","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230409064459/https://www.ar15.com/content/page.html?id=599","external_links_name":"\"An Improved Battlesight Zero for the M4 Carbine and M16A2 Rifle\""},{"Link":"http://www.ar15.com/content/page.html?id=599","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230407025754/https://www.ar15.com/content/webPDF/TM9-1005-319-10.pdf","external_links_name":"\"TM 9-1005-319-10 (2010) - Operator's Manual for Rifle, 5.56 MM, M16A2/M16A3/M4 (Battlesight Zero pages 48-55)\""},{"Link":"https://www.ar15.com/content/webPDF/TM9-1005-319-10.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20221013223550/http://www.ar15.com/ammo/project/Fackler_Articles/wounding_patterns_military_rifles.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Wounding patterns of military rifle bullets\""},{"Link":"https://www.ar15.com/ammo/project/Fackler_Articles/wounding_patterns_military_rifles.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=_4ASmMY9qhoC&pg=PA240","external_links_name":"Modern Law Enforcement Weapons & Tactics, 3rd Edition"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/smallarmsofworld0000ezel","external_links_name":"\"Small Arms of the World\" 12th Revised Edition"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180328041239/https://www.forgottenweapons.com/explaining-the-ar-safety-lever-design-video/","external_links_name":"\"Explaining the AR Safety Lever Design (Video)\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220216190046/https://riflebarrels.com/effects-of-altitude-and-temperature-on-rifling-twist/","external_links_name":"\"Effects of Altitude and Temperature on Rifling Twist\""},{"Link":"https://riflebarrels.com/effects-of-altitude-and-temperature-on-rifling-twist/","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.shootingtimes.com/2011/01/04/ammunition_st223_120606/","external_links_name":"\"Handloading The .223 Remington for the AR-15\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131203004627/http://www.shootingtimes.com/2011/01/04/ammunition_st223_120606/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220819080915/https://www.inetres.com/gp/military/infantry/rifle/556mm_ammo.html","external_links_name":"\"5.56mm (5.56 x 45 mm) Ammunition\""},{"Link":"https://www.inetres.com/gp/military/infantry/rifle/556mm_ammo.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://patents.google.com/patent/US2951424","external_links_name":"\"Patent US2951424 - 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daming_Lake
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Daming Lake
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["1 Islands","2 Buildings","2.1 Lixia Pavilion","2.2 Lake Center Pavilion","2.3 Moon-lit Pavilion","2.4 Jiuqu Pavilion","2.5 Haoran Pavilion","2.6 Ancestral Hall of Lord Tie","2.7 Xiaocanglang Pavilion","2.8 Huiquan Hall","2.9 Beiji Temple","2.10 Huibo Building","2.11 Nanfeng Ancestral Hall","2.12 Jiaxuan Ancestral Hall","2.13 Oushen's Temple","2.14 Daming Lake Nanfeng Theater","3 Gardens","3.1 Xia Garden","3.2 Jiaxuan Garden","3.3 Qiuliu Garden","3.4 Huju Garden","3.5 Nanfeng Garden","3.6 Qishi Guanyu Garden","4 History","5 Literature","6 Visitors","6.1 Tang dynasty","6.2 Song dynasty","6.3 Jin dynasty","6.4 Yuan dynasty","6.5 Ming dynasty","6.6 Qing dynasty","6.7 Modern China","7 Location","8 See also","9 References","10 External links"]
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Coordinates: 36°40′29″N 117°01′04″E / 36.67472°N 117.01778°E / 36.67472; 117.01778Natural freshwater lake in JinanDaming LakeDaming Lake and Jinan skylineDaming LakeLocationJinanCoordinates36°40′29″N 117°01′04″E / 36.67472°N 117.01778°E / 36.67472; 117.01778Typenatural freshwater lakeBasin countriesChinaSurface area46 ha (110 acres)Average depth3 m (9.8 ft)Islandsseveral
Daming Lake (Chinese: 大明湖; pinyin: Dàmíng Hú; Wade–Giles: Ta4-ming2 Hu2; lit. 'Lake of the Great Splendour') is the largest lake in the city of Jinan, Shandong, China and one of city's main natural and cultural landmarks. Located to the north of the historical city center, the lake is fed by the artesian karst springs of the area and hence retains a fairly constant water level through the entire year.
Islands
Reflection of the mountains in Daming Lake at sunrise
Located in the lake are nine small islands:
Cuiliuping Island (Chinese: 翠柳屏岛; pinyin: Cuìliǔpíng Dǎo), also known as (Chinese: 四棵柳岛; pinyin: Sì Kēliǔ Dǎo; lit. 'Four-Willow Island')
Niaoqingqiqi Island (Chinese: 鸟禽憩栖岛; pinyin: Niǎoqínqìqī Dǎo; lit. 'Bird Resting Island')
Guting Island (Chinese: 古亭岛; pinyin: Gǔtíng Dǎo; lit. 'Ancient Pavilion Island'), the location of the Lixia Pavilion
Mingshi Island (Chinese: 名士岛; pinyin: Míngshì Dǎo)
Huiquan Island (Chinese: 汇泉岛; pinyin: Huìquán Dǎo)
Huxin Island (Chinese: 湖心岛; pinyin: Húxīn Dǎo; lit. 'Lake Center Island')
Jiaxuan Island (Chinese: 稼轩岛; pinyin: Jiaxuān Dǎo)
Qiuliu Island (Chinese: 秋柳岛; pinyin: Qiūliǔ Dǎo)
Huju Island (Chinese: 湖居岛; pinyin: Hújū Dǎo; lit. 'Lake Residence Island')
Buildings
Panorama of Daming Lake
The lake is surrounded by a park with an ensemble of historical buildings, some of which stand on the islands in the lake:
Lixia Pavilion
The Lixia Pavilion (Chinese: 历下亭; pinyin: Lìxià Tíng) is located on an island off the lake's east shore.
The pavilion is said to mark the spot of a meeting between the Tang dynasty poet Du Fu and the calligrapher Li Yong (Chinese: 李邕; pinyin: Li Yōng, 678–747). The pavilion was rebuilt in 1693 and features inscriptions by the Qing-dynasty calligrapher He Shaoji and the Kangxi Emperor.
Lake Center Pavilion
The Lake Center Pavilion (Chinese: 湖心亭; pinyin: Húxīn Tíng) is set on an island near the lake's center.
Moon-lit Pavilion
Moon lit Pavilion
The Moon-lit Pavilion (Chinese: 月下亭; pinyin: Yuèxià Tíng; lit. 'Pavilion under the Moon') is located on the north-eastern shore of the lake. It is connected to a large hall via a bridge. Military governor Han Fuju had an emergency escape tunnel constructed that connected the basement of this hall to the outer city. The tunnel was used by Kuomintang general Wang Yaowu to escape from the city at the end of the Battle of Jinan.
Jiuqu Pavilion
The Jiuqu Pavilion (Chinese: 九曲亭; pinyin: Jiǔqū Tíng; lit. 'Nine Bend Pavilion') is located on the southwest shore of the Lake.
Haoran Pavilion
The Haoran Pavilion (Chinese: 浩然亭; pinyin: Hàorán Tíng) stands on the lake's south shore.
Ancestral Hall of Lord Tie
Ancestral Hall of Lord Iron
The Ancestral Hall of Lord Tie (Chinese: 铁公祠; pinyin: Tiěgōng Cí) is located on the northwest shore of the Lake.
It is a memorial to Tie Xuan, a Ming-dynasty official during the reign of the Jianwen Emperor. Tie Xuan was renowned for his heroism and loyalty in the defense of the city against the rebelling Prince Zhu Di, the later Yongle Emperor. The memorial hall was erected during the times of the Qing dynasty.
Xiaocanglang Pavilion
The Xiaocanglang Pavilion (Chinese: 小沧浪亭; pinyin: Xiǎocāngláng Tíng; lit. 'Little Rippling Wave Pavilion') is located on the lake's northwest shore.
Huiquan Hall
Huiquan Hall (Chinese: 汇泉堂; pinyin: Huìquán Táng; lit. 'Joining of the Springs Hall')
Beiji Temple
North Pole Temple
Beiji Temple (Chinese: 北极阁; pinyin: Běijí Gé; lit. 'North Pole Temple') is a taoist temple dedicated to Xuan Wu, the god of the North. It was first built in the early Yuan dynasty, but rebuilt during the reign of the Yongle Emperor of the Ming dynasty. Numerous renovations were carried out during the Qing dynasty. The temple contains several halls as well as a bell and a drum tower. It stands on a seven-meter tall base and covers an area of 1078 square meters.
Huibo Building
Huibo Building
The Huibo Building (Chinese: 汇波楼; pinyin: Huìbō Lóu; lit. 'Joining of the Waves Building') is located near the east gate of Daming Lake Park. It stands on the site of the watergate that controls the outflow of the Daming Lake into the Xiaoqing River.
Nanfeng Ancestral Hall
Nanfeng Ancestral Hall
The Nanfeng Ancestral Hall (Chinese: 南丰祠; pinyin: Nánfēng Cí) is a memorial to the Song-dynasty scholar Zeng Gong. The present structure has been rebuilt in 1829.
Jiaxuan Ancestral Hall
Jiaxuan Ancestral Hall
The Jiaxuan Ancestral Hall (Chinese: 稼轩祠; pinyin: Jiaxuān Cí) commemorates Xin Qiji, a military leader and statesman of the Southern Song dynasty who was born in Jinan. The temple buildings cover a total area of 1400 square meters. Converted for other uses during the Republic of China, the temple was restored to its present function in 1961.
Oushen's Temple
Oushen's Temple (Chinese: 藕神祠; pinyin: Ǒushén Cí) is a memorial temple that was originally dedicated to the Goddess of the Lotus Root. During the Qing dynasty it was rededicated to the memory of Li Qingzhao
Daming Lake Nanfeng Theater
The Daming Lake Nanfeng Theater (Chinese: 大明湖南丰戏楼; pinyin: Dàmíng Hú Nánfēng Xìlóu) is located in the courtyard of the Nanfeng Ancestral Hall and was constructed during the late Qing dynasty.
Gardens
The park that surrounds Daming Lake features six traditional Chinese gardens:
Xia Garden
The Xia Garden (Chinese: 遐园; pinyin: Xiá Yuán) is a traditional courtyard garden that is located to the south of the lake and covers an area of about 9600 square meters. The garden dates back to the year 1909 and was formerly part of the Shandong Provincial Library.
Jiaxuan Garden
(Chinese: 稼轩园; pinyin: Jiaxuān Yuán)
Qiuliu Garden
(Chinese: 秋柳园; pinyin: Qiūliǔ Yuán)
Huju Garden
(Chinese: 湖居园; pinyin: Hújū Yuán; lit. 'Lake Residence Garden')
Nanfeng Garden
(Chinese: 南丰园; pinyin: Nánfēng Yuán)
Qishi Guanyu Garden
(Chinese: 奇石观鱼园; pinyin: Qíshí Guānyú Yuán).
History
Photo of Daming Lake from an early 20th-century German postcard
As a central site in the historical center of Jinan, Daming Lake has been the setting of many events in the history of the city: As his rebellion against the Mongol ruler Kublai Khan came to an end in 1262, the governor Li Tan tried to drown himself in the lake. He was rescued by the Mongols in order to be executed by being put in a sack and trampled to death by horses. The warlord Zhang Zongchang, nicknamed the "Dogmeat General" and unpopular because of his heavy-handed rule, planned to erect a living shrine to himself on the lake, but the plans were not executed due to Zhang's fall from power. During the Battle of Jinan in the Chinese Civil War, the commander of the city's defense against the communist People's Liberation Army, Kuomintang General Wang Yaowu had his command post near the lake shore.
From March 2006 to April 2007, the Daming Lake Park was renovated and extended to connect all portions of the park for unified access. To achieve this, 1788 housing units (including 1639 residential units) were demolished. Since the expansion, the Daming Lake Park covers a total of 103.4 hectares, 29.4 hectares (land: 20 hectares, lake 29.4 hectares) of which were added in the expansion.
Literature
The scenery of Daming Lake has been a topic of Chinese literature for at least about 1,500 years. The lake is mentioned in "Commentary on the Waterways Classic" (Chinese: 水经注; pinyin: Shui Jīng Zhù) by Northern Wei dynasty writer and geographer Li Daoyuan (died 527). It is described in "A Trip to Jinan" by the Jin dynasty poet Yuan Haowen (1235) and was also described by Marco Polo a bit later. The scenery of Daming Lake is also featured in the novel "The Travels of Lao Can" by Liu E and the essay "The Winter of Jinan" (Chinese: 济南的冬天; pinyin: Jǐnán de Dōngtiān) by Lao She.
Daming Lake is also the subject of a poem by Zhang Zongchang, military governor of Shandong from 1920 to 1928, that has been frequently quoted to ridicule him:
大明湖 明湖大
Dàmíng hú míng hú dà
The Daming ("Daming" means "big brightness") Lake, the bright lake is big
大明湖里有荷花
Dàmíng hú lǐ yǒu hé huā
In the Daming Lake are lotus flowers
荷花上头有蛤蟆
Hé huā shàng tóu yŏu há má
On the lotuses are toads
一戳一蹦达
Yī chuō yī bèng dá
prick them once, leap once
Visitors
Because of its cultural significance, the Daming Lake has attracted visits by artists, scholars, and political figures over the centuries.
Recorded visitors include:
Tang dynasty
Li Yong, calligrapher
Du Fu, poet
Duan Chengshi, scholar
Song dynasty
Zeng Gong, Su Zhe, Chao Buzhi, writers
Li Qingzhao and Xin Qiji, poets
Jin dynasty
Yuan Haowen, poet and writer
Yuan dynasty
Zhao Mengfu, painter
Zhang Yanghao, poet
Ming dynasty
Tie Xuan, provincial official, honored in the Lord Tie Ancestral Hall
Bian Gong and Li Panlong, scholars
Qing dynasty
Zhu Yizun and Ruan Yuan, scholars
Wang Shizhen, poet
Gao Fenghan, painter
Jiang Shiquan, playwright
He Shaoji, calligrapher
Pu Songling and Liu E, novelists
Modern China
Guo Moruo and Lao She, writers
Mao Zedong (in 1958) and Zhou Enlai (in 1959), politicians
Location
Daming Lake is located to the north of Minghu Road and to the south of the old city moat. The park is accessible through 4 gates, the north gate, the east gate, the main gate in the south, and the southwest gate.
See also
List of sites in Jinan
References
^ Morris Rossabi (1988): "Khubilai Khan: His Life and Times", Berkeley: University of California Press
^ a b "Jinan Daming Lake Expansion Project (in Chinese)". Archived from the original on 2012-03-03. Retrieved 2010-01-30.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Daming Lake.
Official Site
vteLakes of ChinaFive Great Lakes
Poyang
Dongting
Chao
Tai
Hongze
Notable freshwater lakes
Xingkai
Poyang
Dongting
Tai
Hulun
Hongze
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"大","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7"},{"link_name":"明","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%98%8E"},{"link_name":"湖","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B9%96"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"},{"link_name":"Wade–Giles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles"},{"link_name":"Jinan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jinan"},{"link_name":"Shandong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shandong"},{"link_name":"China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China"},{"link_name":"artesian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artesian_aquifer"},{"link_name":"karst","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karst"}],"text":"Natural freshwater lake in JinanDaming Lake (Chinese: 大明湖; pinyin: Dàmíng Hú; Wade–Giles: Ta4-ming2 Hu2; lit. 'Lake of the Great Splendour') is the largest lake in the city of Jinan, Shandong, China and one of city's main natural and cultural landmarks. Located to the north of the historical city center, the lake is fed by the artesian karst springs of the area and hence retains a fairly constant water level through the entire year.","title":"Daming Lake"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Foshandaoying.jpg"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"翠","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%BF%A0"},{"link_name":"柳","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9F%B3"},{"link_name":"屏","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B1%8F"},{"link_name":"岛","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B2%9B"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"四","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%9B%9B"},{"link_name":"棵","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%A3%B5"},{"link_name":"柳","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9F%B3"},{"link_name":"岛","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B2%9B"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"鸟","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%B8%9F"},{"link_name":"禽","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%A6%BD"},{"link_name":"憩","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%86%A9"},{"link_name":"栖","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%A0%96"},{"link_name":"岛","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B2%9B"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"古","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4"},{"link_name":"亭","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BA%AD"},{"link_name":"岛","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B2%9B"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"名","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%90%8D"},{"link_name":"士","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A3%AB"},{"link_name":"岛","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B2%9B"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"汇","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B1%87"},{"link_name":"泉","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B3%89"},{"link_name":"岛","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B2%9B"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"湖","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B9%96"},{"link_name":"心","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%BF%83"},{"link_name":"岛","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B2%9B"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"稼","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%A8%BC"},{"link_name":"轩","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%BD%A9"},{"link_name":"岛","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B2%9B"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"秋","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%A7%8B"},{"link_name":"柳","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9F%B3"},{"link_name":"岛","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B2%9B"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"湖居","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B9%96%E5%B1%85"},{"link_name":"岛","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B2%9B"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"}],"text":"Reflection of the mountains in Daming Lake at sunriseLocated in the lake are nine small islands:Cuiliuping Island (Chinese: 翠柳屏岛; pinyin: Cuìliǔpíng Dǎo), also known as (Chinese: 四棵柳岛; pinyin: Sì Kēliǔ Dǎo; lit. 'Four-Willow Island')\nNiaoqingqiqi Island (Chinese: 鸟禽憩栖岛; pinyin: Niǎoqínqìqī Dǎo; lit. 'Bird Resting Island')\nGuting Island (Chinese: 古亭岛; pinyin: Gǔtíng Dǎo; lit. 'Ancient Pavilion Island'), the location of the Lixia Pavilion\nMingshi Island (Chinese: 名士岛; pinyin: Míngshì Dǎo)\nHuiquan Island (Chinese: 汇泉岛; pinyin: Huìquán Dǎo)\nHuxin Island (Chinese: 湖心岛; pinyin: Húxīn Dǎo; lit. 'Lake Center Island')\nJiaxuan Island (Chinese: 稼轩岛; pinyin: Jiaxuān Dǎo)\nQiuliu Island (Chinese: 秋柳岛; pinyin: Qiūliǔ Dǎo)\nHuju Island (Chinese: 湖居岛; pinyin: Hújū Dǎo; lit. 'Lake Residence Island')","title":"Islands"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Daminglake_from_west_2007.jpg"}],"text":"Panorama of Daming LakeThe lake is surrounded by a park with an ensemble of historical buildings, some of which stand on the islands in the lake:","title":"Buildings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"历","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8E%86"},{"link_name":"下","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%8B"},{"link_name":"亭","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BA%AD"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"},{"link_name":"Du Fu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Du_Fu"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"李","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9D%8E"},{"link_name":"邕","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%82%95"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"},{"link_name":"Kangxi Emperor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor"}],"sub_title":"Lixia Pavilion","text":"The Lixia Pavilion (Chinese: 历下亭; pinyin: Lìxià Tíng) is located on an island off the lake's east shore.\nThe pavilion is said to mark the spot of a meeting between the Tang dynasty poet Du Fu and the calligrapher Li Yong (Chinese: 李邕; pinyin: Li Yōng, 678–747). The pavilion was rebuilt in 1693 and features inscriptions by the Qing-dynasty calligrapher He Shaoji and the Kangxi Emperor.","title":"Buildings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"湖","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B9%96"},{"link_name":"心","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%BF%83"},{"link_name":"亭","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BA%AD"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"}],"sub_title":"Lake Center Pavilion","text":"The Lake Center Pavilion (Chinese: 湖心亭; pinyin: Húxīn Tíng) is set on an island near the lake's center.","title":"Buildings"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%E6%B5%8E%E5%8D%97%E5%A4%A7%E6%98%8E%E6%B9%96%E5%85%AC%E5%9B%AD%E6%9C%88%E4%B8%8B%E4%BA%AD.JPG"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"月","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9C%88"},{"link_name":"下","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%8B"},{"link_name":"亭","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BA%AD"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"},{"link_name":"Han Fuju","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Fuju"},{"link_name":"Wang Yaowu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wang_Yaowu"},{"link_name":"Battle of Jinan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Jinan"}],"sub_title":"Moon-lit Pavilion","text":"Moon lit PavilionThe Moon-lit Pavilion (Chinese: 月下亭; pinyin: Yuèxià Tíng; lit. 'Pavilion under the Moon') is located on the north-eastern shore of the lake. It is connected to a large hall via a bridge. Military governor Han Fuju had an emergency escape tunnel constructed that connected the basement of this hall to the outer city. The tunnel was used by Kuomintang general Wang Yaowu to escape from the city at the end of the Battle of Jinan.","title":"Buildings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"九","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B9%9D"},{"link_name":"曲","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9B%B2"},{"link_name":"亭","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BA%AD"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"}],"sub_title":"Jiuqu Pavilion","text":"The Jiuqu Pavilion (Chinese: 九曲亭; pinyin: Jiǔqū Tíng; lit. 'Nine Bend Pavilion') is located on the southwest shore of the Lake.","title":"Buildings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"浩","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B5%A9"},{"link_name":"然","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%84%B6"},{"link_name":"亭","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BA%AD"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"}],"sub_title":"Haoran Pavilion","text":"The Haoran Pavilion (Chinese: 浩然亭; pinyin: Hàorán Tíng) stands on the lake's south shore.","title":"Buildings"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%E6%B5%8E%E5%8D%97%E5%A4%A7%E6%98%8E%E6%B9%96%E5%85%AC%E5%9B%AD%E9%93%81%E5%85%AC%E7%A5%A0.JPG"},{"link_name":"Ancestral Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancestral_Hall"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"铁","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%93%81"},{"link_name":"公","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%85%AC"},{"link_name":"祠","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%A5%A0"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"},{"link_name":"Ming-dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Jianwen Emperor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jianwen_Emperor"},{"link_name":"Yongle Emperor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yongle_Emperor"}],"sub_title":"Ancestral Hall of Lord Tie","text":"Ancestral Hall of Lord IronThe Ancestral Hall of Lord Tie (Chinese: 铁公祠; pinyin: Tiěgōng Cí) is located on the northwest shore of the Lake.\nIt is a memorial to Tie Xuan, a Ming-dynasty official during the reign of the Jianwen Emperor. Tie Xuan was renowned for his heroism and loyalty in the defense of the city against the rebelling Prince Zhu Di, the later Yongle Emperor. The memorial hall was erected during the times of the Qing dynasty.","title":"Buildings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"小","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8F"},{"link_name":"沧","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B2%A7"},{"link_name":"浪","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B5%AA"},{"link_name":"亭","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BA%AD"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"}],"sub_title":"Xiaocanglang Pavilion","text":"The Xiaocanglang Pavilion (Chinese: 小沧浪亭; pinyin: Xiǎocāngláng Tíng; lit. 'Little Rippling Wave Pavilion') is located on the lake's northwest shore.","title":"Buildings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"汇","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B1%87"},{"link_name":"泉","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B3%89"},{"link_name":"堂","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A0%82"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"}],"sub_title":"Huiquan Hall","text":"Huiquan Hall (Chinese: 汇泉堂; pinyin: Huìquán Táng; lit. 'Joining of the Springs Hall')","title":"Buildings"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%E6%B5%8E%E5%8D%97%E5%A4%A7%E6%98%8E%E6%B9%96%E5%85%AC%E5%9B%AD%E5%8C%97%E6%9E%81%E9%98%81.JPG"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"北","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8C%97"},{"link_name":"极","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9E%81"},{"link_name":"阁","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%98%81"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"},{"link_name":"taoist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoism"},{"link_name":"Xuan Wu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xuan_Wu_(god)"},{"link_name":"Yongle Emperor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yongle_Emperor"}],"sub_title":"Beiji Temple","text":"North Pole TempleBeiji Temple (Chinese: 北极阁; pinyin: Běijí Gé; lit. 'North Pole Temple') is a taoist temple dedicated to Xuan Wu, the god of the North. It was first built in the early Yuan dynasty, but rebuilt during the reign of the Yongle Emperor of the Ming dynasty. Numerous renovations were carried out during the Qing dynasty. The temple contains several halls as well as a bell and a drum tower. It stands on a seven-meter tall base and covers an area of 1078 square meters.","title":"Buildings"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%E6%B5%8E%E5%8D%97%E5%A4%A7%E6%98%8E%E6%B9%96%E5%85%AC%E5%9B%AD%E6%B1%87%E6%B3%A2%E6%A5%BC.JPG"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"汇","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B1%87"},{"link_name":"波","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B3%A2"},{"link_name":"楼","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%A5%BC"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"}],"sub_title":"Huibo Building","text":"Huibo BuildingThe Huibo Building (Chinese: 汇波楼; pinyin: Huìbō Lóu; lit. 'Joining of the Waves Building') is located near the east gate of Daming Lake Park. It stands on the site of the watergate that controls the outflow of the Daming Lake into the Xiaoqing River.","title":"Buildings"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%E6%B5%8E%E5%8D%97%E5%A4%A7%E6%98%8E%E6%B9%96%E5%85%AC%E5%9B%AD%E5%8D%97%E4%B8%B0%E7%A5%A0.JPG"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"南","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8D%97"},{"link_name":"丰","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%B0"},{"link_name":"祠","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%A5%A0"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"},{"link_name":"Song-dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Zeng Gong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeng_Gong"}],"sub_title":"Nanfeng Ancestral Hall","text":"Nanfeng Ancestral HallThe Nanfeng Ancestral Hall (Chinese: 南丰祠; pinyin: Nánfēng Cí) is a memorial to the Song-dynasty scholar Zeng Gong. The present structure has been rebuilt in 1829.","title":"Buildings"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jiaxuan_Ancestral_Hall.jpg"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"稼","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%A8%BC"},{"link_name":"轩","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%BD%A9"},{"link_name":"祠","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%A5%A0"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"},{"link_name":"Xin Qiji","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xin_Qiji"}],"sub_title":"Jiaxuan Ancestral Hall","text":"Jiaxuan Ancestral HallThe Jiaxuan Ancestral Hall (Chinese: 稼轩祠; pinyin: Jiaxuān Cí) commemorates Xin Qiji, a military leader and statesman of the Southern Song dynasty who was born in Jinan. The temple buildings cover a total area of 1400 square meters. Converted for other uses during the Republic of China, the temple was restored to its present function in 1961.","title":"Buildings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"藕","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%97%95"},{"link_name":"神","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%A5%9E"},{"link_name":"祠","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%A5%A0"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"},{"link_name":"Li Qingzhao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Qingzhao"}],"sub_title":"Oushen's Temple","text":"Oushen's Temple (Chinese: 藕神祠; pinyin: Ǒushén Cí) is a memorial temple that was originally dedicated to the Goddess of the Lotus Root. During the Qing dynasty it was rededicated to the memory of Li Qingzhao","title":"Buildings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"大","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7"},{"link_name":"明","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%98%8E"},{"link_name":"湖","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B9%96"},{"link_name":"南","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8D%97"},{"link_name":"丰","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%B0"},{"link_name":"戏","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%88%8F"},{"link_name":"楼","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%A5%BC"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"}],"sub_title":"Daming Lake Nanfeng Theater","text":"The Daming Lake Nanfeng Theater (Chinese: 大明湖南丰戏楼; pinyin: Dàmíng Hú Nánfēng Xìlóu) is located in the courtyard of the Nanfeng Ancestral Hall and was constructed during the late Qing dynasty.","title":"Buildings"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"The park that surrounds Daming Lake features six traditional Chinese gardens:","title":"Gardens"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"遐","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%81%90"},{"link_name":"园","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%9B%AD"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"}],"sub_title":"Xia Garden","text":"The Xia Garden (Chinese: 遐园; pinyin: Xiá Yuán) is a traditional courtyard garden that is located to the south of the lake and covers an area of about 9600 square meters. The garden dates back to the year 1909 and was formerly part of the Shandong Provincial Library.","title":"Gardens"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"稼","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%A8%BC"},{"link_name":"轩","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%BD%A9"},{"link_name":"园","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%9B%AD"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"}],"sub_title":"Jiaxuan Garden","text":"(Chinese: 稼轩园; pinyin: Jiaxuān Yuán)","title":"Gardens"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"秋","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%A7%8B"},{"link_name":"柳","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9F%B3"},{"link_name":"园","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%9B%AD"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"}],"sub_title":"Qiuliu Garden","text":"(Chinese: 秋柳园; pinyin: Qiūliǔ Yuán)","title":"Gardens"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"湖","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B9%96"},{"link_name":"居","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B1%85"},{"link_name":"园","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%9B%AD"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"}],"sub_title":"Huju Garden","text":"(Chinese: 湖居园; pinyin: Hújū Yuán; lit. 'Lake Residence Garden')","title":"Gardens"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"南","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8D%97"},{"link_name":"丰","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%B0"},{"link_name":"园","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%9B%AD"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"}],"sub_title":"Nanfeng Garden","text":"(Chinese: 南丰园; pinyin: Nánfēng Yuán)","title":"Gardens"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"奇","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A5%87"},{"link_name":"石","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%9F%B3"},{"link_name":"观","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%A7%82"},{"link_name":"鱼","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%B1%BC"},{"link_name":"园","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%9B%AD"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"}],"sub_title":"Qishi Guanyu Garden","text":"(Chinese: 奇石观鱼园; pinyin: Qíshí Guānyú Yuán).","title":"Gardens"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tsinaufu_1905.jpg"},{"link_name":"German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiautschou_Bay_Leased_Territory"},{"link_name":"Kublai Khan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kublai_Khan"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rossabi-1"},{"link_name":"Zhang Zongchang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhang_Zongchang"},{"link_name":"Battle of Jinan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Jinan"},{"link_name":"Chinese Civil War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War"},{"link_name":"People's Liberation Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army"},{"link_name":"Kuomintang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuomintang"},{"link_name":"Wang Yaowu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wang_Yaowu"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-expproj-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-expproj-2"}],"text":"Photo of Daming Lake from an early 20th-century German postcardAs a central site in the historical center of Jinan, Daming Lake has been the setting of many events in the history of the city: As his rebellion against the Mongol ruler Kublai Khan came to an end in 1262, the governor Li Tan tried to drown himself in the lake. He was rescued by the Mongols in order to be executed by being put in a sack and trampled to death by horses.[1] The warlord Zhang Zongchang, nicknamed the \"Dogmeat General\" and unpopular because of his heavy-handed rule, planned to erect a living shrine to himself on the lake, but the plans were not executed due to Zhang's fall from power. During the Battle of Jinan in the Chinese Civil War, the commander of the city's defense against the communist People's Liberation Army, Kuomintang General Wang Yaowu had his command post near the lake shore.From March 2006 to April 2007, the Daming Lake Park was renovated and extended to connect all portions of the park for unified access. To achieve this, 1788 housing units (including 1639 residential units) were demolished.[2] Since the expansion, the Daming Lake Park covers a total of 103.4 hectares, 29.4 hectares (land: 20 hectares, lake 29.4 hectares) of which were added in the expansion.[2]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Commentary on the Waterways Classic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shui_Jing_Zhu"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"水","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B0%B4"},{"link_name":"经","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%BB%8F"},{"link_name":"注","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B3%A8"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"},{"link_name":"Northern Wei dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Wei_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Li Daoyuan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Daoyuan"},{"link_name":"Jin dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)"},{"link_name":"Yuan Haowen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan_Haowen"},{"link_name":"Marco Polo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marco_Polo"},{"link_name":"Liu E","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liu_E_(writer)"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"济","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B5%8E"},{"link_name":"南","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8D%97"},{"link_name":"的","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%9A%84"},{"link_name":"冬","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%86%AC"},{"link_name":"天","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A9"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"},{"link_name":"Lao She","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lao_She"},{"link_name":"Zhang Zongchang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhang_Zongchang"},{"link_name":"大","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7"},{"link_name":"明","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%98%8E"},{"link_name":"湖","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B9%96"},{"link_name":"明","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%98%8E"},{"link_name":"湖","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B9%96"},{"link_name":"大","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7"},{"link_name":"大","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7"},{"link_name":"明","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%98%8E"},{"link_name":"湖","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B9%96"},{"link_name":"里","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%87%8C"},{"link_name":"有","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9C%89"},{"link_name":"荷","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%8D%B7"},{"link_name":"花","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%8A%B1"},{"link_name":"荷","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%8D%B7"},{"link_name":"花","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%8A%B1"},{"link_name":"上","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%8A"},{"link_name":"头","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A4%B4"},{"link_name":"有","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9C%89"},{"link_name":"蛤","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%9B%A4"},{"link_name":"蟆","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%9F%86"},{"link_name":"一","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%80"},{"link_name":"戳","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%88%B3"},{"link_name":"一","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%80"},{"link_name":"蹦","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%B9%A6"},{"link_name":"达","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%BE%BE"}],"text":"The scenery of Daming Lake has been a topic of Chinese literature for at least about 1,500 years. The lake is mentioned in \"Commentary on the Waterways Classic\" (Chinese: 水经注; pinyin: Shui Jīng Zhù) by Northern Wei dynasty writer and geographer Li Daoyuan (died 527). It is described in \"A Trip to Jinan\" by the Jin dynasty poet Yuan Haowen (1235) and was also described by Marco Polo a bit later. The scenery of Daming Lake is also featured in the novel \"The Travels of Lao Can\" by Liu E and the essay \"The Winter of Jinan\" (Chinese: 济南的冬天; pinyin: Jǐnán de Dōngtiān) by Lao She.\nDaming Lake is also the subject of a poem by Zhang Zongchang, military governor of Shandong from 1920 to 1928, that has been frequently quoted to ridicule him:大明湖 明湖大\nDàmíng hú míng hú dà\nThe Daming (\"Daming\" means \"big brightness\") Lake, the bright lake is big\n大明湖里有荷花\nDàmíng hú lǐ yǒu hé huā\nIn the Daming Lake are lotus flowers\n荷花上头有蛤蟆\nHé huā shàng tóu yŏu há má\nOn the lotuses are toads\n一戳一蹦达\nYī chuō yī bèng dá\n[You] prick them once, [the toads] leap once","title":"Literature"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Because of its cultural significance, the Daming Lake has attracted visits by artists, scholars, and political figures over the centuries.\nRecorded visitors include:","title":"Visitors"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Li Yong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Li_Yong_(calligrapher)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Du Fu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Du_Fu"},{"link_name":"Duan Chengshi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duan_Chengshi"}],"sub_title":"Tang dynasty","text":"Li Yong, calligrapher\nDu Fu, poet\nDuan Chengshi, scholar","title":"Visitors"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Zeng Gong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeng_Gong"},{"link_name":"Su Zhe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Su_Zhe"},{"link_name":"Chao Buzhi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chao_Buzhi&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Li Qingzhao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Qingzhao"},{"link_name":"Xin Qiji","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xin_Qiji"}],"sub_title":"Song dynasty","text":"Zeng Gong, Su Zhe, Chao Buzhi, writers\nLi Qingzhao and Xin Qiji, poets","title":"Visitors"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Yuan Haowen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan_Haowen"}],"sub_title":"Jin dynasty","text":"Yuan Haowen, poet and writer","title":"Visitors"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Zhao Mengfu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhao_Mengfu"},{"link_name":"Zhang Yanghao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhang_Yanghao"}],"sub_title":"Yuan dynasty","text":"Zhao Mengfu, painter\nZhang Yanghao, poet","title":"Visitors"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tie Xuan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tie_Xuan"},{"link_name":"Bian Gong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bian_Gong&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Li Panlong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Li_Panlong&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"sub_title":"Ming dynasty","text":"Tie Xuan, provincial official, honored in the Lord Tie Ancestral Hall\nBian Gong and Li Panlong, scholars","title":"Visitors"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Zhu Yizun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhu_Yizun"},{"link_name":"Ruan Yuan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruan_Yuan"},{"link_name":"Wang Shizhen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wang_Shizhen_(poet)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Gao Fenghan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gao_Fenghan"},{"link_name":"Jiang Shiquan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiang_Shiquan"},{"link_name":"He Shaoji","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=He_Shaoji&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Pu Songling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pu_Songling"},{"link_name":"Liu E","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liu_E_(writer)"}],"sub_title":"Qing dynasty","text":"Zhu Yizun and Ruan Yuan, scholars\nWang Shizhen, poet\nGao Fenghan, painter\nJiang Shiquan, playwright\nHe Shaoji, calligrapher\nPu Songling and Liu E, novelists","title":"Visitors"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Guo Moruo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guo_Moruo"},{"link_name":"Lao She","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lao_She"},{"link_name":"Mao Zedong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mao_Zedong"},{"link_name":"Zhou Enlai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhou_Enlai"}],"sub_title":"Modern China","text":"Guo Moruo and Lao She, writers\nMao Zedong (in 1958) and Zhou Enlai (in 1959), politicians","title":"Visitors"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Daming Lake is located to the north of Minghu Road and to the south of the old city moat. The park is accessible through 4 gates, the north gate, the east gate, the main gate in the south, and the southwest gate.","title":"Location"}]
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[{"image_text":"Reflection of the mountains in Daming Lake at sunrise","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Foshandaoying.jpg/220px-Foshandaoying.jpg"},{"image_text":"Panorama of Daming Lake","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Daminglake_from_west_2007.jpg/219px-Daminglake_from_west_2007.jpg"},{"image_text":"Moon lit Pavilion","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/%E6%B5%8E%E5%8D%97%E5%A4%A7%E6%98%8E%E6%B9%96%E5%85%AC%E5%9B%AD%E6%9C%88%E4%B8%8B%E4%BA%AD.JPG/219px-%E6%B5%8E%E5%8D%97%E5%A4%A7%E6%98%8E%E6%B9%96%E5%85%AC%E5%9B%AD%E6%9C%88%E4%B8%8B%E4%BA%AD.JPG"},{"image_text":"Ancestral Hall of Lord Iron","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/%E6%B5%8E%E5%8D%97%E5%A4%A7%E6%98%8E%E6%B9%96%E5%85%AC%E5%9B%AD%E9%93%81%E5%85%AC%E7%A5%A0.JPG/220px-%E6%B5%8E%E5%8D%97%E5%A4%A7%E6%98%8E%E6%B9%96%E5%85%AC%E5%9B%AD%E9%93%81%E5%85%AC%E7%A5%A0.JPG"},{"image_text":"North Pole Temple","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/%E6%B5%8E%E5%8D%97%E5%A4%A7%E6%98%8E%E6%B9%96%E5%85%AC%E5%9B%AD%E5%8C%97%E6%9E%81%E9%98%81.JPG/220px-%E6%B5%8E%E5%8D%97%E5%A4%A7%E6%98%8E%E6%B9%96%E5%85%AC%E5%9B%AD%E5%8C%97%E6%9E%81%E9%98%81.JPG"},{"image_text":"Huibo Building","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/%E6%B5%8E%E5%8D%97%E5%A4%A7%E6%98%8E%E6%B9%96%E5%85%AC%E5%9B%AD%E6%B1%87%E6%B3%A2%E6%A5%BC.JPG/220px-%E6%B5%8E%E5%8D%97%E5%A4%A7%E6%98%8E%E6%B9%96%E5%85%AC%E5%9B%AD%E6%B1%87%E6%B3%A2%E6%A5%BC.JPG"},{"image_text":"Nanfeng Ancestral Hall","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/%E6%B5%8E%E5%8D%97%E5%A4%A7%E6%98%8E%E6%B9%96%E5%85%AC%E5%9B%AD%E5%8D%97%E4%B8%B0%E7%A5%A0.JPG/220px-%E6%B5%8E%E5%8D%97%E5%A4%A7%E6%98%8E%E6%B9%96%E5%85%AC%E5%9B%AD%E5%8D%97%E4%B8%B0%E7%A5%A0.JPG"},{"image_text":"Jiaxuan Ancestral Hall","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Jiaxuan_Ancestral_Hall.jpg/220px-Jiaxuan_Ancestral_Hall.jpg"},{"image_text":"Photo of Daming Lake from an early 20th-century German postcard","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Tsinaufu_1905.jpg/220px-Tsinaufu_1905.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"List of sites in Jinan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sites_in_Jinan"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Jinan Daming Lake Expansion Project (in Chinese)\". Archived from the original on 2012-03-03. Retrieved 2010-01-30.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120303014945/http://gardens.m6699.com/content-10946.htm","url_text":"\"Jinan Daming Lake Expansion Project (in Chinese)\""},{"url":"http://gardens.m6699.com/content-10946.htm","url_text":"the original"}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Daming_Lake¶ms=36_40_29_N_117_01_04_E_region:CN_type:waterbody","external_links_name":"36°40′29″N 117°01′04″E / 36.67472°N 117.01778°E / 36.67472; 117.01778"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Daming_Lake¶ms=36_40_29_N_117_01_04_E_region:CN_type:waterbody","external_links_name":"36°40′29″N 117°01′04″E / 36.67472°N 117.01778°E / 36.67472; 117.01778"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120303014945/http://gardens.m6699.com/content-10946.htm","external_links_name":"\"Jinan Daming Lake Expansion Project (in Chinese)\""},{"Link":"http://gardens.m6699.com/content-10946.htm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070711194534/http://www.daminglake.com/home.htm","external_links_name":"Official Site"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pile_weave
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Pile weave
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["1 Hand-woven pile","2 Machine-woven pile","3 Knotted pile","4 Fabrics","4.1 Warp pile weave","4.2 Filling or weft pile weave","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]
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Pile weave: a cut and uncut velvet used for a man's vest, ca. 1845, LACMA M.2007.211.819
Pile weave is a form of textile created by weaving. This type of fabric is characterized by a pile—a looped or tufted surface that extends above the initial foundation, or 'ground' weave. The pile is formed by supplemental yarn running in the direction of the length of the fabric (warp pile weave) or the width of the fabric (weft or filling pile weave). Pile weaves include velvet and corduroy fabrics and machine-woven Berber carpets.
Hand-woven pile
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One method of making a weft pile on a hand loom.
Pile fabrics were originally made on traditional hand looms. The warp ends that are used for the formation of the pile are woven over metal rods or wires that are inserted in the shed (gap caused by raising alternate threads) during weaving. This same effect can be achieved by winding the pile yarn around a rod during weaving. In both methods, the pile yarns lie in loops over the inserted rods and when a rod is extracted, the pile yarns remain as loops on top of the base fabric. The pile ends lying over the rod may be left as 'loop pile', or cut to form 'cut pile' or velvet.
Machine-woven pile
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Face-to-face weaving.
On power looms the technology of 'wire weaving' still exists, using modern technology and electronics. This weaving technique allows users to obtain both loop pile and cut pile in the same fabric. Other techniques involve the weaving of two layers of fabric on top of each other, whereby the warp ends used for the pile are inserted in such a way that they form a vertical connection between the two layers of fabric. By cutting the pile ends in between the two layers one obtains two separate pile fabrics. With this technique only the cut pile effect can be obtained. This is known as 'face-to-face weaving'. Both 'wire weaving' and 'face-to-face' weaving are used for the manufacturing of upholstery and furnishing fabrics as well as in rug making.
Knotted pile
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Main article: Knotted pile carpet
Knotted pile.Ghiordes knotSenneh knotThe yellow yarn is the pile, the vertical the warp, and the horizontal the weft
Knotted pile or knotted weave is the method of weaving used in most rugs. In this technique the rug is woven by creation of knots. A short piece of yarn is tied by hand around two neighboring warp strands creating a knot on the surface of the rug. After each row of knots is created, one or more strands of weft are passed through a complete set of warp strands. Then the knots and the weft strands are beaten with a comb securing the knots in place. A rug can consist of 25 to over 1,000 knots per square inch.
Fabrics
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Warp pile weave
Velvet, a pile weave made of filament fiber with the pile yarn in the lengthwise or warp direction.
Frieze
Terrycloth, a pile fabric (usually cotton) with uncut loops on both sides. The pile in terrycloth is formed by a special weaving arrangement in which three picks or fillings are inserted and beaten up with one motion of the reed. Common varieties include two-pick and three-pick terries with three-pick one being the highest quality, it has two picks under the pile loop and one pick between loops. Each loop acts as a tiny sponge. Terrycloth's large absorption capacity makes it the fabric of choice for bath towels and bath robes.
Filling or weft pile weave
Corduroy, a textile composed of twisted fibers that, when woven, lie parallel (similar to twill) to one another to form the cloth's distinct pattern, a "cord." Modern corduroy is most commonly composed of tufted cords, sometimes exhibiting a channel (bare to the base fabric) between the tufts. Corduroy is, in essence, a ridged form of velvet.
Velveteen, made of staple fibers (often cotton) with the pile yarn in filling (cross-wise) direction.
See also
Textile manufacturing terminology
References
^ Burnham, Dorothy (1980). Warp and weft: A textile terminology. Toronto: Royal Ontario Museum. p. 100. ISBN 0-88854-256-9.
^ Wilson, J. (2012). "Woven structures and their characteristics". Woven Textiles. Elsevier. pp. 163–204. doi:10.1533/9780857095589.2.163. ISBN 978-1-84569-930-7.
External links
Media related to Pile weave at Wikimedia Commons
vteWeavingWeaves
Basketweave
Charvet
Coverlet
Dobby
Double weave
Even-weave
Gabardine
Lampas
Leno weave
Oxford
Pile weave
Piqué
Plain weave
Satin
Shot
Swivel
Twill
Components
Textiles
Warp and weft
Yarn
Tools and techniques
Barber-Colman knotter
Beamer
Chilkat weaving
Fingerweaving
Flying shuttle
Heddle
Ikat
Inkle weaving
Kasuri
Loom
Navajo weaving
Pibiones
Reed
Salish weaving
Shed
Shuttle
Sizing
Sizing machine
Tablet weaving
Talim
Tāniko
Tapestry
Temple
Types of looms
Air-jet loom
Dandy loom
Dobby loom
Hattersley loom
Horrocks loom
Jacquard loom
Lancashire loom
Northrop loom
Power loom
Rapier loom
Roberts loom
Warp-weighted loom
Weavers
Acesas
Anni Albers
Otti Berger
Micheline Beauchemin
Johanna Brunsson
Ada Dietz
Thomas Ferguson & Co Ltd
Elisabeth Forsell
Dorothy Liebes
Ethel Mairet
Maria Elisabet Öberg
Lilly Reich
Margaretha Reichardt
John Rylands
Brigitta Scherzenfeldt
Clara Sherman
Gunta Stölzl
Judocus de Vos
Margaretha Zetterberg
Employment practices
More looms
Kissing the shuttle
Piece-rate list
Mills
Bancroft Shed
Queen Street Mill
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[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Man%27s_Vest_LACMA_M.2007.211.819_(2_of_2)_(detail_of_cut_and_uncut_velvet).jpg"},{"link_name":"textile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textile"},{"link_name":"weaving","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weaving"},{"link_name":"pile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pile_(textile)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Burnham1-1"},{"link_name":"velvet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velvet"},{"link_name":"corduroy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corduroy"},{"link_name":"Berber carpets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berber_carpet"}],"text":"Pile weave: a cut and uncut velvet used for a man's vest, ca. 1845, LACMA M.2007.211.819Pile weave is a form of textile created by weaving. This type of fabric is characterized by a pile—a looped or tufted surface that extends above the initial foundation, or 'ground' weave. The pile is formed by supplemental yarn running in the direction of the length of the fabric (warp pile weave) or the width of the fabric (weft or filling pile weave).[1] Pile weaves include velvet and corduroy fabrics and machine-woven Berber carpets.","title":"Pile weave"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Image_from_page_87_of_%22Studies_in_primitive_looms%22_(1918)_(14597813408).jpg"},{"link_name":"looms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loom"},{"link_name":"warp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warp_(weaving)"},{"link_name":"velvet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velvet"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"One method of making a weft pile on a hand loom.Pile fabrics were originally made on traditional hand looms. The warp ends that are used for the formation of the pile are woven over metal rods or wires that are inserted in the shed (gap caused by raising alternate threads) during weaving. This same effect can be achieved by winding the pile yarn around a rod during weaving. In both methods, the pile yarns lie in loops over the inserted rods and when a rod is extracted, the pile yarns remain as loops on top of the base fabric. The pile ends lying over the rod may be left as 'loop pile', or cut to form 'cut pile' or velvet.[2]","title":"Hand-woven pile"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Velvet_warp.svg"},{"link_name":"power looms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_loom"},{"link_name":"upholstery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upholstery"},{"link_name":"rug making","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rug_making"}],"text":"Face-to-face weaving.On power looms the technology of 'wire weaving' still exists, using modern technology and electronics. This weaving technique allows users to obtain both loop pile and cut pile in the same fabric. Other techniques involve the weaving of two layers of fabric on top of each other, whereby the warp ends used for the pile are inserted in such a way that they form a vertical connection between the two layers of fabric. By cutting the pile ends in between the two layers one obtains two separate pile fabrics. With this technique only the cut pile effect can be obtained. This is known as 'face-to-face weaving'. Both 'wire weaving' and 'face-to-face' weaving are used for the manufacturing of upholstery and furnishing fabrics as well as in rug making.","title":"Machine-woven pile"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Knopen_001.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Noeud_turc.jpg"},{"link_name":"Ghiordes knot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghiordes_knot"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Noeud_senneh.jpg"},{"link_name":"Senneh knot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senneh_knot"},{"link_name":"pile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pile_(textile)"},{"link_name":"knots per","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knot_density"}],"text":"Knotted pile.Ghiordes knotSenneh knotThe yellow yarn is the pile, the vertical the warp, and the horizontal the weftKnotted pile or knotted weave is the method of weaving used in most rugs. In this technique the rug is woven by creation of knots. A short piece of yarn is tied by hand around two neighboring warp strands creating a knot on the surface of the rug. After each row of knots is created, one or more strands of weft are passed through a complete set of warp strands. Then the knots and the weft strands are beaten with a comb securing the knots in place. A rug can consist of 25 to over 1,000 knots per square inch.","title":"Knotted pile"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Fabrics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Velvet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velvet"},{"link_name":"Frieze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frieze_(textile)"},{"link_name":"Terrycloth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrycloth"}],"sub_title":"Warp pile weave","text":"Velvet, a pile weave made of filament fiber with the pile yarn in the lengthwise or warp direction.\nFrieze\nTerrycloth, a pile fabric (usually cotton) with uncut loops on both sides. The pile in terrycloth is formed by a special weaving arrangement in which three picks or fillings are inserted and beaten up with one motion of the reed. Common varieties include two-pick and three-pick terries with three-pick one being the highest quality, it has two picks under the pile loop and one pick between loops. Each loop acts as a tiny sponge. Terrycloth's large absorption capacity makes it the fabric of choice for bath towels and bath robes.","title":"Fabrics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Corduroy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corduroy"},{"link_name":"Velveteen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velveteen"},{"link_name":"cotton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton"}],"sub_title":"Filling or weft pile weave","text":"Corduroy, a textile composed of twisted fibers that, when woven, lie parallel (similar to twill) to one another to form the cloth's distinct pattern, a \"cord.\" Modern corduroy is most commonly composed of tufted cords, sometimes exhibiting a channel (bare to the base fabric) between the tufts. Corduroy is, in essence, a ridged form of velvet.\nVelveteen, made of staple fibers (often cotton) with the pile yarn in filling (cross-wise) direction.","title":"Fabrics"}]
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[{"image_text":"Pile weave: a cut and uncut velvet used for a man's vest, ca. 1845, LACMA M.2007.211.819","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Man%27s_Vest_LACMA_M.2007.211.819_%282_of_2%29_%28detail_of_cut_and_uncut_velvet%29.jpg/220px-Man%27s_Vest_LACMA_M.2007.211.819_%282_of_2%29_%28detail_of_cut_and_uncut_velvet%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"One method of making a weft pile on a hand loom.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Image_from_page_87_of_%22Studies_in_primitive_looms%22_%281918%29_%2814597813408%29.jpg/220px-Image_from_page_87_of_%22Studies_in_primitive_looms%22_%281918%29_%2814597813408%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Face-to-face weaving.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Velvet_warp.svg/220px-Velvet_warp.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Knotted pile.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Knopen_001.jpg/220px-Knopen_001.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Textile manufacturing terminology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textile_manufacturing_terminology"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gortyna
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Gortyna
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["1 History","2 Archaeology","3 Monuments","4 Law code","5 Myth of Europa and Zeus","6 The Odyssey","7 Notable people","8 References","9 External links"]
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Coordinates: 35°03′47″N 24°56′49″E / 35.063079°N 24.946866°E / 35.063079; 24.946866Ancient settlement in Crete, Greece
This article is about the ancient town. For the modern town, see Gortyn. For the Arcadian municipal unit, see Gortyna, Arcadia. For the noctuid moth genus, see Gortyna (moth).
"Gortys" redirects here. For the ancient city of Arcadia, see Gortys (Arcadia).
Ruins of Gortyna.
Gortyna /ɡɔːrˈtaɪnə/ (Ancient Greek: Γόρτυνα; also known as Gortyn (Γορτύν)) was a town of ancient Crete which appears in the Homeric poems under the form of Γορτύν; but afterwards became usually Gortyna (Γόρτυνα). According to Stephanus of Byzantium it was originally called Larissa (Λάρισσα) and Cremnia or Kremnia (Κρήμνια).
History
This section relies excessively on references to primary sources. Please improve this section by adding secondary or tertiary sources. Find sources: "Gortyna" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (February 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
This important city was next to Knossos in importance and splendour; in early times these two great towns had entered into a league which enabled them to reduce the whole of Crete under their power; in after-times when dissensions arose among them they were engaged in continual hostilities. It was originally of very considerable size, since Strabo reckons its circuit at 50 stadia; but when he wrote it was very much diminished. He adds that Ptolemy Philopator had begun to enclose it with fresh walls; but the work was not carried on for more than 8 stadia. In the Peloponnesian War, Gortyna seems to have had relations with Athens. In 201 BC, Philopoemen, who had been invited over by the inhabitants, assumed the command of the forces of Gortyna. In 197 BC, five hundred of the Gortynians, under their commander, Cydas, which seems to have been a common name at Gortyna, joined Quinctius Flamininus in Thessaly.
Gortyna stood on a plain watered by the river Lethaeus, and at a distance of 90 stadia from the Libyan Sea, on which were situated its two harbours, Lebena and Metallum, and is mentioned by numerous ancient writers — Pliny the Elder, the author of the Periplus of Pseudo-Scylax, Ptolemy, and Hierocles, who commenced his tour of the island with this place. In the neighbourhood of Gortyna, the fountain of Sauros is said to have been surrounded by poplars which bore fruits; and on the banks of the Lethaeus was another famous spring, which the naturalists said was shaded by a plane-tree, which retained its foliage through the winter, and which the people believed to have covered the marriage-bed of Europa and the metamorphosed Zeus.
The site of Gortyna is at modern Gortyn, where extensive ruins of the ancient town remain. It is a major archaeological site in Crete.
Archaeology
Excavations of Gortyn were begun in 1884 by the Italian School of Archaeology at Athens.
The excavations showed that Gortyn was inhabited from the Neolithic age. Ruins of a settlement on the citadel of Gortyn, were discovered and dated back to 1050 BC, their collapse dating to the seventh century BC. Later the area was fortified with a wall. At the top of the hill in the citadel a temple was found dating to the 7th century BC. In this area two embossed plates were found, along with several other sculptures and paintings. Daedalic plastic and many other clay figurines, black-figure and red-figure pottery, especially the type called kernos, were found in the temple. Graves dating to the Geometric age were found on the south side of the citadel. Regarding the lower town, the excavation uncovered the position of the agora (market) and the temple of Pythian Apollo, which is 600 meters from the agora. At the foot of Prophet Elias are traces of a sanctuary of Demeter. 35°3′48″N 24°56′49″E / 35.06333°N 24.94694°E / 35.06333; 24.94694
Monuments
Detail of the ancient Odeon
Saint Titus Basilica
The heart of Roman Gortyn is the Praetorium, the seat of the Roman Governor of Crete. The Praetorium was built in the 1st century AD, but it was altered significantly over the next eight centuries. In the same area, between the Agora and the temple of Apollo are the ruins of the Roman baths (thermae), as well as the temple of Apollo, an honorary arch, and the temple of the Egyptian deities with the worship statues of Isis, Serapis, and Anubis. Parts of the Roman settlement, such as the theater (2nd century AD), have been unearthed during excavations. The theater has two entrances and a half-circular orchestra, the outline of which may still be seen today. Behind the Roman Theater are what has been called the "Queen of the Inscriptions". These inscriptions are the laws of the city of Gortyn, which are inscribed in the Dorian dialect on large stone slabs and are still plainly visible.
Law code
Fragmentary boustrophedon inscription (code of law) in the agora of Gortyna.
Inheritance regulations, fragment of the 11th column of the Law Code of Gortyna, Louvre.
Among archaeologists, ancient historians, and classicists Gortyn is known today primarily because of the 1884 discovery of the Gortyn code, which is both the oldest and most complete known example of a code of ancient Greek law.
The code was discovered on the site of a structure built by the Roman emperor Trajan, the Odeon, which for the second time, reused stones from an inscription-bearing wall that also had been incorporated into the foundation of an earlier Hellenistic structure. Although portions of the inscriptions have been placed in museums such as the Louvre in Paris, a modern structure at the site of the mostly ruined Odeon now houses many of the stones bearing the famous law code."
A copy of the code has been returned to Athens by the Italian Museum in Taranto and is now housed in the Greek Vouli. The curator of the Taranto Museum spoke in Greek and told the famous and political guests that, "Greece is not part of Europe, it is Europe."
Myth of Europa and Zeus
Classical Greek mythology has it that Gortyn was the site of one of Zeus' many affairs. This myth features the princess Europa, whose name has been applied to the continent, Europe. Disguised as a bull, Zeus abducted Europa from Lebanon and they had an affair under a plane tree (platanus), a tree that may be seen today in Gortys. Following this affair three children were born, Minos, Rhadamanthys and Sarpedon, who became the kings of the three Minoan Palaces in Crete. The identification of Europa in this myth gives weight to the claim that the civilization of the European continent was born on the island of Crete. A colossal statue of Europa sitting on the back of a bull was discovered at the amphitheatre in Gortyna in the nineteenth century and is now in the collections of the British Museum. Many coins were found with Europa representations on the back, showing that the people honored Europa as a great goddess.
The Odyssey
According to Book III of Homer's Odyssey, Menelaus and his fleet of ships, returning home from the Trojan War, were blown off course to the Gortyn coastline. Homer describes stormy seas that pushed the ships against a sharp reef, ultimately destroying many of the vessels but sparing the crew.
Notable people
Thaletas (7th century BC), musician
Saint Titus (d.107), Bishop of Crete and saint
Philip of Gortyna (d.180), Bishop of Gortyn and saint
References
^ Homer. Iliad. Vol. 2.646.
^ Homer. Odyssey. Vol. 3.294.
^ Stephanus of Byzantium. Ethnica. Vol. s.v. Γόρτυνα.
^ a b c d Strabo. Geographica. Vol. x. p.478. Page numbers refer to those of Isaac Casaubon's edition.
^ Thucydides. History of the Peloponnesian War. Vol. 2.85.
^ Plutarch Phil. 13.
^ Livy. Ab urbe condita Libri . Vol. 33.3.
^ Pliny. Naturalis Historia. Vol. 4.20.
^ Ptolemy. The Geography. Vol. 3.17.10.
^ Hierocles. Synecdemus.
^ Theophrast. H. P. 3.5.
^ Theophrast. H. P. 1.15; Varr. de Re Rustic. 1.7; Pliny. Naturalis Historia. Vol. 12.1.
^ Richard Talbert, ed. (2000). Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World. Princeton University Press. p. 60, and directory notes accompanying. ISBN 978-0-691-03169-9.
^ Lund University. Digital Atlas of the Roman Empire.
^ Ι.Α. Typaldos - Interpretation of the Gortyn inscription discovered at 1884 (Athens 1887)
^ Marg. Guarducci, Gortyniarum legum titulus maximus (page 123, 4th book - Inscriptiones creticae)
^ Yves Bonnefoy, Greek and Egyptian Mythologies (1992) University of Chicago
Press
^ British Museum Collection
^ In general cf. Davaras, Costis (2001). Führer zu den Altertümern Kretas, Athens, pp. 201–205.
^ Επίτομο Γεωγραφικό Λεξικό της Ελλάδος (Geographical Dictionary of Greece), Μιχαήλ Σταματελάτος, Φωτεινή Βάμβα-Σταματελάτου, εκδ. Ερμής, ΑΘήνα 2001
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gortyna.
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Gortyna".
35°03′47″N 24°56′49″E / 35.063079°N 24.946866°E / 35.063079; 24.946866
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Gortyn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gortyn"},{"link_name":"Gortyna, Arcadia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gortyna,_Arcadia"},{"link_name":"Gortyna (moth)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gortyna_(moth)"},{"link_name":"Gortys (Arcadia)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gortys_(Arcadia)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gortys_R02.jpg"},{"link_name":"/ɡɔːrˈtaɪnə/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"Ancient Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language"},{"link_name":"ancient Crete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Crete"},{"link_name":"Homeric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homer"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Stephanus of Byzantium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephanus_of_Byzantium"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"Ancient settlement in Crete, GreeceThis article is about the ancient town. For the modern town, see Gortyn. For the Arcadian municipal unit, see Gortyna, Arcadia. For the noctuid moth genus, see Gortyna (moth).\"Gortys\" redirects here. For the ancient city of Arcadia, see Gortys (Arcadia).Ruins of Gortyna.Gortyna /ɡɔːrˈtaɪnə/ (Ancient Greek: Γόρτυνα; also known as Gortyn (Γορτύν)) was a town of ancient Crete which appears in the Homeric poems under the form of Γορτύν;[1][2] but afterwards became usually Gortyna (Γόρτυνα). According to Stephanus of Byzantium it was originally called Larissa (Λάρισσα) and Cremnia or Kremnia (Κρήμνια).[3]","title":"Gortyna"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Knossos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knossos"},{"link_name":"when?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items"},{"link_name":"when?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Strabo-4"},{"link_name":"when?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items"},{"link_name":"stadia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stadion_(unit)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Strabo-4"},{"link_name":"Ptolemy Philopator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_Philopator"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Strabo-4"},{"link_name":"Athens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Athens"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Philopoemen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philopoemen"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Quinctius Flamininus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titus_Quinctius_Flamininus"},{"link_name":"Thessaly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thessaly"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Lethaeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lethaeus&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Libyan Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyan_Sea"},{"link_name":"Lebena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebena"},{"link_name":"Metallum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matalia"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Strabo-4"},{"link_name":"Pliny the Elder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Periplus of Pseudo-Scylax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periplus_of_Pseudo-Scylax"},{"link_name":"Ptolemy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Hierocles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierocles_(author_of_Synecdemus)"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Sauros","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sauros&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Europa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europa_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Zeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeus"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Gortyn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gortyn"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"This important city was next to Knossos in importance and splendour; in early times[when?] these two great towns had entered into a league which enabled them to reduce the whole of Crete under their power; in after-times[when?] when dissensions arose among them they were engaged in continual hostilities.[4] It was originally[when?] of very considerable size, since Strabo reckons its circuit at 50 stadia; but when he wrote it was very much diminished.[4] He adds that Ptolemy Philopator had begun to enclose it with fresh walls; but the work was not carried on for more than 8 stadia.[4] In the Peloponnesian War, Gortyna seems to have had relations with Athens.[5] In 201 BC, Philopoemen, who had been invited over by the inhabitants, assumed the command of the forces of Gortyna.[6] In 197 BC, five hundred of the Gortynians, under their commander, Cydas, which seems to have been a common name at Gortyna, joined Quinctius Flamininus in Thessaly.[7]Gortyna stood on a plain watered by the river Lethaeus, and at a distance of 90 stadia from the Libyan Sea, on which were situated its two harbours, Lebena and Metallum,[4] and is mentioned by numerous ancient writers — Pliny the Elder,[8] the author of the Periplus of Pseudo-Scylax, Ptolemy,[9] and Hierocles, who commenced his tour of the island with this place.[10] In the neighbourhood of Gortyna, the fountain of Sauros is said to have been surrounded by poplars which bore fruits;[11] and on the banks of the Lethaeus was another famous spring, which the naturalists said was shaded by a plane-tree, which retained its foliage through the winter, and which the people believed to have covered the marriage-bed of Europa and the metamorphosed Zeus.[12]The site of Gortyna is at modern Gortyn, where extensive ruins of the ancient town remain.[13][14] It is a major archaeological site in Crete.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Italian School of Archaeology at Athens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_School_of_Archaeology_at_Athens"},{"link_name":"Neolithic age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic_age"},{"link_name":"Daedalic plastic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daedalic_sculpture"},{"link_name":"black-figure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-figure_pottery"},{"link_name":"red-figure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red-figure"},{"link_name":"kernos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernos"},{"link_name":"Geometric age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_age"},{"link_name":"agora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agora"},{"link_name":"Pythian Apollo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythian_Apollo"},{"link_name":"Prophet Elias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prophet_Elias"},{"link_name":"Demeter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demeter"},{"link_name":"35°3′48″N 24°56′49″E / 35.06333°N 24.94694°E / 35.06333; 24.94694","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Gortyna¶ms=35_3_48_N_24_56_49_E_type:city"}],"text":"Excavations of Gortyn were begun in 1884 by the Italian School of Archaeology at Athens. \nThe excavations showed that Gortyn was inhabited from the Neolithic age. Ruins of a settlement on the citadel of Gortyn, were discovered and dated back to 1050 BC, their collapse dating to the seventh century BC. Later the area was fortified with a wall. At the top of the hill in the citadel a temple was found dating to the 7th century BC. In this area two embossed plates were found, along with several other sculptures and paintings. Daedalic plastic and many other clay figurines, black-figure and red-figure pottery, especially the type called kernos, were found in the temple. Graves dating to the Geometric age were found on the south side of the citadel. Regarding the lower town, the excavation uncovered the position of the agora (market) and the temple of Pythian Apollo, which is 600 meters from the agora. At the foot of Prophet Elias are traces of a sanctuary of Demeter. 35°3′48″N 24°56′49″E / 35.06333°N 24.94694°E / 35.06333; 24.94694","title":"Archaeology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kreta-Gortys07.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gortys_R01.jpg"},{"link_name":"Praetorium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praetorium"},{"link_name":"Egyptian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt"},{"link_name":"Isis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isis"},{"link_name":"Serapis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serapis"},{"link_name":"Anubis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anubis"},{"link_name":"laws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law"}],"text":"Detail of the ancient OdeonSaint Titus BasilicaThe heart of Roman Gortyn is the Praetorium, the seat of the Roman Governor of Crete. The Praetorium was built in the 1st century AD, but it was altered significantly over the next eight centuries. In the same area, between the Agora and the temple of Apollo are the ruins of the Roman baths (thermae), as well as the temple of Apollo, an honorary arch, and the temple of the Egyptian deities with the worship statues of Isis, Serapis, and Anubis. Parts of the Roman settlement, such as the theater (2nd century AD), have been unearthed during excavations. The theater has two entrances and a half-circular orchestra, the outline of which may still be seen today. Behind the Roman Theater are what has been called the \"Queen of the Inscriptions\". These inscriptions are the laws of the city of Gortyn, which are inscribed in the Dorian dialect on large stone slabs and are still plainly visible.","title":"Monuments"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Crete_-_law_of_Gortyn_-_boustrophedon.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Law_Code_Gortyn_Louvre_Ma703.jpg"},{"link_name":"Louvre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louvre"},{"link_name":"Gortyn code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gortyn_code"},{"link_name":"ancient Greek law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_law"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Trajan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trajan"},{"link_name":"Odeon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odeon_(building)"},{"link_name":"Greek Vouli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenic_Parliament"}],"text":"Fragmentary boustrophedon inscription (code of law) in the agora of Gortyna.Inheritance regulations, fragment of the 11th column of the Law Code of Gortyna, Louvre.Among archaeologists, ancient historians, and classicists Gortyn is known today primarily because of the 1884 discovery of the Gortyn code, which is both the oldest and most complete known example of a code of ancient Greek law.[15][16]\nThe code was discovered on the site of a structure built by the Roman emperor Trajan, the Odeon, which for the second time, reused stones from an inscription-bearing wall that also had been incorporated into the foundation of an earlier Hellenistic structure. Although portions of the inscriptions have been placed in museums such as the Louvre in Paris, a modern structure at the site of the mostly ruined Odeon now houses many of the stones bearing the famous law code.\"A copy of the code has been returned to Athens by the Italian Museum in Taranto and is now housed in the Greek Vouli. The curator of the Taranto Museum spoke in Greek and told the famous and political guests that, \"Greece is not part of Europe, it is Europe.\"","title":"Law code"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Greek mythology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_mythology"},{"link_name":"Europa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europa_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Zeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeus"},{"link_name":"Lebanon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanon"},{"link_name":"platanus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platanus"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Minos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minos"},{"link_name":"Rhadamanthys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhadamanthys"},{"link_name":"Sarpedon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarpedon_(brother_of_Minos)"},{"link_name":"British Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Museum"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"text":"Classical Greek mythology has it that Gortyn was the site of one of Zeus' many affairs. This myth features the princess Europa, whose name has been applied to the continent, Europe. Disguised as a bull, Zeus abducted Europa from Lebanon and they had an affair under a plane tree (platanus),[17] a tree that may be seen today in Gortys. Following this affair three children were born, Minos, Rhadamanthys and Sarpedon, who became the kings of the three Minoan Palaces in Crete. The identification of Europa in this myth gives weight to the claim that the civilization of the European continent was born on the island of Crete. A colossal statue of Europa sitting on the back of a bull was discovered at the amphitheatre in Gortyna in the nineteenth century and is now in the collections of the British Museum.[18] Many coins were found with Europa representations on the back, showing that the people honored Europa as a great goddess.[19]","title":"Myth of Europa and Zeus"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Odyssey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odyssey"},{"link_name":"Menelaus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menelaus"},{"link_name":"Trojan War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan_War"}],"text":"According to Book III of Homer's Odyssey, Menelaus and his fleet of ships, returning home from the Trojan War, were blown off course to the Gortyn coastline. Homer describes stormy seas that pushed the ships against a sharp reef, ultimately destroying many of the vessels but sparing the crew.","title":"The Odyssey"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Thaletas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thaletas"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Saint Titus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Titus"},{"link_name":"Philip of Gortyna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_of_Gortyna"}],"text":"Thaletas[20] (7th century BC), musician\nSaint Titus (d.107), Bishop of Crete and saint\nPhilip of Gortyna (d.180), Bishop of Gortyn and saint","title":"Notable people"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%27d_Rather_Be_Right
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I'd Rather Be Right
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["1 Production","2 Reception","3 Cultural references","4 Musical numbers","4.1 Act I","4.2 Act II","5 References","6 External links"]
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Musical by George S. Kaufman and Moss Hart
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I'd Rather Be RightFirst edition 1937MusicRichard RodgersLyricsLorenz HartBookMoss Hart and George S. KaufmanProductions1937 Broadway2011 Revival
I'd Rather Be Right is a 1937 musical with a book by Moss Hart and George S. Kaufman, lyrics by Lorenz Hart, and music by Richard Rodgers. The story is a Depression-era political satire set in New York City about Washington politics and political figures such as President Franklin D. Roosevelt. The plot centers on Peggy Jones (Joy Hodges) and her boyfriend Phil (Austin Marshall), who needs a raise in order for them to get married. The President steps in and solves their dilemma.
Production
George S. Kaufman and Moss Hart in 1937
I'd Rather Be Right premiered on Broadway at the Alvin Theatre on November 2, 1937, produced by Sam H. Harris. It transferred to the Music Box Theatre, and ran for 290 performances. It starred George M. Cohan as Franklin D. Roosevelt. In such pieces as "Off the Record", Cohan, as FDR, danced—not possible in real life for the President.
Reception
H. G. Wells wrote enthusiastically about the musical, and Cohan's performance as Roosevelt, in an article "The Fall in America 1937", published in Collier's on January 28, 1938, and reprinted in his World Brain (1938).
Cultural references
The musical is prominently featured in the 1942 Cohan biopic Yankee Doodle Dandy, in which it serves as a narrative bookend. James Cagney, playing Cohan, after meeting FDR in the Oval Office, performs a joyous tap dance as he walks back down the stairs of the White House. In the film, we also see Cagney as Cohan performing "Off the Record" during the show's run. Because the film was made during World War II, the film also anachronistically added some morale-boosting lyrics at the end of the song.
Musical numbers
Original 1937 Playbill cover, with George M. Cohan as Franklin D. Roosevelt
Act I
"A Homogeneous Cabinet"—Cabinet Members
"Have You Met Miss Jones?"—Peggy Jones and Phil Barker
"Take and Take and Take"—The Judge's Girl and Ensemble
"Spring in Vienna"—Tony
"A Little Bit of Constitutional Fun"—The Judge's Girl and Ensemble
"Sweet Sixty-Five"—Peggy Jones and Phil Barker
"We're Going to Balance the Budget"—The President of the United States and Company
Act II
"American Couple"—Ensemble
"Labor Is the Thing"—James B. Maxwell and Ensemble
"I'd Rather Be Right"—Peggy Jones, Phil Barker, The Judge's Girl, The President of the United States and Ensemble
"Off the Record"—The President of the United States
"A Baby Bond"—The Secretary of the Treasury
References
^ Atkinson, Brooks. "George M. Cohan as the United States President in 'I'd Rather Be Right'", The New York Times. November 3, 1937. 28.
External links
I'd Rather Be Right at the Internet Broadway Database
"The President on Broadway: FDR, George M. Cohan, and I’d Rather Be Right" (March 8, 2016) by William A. Harris, FDR Library Deputy Director — Forward with Roosevelt, the blog of the Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum
Time Magazine review, November 15, 1937
Essay on I'd Rather be Right in Studies in Musical Theatre, January 2007
I'd Rather Be Right, Libretto ISBN 1-4179-9228-X
vteGeorge S. KaufmanPlays and musicals
Some One in the House (1918)
Dulcy (1921)
To the Ladies (1922)
The '49ers (1922)
Merton of the Movies (1922)
Helen of Troy, New York (1923)
The Deep Tangled Wildwood (1923)
Beggar on Horseback (1924)
Be Yourself (1924)
Minick (1924)
The Butter and Egg Man (1925)
The Cocoanuts (1925)
The Good Fellow (1926)
The Royal Family (1927)
Animal Crackers (1928)
June Moon (1929)
The Channel Road (1929)
Once in a Lifetime (1930)
The Band Wagon (1931)
Of Thee I Sing (1931)
Dinner at Eight (1932)
Let 'Em Eat Cake (1933)
The Dark Tower (1933)
Merrily We Roll Along (1934)
First Lady (1935)
Stage Door (1936)
You Can't Take It with You (1936)
I'd Rather Be Right (1937)
The Fabulous Invalid (1938)
The American Way (1939)
The Man Who Came to Dinner (1939)
George Washington Slept Here (1940)
The Land Is Bright (1941)
The Late George Apley (1944)
Seven Lively Arts (1944)
Hollywood Pinafore (1945)
Bravo! (1948)
The Small Hours (1951)
Fancy Meeting You Again (1952)
The Solid Gold Cadillac (1953)
Silk Stockings (1955)
Musicals based on his plays
Sherry! (1967)
Merrily We Roll Along (1981)
Films
Someone Must Pay (1919)
Someone in the House (1920)
Dulcy (1923)
To the Ladies (1923)
Merton of the Movies (1924)
Welcome Home (1925)
Beggar on Horseback (1925)
The Butter and Egg Man (1928)
The Cocoanuts (1929)
Not So Dumb (1930)
Animal Crackers (1930)
The Royal Family of Broadway (1930)
June Moon (1931)
The Expert (1932)
The Tenderfoot (1932)
Make Me a Star (1932)
Once in a Lifetime (1932)
Dinner at Eight (1933)
Roman Scandals (1933)
The Man with Two Faces (1934)
You Can't Take It with You (1938)
The Man Who Came to Dinner (1942)
Films as a director
The Senator Was Indiscreet (1947)
vteRodgers and Hart
Richard Rodgers
Lorenz Hart
Musicals
Fly with Me
Poor Little Ritz Girl
The Garrick Gaieties
Dearest Enemy
The Girl Friend
Peggy-Ann
A Connecticut Yankee
Present Arms
Chee-Chee
Ever Green
Simple Simon
America's Sweetheart
Jumbo
On Your Toes
Babes in Arms
I'd Rather Be Right
The Boys from Syracuse
I Married an Angel
Too Many Girls
Higher and Higher
Pal Joey
By Jupiter
Songs
"Manhattan"
"Mountain Greenery"
"Here in My Arms"
"Blue Room"
"My Heart Stood Still"
"Thou Swell"
"To Keep My Love Alive"
"You Took Advantage of Me"
"With a Song in My Heart"
"A Ship Without a Sail"
"Dancing on the Ceiling"
"Ten Cents a Dance"
"He Was Too Good to Me"
"I've Got Five Dollars"
"Isn't It Romantic?"
"Lover"
"Mimi"
"You Are Too Beautiful"
"Blue Moon"
"It's Easy to Remember (And So Hard to Forget)"
"The Most Beautiful Girl in the World"
"My Romance"
"Little Girl Blue"
"There's a Small Hotel"
"Glad to Be Unhappy"
"Slaughter on Tenth Avenue"
"Where or When"
"I Wish I Were in Love Again"
"My Funny Valentine"
"Johnny One Note"
"The Lady Is a Tramp"
"Have You Met Miss Jones?"
"I'll Tell the Man in the Street"
"Spring Is Here"
"Falling in Love with Love"
"This Can't Be Love"
"Sing for Your Supper"
"I Like to Recognize the Tune"
"I Didn't Know What Time It Was"
"Give It Back to the Indians"
"You're Nearer"
"It Never Entered My Mind"
"I Could Write a Book"
"Bewitched, Bothered and Bewildered"
"Ev'rything I've Got"
"Wait till You See Her"
vteFranklin D. Roosevelt
32nd President of the United States (1933–1945)
44th Governor of New York (1929–1932)
Assistant Secretary of the Navy (1913–1920)
New York State Senator (1911–1913)
Presidency(timeline)
Transition
Inaugurations (1st
2nd
3rd
4th)
First and second terms
Third and fourth terms
Foreign policy
New Deal
overview
New Deal coalition
First 100 days
Second New Deal
Federal Emergency Relief Administration
Civilian Conservation Corps
Agricultural Adjustment Act
Emergency Banking Act
Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1944
Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act
Tennessee Valley Authority
National Labor Relations Act of 1935
National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933
Public Works Administration
National Recovery Administration
Works Progress Administration
National Youth Administration
Social Security Act
Aid to Families with Dependent Children
Communications Act of 1934
Federal Communications Commission
Securities and Exchange Commission
Monetary gold ownership
Gold Reserve Act
Silver seizure
Record on civil rights
Defense industry non-discrimination
Fair Employment Practice Committee
Indian Reorganization Act
Executive Orders 9066, 9102
War Relocation Authority
Japanese American internment
German-American internment
Italian-American internment
Brownlow Committee
Executive Office of the President
G.I. Bill of Rights
Cullen–Harrison Act
Roerich Pact
Four Freedoms
Four Freedoms Monument
Black Cabinet
Jefferson's Birthday holiday
Jefferson Memorial
Judicial Court-Packing Bill
Cannabis policy
Federal Judicial appointments
Supreme Court
Harlan F. Stone Supreme Court nomination
Wiley Rutledge Supreme Court nomination
Cabinet
"Brain Trust"
March of Dimes
Modern Oval Office
Official car
Criticism
Executive Orders
Presidential Proclamations
Presidentialforeign policy
Banana Wars
U.S. occupation of Nicaragua, 1912–1933
U.S. occupation of Haiti, 1915–1934
Good Neighbor Policy (1933–1945)
Montevideo Convention (1933)
Second London Naval Treaty (1936)
ABCD line (1940)
Export Control Act
Four Policemen
Destroyers-for-bases deal
Lend-Lease
1940 Selective Service Act
Hull note
Atlantic Charter (1941)
Military history of the United States during World War II
Home front during World War II
Combined Munitions Assignments Board
War Production Board
Declaration by United Nations (1942)
Dumbarton Oaks Conference
World War II conferences
Quebec Agreement
Europe first
Morgenthau Plan support
Presidentialspeeches
1932 Acceptance speech
Commonwealth Club Address
Madison Square Garden speech
"Four Freedoms"
Day of Infamy speech
Arsenal of Democracy
"...is fear itself"
Fireside chats
"Look to Norway"
Quarantine Speech
"The More Abundant Life"
State of the Union Address (1934
1938
1939
1940
1941 (Four Freedoms)
1944 (Second Bill of Rights)
1945)
Other events
Early life, education, career
Warm Springs Institute
Governorship of New York
Business Plot
Assassination attempt
Elections
1928 New York state election
1930
Democratic National Convention, 1920
1924
1932
1936
1940
1944
1920 United States presidential election
1932
theme song
1936
1940
1944
Life and homes
Early life and education
Groton School
Springwood birthplace, home, and gravesite
Adams House
FDR Suite
Campobello home
Paralytic illness
Top Cottage
Little White House, Warm Springs, Georgia
Legacy
Bibliography
Statues
Presidential Library and Museum
Roosevelt Institute
Roosevelt Institute Campus Network
Franklin Delano Roosevelt Foundation
Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial
Roosevelt Island
Four Freedoms Park
White House Roosevelt Room
Roosevelt Institute for American Studies
USS Franklin D. Roosevelt
USS Roosevelt
Four Freedoms Award
Four Freedoms paintings
Unfinished portrait
U.S. Postage stamps
Roosevelt dime
I'd Rather Be Right 1937 musical
Films
The Roosevelt Story 1947
Sunrise at Campobello 1960
Eleanor and Franklin 1976, The White House Years 1977
Backstairs at the White House 1979 miniseries
World War II: When Lions Roared 1997 miniseries
Warm Springs 2005
Hyde Park on Hudson 2012
The Roosevelts 2014 documentary
The First Lady 2022 miniseries
FDR 2023 miniseries
Other namesakes
Family (Roosevelt • Delano)
Eleanor Roosevelt (wife)
Anna Roosevelt Halsted (daughter)
James Roosevelt II (son)
Elliott Roosevelt (son)
Franklin Delano Roosevelt Jr. (son)
John Aspinwall Roosevelt II (son)
James Roosevelt I (father)
Sara Ann Delano (mother)
James Roosevelt Roosevelt (half-brother)
Isaac Roosevelt (grandfather)
Warren Delano Jr. (grandfather)
Fala (family dog)
Major (family dog)
← Herbert Hoover
Harry S. Truman →
Category
Authority control databases
MusicBrainz work
|
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[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OUCL
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Department of Computer Science, University of Oxford
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["1 Teaching","2 Research","3 Notable faculty","4 History","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]
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Coordinates: 51°45′35″N 1°15′30″W / 51.7597°N 1.2584°W / 51.7597; -1.2584Department of the University of Oxford
Wolfson BuildingDepartment of Computer ScienceFormer nameOxford University Computing LaboratoryEstablished1957 (1957)Research typeDepartmentHead of DepartmentLeslie Ann GoldbergStudents871LocationOxford, United Kingdom51°45′35″N 1°15′30″W / 51.7597°N 1.2584°W / 51.7597; -1.2584Operating agencyUniversity of OxfordWebsitewww.cs.ox.ac.ukMapLocation in Oxford city centre
The Department of Computer Science is the computer science department of the University of Oxford, England, which is part of the university's Mathematical, Physical and Life Sciences Division. It was founded in 1957 as the Computing Laboratory. By 2014 the staff count was 52 members of academic staff and over 80 research staff. The 2019, 2020 and 2021 Times World University Subject Rankings places Oxford University 1st in the world for Computer Science. Oxford University is also the top university for computer science in the UK and Europe according to Business Insider. The 2020 QS University Subject Rankings places The University of Oxford 5th in the world (with the University of Cambridge placing 6th) for Computer Science.
Teaching
From its foundation the department taught undergraduates reading for mathematics and engineering degrees, but in 1985 the department's first undergraduate course was established, in 'Mathematics and Computation', followed in 1994 by the 'Computation' course. Initially these two courses had a common first year. 'Computer Science' replaced 'Computation' in the title of both courses for students starting their studies in 2000. Between 1987 and 2006 students started studies on a four-year (undergraduate) MEng in Engineering and Computing Science (now discontinued). In October 2012 the first students of the 'Computer Science and Philosophy' started. Today students on all three undergraduate courses - 'Computer Science', 'Maths & Computer Science' and 'Computer Science & Philosophy' - have the choice between a 3-year BA or a 4-year 'undergraduate masters'. Sixty students began one of the three undergraduate courses in October 2013.
There are two full-time taught postgraduate courses: the MSc in Computer Science (approx 50 students total) and the MSc in Mathematics and the Foundations of Computer Science (MFoCS) (approx 15 students total).
The department also offers the part-time Software Engineering Programme, a modular course for industry professionals, leading to either the MSc in Software Engineering (approx 240 students at present) or the M.Sc. in Software and Systems Security (approx 45 students at present).
Research
The department is home to around 145 academic and research staff. The department's doctoral programme has over 140 research students (studying for a D.Phil. – the Oxford term for a PhD) working across a wide range of subjects in computer science and software engineering.
After fifty years within the department, the Numerical Analysis group moved in 2009 to be part of the university's Mathematical Institute. Today the department's research is classified into ten broad themes:
Algorithms and Complexity Theory
Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning
Automated Verification
Computational Biology and Health Informatics
Cyber Physical Systems
Foundations, Structures, and Quantum
Human-Centred Computing
Information Systems
Programming Languages
Security
Notable faculty
As of 2015 the department employed 36 Professors, including:
Nigel Shadbolt, Professor of Computing
Samson Abramsky, Christopher Strachey Professor of Computing (As of 2021, Emeritus)
Tim Berners-Lee, Professor of Computer Science
Richard Bird, Emeritus Professor
Luca Cardelli, Royal Society Research Professor
Bob Coecke, Professor of Quantum Foundations, Logics and Structures
Nando de Freitas, Professor of Computer Science
David Gavaghan, Professor of Computational Biology
Jeremy Gibbons, Professor of Computing
Leslie Ann Goldberg, Professor of Computer Science
Georg Gottlob, Professor of Informatics
Tony Hoare, Emeritus Professor
Ian Horrocks, Professor of Computer Science
Daniel Kroening, Professor of Computer Science
Marta Kwiatkowska, Professor of Computing Systems
Gavin Lowe, Professor of Computer Science
Bill Roscoe, Professor of Computing Science
Michael Wooldridge, Professor of Computer Science
Marina Jirotka, Professor of Human Centred Computing
History
Starting in 1952, mathematician Charles Coulson sought funding for Oxford to own its own computer. At this time university members had to hire computer time from elsewhere. In 1956 the University Grants Committee decided to fund the purchase of a Ferranti Mercury and the Oxford University Computing Laboratory was born (shortened as OUCL or Comlab). As well as facilitating research elsewhere in the university, the new department had its own academic function, performing research in numerical analysis, and lecturing for mathematics and engineering students. The first director, Leslie Fox, was appointed in 1957 and the following year the department moved into its first home, 9 South Parks Road. In 1963 the department moved to 19 Parks Road. The Computing Services (From 2012 part of IT Services) was administratively split from the academic department in 1969, although complete independence was only gained in 1978.
Complementing the Numerical Analysis Group (NAG), the Programming Research Group (PRG) was set up in 1966 at 45 Banbury Road under the leadership of Christopher Strachey with the aim "to bring some coherence into the present ad hoc nature of programming and software". After Strachey's untimely death in 1975, Tony Hoare took over leadership of the PRG in 1977 until his retirement in 1999 and introduced a computer science undergraduate degree programme at Oxford. The NAG and PRG groups operated mostly separately until 1984, when both of the laboratory's research groups moved into 8–11 Keble Road, opposite Keble College. However the laboratory soon outgrew this space, and occupied space in 2 South Parks Road, until in 1993 the Wolfson Building opened behind the Victorian 8–11 Keble Road houses. The neighbouring houses at 5–7 Keble Road and a new "e-Science building" behind these provided additional space upon opening in 2007. However this space is not sufficient, and the department has additional space within the Thom Building and the Robert Hooke building. As of 2014, the department is hoping to obtain funding for a new building large enough to bring together all its activities.
From 2003 to 2014, the department was led by Bill Roscoe, who oversaw the 2011 renaming from the Oxford University Computing Laboratory to the Department of Computer Science, University of Oxford. The current head is Leslie Ann Goldberg.
See also
Past and present members of the Department
Oxford University Computing Services
Programming Research Group
References
^ "Times World University Rankings by Subject 2020". The Times Higher Education. 4 October 2019. Retrieved 1 July 2020.
^ "University of Oxford". Peridotportal.co.uk. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 29 January 2018.
^ "QS World University Rankings by Subject 2020". The Top Universities. 2020. Retrieved 1 July 2020.
^ a b c d e "Oxford University Archives | Home" (PDF). Oua.ox.ac.uk. Retrieved 29 January 2018.
^ "BA in Maths and Computation". Archived from the original on 23 April 1999. Retrieved 29 January 2018.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
^ "Oxf. Univ. Gazette, 13 May 1999: Examinations and Boards". Ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 27 February 2018. Retrieved 29 January 2018.
^ "MEng in Engineering and Computing Science". Archived from the original on 18 June 2008. Retrieved 29 January 2018.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
^ "Admissions 06" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 February 2018. Retrieved 29 January 2018.
^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 January 2014. Retrieved 22 April 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
^ "Department of Computer Science, University of Oxford". www.cs.ox.ac.uk. Retrieved 9 June 2021.
^ "Department of Computer Science, University of Oxford". Cs.ox.ac.uk. Retrieved 29 January 2018.
^ "Courses - University of Oxford". Archived from the original on 21 February 2014. Retrieved 22 April 2014.
^ a b "Frequently asked questions". Department of Computer Science, University of Oxford, UK. Archived from the original on 10 January 2010. Retrieved 4 July 2011.
^ a b c d e "About the Department of Computer Science". Department of Computer Science, University of Oxford, UK. Retrieved 22 April 2014.
^ "Numerical Analysis | Mathematical Institute". Maths.ox.ac.uk. Retrieved 29 January 2018.
^ "Research Themes". Department of Computer Science, University of Oxford, UK. Retrieved 15 June 2011.
^ "People in the Department of Computer Science". University of Oxford. Archived from the original on 9 August 2014.
^ Altmann, S. L.; Bowen, E. J. (1974). "Charles Alfred Coulson. 1910-1974". Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. 20: 74. doi:10.1098/rsbm.1974.0004.
^ a b "Reports & publications | IT Services". Oucs.ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 27 August 2012. Retrieved 29 January 2018.
^ O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Department of Computer Science, University of Oxford", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews
^ Department of Computer Science, University of Oxford at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
^ " History of OUCS Buildings". Archived from the original on 31 August 2013. Retrieved 22 April 2014.
^ "Reports & publications | IT Services". Oucs.ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 19 August 2012. Retrieved 29 January 2018.
^ "Reports & publications | IT Services". Oucs.ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 19 August 2012. Retrieved 29 January 2018.
^ Campbell-Kelly, Martin (1985). "Christopher Strachey, 1916–1975: A Biographical Note". IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 7 (1): 19–42. doi:10.1109/MAHC.1985.10001. ISSN 1058-6180. S2CID 17188378.
^ "Reports & publications | IT Services". Oucs.ox.ac.uk. Retrieved 29 January 2018.
^ "Oxford Computing Lab: History and Structure". Archived from the original on 20 February 1999. Retrieved 29 January 2018.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
^ "rae 2008 : submissions : ra5a". Rae.ac.uk. Retrieved 29 January 2018.
^ "University of Oxford". Peridotportal.co.uk. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 29 January 2018.
External links
Media related to Department of Computer Science, University of Oxford at Wikimedia Commons
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It was founded in 1957 as the Computing Laboratory. By 2014 the staff count was 52 members of academic staff and over 80 research staff. The 2019, 2020 and 2021 Times World University Subject Rankings places Oxford University 1st in the world for Computer Science.[1] Oxford University is also the top university for computer science in the UK and Europe according to Business Insider.[2] The 2020 QS University Subject Rankings places The University of Oxford 5th in the world (with the University of Cambridge placing 6th) for Computer Science.[3]","title":"Department of Computer Science, University of Oxford"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-oxarchives-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-oxarchives-4"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"quantify","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Software Engineering Programme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_Engineering_Programme"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FAQ-13"}],"text":"From its foundation the department taught undergraduates reading for mathematics and engineering degrees, but in 1985 the department's first undergraduate course was established, in 'Mathematics and Computation', followed in 1994 by the 'Computation' course.[4] Initially these two courses had a common first year.[5] 'Computer Science' replaced 'Computation' in the title of both courses for students starting their studies in 2000.[6] Between 1987 and 2006 students started studies on a four-year (undergraduate) MEng in Engineering and Computing Science (now discontinued).[4][7][8][9][10] In October 2012 the first students of the 'Computer Science and Philosophy' started. Today[quantify] students on all three undergraduate courses - 'Computer Science', 'Maths & Computer Science' and 'Computer Science & Philosophy' - have the choice between a 3-year BA or a 4-year 'undergraduate masters'.[11] Sixty students began one of the three undergraduate courses in October 2013.[12]There are two full-time taught postgraduate courses: the MSc in Computer Science (approx 50 students total) and the MSc in Mathematics and the Foundations of Computer Science (MFoCS) (approx 15 students total).[citation needed]The department also offers the part-time Software Engineering Programme, a modular course for industry professionals, leading to either the MSc in Software Engineering (approx 240 students at present) or the M.Sc. in Software and Systems Security (approx 45 students at present).[13]","title":"Teaching"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FAQ-13"},{"link_name":"PhD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"the university's Mathematical Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_Institute,_University_of_Oxford"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-about-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"quantify","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-themes-16"}],"text":"The department is home to around 145 academic and research staff.[13] The department's doctoral programme has over 140 research students (studying for a D.Phil. – the Oxford term for a PhD) working across a wide range of subjects in computer science and software engineering.[citation needed]After fifty years within the department, the Numerical Analysis group moved in 2009 to be part of the university's Mathematical Institute.[14][15] Today[quantify] the department's research is classified into ten broad themes:[16]Algorithms and Complexity Theory\nArtificial Intelligence and Machine Learning\nAutomated Verification\nComputational Biology and Health Informatics\nCyber Physical Systems\nFoundations, Structures, and Quantum\nHuman-Centred Computing\nInformation Systems\nProgramming Languages\nSecurity","title":"Research"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Department_of_Computer_Science,_University_of_Oxford&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-people-17"},{"link_name":"Nigel Shadbolt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigel_Shadbolt"},{"link_name":"Samson Abramsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samson_Abramsky"},{"link_name":"Christopher Strachey Professor of Computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Strachey_Professor_of_Computing"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Department_of_Computer_Science,_University_of_Oxford&action=edit"},{"link_name":"Tim Berners-Lee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee"},{"link_name":"Richard Bird","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Bird_(computer_scientist)"},{"link_name":"Luca Cardelli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luca_Cardelli"},{"link_name":"Royal Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society"},{"link_name":"Bob Coecke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Coecke"},{"link_name":"Nando de Freitas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nando_de_Freitas"},{"link_name":"David Gavaghan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Gavaghan"},{"link_name":"Jeremy Gibbons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremy_Gibbons"},{"link_name":"Leslie Ann Goldberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leslie_Ann_Goldberg"},{"link_name":"Georg Gottlob","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Gottlob"},{"link_name":"Tony Hoare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Hoare"},{"link_name":"Ian Horrocks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Horrocks"},{"link_name":"Daniel Kroening","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Kroening"},{"link_name":"Marta Kwiatkowska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marta_Kwiatkowska"},{"link_name":"Gavin Lowe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gavin_Lowe_(computer_scientist)"},{"link_name":"Bill Roscoe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Roscoe"},{"link_name":"Michael Wooldridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Wooldridge_(computer_scientist)"},{"link_name":"Marina Jirotka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marina_Jirotka"}],"text":"As of 2015[update] the department employed 36 Professors,[17] including:Nigel Shadbolt, Professor of Computing\nSamson Abramsky, Christopher Strachey Professor of Computing (As of 2021[update], Emeritus)\nTim Berners-Lee, Professor of Computer Science\nRichard Bird, Emeritus Professor\nLuca Cardelli, Royal Society Research Professor\nBob Coecke, Professor of Quantum Foundations, Logics and Structures\nNando de Freitas, Professor of Computer Science\nDavid Gavaghan, Professor of Computational Biology\nJeremy Gibbons, Professor of Computing\nLeslie Ann Goldberg, Professor of Computer Science\nGeorg Gottlob, Professor of Informatics\nTony Hoare, Emeritus Professor\nIan Horrocks, Professor of Computer Science\nDaniel Kroening, Professor of Computer Science\nMarta Kwiatkowska, Professor of Computing Systems\nGavin Lowe, Professor of Computer Science\nBill Roscoe, Professor of Computing Science\nMichael Wooldridge, Professor of Computer Science\nMarina Jirotka, Professor of Human Centred Computing","title":"Notable faculty"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Charles Coulson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Coulson"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-oxarchives-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-oxarchives-4"},{"link_name":"University Grants Committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_Grants_Committee_(UK)"},{"link_name":"Ferranti Mercury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferranti_Mercury"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-oxarchives-4"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-report57/8-19"},{"link_name":"Leslie Fox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leslie_Fox"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"South Parks Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Parks_Road"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-report57/8-19"},{"link_name":"Parks Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parks_Road"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Computing Services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Computing_Services"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Programming Research Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_Research_Group"},{"link_name":"Banbury Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banbury_Road"},{"link_name":"Christopher Strachey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Strachey"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Campbell-Kelly1985-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Tony Hoare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Hoare"},{"link_name":"Keble Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keble_Road"},{"link_name":"Keble College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keble_College"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-about-14"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Victorian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victorian_architecture"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-about-14"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Bill Roscoe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Roscoe"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-about-14"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-about-14"}],"text":"Starting in 1952, mathematician Charles Coulson[18] sought funding for Oxford to own its own computer.[4] At this time university members had to hire computer time from elsewhere.[4] In 1956 the University Grants Committee decided to fund the purchase of a Ferranti Mercury and the Oxford University Computing Laboratory was born[4] (shortened as OUCL or Comlab). As well as facilitating research elsewhere in the university, the new department had its own academic function, performing research in numerical analysis, and lecturing for mathematics and engineering students.[19] The first director, Leslie Fox,[20][21] was appointed in 1957 and the following year the department moved into its first home, 9 South Parks Road.[19] In 1963 the department moved to 19 Parks Road.[22] The Computing Services (From 2012 part of IT Services) was administratively split from the academic department in 1969,[23] although complete independence was only gained in 1978.[24]Complementing the Numerical Analysis Group (NAG), the Programming Research Group (PRG) was set up in 1966 at 45 Banbury Road under the leadership of Christopher Strachey[25] with the aim \"to bring some coherence into the present ad hoc nature of programming and software\".[26] After Strachey's untimely death in 1975, Tony Hoare took over leadership of the PRG in 1977 until his retirement in 1999 and introduced a computer science undergraduate degree programme at Oxford. The NAG and PRG groups operated mostly separately until 1984, when both of the laboratory's research groups moved into 8–11 Keble Road, opposite Keble College.[14] However the laboratory soon outgrew this space, and occupied space in 2 South Parks Road,[27] until in 1993 the Wolfson Building opened behind the Victorian 8–11 Keble Road houses.[14] The neighbouring houses at 5–7 Keble Road and a new \"e-Science building\" behind these provided additional space upon opening in 2007.[28] However this space is not sufficient, and the department has additional space within the Thom Building and the Robert Hooke building. As of 2014, the department is hoping to obtain funding for a new building large enough to bring together all its activities.[29]From 2003 to 2014, the department was led by Bill Roscoe, who oversaw the 2011 renaming from the Oxford University Computing Laboratory to the Department of Computer Science, University of Oxford.[14] The current head is Leslie Ann Goldberg.[14]","title":"History"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Hudde
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Johannes Hudde
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["1 Mathematical work","2 See also","3 References","4 External links"]
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Johannes HuddeJohannes van Waveren HuddeBorn23 April 1628AmsterdamDied15 April 1704AmsterdamAlma materLeiden UniversityScientific careerFieldsMathematicsAcademic advisorsFrans van Schooten
Johannes (van Waveren) Hudde (23 April 1628 – 15 April 1704) was a burgomaster (mayor) of Amsterdam between 1672 – 1703, a mathematician and governor of the Dutch East India Company.
As a "burgemeester" of Amsterdam he ordered that the city canals should be flushed at high tide and that the polluted water of the town "secreten" should be diverted to pits outside the town instead of into the canals. He also promoted hygiene in and around the town's water supply. "Hudde's stones" were marker stones that were used to mark the summer high water level at several points in the city. They later were the foundation for the "NAP", the now Europe-wide system for measuring water levels.
Mathematical work
Specilla circularia, a text on telescopes from 1656 by Johannes Hudde
Hudde studied law at the University of Leiden, but turned to mathematics under the influence of his teacher Frans van Schooten. From 1654 to 1663 he worked under van Schooten.
La Géométrie (1637) by René Descartes provided an introduction to analytic geometry in French, whereas Latin was still the international language of science. Schooten and his students including Hudde, Johan de Witt and Hendrik van Heuraet published a Latin translation of La Geometrie in 1659. Each of the students added to the work. Hudde's contribution described Hudde's rules and made a study of maxima and minima.
Hudde corresponded with Baruch Spinoza and Christiaan Huygens, Johann Bernoulli, Isaac Newton and Leibniz. Newton and Leibniz mention Hudde many times and used some of his ideas in their own work on infinitesimal calculus.
See also
History of group theory
Mercator series
Tangent
References
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Johannes Hudde.
^ J.P.M Kwaad Het Normal Amsterdam Peil (NAP) (Dutch)
Karlheinz Haas (1956) "Die mathematischen Arbeiten von Johann Hudde (1628 to 1704) Bürgermeister von Amsterdam", Centaurus 4: 235–84 doi:10.1111/j.1600-0498.1956.tb00477.x
J. Hudde (1656) Specilla circularia (circular Lens, in Dutch)
External links
O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Johannes Hudde", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews
Johannes Hudde at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
Tomb of Johannes Hudde at Oude Kerk from Gravenopinternet
Authority control databases International
ISNI
VIAF
WorldCat
National
France
BnF data
Germany
Italy
Belgium
United States
Czech Republic
Netherlands
Academics
MathSciNet
Mathematics Genealogy Project
zbMATH
People
Netherlands
2
Deutsche Biographie
Other
IdRef
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[{"image_text":"Specilla circularia, a text on telescopes from 1656 by Johannes Hudde","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Specilla_circularia_Johannes_Hudde_1656_KB_KW_GW_A108988_pag_0-1.jpg/220px-Specilla_circularia_Johannes_Hudde_1656_KB_KW_GW_A108988_pag_0-1.jpg"}]
|
[{"title":"History of group theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_group_theory"},{"title":"Mercator series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercator_series"},{"title":"Tangent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tangent"}]
|
[{"reference":"O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., \"Johannes Hudde\", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_F._Robertson","url_text":"Robertson, Edmund F."},{"url":"https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Hudde.html","url_text":"\"Johannes Hudde\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacTutor_History_of_Mathematics_Archive","url_text":"MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_St_Andrews","url_text":"University of St Andrews"}]}]
|
[{"Link":"http://www.kwaad.net/NAP-niveau.htm","external_links_name":"Het Normal Amsterdam Peil (NAP)"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1600-0498.1956.tb00477.x","external_links_name":"10.1111/j.1600-0498.1956.tb00477.x"},{"Link":"https://www.kb.nl/themas/boekgeschiedenis/specilla-circularia-johannes-hudde-over-telescopen","external_links_name":"Specilla circularia"},{"Link":"https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Hudde.html","external_links_name":"\"Johannes Hudde\""},{"Link":"https://mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=125650","external_links_name":"Johannes Hudde"},{"Link":"https://www.gravenopinternet.nl/en/zoek/index_record.php","external_links_name":"Tomb of Johannes Hudde at Oude Kerk"},{"Link":"https://isni.org/isni/0000000001988373","external_links_name":"ISNI"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/39529954","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJkHpqpy9FD9fhM3hvQQbd","external_links_name":"WorldCat"},{"Link":"https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb13488288n","external_links_name":"France"},{"Link":"https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb13488288n","external_links_name":"BnF data"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/128350679","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"https://opac.sbn.it/nome/BVEV063157","external_links_name":"Italy"},{"Link":"https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14390486","external_links_name":"Belgium"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/no2011195382","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ntk20201077658&CON_LNG=ENG","external_links_name":"Czech Republic"},{"Link":"http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p108676064","external_links_name":"Netherlands"},{"Link":"https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet/MRAuthorID/89370","external_links_name":"MathSciNet"},{"Link":"https://www.mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=125650","external_links_name":"Mathematics Genealogy Project"},{"Link":"https://zbmath.org/authors/?q=ai:hudde.johannes","external_links_name":"zbMATH"},{"Link":"http://www.biografischportaal.nl/en/persoon/21772832","external_links_name":"Netherlands"},{"Link":"http://www.biografischportaal.nl/en/persoon/01542845","external_links_name":"2"},{"Link":"https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd128350679.html?language=en","external_links_name":"Deutsche Biographie"},{"Link":"https://www.idref.fr/035757825","external_links_name":"IdRef"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stata
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Stata
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["1 Technical overview and terminology","1.1 User interface","1.2 Data structure and storage","1.3 Data format compatibility","2 History","2.1 Origins","2.2 Development","2.3 Extensibility","2.4 User community","3 Software products","4 Example code","5 See also","6 References","7 Further reading","8 External links"]
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Statistical software package
Not to be confused with Stada or Ray Stata.
StataStata 18 on WindowsOriginal author(s)William GouldDeveloper(s)StataCorpInitial release1985 (1985)Stable release18.0
/ April 25, 2023; 13 months ago (2023-04-25)
Written inCOperating systemWindows, macOS, LinuxTypeStatistical analysisNumerical analysisLicenseProprietaryWebsitewww.stata.com
Stata (/ˈsteɪtə/, STAY-ta, alternatively /ˈstætə/, occasionally stylized as STATA) is a general-purpose statistical software package developed by StataCorp for data manipulation, visualization, statistics, and automated reporting. It is used by researchers in many fields, including biomedicine, economics, epidemiology, and sociology.
Stata was initially developed by Computing Resource Center in California and the first version was released in 1985. In 1993, the company moved to College Station, Texas and was renamed Stata Corporation, now known as StataCorp. A major release in 2003 included a new graphics system and dialog boxes for all commands. Since then, a new version has been released once every two years. The current version is Stata 18, released in April 2023.
Technical overview and terminology
User interface
From its creation, Stata has always employed an integrated command-line interface. Starting with version 8.0, Stata has included a graphical user interface which uses menus and dialog boxes to give access to many built-in commands. The dataset can be viewed or edited in spreadsheet format. From version 11 on, other commands can be executed while the data browser or editor is opened.
Data structure and storage
Until the release of version 16, Stata could only open a single dataset at any one time. Stata allows for flexibility with assigning data types to data. Its compress command automatically reassigns data to data types that take up less memory without loss of information. Stata utilizes integer storage types which occupy only one or two bytes rather than four, and single-precision (4 bytes) rather than double-precision (8 bytes) is the default for floating-point numbers.
Stata's data format is always tabular in format. Stata refers to the columns of tabular data as variables.
Data format compatibility
Stata can import data in a variety of formats. This includes ASCII data formats (such as CSV or databank formats) and spreadsheet formats (including various Excel formats).
Stata's proprietary file formats have changed over time, although not every Stata release includes a new dataset format. Every version of Stata can read all older dataset formats, and can write both the current and most recent previous dataset format, using the saveold command. Thus, the current Stata release can always open datasets that were created with older versions, but older versions cannot read newer format datasets.
Stata can read and write SAS XPORT format datasets natively, using the fdause and fdasave commands.
Some other econometric applications, including gretl, can directly import Stata file formats.
History
Origins
The development of Stata began in 1984, initially by William (Bill) Gould and later by Sean Becketti. The software was originally intended to compete with statistical programs for personal computers such as SYSTAT and MicroTSP. Stata was written, then as now, in the C programming language, initially for PCs running the DOS operating system. The first version was released in 1985 with 44 commands.
Commands in Stata 1.0 and Stata 1.1
append
dir
infile
plot
spool
beep
do
input
query
summarize
by
drop
label
regress
tabulate
capture
erase
list
rename
test
confirm
exit
macro
replace
type
convert
expand
merge
run
use
correlate
format
modify
save
count
generate
more
set
describe
help
outfile
sort
Development
There have been 17 major releases of Stata between 1985 and 2021, and additional code and documentation updates between major releases. In its early years, extra sets of Stata programs were sometimes sold as "kits" or distributed as Support Disks. With the release of Stata 6 in 1999, updates began to be delivered to users via the web. The initial release of Stata was for the DOS operating system. Since then, versions of Stata have been released for systems running Unix variants like Linux distributions, Windows, and MacOS. All Stata files are platform-independent.
Hundreds of commands have been added to Stata in its 37-year history. Certain developments have proved to be particularly important and continue to shape the user experience today, including extensibility, platform independence, and the active user community.
Extensibility
The program command was implemented in Stata 1.2, giving users the ability to add their own commands. ado-files followed in Stata 2.1, allowing a user-written program to be automatically loaded into memory. Many user-written ado-files are submitted to the Statistical Software Components Archive hosted by Boston College. StataCorp added an ssc command to allow community-contributed programs to be added directly within Stata. More recent editions of Stata allow users to call Python scripts using commands, as well as allowing Python IDEs like Jupyter Notebooks to import Stata commands. Although Stata does not support R natively, there are user-written extensions to use R scripts in Stata.
User community
A number of important developments were initiated by Stata's active user community. The Stata Technical Bulletin, which often contains user-created commands, was introduced in 1991 and issued six times a year. It was relaunched in 2001 as the peer-reviewed Stata Journal, a quarterly publication containing descriptions of community-contributed commands and tips for the effective use of Stata. In 1994, a listserv began as a hub for users to collaboratively solve coding and technical issues; in 2014, it was converted into a web forum. In 1995, Statacorp began organizing user and developer conferences that meet annually. Only the annual Stata Conference held in the United States is hosted by StataCorp. Other user group meetings are held annually in the United States (the Stata Conference), the UK, Germany, and Italy, and less frequently in several other countries. Local Stata distributors host User Group meetings in their own countries.
Table: Releases and Development of Stata
Version
Release date
Select new or enhanced features
1.0
January 1985
Initial release
Forty-four commands
1.1
February 1985
Bug fixes
1.2
May 1985
New menu system
Better online help
keep
1.3
August 1985
Stata/Graphics
program
1.4
August 1986
New documentation
Formatted infile
1.5
February 1987
anova
logit, probit
2.0
June 1988
New graphics
String variables
Survival analysis: Cox and Kaplan-Meier
Stepwise regression
2.1
September 1990
Byte variables
Factor analysis
ado-files
reshape
3.0
March 1992
logistic, ologit, oprobit, clogit, mlogit
tobit, cnreg, rreg, qreg, weibull, ereg
epitab
pweights
3.1
August 1993
mvreg, sureg, heckman, nlreg, areg, canon
nbreg
constrained linear regression
ml
codebook
4.0
January 1995
xtreg
glm
5.0
October 1996
xtgee, xtprobit
prais, newey, intreg
survey estimation commands
fracpoly
st extended
6.0
January 1999
web aware
new ml
time-series operators
arima, arch
st rewritten
7.0
December 2000
frailty
xtabond
cluster analysis
nlogit
roc
SMCL
8.0
January 2003
graphics
extended GUI, dialog boxes available for all commands
manova
more survey
more time series (VARs, SVARs)
more GLLAMM internalization
8.1
July 2003
updated ml
8.2
October 2003
graphics changes
9.0
April 2005
mata matrix programming language
survey features
linear mixed models
multinominal probit models
9.1
September 2005
9.2
April 2006
10.0
June 2007
graph editor
logistic and Poisson models with complex, nested error components
10.1
August 2008
11.0
July 2009
factor variables
margins postestimation command
multiple imputation
11.1
June 2010
11.2
March 2011
12.0
July 2011
automatic memory management
structural equation modeling
12.1
January 2012
13.0
June 2013
long strings
treatment effects
13.1
October 2013
14.0
April 2015
unicode support
Bayesian statistical analysis
14.1
October 2015
14.2
September 2016
15.0
June 2017
latent class analysis
PDF and Word documents
color transparency or opacity in graphs
15.1
November 2017
16.0
June 2019
frames (multiple datasets in memory)
lasso regression
automated reporting
updated choice models
16.1
February 2020
17.0
April 2021
updated tables command
bayesian econometrics
18.0
April 2023
Bayesian model averaging
causal mediation analysis
heterogeneous difference-in-differences
Software products
There are four builds of Stata: Stata/MP, Stata/SE, Stata/BE, and Numerics by Stata. Whereas Stata/MP allows for built-in parallel processing of certain commands, Stata/SE and Stata/BE are bottlenecked and limit usage to only one single core. Stata/MP runs certain commands about 2.4 times faster, roughly 60% of theoretical maximum efficiency, when running parallel processes on four CPU cores compared to SE or BE versions. Numerics by Stata allows for web integration of Stata commands.
SE and BE versions differ in the amount of memory datasets may utilize. Though Stata/MP can store 10 to 20 billion observations and up to 120,000 variables, Stata/SE and Stata/BE store up to 2.14 billion observations and handle 32,767 variables and 2,048 variables respectively. The maximum number of independent variables in a model is 65,532 variables in Stata/MP, 10,998 variables in Stata/SE, and 798 variables in Stata/BE.
The pricing and licensing of Stata depends on its intended use: business, government/nonprofit, education, or student. Single user licenses are either renewable annually or perpetual. Other license types include a single license for use by concurrent users, a site license, volume single user for bulk pricing, or a student lab.
Example code
The following set of commands revolve around simple data management.
sysuse auto // Open the included auto dataset
browse // Browse the dataset (opens the Data Editor window)
describe // Describes the dataset and associated variables
summarize // Summary information about numerical variables
codebook make foreign // Summary information about the make (string) and foreign (numeric) variables
browse if missing(rep78) // Browse only observations with missing data for variable rep78
list make if missing(rep78) // List makes of the cars with missing data for variable rep78
The next set of commands move onto descriptive statistics.
summarize price, detail // Detailed summary statistics for variable price
tabulate foreign // One-way frequency table for variable foreign
tabulate rep78 foreign, row // Two-way frequency table for variables rep78 and foreign
summarize mpg if foreign == 1 // Summary information about mpg if the car is foreign (the "==" sign tests for equality)
by foreign, sort: summarize mpg // As above, but using the "by" prefix.
tabulate foreign, summarize(mpg) // As above, but using the tabulate command.
A simple hypothesis test:
ttest mpg, by(foreign) // T-test for difference in means for domestic vs. foreign cars
Graphing data:
twoway (scatter mpg weight) // Scatter plot showing relationship between mpg and weight
twoway (scatter mpg weight), by(foreign, total) // Three graphs for domestic, foreign, and all cars
Linear regression:
generate wtsq = weight^2 // Create a new variable for weight squared
regress mpg weight wtsq foreign, vce(robust) // Linear regression of mpg on weight, wtsq, and foreign
predict mpghat // Create a new variable contained the predicted values of mpg
twoway (scatter mpg weight) (line mpghat weight, sort), by(foreign) // Graph data and fitted line
Regression graphs from auto dataset in Stata 17
See also
List of statistical packages
Comparison of statistical packages
Data analysis
References
^ a b Newton, H. Joseph (2005). "A conversation with William Gould". The Stata Journal. 5 (1): 19–31. doi:10.1177/1536867X0500500103. S2CID 118322998.
^ Cox, Nicholas J. "Statalist FAQ". Statalist: The Stata Forum. Retrieved 24 April 2021.
^ "STATA Data Manipulation: Basics and Applications 7" (PDF). Iuj.ac.jp. Retrieved 27 January 2022.
^ Suárez, Erick; Pérez, Cynthia; Nogueras, Graciela; Moreno-Gorrín, Camille (2016). biostatistics-in-public-health-using-stata.
^ "Disciplines". Stata: Software for Statistics and Data Science. Retrieved 2021-04-21.
^ a b c d e f g h i Cox, Nicholas J. (2005). "A brief history of Stata on its 20th anniversary". The Stata Journal. 5 (1): 2–18. doi:10.1177/1536867X0500500102. S2CID 118366843. Retrieved 22 April 2021.
^ a b Gould, William W.; Cox, Nicholas J. "When was Stata first released? When were later versions released?". Stata: Software for Statistics and Data Science. Retrieved 22 April 2021.
^ "What's new in Stata?". Stata: Software for Statistics and Data Science. StataCorp. Retrieved 25 April 2023.
^ "Data frames: multiple datasets in memory". Stata.com. Retrieved 2020-08-13.
^ "Stata 16 help for save". Stata.com.
^ Stata Glossary and Index: Release 17 (PDF). College Station, TX: Stata Press. pp. 1–50. ISBN 1-59718-283-4.
^ "Stata features". Stata: Software for Statistics and Data Science. StataCorp. Retrieved 24 April 2021.
^ "program - Define and manipulate programs" (PDF). Stata: Software for Statistics and Data Science. Stata Press. Retrieved 24 April 2021.
^ "ssc - Install and uninstall packages from SSC" (PDF). Stata: Software for Statistics and Data Science. Stata Press. Retrieved 24 April 2021.
^ "Use Python and Stata together | Stata".
^ "How to Switch Your Workflow from Stata to R, One Bit at a Time · Frederick Solt". Fsolt.org. Retrieved 27 January 2022.
^ a b "Which Stata is right for me?". Stata: Software for Statistics and Data Science. Retrieved 23 April 2021.
^ a b "Parallel Stata". Harvard Business School.
^ "Order Stata software". Stata: Software for Statistics and Data Science. StataCorp. Retrieved 25 April 2021.
^ Getting Started with Stata for Windows (PDF) (Release 17 ed.). College Station, TX: Stata Press. pp. 1–19. ISBN 1-59718-334-2. Retrieved 25 April 2021.
Further reading
Bittmann, Felix (2019). Stata - A Really Short Introduction. Boston: DeGruyter Oldenbourg. ISBN 978-3-11061-729-0.
Pinzon, Enrique, ed. (2015). Thirty Years with Stata: A Retrospective. College Station, Texas: Stata Press. ISBN 978-1-59718-172-3.
Hamilton, Lawrence C. (2013). Statistics with STATA. Boston: Cengage. ISBN 978-0-84006-463-9.
External links
Stata at Wikipedia's sister projects
Media from CommonsTextbooks from WikibooksData from Wikidata
Official website
Stata Journal
Stata Press
Stata Technical Bulletin
Statistical Software Components Archive
vteStatistical softwarePublic domain
Dataplot
Epi Info
CSPro
X-12-ARIMA
Open-source
ADMB
DAP
gretl
JASP
JAGS
JMulTi
Julia
Jupyter (Julia, Python, R)
GNU Octave
OpenBUGS
Orange
PSPP
Python (statsmodels, PyMC3, IPython, IDLE)
R (RStudio)
SageMath
SimFiT
SOFA Statistics
Stan
XLispStat
Freeware
BV4.1
CumFreq
SegReg
XploRe
WinBUGS
CommercialCross-platform
Data Desk
GAUSS
GraphPad InStat
GraphPad Prism
IBM SPSS Statistics
IBM SPSS Modeler
JMP
Maple
Mathcad
Mathematica
MATLAB
OxMetrics
RATS
Revolution Analytics
SAS
SmartPLS
Stata
StatView
SUDAAN
S-PLUS
TSP
World Programming System (WPS)
Windows only
BMDP
EViews
GenStat
LIMDEP
LISREL
MedCalc
Microfit
Minitab
MLwiN
NCSS
SHAZAM
SigmaStat
Statistica
StatsDirect
StatXact
SYSTAT
The Unscrambler
UNISTAT
Excel add-ons
Analyse-it
UNISTAT for Excel
XLfit
RExcel
Category
Comparison
Authority control databases: National
Czech Republic
|
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Starting with version 8.0, Stata has included a graphical user interface which uses menus and dialog boxes to give access to many built-in commands. The dataset can be viewed or edited in spreadsheet format. From version 11 on, other commands can be executed while the data browser or editor is opened.","title":"Technical overview and terminology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"dataset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dataset"},{"link_name":"floating-point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating-point"},{"link_name":"tabular","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_(information)"}],"sub_title":"Data structure and storage","text":"Until the release of version 16,[9] Stata could only open a single dataset at any one time. Stata allows for flexibility with assigning data types to data. Its compress command automatically reassigns data to data types that take up less memory without loss of information. Stata utilizes integer storage types which occupy only one or two bytes rather than four, and single-precision (4 bytes) rather than double-precision (8 bytes) is the default for floating-point numbers.Stata's data format is always tabular in format. Stata refers to the columns of tabular data as variables.","title":"Technical overview and terminology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ASCII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCII"},{"link_name":"CSV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comma-separated_value"},{"link_name":"databank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Databank_format"},{"link_name":"Excel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Excel"},{"link_name":"file formats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_format"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"econometric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Econometrics"},{"link_name":"gretl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gretl"}],"sub_title":"Data format compatibility","text":"Stata can import data in a variety of formats. This includes ASCII data formats (such as CSV or databank formats) and spreadsheet formats (including various Excel formats).Stata's proprietary file formats have changed over time, although not every Stata release includes a new dataset format. Every version of Stata can read all older dataset formats, and can write both the current and most recent previous dataset format, using the saveold command.[10] Thus, the current Stata release can always open datasets that were created with older versions, but older versions cannot read newer format datasets.Stata can read and write SAS XPORT format datasets natively, using the fdause and fdasave commands.Some other econometric applications, including gretl, can directly import Stata file formats.","title":"Technical overview and terminology"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SYSTAT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SYSTAT_(statistics_package)"},{"link_name":"MicroTSP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EViews"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cox2005-6"},{"link_name":"C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"PCs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computer"},{"link_name":"DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOS"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cox2005-6"}],"sub_title":"Origins","text":"The development of Stata began in 1984, initially by William (Bill) Gould and later by Sean Becketti. The software was originally intended to compete with statistical programs for personal computers such as SYSTAT and MicroTSP.[6] Stata was written, then as now, in the C programming language, initially for PCs running the DOS operating system. The first version was released in 1985 with 44 commands.[6]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-versions-7"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cox2005-6"},{"link_name":"DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOS"},{"link_name":"Unix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix"},{"link_name":"Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"},{"link_name":"Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"},{"link_name":"MacOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macintosh_operating_systems"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cox2005-6"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"user experience","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_experience"},{"link_name":"extensibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extensibility"},{"link_name":"platform independence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-platform_software"},{"link_name":"user community","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_community"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cox2005-6"}],"sub_title":"Development","text":"There have been 17 major releases of Stata between 1985 and 2021, and additional code and documentation updates between major releases.[7] In its early years, extra sets of Stata programs were sometimes sold as \"kits\" or distributed as Support Disks. With the release of Stata 6 in 1999, updates began to be delivered to users via the web.[6] The initial release of Stata was for the DOS operating system. Since then, versions of Stata have been released for systems running Unix variants like Linux distributions, Windows, and MacOS.[6] All Stata files are platform-independent.Hundreds of commands have been added to Stata in its 37-year history.[11][12] Certain developments have proved to be particularly important and continue to shape the user experience today, including extensibility, platform independence, and the active user community.[6]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cox2005-6"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Statistical Software Components Archive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Statistical_Software_Components_Archive&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"sub_title":"Extensibility","text":"The program command was implemented in Stata 1.2, giving users the ability to add their own commands.[6][13] ado-files followed in Stata 2.1, allowing a user-written program to be automatically loaded into memory. Many user-written ado-files are submitted to the Statistical Software Components Archive hosted by Boston College. StataCorp added an ssc command to allow community-contributed programs to be added directly within Stata.[14] More recent editions of Stata allow users to call Python scripts using commands, as well as allowing Python IDEs like Jupyter Notebooks to import Stata commands.[15] Although Stata does not support R natively, there are user-written extensions to use R scripts in Stata.[16]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cox2005-6"}],"sub_title":"User community","text":"A number of important developments were initiated by Stata's active user community.[6] The Stata Technical Bulletin, which often contains user-created commands, was introduced in 1991 and issued six times a year. It was relaunched in 2001 as the peer-reviewed Stata Journal, a quarterly publication containing descriptions of community-contributed commands and tips for the effective use of Stata. In 1994, a listserv began as a hub for users to collaboratively solve coding and technical issues; in 2014, it was converted into a web forum. In 1995, Statacorp began organizing user and developer conferences that meet annually. Only the annual Stata Conference held in the United States is hosted by StataCorp. Other user group meetings are held annually in the United States (the Stata Conference), the UK, Germany, and Italy, and less frequently in several other countries. Local Stata distributors host User Group meetings in their own countries.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-statabuild-17"},{"link_name":"bottlenecked","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottleneck_(software)"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hbsparallel-18"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hbsparallel-18"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-statabuild-17"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"text":"There are four builds of Stata: Stata/MP, Stata/SE, Stata/BE, and Numerics by Stata.[17] Whereas Stata/MP allows for built-in parallel processing of certain commands, Stata/SE and Stata/BE are bottlenecked and limit usage to only one single core.[18] Stata/MP runs certain commands about 2.4 times faster, roughly 60% of theoretical maximum efficiency, when running parallel processes on four CPU cores compared to SE or BE versions.[18] Numerics by Stata allows for web integration of Stata commands.SE and BE versions differ in the amount of memory datasets may utilize. Though Stata/MP can store 10 to 20 billion observations and up to 120,000 variables, Stata/SE and Stata/BE store up to 2.14 billion observations and handle 32,767 variables and 2,048 variables respectively. The maximum number of independent variables in a model is 65,532 variables in Stata/MP, 10,998 variables in Stata/SE, and 798 variables in Stata/BE.[17]The pricing and licensing of Stata depends on its intended use: business, government/nonprofit, education, or student. Single user licenses are either renewable annually or perpetual. Other license types include a single license for use by concurrent users, a site license, volume single user for bulk pricing, or a student lab.[19]","title":"Software products"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Regression_graphs_from_auto_dataset_in_Stata_17.png"}],"text":"The following set of commands revolve around simple data management.[20]sysuse auto // Open the included auto dataset\nbrowse // Browse the dataset (opens the Data Editor window)\n\ndescribe // Describes the dataset and associated variables\nsummarize // Summary information about numerical variables\n\ncodebook make foreign // Summary information about the make (string) and foreign (numeric) variables\n\nbrowse if missing(rep78) // Browse only observations with missing data for variable rep78\nlist make if missing(rep78) // List makes of the cars with missing data for variable rep78The next set of commands move onto descriptive statistics.summarize price, detail // Detailed summary statistics for variable price\n\ntabulate foreign // One-way frequency table for variable foreign\ntabulate rep78 foreign, row // Two-way frequency table for variables rep78 and foreign\n\nsummarize mpg if foreign == 1 // Summary information about mpg if the car is foreign (the \"==\" sign tests for equality)\nby foreign, sort: summarize mpg // As above, but using the \"by\" prefix.\ntabulate foreign, summarize(mpg) // As above, but using the tabulate command.A simple hypothesis test:ttest mpg, by(foreign) // T-test for difference in means for domestic vs. foreign carsGraphing data:twoway (scatter mpg weight) // Scatter plot showing relationship between mpg and weight\ntwoway (scatter mpg weight), by(foreign, total) // Three graphs for domestic, foreign, and all carsLinear regression:generate wtsq = weight^2 // Create a new variable for weight squared\nregress mpg weight wtsq foreign, vce(robust) // Linear regression of mpg on weight, wtsq, and foreign\npredict mpghat // Create a new variable contained the predicted values of mpg\ntwoway (scatter mpg weight) (line mpghat weight, sort), by(foreign) // Graph data and fitted lineRegression graphs from auto dataset in Stata 17","title":"Example code"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Stata - A Really Short Introduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=nGOMDwAAQBAJ&q=stata+bittmann&pg=PP1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-11061-729-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11061-729-0"},{"link_name":"Thirty Years with Stata: A Retrospective","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=-9ARswEACAAJ"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-59718-172-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59718-172-3"},{"link_name":"Statistics with STATA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=pUELAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-84006-463-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-84006-463-9"}],"text":"Bittmann, Felix (2019). Stata - A Really Short Introduction. Boston: DeGruyter Oldenbourg. ISBN 978-3-11061-729-0.\nPinzon, Enrique, ed. (2015). Thirty Years with Stata: A Retrospective. College Station, Texas: Stata Press. ISBN 978-1-59718-172-3.\nHamilton, Lawrence C. (2013). Statistics with STATA. Boston: Cengage. ISBN 978-0-84006-463-9.","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"Regression graphs from auto dataset in Stata 17","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Regression_graphs_from_auto_dataset_in_Stata_17.png/220px-Regression_graphs_from_auto_dataset_in_Stata_17.png"}]
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[{"title":"List of statistical packages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_statistical_packages"},{"title":"Comparison of statistical packages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_statistical_packages"},{"title":"Data analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis"}]
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[{"reference":"Newton, H. Joseph (2005). \"A conversation with William Gould\". The Stata Journal. 5 (1): 19–31. doi:10.1177/1536867X0500500103. S2CID 118322998.","urls":[{"url":"https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1536867X0500500103","url_text":"\"A conversation with William Gould\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1536867X0500500103","url_text":"10.1177/1536867X0500500103"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:118322998","url_text":"118322998"}]},{"reference":"Cox, Nicholas J. \"Statalist FAQ\". Statalist: The Stata Forum. Retrieved 24 April 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.statalist.org/forums/help#spelling","url_text":"\"Statalist FAQ\""}]},{"reference":"\"STATA Data Manipulation: Basics and Applications 7\" (PDF). Iuj.ac.jp. Retrieved 27 January 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.iuj.ac.jp/faculty/kucc625/documents/DM1.pdf","url_text":"\"STATA Data Manipulation: Basics and Applications 7\""}]},{"reference":"Suárez, Erick; Pérez, Cynthia; Nogueras, Graciela; Moreno-Gorrín, Camille (2016). biostatistics-in-public-health-using-stata.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.stata.com/bookstore/biostatistics-in-public-health-using-stata/","url_text":"biostatistics-in-public-health-using-stata"}]},{"reference":"\"Disciplines\". Stata: Software for Statistics and Data Science. Retrieved 2021-04-21.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.stata.com/disciplines/","url_text":"\"Disciplines\""}]},{"reference":"Cox, Nicholas J. (2005). \"A brief history of Stata on its 20th anniversary\". The Stata Journal. 5 (1): 2–18. doi:10.1177/1536867X0500500102. S2CID 118366843. Retrieved 22 April 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1536867X0500500102","url_text":"\"A brief history of Stata on its 20th anniversary\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1536867X0500500102","url_text":"10.1177/1536867X0500500102"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:118366843","url_text":"118366843"}]},{"reference":"Gould, William W.; Cox, Nicholas J. \"When was Stata first released? When were later versions released?\". Stata: Software for Statistics and Data Science. Retrieved 22 April 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.stata.com/support/faqs/resources/history-of-stata/","url_text":"\"When was Stata first released? When were later versions released?\""}]},{"reference":"\"What's new in Stata?\". Stata: Software for Statistics and Data Science. StataCorp. Retrieved 25 April 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.stata.com/new-in-stata/","url_text":"\"What's new in Stata?\""}]},{"reference":"\"Data frames: multiple datasets in memory\". Stata.com. Retrieved 2020-08-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.stata.com/new-in-stata/multiple-datasets-in-memory/","url_text":"\"Data frames: multiple datasets in memory\""}]},{"reference":"\"Stata 16 help for save\". Stata.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.stata.com/help.cgi?save","url_text":"\"Stata 16 help for save\""}]},{"reference":"Stata Glossary and Index: Release 17 (PDF). College Station, TX: Stata Press. pp. 1–50. ISBN 1-59718-283-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.stata.com/manuals/icombinedsubjecttableofcontents.pdf","url_text":"Stata Glossary and Index: Release 17"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59718-283-4","url_text":"1-59718-283-4"}]},{"reference":"\"Stata features\". Stata: Software for Statistics and Data Science. StataCorp. Retrieved 24 April 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.stata.com/features/","url_text":"\"Stata features\""}]},{"reference":"\"program - Define and manipulate programs\" (PDF). Stata: Software for Statistics and Data Science. Stata Press. Retrieved 24 April 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.stata.com/manuals/pprogram.pdf","url_text":"\"program - Define and manipulate programs\""}]},{"reference":"\"ssc - Install and uninstall packages from SSC\" (PDF). Stata: Software for Statistics and Data Science. Stata Press. Retrieved 24 April 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.stata.com/manuals/rssc.pdf","url_text":"\"ssc - Install and uninstall packages from SSC\""}]},{"reference":"\"Use Python and Stata together | Stata\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.stata.com/python/","url_text":"\"Use Python and Stata together | Stata\""}]},{"reference":"\"How to Switch Your Workflow from Stata to R, One Bit at a Time · Frederick Solt\". Fsolt.org. Retrieved 27 January 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://fsolt.org/blog/2018/08/15/switch-to-r.html","url_text":"\"How to Switch Your Workflow from Stata to R, One Bit at a Time · Frederick Solt\""}]},{"reference":"\"Which Stata is right for me?\". Stata: Software for Statistics and Data Science. Retrieved 23 April 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.stata.com/products/which-stata-is-right-for-me/","url_text":"\"Which Stata is right for me?\""}]},{"reference":"\"Parallel Stata\". Harvard Business School.","urls":[{"url":"https://grid.rcs.hbs.org/parallel-stata","url_text":"\"Parallel Stata\""}]},{"reference":"\"Order Stata software\". Stata: Software for Statistics and Data Science. StataCorp. Retrieved 25 April 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.stata.com/order/dl/","url_text":"\"Order Stata software\""}]},{"reference":"Getting Started with Stata for Windows (PDF) (Release 17 ed.). College Station, TX: Stata Press. pp. 1–19. ISBN 1-59718-334-2. Retrieved 25 April 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.stata.com/manuals/gsw.pdf","url_text":"Getting Started with Stata for Windows"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59718-334-2","url_text":"1-59718-334-2"}]},{"reference":"Bittmann, Felix (2019). Stata - A Really Short Introduction. Boston: DeGruyter Oldenbourg. ISBN 978-3-11061-729-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=nGOMDwAAQBAJ&q=stata+bittmann&pg=PP1","url_text":"Stata - A Really Short Introduction"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11061-729-0","url_text":"978-3-11061-729-0"}]},{"reference":"Pinzon, Enrique, ed. (2015). Thirty Years with Stata: A Retrospective. College Station, Texas: Stata Press. ISBN 978-1-59718-172-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=-9ARswEACAAJ","url_text":"Thirty Years with Stata: A Retrospective"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59718-172-3","url_text":"978-1-59718-172-3"}]},{"reference":"Hamilton, Lawrence C. (2013). Statistics with STATA. Boston: Cengage. ISBN 978-0-84006-463-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=pUELAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1","url_text":"Statistics with STATA"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-84006-463-9","url_text":"978-0-84006-463-9"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minigame
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Minigame
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["1 Minigame compilations","2 Examples","3 See also","4 References"]
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Short video game often contained within another video game
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A "beachstickball" minigame in A Short Hike
A minigame (also spelled mini game and mini-game, sometimes called a subgame or microgame) is a short game often contained within another video game. A minigame contains different gameplay elements and is often smaller or more simplistic than the game in which it is contained.
Some video games consist entirely of minigames which tie into an overall theme, such as Olympic Decathlon (1980). Minigames can also be used to represent a specific experience, such as hacking, lock picking, or scanning an area, that ties into a larger game.
Minigame compilations
Some games are made up of many minigames strung together into one video game, such as Nintendo's WarioWare series (which are called microgames in the series), Universal's Video Action, David Whittaker's Lazy Jones and the mobile game Phone Story. Some similar games specifically developed for multiplayer are considered party games, such as the Itadaki Street series by Square Enix and Nintendo's Mario Party series. In party games, minigames usually involve performing an activity faster or collecting more of a specified item than other players to win.
Examples
The Final Fantasy series includes minigames in every entry, since the first Final Fantasy (1987), in which a 15 puzzle in the form of an Easter egg can be uncovered by entering a specific sequence of inputs while piloting a ship. It was added into the game by programmer Nasir Gebelli despite it not being part of Squaresoft's original game design.
The PocketStation for PlayStation and VMU for Dreamcast accessories allowed the user to download minigames from the main console onto the pocket device, and often then sync progress in the minigame back on to the console. Two examples of this include the Chocobo World minigame inside Final Fantasy VIII.
See also
Casual game
Invade-a-Load
Minigames of Final Fantasy
Party game
References
^ "インタビュー『FINAL FANTASY I・II ADVANCE』". Dengeki (in Japanese). 2004.
^ FFVIII PocketStation Opens Up Chocobo World Archived 2012-03-21 at the Wayback Machine, IGN, July 15, 1999
vteVideo game conceptsGlossary of video game termsAttributes
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|
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|
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|
[{"title":"Casual game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casual_game"},{"title":"Invade-a-Load","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invade-a-Load"},{"title":"Minigames of Final Fantasy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minigames_of_Final_Fantasy"},{"title":"Party game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Party_game"}]
|
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Succession_of_power_in_China
|
Succession of power in China
|
["1 Structure of power","2 History","3 Constitutional mechanism","4 Practical mechanism","5 Most recent transition","5.1 Xi Jinping era","6 See also","7 References"]
|
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vte
The succession of power in China since 1949 takes place in the context of a one-party state under the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Despite the guarantee of universal franchise in the constitution, the appointment of the Paramount leader lies largely in the hands of his predecessor and the powerful factions that control the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party.
The appointment of the leader occurred after two five year terms in accordance with the Constitution of the People's Republic of China from 1982 to 2018. This was changed to unlimited terms during the first plenary session of the 13th National People's Congress in March 2018.
In October 2022, Xi Jinping was re-elected as General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party for a precedent-breaking third term of paramount leader after Mao Zedong's death.
Structure of power
The paramount leader (supreme leader) of China holds these three official titles:
General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party
Head of the ruling party
President of the People's Republic of China
Nominal head of state
Chairman of the Central Military Commission
Commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces (People's Liberation Army)
In the past it was possible for the Paramount leader to wield absolute power without holding any of the highest offices. This was the case with Deng Xiaoping who was the undisputed leader from 1978 to 1989 without holding any of the highest offices of party and state. Since his retirement, power has become more structured with the leader holding all three of the previously mentioned offices.
History
The concept of Paramount leader was instituted during the era of Mao Zedong who was Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party for life. The position was further established under Deng Xiaoping, however the term Paramount leader has not been officially attributed to any other leaders. Since the retirement of Deng Xiaoping by resigning from Chairman of the Central Military Commission of the Communist Party in 1989, political power in China has been held collectively by the members of the Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party. The General Secretary may be best described as primus inter pares, first among equals. Because the proceedings of this body are considered a state secret, the inner workings of Politburo are not made public. It is clear, however, that decision making has become consensus driven and that no single figure can any longer act unilaterally as in the days of Mao Zedong and Deng Xiaoping.
Constitutional mechanism
Constitutional power in the People's Republic of China is held by the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party (CCCPC). Although this group of approximately 300 members does not have power in the same way as a traditional legislative body, the most important and senior officials of the Chinese government are all members.
Within the CCCPC is the Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party. This body is a group of 25 individuals (currently 24 men and one woman) who govern the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Theoretically, the Politburo is elected by the CCCPC; however, in practice any new member of the Politburo is chosen by the current members. Politburo members hold positions in China's national government and regional positions of power simultaneously thereby consolidating the CCP's power.
In the case of key policy decisions, topics are addressed in the Politburo which then determines actions to be taken by the national and local government. The policy direction for the entire country rests in the hands of these 25 individuals who meet together once a month. Admission into the Politburo is extremely difficult. Tight control over the body is exercised by current members who vet potential members carefully to maintain the balance of power. Good political relationships within the Politburo are essential for admittance into the group. All members of the Politburo are elected for five year terms.
Members of the Political Bureau of the 20th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party
Name
Hanzi
19th POL
Birth
PM
Birthplace
Education
No. of offices
Ref.
Cai Qi
蔡奇
Old
1955
1975
Fujian
Graduate
Three
Party offices
First Secretary, Secretariat of the Central Committee
Director, General Office of the Central Committee
Director, Office of the General Secretary of the Central Committee
Chen Jining
陈吉宁
New
1964
1984
Liaoning
Graduate
One
Party office
Secretary, Shanghai Municipal Party Committee
Chen Min'er
陈敏尔
Old
1960
1982
Zhejiang
Graduate
One
Party office
Secretary, Tianjin Municipal Party Committee
Chen Wenqing
陈文清
New
1960
1983
Sichuan
Graduate
One
Party office
Secretary, Central Political and Legal Affairs Commission
Ding Xuexiang
丁薛祥
Old
1962
1984
Jiangsu
Graduate
One
State office
First-Ranked Vice Premier of the State Council
He Lifeng
何立峰
New
1955
1981
Guangdong
Graduate
Two
Party office
Director, Office of the Central Financial and Economic Affairs Commission
State office
Second-Ranked Vice Premier of the State Council
He Weidong
何卫东
New
1957
1978
Fujian
Undergraduate
Two
Party office
Second Vice Chairman, Central Military Commission
State office
Second Vice Chairman, Central Military Commission
Huang Kunming
黄坤明
Old
1956
1976
Fujian
Graduate
One
Party office
Secretary, Guangdong Provincial Party Committee
Li Ganjie
李干杰
New
1964
1984
Hunan
Graduate
One
Party office
Head, Organization Department of the Central Committee
Li Hongzhong
李鸿忠
Old
1956
1976
Shenyang
Graduate
One
State office
First Vice Chairman, Standing Committee of the National People's Congress
Li Qiang
李强
Old
1959
1983
Zhejiang
Graduate
Eight
Party offices
Director, Central Institutional Organisation Commission
Deputy Director, Central Comprehensively Deepening Reforms Commission
Deputy Director, Central Financial and Economic Affairs Commission
Deputy Director, Central Cyberspace Affairs Commission
Deputy Director, Central Foreign Affairs Commission
Leader, Central Leading Group for Climate Change and Emissions Reduction
Leader, State Council Leading Party Members Group
State offices
Premier, State Council of the People's Republic of China
Li Shulei
李书磊
New
1964
1986
Henan
Graduate
One
Party office
Head, Publicity Department of the Central Committee
Li Xi
李希
Old
1956
1982
Gansu
Graduate
Two
Party office
Secretary, Standing Committee of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection
Director, Central Leading Group for Inspection Work
Liu Guozhong
刘国中
New
1962
1986
Heilongjiang
Graduate
One
State office
Fourth-Ranked Vice Premier of the State Council
Ma Xingrui
马兴瑞
New
1959
1988
Heilongjiang
Graduate
One
Party office
Secretary, Xinjiang Provincial Party Committee
Shi Taifeng
石泰峰
New
1956
1982
Shanxi
Graduate
Two
Party office
Head, United Front Work Department of the Central Committee
Organisational office
Vice Chairman, National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference
Wang Huning
王沪宁
Old
1955
1984
Shanghai
Graduate
One
Organisational office
Chairman, National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference
Wang Yi
王毅
New
1953
1981
Beijing
Graduate
Two
Party office
Director, Office of the Central Foreign Affairs Commission
State office
Minister of Foreign Affairs, People's Republic of China
Xi Jinping
习近平
Old
1953
1974
Beijing
Graduate
Eleven
Party offices
General Secretary, Central Committee
Chairman, National Security Commission of the Central Committee
Chairman, Central Comprehensively Deepening Reforms Commission of the Central Committee
Head, Central Leading Group for Taiwan Affairs of the Central Committee
Head, Central Leading Group for Financial and Economic Work of the Central Committee
Head, Central Leading Group for Network Security and Information Technology of the Central Committee
Military offices
Chairman, Central Military Commission
Commander-in-chief, Joint Operations Command Center of the Central Military Commission of the People's Liberation Army
Head, Leading Group for National Defence and Military Reform of the Central Military Commission
Head, Office of the Central Integrated Military-Civilian Development Committee
State offices
President of China
Yin Li
尹力
New
1962
1980
Shandong
Graduate
One
Party office
Secretary, Beijing City Party Committee
Yuan Jiajun
袁家军
New
1962
1992
Jilin
Graduate
One
Party office
Secretary, Chongqing Municipal Party Committee
Zhang Guoqing
张国清
New
1964
1984
Henan
Graduate
One
State office
Third-Ranked Vice Premier of the State Council
Zhang Youxia
张又侠
Old
1950
1969
Beijing
Graduate
Two
Party office
First Vice Chairman, Central Military Commission
State office
First Vice Chairman, Central Military Commission
Zhao Leji
赵乐际
Old
1957
1975
Shandong
Graduate
One
State office
Chairman, Standing Committee of the National People's Congress
Power within the Politburo is further concentrated in the Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party. This group of seven members meets together weekly and is led by the General Secretary.
Members of the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau of the 20th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party
Rank
Portrait
Name
Hanzi
19th PSC
Birth
PM
Birthplace
Academic attainment
No. of offices
Ref.
1
Xi Jinping
习近平
Old
1953
1974
Beijing
Graduate
Doctoral degree in Marxist legal studies
Undergraduate degree in chemical engineering
Eleven
Party offices
General Secretary, Central Committee
Chairman, National Security Commission of the Central Committee
Chairman, Central Comprehensively Deepening Reforms Commission of the Central Committee
Head, Central Leading Group for Taiwan Affairs of the Central Committee
Head, Central Leading Group for Financial and Economic Work of the Central Committee
Head, Central Leading Group for Network Security and Information Technology of the Central Committee
Military offices
Chairman, Central Military Commission
Commander-in-chief, Joint Operations Command Center of the Central Military Commission of the People's Liberation Army
Head, Leading Group for National Defence and Military Reform of the Central Military Commission
Head, Office of the Central Integrated Military-Civilian Development Committee
State offices
President of China
2
Li Qiang
李强
New
1959
1983
Zhejiang
Graduate
Master's degree in business administration
Graduate programme in world economics
Graduate programme in engineering management
Undergraduate degree in agricultural mechanisation
Eight
Party offices
Director, Central Institutional Organisation Commission
Deputy director, Central Comprehensively Deepening Reforms Commission
Deputy director, Central Financial and Economic Affairs Commission
Deputy director, Central Cyberspace Affairs Commission
Deputy director, Central Foreign Affairs Commission
Leader, Central Leading Group for Climate Change and Emissions Reduction
Leader, State Council Leading Party Members Group
State offices
Premier, State Council of the People's Republic of China
3
Zhao Leji
赵乐际
Old
1957
1975
Qinghai
Graduate
Graduate programme in currency and banking
Undergraduate degree in philosophy
One
State office
Chairman, Standing Committee of the National People's Congress
4
Wang Huning
王沪宁
Old
1955
1984
Shanghai
Graduate
Master's degree in Marxist legal studies
Graduate programme in international politics
Undergraduate degree in French
One
Organisational office
Chairman, National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference
5
Cai Qi
蔡奇
New
1955
1975
Fujian
Graduate
Doctoral degree in political economy
Post-graduate degree in economic law
Undergraduate degree in political education
Three
Party offices
First Secretary, Secretariat of the Central Committee
Director, General Office of the Central Committee
Director, Office of the General Secretary of the Central Committee
6
Ding Xuexiang
丁薛祥
New
1962
1984
Jiangsu
Graduate
Master's degree in science and management
Bachelor's degree in engineering
One
State offices
First-Ranked Vice Premier of the State Council
7
Li Xi
李希
New
1956
1982
Gansu
Graduate
Master's degree in economics and management
Undergraduate degree in literature
Two
Party offices
Secretary, Standing Committee of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection
Director, Central Leading Group for Inspection Work
Executive leadership in the PRC is elected through a process that can best be described as an indirect election. In this system, only one candidate stands for the election of any given position. Although other candidates cannot run formally, write-in candidates are permitted. In 2013, when the 12th National People's Congress elected CCP general secretary Xi Jinping as president, 2952 members voted in favour and one against, with three abstentions. Similarly, in the 2008 election, Hu Jintao, then-General Secretary, President and Chairman of the Central Military Commission, were re-elected by a landslide. Of the 2985 members of the 11th National People's Congress, only 3 voted against Hu Jintao, with another 5 abstaining.
Practical mechanism
In practical terms, the National Congress provides a rubber stamp on a decision that is made by the Politburo and the Standing Committee. The transition of leadership can take several months. For instance, when Hu Jintao took over power from Jiang Zemin, the transition of power stretched out almost two years. Listed below are the dates on which Hu was appointed to each office:
General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party (November 2002)
President of the People's Republic of China (March 2003)
Chairman of the Central Military Commission (September 2004)
Usually the office of Chairman of the Central Military Commission is the last office handed over by the previous leader, in order to secure political influence and ensure political continuity.
Most recent transition
Appointments to key offices are the best predictor of whom the next leader will be. The office of Vice Chairman of the Central Military Commission (CMC) is seen by many as the last stop before becoming the top leader of China. Appointment to Vice Chairman position is so crucial that when Xi Jinping, the current CCP General Secretary, failed to achieve that office at the 4th Plenum in 2009, many analysts suggested that he had fallen from favor and would not be the next Chinese leader. His ultimate appointment to Vice Chairman of the CMC was seen as evidence that he had begun to consolidate his power and would ultimately succeed Hu Jintao when his term expired in 2012 at the 18th Party Congress.
Absent a transparent electoral process, the appointment to key positions is the only way to predict future leadership in China. Note in the table below, the path that Xi Jinping followed from a low-level party official at the age of 30 to his current position of the leader of the most populous country in the world.
Xi Jinping's Corresponding Political and Military Postings, 1983–2007
Years
Political Position
Military Position
1983-85
First secretary, Zhengding County, Hebei Province party committee
First political commissar and first secretary of the Party committee of People's Armed Forces Department of Zhengding County, Hebei Province
1988-90
Secretary of the CCP Ningde Prefectural Committee, Fujian Province
First secretary of the Party committee of Ningde Sub-Military Area Command
1990-93
Secretary of the CCP Fuzhou Municipal Committee and chairman of the Standing Committee of the Fuzhou Municipal People's Congress
First secretary of the Party committee of Fuzhou Sub-Military Area Command
1995-96
Deputy secretary of the CCP Fujian Provincial Committee, secretary of the CCP Fuzhou Municipal Committee and chairman of the Standing Committee of the Fuzhou Municipal People's Congress
First secretary of the Party committee of Fuzhou Sub-Military Area Command
1996-99
Deputy secretary of the CCP Fujian Provincial Committee
First political commissar of the anti-aircraft artillery reserve division of Fujian Provincial Military Area Command
1999-2000
Deputy secretary of the CCP Fujian Provincial Committee and acting governor of Fujian Province
Vice director of commission for national defense mobilization of Nanjing Military Area Command, director of Fujian provincial commission for national defense mobilization, first political commissar of antiaircraft artillery reserve division of Fujian Provincial Military Area Command
2000-02
Deputy secretary of the CCP Fujian Provincial Committee and governor of Fujian Province
Vice director of commission for national defense mobilization of Nanjing Military Area Command, director of Fujian provincial commission for national defense mobilization, first political commissar of antiaircraft artillery reserve division of Fujian Provincial Military Area Command
2002
Deputy secretary of the CCP Zhejiang Provincial Committee and acting governor of Zhejiang Province
Vice director of commission for national defense mobilization of Nanjing Military Area Command, director of Zhejiang provincial commission for national defense mobilization
2002-03
Secretary of the CCP Zhejiang Provincial Committee and acting governor of Zhejiang Province
First secretary of the Party committee of Zhejiang Provincial Military Area Command, vice director of commission for national defense mobilization of Nanjing Military Area Command, director of Zhejiang provincial commission for national defense mobilization
2003-07
Secretary of the CCP Zhejiang Provincial Committee and chairman of the Standing Committee of the Zhejiang Provincial People's Congress
First secretary of the Party committee of Zhejiang Provincial Military Area Command
2007
Secretary of the CCP Shanghai Municipal Committee
First secretary of the Party committee of Shanghai Garrison
As long as the Chinese government remains secretive about the inner workings of the CCP Politburo, past behavior will continue to be the most effective tool for predicting future appointments. In this context, the appointment of a candidate to key offices is still the best indicator of their future role. For example, the appointment of Xi Jinping as the vice chairman of the Central Military Commission of the Chinese Communist Party signposted with a reasonable amount of confidence that he would be the next top leader of the People's Republic of China.
Xi Jinping era
This section is an excerpt from Generations of Chinese leadership § Sixth generation.
The sixth generation of leaders had been expected to come to power at the 20th Party Congress in 2022. However, following Xi Jinping's consolidation of power at the 19th Party Congress, the future of the "sixth generation" was cast into doubt as clear successor figures failed to be named to senior leadership posts, particularly the Politburo Standing Committee. Xi Jinping was re-elected as the General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party in 2022.
In preceding years, Hu Chunhua (a Vice-Premier from 2018 to 2023) was seen as a possible core figure. Hu and Sun Zhengcai were the only Politburo members named at the 18th Party Congress in 2012 who were born after 1960, making their further advancement seem like a certainty, but Sun was purged before the 19th Party Congress and Hu was dropped from the Politburo at the 20th. U.S.-based newspaper Duo Wei Times also listed four figures who have since fallen from grace, former Fujian Governor Su Shulin, former President of the Supreme People's Court Zhou Qiang, former Heilongjiang Party Secretary Zhang Qingwei, and former Minister of Natural Resources Lu Hao, as other potential figures in this generation of leadership. Others in this rough age group ascending in the ranks include Zhang Guoqing (now a Vice-Premier) and Chen Min'er (party secretary of Chongqing and then Tianjin).
Ding Xuexiang is the only person from this age bracket to have reached the Standing Committee, but the 20th Politburo includes eight other members born between 1960 and 1964.
Xi Jinping has not named his successor as paramount leader of the CCP which broke from the precedent previously established of naming the successor at the start of the second term of the paramount leader. This is seen as an attempt by Xi to further consolidate power as the leader of China and maintain a strong hold on his position of power. Xi's lack of a named successor reversed the previously perceived notion of intraparty democracy in the naming system of leadership succession in the CCP.
See also
List of Chinese leaders
Paramount leader
Orders of precedence in China
Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party
General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party
President of the People's Republic of China
Premier of the People's Republic of China
References
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vteParamount leaders of the People's Republic of China
General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party
Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party
Mao Zedong (Core 1)
Hua Guofeng
Deng Xiaoping (Core 2)
Jiang Zemin (Core 3)
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Xi Jinping (Core 4)
Xia → Shang → Zhou → Qin → Han → 3 Kingdoms → Jìn / 16 Kingdoms → S. Dynasties / N. Dynasties → Sui → Tang → 5 Dynasties & 10 Kingdoms → Liao / Song / W. Xia / Jīn → Yuan → Ming → Qing → ROC / PRC
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"one-party state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One-party_state"},{"link_name":"Chinese Communist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Paramount leader","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paramount_leader"},{"link_name":"factions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_faction"},{"link_name":"Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party"},{"link_name":"Constitution of the People's Republic of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"13th National People's Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/13th_National_People%27s_Congress"},{"link_name":"Xi Jinping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xi_Jinping"},{"link_name":"General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party"},{"link_name":"paramount leader","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paramount_leader"},{"link_name":"Mao Zedong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mao_Zedong"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"The succession of power in China since 1949 takes place in the context of a one-party state under the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).[1] Despite the guarantee of universal franchise in the constitution, the appointment of the Paramount leader lies largely in the hands of his predecessor and the powerful factions that control the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party.The appointment of the leader occurred after two five year terms in accordance with the Constitution of the People's Republic of China from 1982 to 2018.[2] This was changed to unlimited terms during the first plenary session of the 13th National People's Congress in March 2018.In October 2022, Xi Jinping was re-elected as General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party for a precedent-breaking third term of paramount leader after Mao Zedong's death.[3]","title":"Succession of power in China"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"paramount leader","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paramount_leader"},{"link_name":"General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party"},{"link_name":"President of the People's Republic of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"Chairman of the Central Military Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chairman_of_the_Central_Military_Commission_(China)"},{"link_name":"People's Liberation Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army"},{"link_name":"Deng Xiaoping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping"}],"text":"The paramount leader (supreme leader) of China holds these three official titles:General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party\nHead of the ruling party\nPresident of the People's Republic of China\nNominal head of state\nChairman of the Central Military Commission\nCommander-in-chief of the Armed Forces (People's Liberation Army)In the past it was possible for the Paramount leader to wield absolute power without holding any of the highest offices. This was the case with Deng Xiaoping who was the undisputed leader from 1978 to 1989 without holding any of the highest offices of party and state. Since his retirement, power has become more structured with the leader holding all three of the previously mentioned offices.","title":"Structure of power"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mao Zedong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mao_Zedong"},{"link_name":"Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chairman_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party"},{"link_name":"Deng Xiaoping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping"},{"link_name":"Chairman of the Central Military Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chairman_of_the_Central_Military_Commission_(China)"},{"link_name":"Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politburo_Standing_Committee_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party"},{"link_name":"General Secretary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"The concept of Paramount leader was instituted during the era of Mao Zedong who was Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party for life. The position was further established under Deng Xiaoping, however the term Paramount leader has not been officially attributed to any other leaders. Since the retirement of Deng Xiaoping by resigning from Chairman of the Central Military Commission of the Communist Party in 1989, political power in China has been held collectively by the members of the Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party. The General Secretary may be best described as primus inter pares, first among equals. Because the proceedings of this body are considered a state secret, the inner workings of Politburo are not made public. It is clear, however, that decision making has become consensus driven and that no single figure can any longer act unilaterally as in the days of Mao Zedong and Deng Xiaoping.[4]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_China"},{"link_name":"Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party"},{"link_name":"Chinese Communist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-5"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-5"},{"link_name":"12th National People's Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12th_National_People%27s_Congress"},{"link_name":"Hu Jintao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hu_Jintao"},{"link_name":"11th National People's Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/11th_National_People%27s_Congress"}],"text":"Constitutional power in the People's Republic of China is held by the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party (CCCPC). Although this group of approximately 300 members does not have power in the same way as a traditional legislative body, the most important and senior officials of the Chinese government are all members.Within the CCCPC is the Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party. This body is a group of 25 individuals (currently 24 men and one woman) who govern the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Theoretically, the Politburo is elected by the CCCPC; however, in practice any new member of the Politburo is chosen by the current members. Politburo members hold positions in China's national government and regional positions of power simultaneously thereby consolidating the CCP's power.In the case of key policy decisions, topics are addressed in the Politburo which then determines actions to be taken by the national and local government. The policy direction for the entire country rests in the hands of these 25 individuals who meet together once a month. Admission into the Politburo is extremely difficult. Tight control over the body is exercised by current members who vet potential members carefully to maintain the balance of power. Good political relationships within the Politburo are essential for admittance into the group. All members of the Politburo are elected for five year terms.[5]Power within the Politburo is further concentrated in the Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party. This group of seven members meets together weekly and is led by the General Secretary.[5]Executive leadership in the PRC is elected through a process that can best be described as an indirect election. In this system, only one candidate stands for the election of any given position. Although other candidates cannot run formally, write-in candidates are permitted. In 2013, when the 12th National People's Congress elected CCP general secretary Xi Jinping as president, 2952 members voted in favour and one against, with three abstentions. Similarly, in the 2008 election, Hu Jintao, then-General Secretary, President and Chairman of the Central Military Commission, were re-elected by a landslide. Of the 2985 members of the 11th National People's Congress, only 3 voted against Hu Jintao, with another 5 abstaining.","title":"Constitutional mechanism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"National Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_People%27s_Congress_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Jiang Zemin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiang_Zemin"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Chairman of the Central Military Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chairman_of_the_Central_Military_Commission_(China)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"In practical terms, the National Congress provides a rubber stamp on a decision that is made by the Politburo and the Standing Committee.[citation needed] The transition of leadership can take several months. For instance, when Hu Jintao took over power from Jiang Zemin, the transition of power stretched out almost two years. Listed below are the dates on which Hu was appointed to each office:General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party (November 2002)[citation needed]\nPresident of the People's Republic of China (March 2003)[citation needed]\nChairman of the Central Military Commission (September 2004)[citation needed]Usually the office of Chairman of the Central Military Commission is the last office handed over by the previous leader, in order to secure political influence and ensure political continuity.[citation needed]","title":"Practical mechanism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Vice Chairman of the Central Military Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vice_Chairman_of_the_Central_Military_Commission"},{"link_name":"top leader of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paramount_leader"},{"link_name":"Xi Jinping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xi_Jinping"},{"link_name":"18th Party Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/18th_National_Congress_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"}],"text":"Appointments to key offices are the best predictor of whom the next leader will be. The office of Vice Chairman of the Central Military Commission (CMC) is seen by many as the last stop before becoming the top leader of China. Appointment to Vice Chairman position is so crucial that when Xi Jinping, the current CCP General Secretary, failed to achieve that office at the 4th Plenum in 2009, many analysts suggested that he had fallen from favor and would not be the next Chinese leader. His ultimate appointment to Vice Chairman of the CMC was seen as evidence that he had begun to consolidate his power and would ultimately succeed Hu Jintao when his term expired in 2012 at the 18th Party Congress.[32]Absent a transparent electoral process, the appointment to key positions is the only way to predict future leadership in China. Note in the table below, the path that Xi Jinping followed from a low-level party official at the age of 30 to his current position of the leader of the most populous country in the world.Xi Jinping's Corresponding Political and Military Postings, 1983–2007[33]As long as the Chinese government remains secretive about the inner workings of the CCP Politburo, past behavior will continue to be the most effective tool for predicting future appointments. In this context, the appointment of a candidate to key offices is still the best indicator of their future role. For example, the appointment of Xi Jinping as the vice chairman of the Central Military Commission of the Chinese Communist Party signposted with a reasonable amount of confidence that he would be the next top leader of the People's Republic of China.","title":"Most recent transition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Generations of Chinese leadership § Sixth generation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generations_of_Chinese_leadership#Sixth_generation"},{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Generations_of_Chinese_leadership&action=edit"},{"link_name":"19th Party Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/19th_National_Congress_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Hu Chunhua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hu_Chunhua"},{"link_name":"by whom?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Sun Zhengcai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_Zhengcai"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Duo Wei Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duo_Wei_Times"},{"link_name":"Fujian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fujian"},{"link_name":"Su Shulin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Su_Shulin"},{"link_name":"Supreme People's Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_People%27s_Court"},{"link_name":"Zhou Qiang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhou_Qiang"},{"link_name":"Zhang Qingwei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhang_Qingwei"},{"link_name":"Minister of Natural Resources","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Natural_Resources_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"Lu Hao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lu_Hao_(born_1967)"},{"link_name":"Zhang Guoqing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhang_Guoqing"},{"link_name":"Chen Min'er","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen_Min%27er"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Generations_of_Chinese_leadership_DW-34"},{"link_name":"20th Politburo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/20th_Politburo_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"}],"sub_title":"Xi Jinping era","text":"This section is an excerpt from Generations of Chinese leadership § Sixth generation.[edit]\nThe sixth generation of leaders had been expected to come to power at the 20th Party Congress in 2022. However, following Xi Jinping's consolidation of power at the 19th Party Congress, the future of the \"sixth generation\" was cast into doubt as clear successor figures failed to be named to senior leadership posts, particularly the Politburo Standing Committee.[citation needed] Xi Jinping was re-elected as the General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party in 2022.\nIn preceding years, Hu Chunhua (a Vice-Premier from 2018 to 2023) was seen[by whom?] as a possible core figure.[citation needed] Hu and Sun Zhengcai were the only Politburo members named at the 18th Party Congress in 2012 who were born after 1960, making their further advancement seem like a certainty, but Sun was purged before the 19th Party Congress and Hu was dropped from the Politburo at the 20th.[citation needed] U.S.-based newspaper Duo Wei Times also listed four figures who have since fallen from grace, former Fujian Governor Su Shulin, former President of the Supreme People's Court Zhou Qiang, former Heilongjiang Party Secretary Zhang Qingwei, and former Minister of Natural Resources Lu Hao, as other potential figures in this generation of leadership. Others in this rough age group ascending in the ranks include Zhang Guoqing (now a Vice-Premier) and Chen Min'er (party secretary of Chongqing and then Tianjin).[34]\n\nDing Xuexiang is the only person from this age bracket to have reached the Standing Committee, but the 20th Politburo includes eight other members born between 1960 and 1964.[citation needed]Xi Jinping has not named his successor as paramount leader of the CCP which broke from the precedent previously established of naming the successor at the start of the second term of the paramount leader.[35] This is seen as an attempt by Xi to further consolidate power as the leader of China and maintain a strong hold on his position of power.[36] Xi's lack of a named successor reversed the previously perceived notion of intraparty democracy in the naming system of leadership succession in the CCP.[37]","title":"Most recent transition"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"List of Chinese leaders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Chinese_leaders"},{"title":"Paramount leader","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paramount_leader"},{"title":"Orders of precedence in China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_precedence_in_China"},{"title":"Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chairman_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party"},{"title":"General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party"},{"title":"President of the People's Republic of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"title":"Premier of the People's Republic of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premier_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China"}]
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kara-Kyrgyz_Autonomous_Oblast
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Kara-Kirghiz Autonomous Oblast
|
["1 Etymology","2 Notes","3 References"]
|
1924–1926 autonomous oblast of the Russian SFSR, Soviet Union
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Kara-Kirghiz Autonomous Oblast" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (February 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Kara-Kirghiz Autonomous OblastКара-Кыргыз өзэркин облусуAutonomous oblast of the Russian SFSR1924–1926Map of the Kirghiz Autonomous Oblast' (formerly the Kara-Kirghiz Autonomous Oblast') in 1925, the Murghob District was part of the Kara-Kyrgyz Autonomous Oblast.CapitalPishpekHistorical eraColonization period• Creation of Kara-Kirghiz Autonomous Oblast 14 October 1924• renamed as Kirghiz AO 15 May 1925• reorganized as Kirghiz ASSR 11 February 1926
Preceded by
Succeeded by
Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic
Kirghiz Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic (1926–1936)
The Kara-Kirghiz Autonomous Oblast, abbreviated as Kara-Kirghiz AO or KAO in the former region of Soviet Central Asia, was created on 14 October 1924 within the Russian SFSR from the predominantly Kyrgyz part of the Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. On 15 May 1925 it was renamed to the Kirghiz Autonomous Oblast. On 11 February 1926 it was reorganized into the Kirghiz ASSR (not to be confused with the other Kirghiz ASSR, the original name of the Kazakh ASSR). On 5 December 1936 it became the Kirghiz SSR, one of the constituent republics of the Soviet Union.
Etymology
Kara-Kirghiz is a former name for the Kyrgyz people that literally means 'the black Kirghiz (Kyrgyz)', in reference to the colour of the tents the nomads used.
Notes
^ Russian: Кара-Киргизская автономная область; Kyrgyz: Кара-Кыргыз өзэркин облусу, romanized: Kara-Kyrgyz özerkin oblusu
^ Russian: Кара-Киргизская АО; Kyrgyz: Кара-Кыргыз АО
^ Russian: КАО; Kyrgyz: КӨО, romanized: KÖO
References
^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Kirghiz" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 827–829.
vteAutonomous oblasts of the Soviet UnionRussian SFSR
Adyghe
Checheno-Ingush
Chechen
Ingush
Chuvash
Gorno-Altai
Jewish
Kabardino-Balkarian
Kalmyk
Kara-Kirghiz
Karachay-Cherkess
Cherkess
Karachay
Kara-Kalpak
Komi-Zyryan
Khakas
Mari
North Ossetian
Tuvan
Udmurt
Georgian SSR
South Ossetian
Azerbaijan SSR
Nagorno-Karabakh
Tajik SSR
Gorno-Badakhshan
Authority control databases: National
United States
This Kyrgyzstan location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
This Soviet Union–related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
|
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|
[]
| null |
[{"reference":"Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). \"Kirghiz\" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 827–829.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm","url_text":"Chisholm, Hugh"},{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Kirghiz","url_text":"\"Kirghiz\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition","url_text":"Encyclopædia Britannica"}]}]
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_to_Host_a_Murder
|
How to Host a Murder
|
["1 Games","2 Reception","3 Notes","4 References"]
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How to Host a MurderPublishersDecipher, Inc.Publication1983GenresMurder mystery game
How to Host a Murder is a long-running series of boxed murder mystery games published by Decipher, Inc. Players take on the roles of suspects after a murder has occurred, all attempting to expose which one of them is the murderer. The setting is supposed to be humorous, with players dressing in costumes and overacting their parts.
The first game in the series, The Watersdown Affair, was published in 1985. Sixteen other How to Host a Murder games have been published since, and the line has also spun off into lines like How to Host a Teen Mystery, a single adult How to Host a Mystery, the kids games How to Host a Kids Party & How to Host a Scavenger Hunt, and the more romantically inclined How to Host a Romantic Evening. The last release was in 2003, but Decipher announced in 2012 new material relating to the series would be appearing on their website, suggesting new releases may occur soon. Decipher's website was updated to announce that these new games would be coming in 2017.
Games
How To Host a Murder Editions
Episode number
Name of episode
Year created
1
The Watersdown Affair
1985
2
Grapes of Frath
1985
3
The Last Train From Paris
1985
4
Archaeologically Speaking, it's The Pits (AKA Matter of Faxe)
1986
5
The Chicago Caper
1985
6
Hoo Hung Woo
1986
7
The Class of '54
1987
8
Power and Greede (AKA The Hollywood Premier)
1985
9
The Duke's Descent
1990
10
The Wall Street Scandal
1991
11
Roman Ruins
1996
12
The Good, The Bad, and The Guilty
1996
13
The Tragical Mystery Tour
1998
14
Maiming of the Shrew
2000
15
Saturday Night Cleaver
2001
16
An Affair to Dismember
2003
Special
All My Children
1991
Special
Star Trek: The Next Generation
1992
How To Host A Teen Mystery Editions
Episode number
Name of episode
1
Hot Times at Hollywood High
2
Barbeque With a Vampire
3
Roswell That Ends Well
Reception
Creede Lambard reviewed The Watersdown Affair in Space Gamer No. 76, and commented that "And the verdict? I cannot recommend this game highly enough. If your dinner parties are becoming a bit dull, or if you and seven or more of your friends want to have a great time one evening, buy The Watersdown Affair."
Notes
^ The Star Trek: The Next Generation edition was released under the title "How To Host a Mystery".
References
^ a b Tinsman, Brian (2003). The Game Inventor's Guidebook. Krause Publications. p. 85. ISBN 9780873495523.
^ Appelcline, Shannon (2014). Designers & Dragons: The 90s. Evil Hat Productions. p. 238.
^ RobinGoodfellow (2012-01-27). "Fight Klūb - Community". Decipher.com. Archived from the original on 2012-01-07. Retrieved 2012-02-14.
^ Decipher announces howtohostamurder.com< Retrieved 10 January 2018
^ Lambard, Creede (Sep–Oct 1985). "Capsule Reviews". Space Gamer (76). Steve Jackson Games: 35.
vteDecipher, Inc.Collectible card games
Austin Powers
Beyblade Trading Card Game
Boy Crazy
Fight Klub
.hack//Enemy
Jedi Knights
The Lord of the Rings
Star Trek
Star Wars
Tribbles
WARS
Young Jedi
Other games
CODA System
How to Host a Murder
The Lord of the Rings Roleplaying Game
Star Trek Roleplaying Game
Star Trek: The Next Generation Interactive VCR Board Game
|
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|
[]
| null |
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|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bresenham%27s_line_algorithm
|
Bresenham's line algorithm
|
["1 History","2 Method","3 Derivation","3.1 Line equation","3.2 Algorithm","3.3 Algorithm for integer arithmetic","3.4 All cases","4 Similar algorithms","5 See also","6 Notes","7 References","8 Further reading","9 External links"]
|
Line-drawing algorithm
Bresenham's line algorithm is a line drawing algorithm that determines the points of an n-dimensional raster that should be selected in order to form a close approximation to a straight line between two points. It is commonly used to draw line primitives in a bitmap image (e.g. on a computer screen), as it uses only integer addition, subtraction, and bit shifting, all of which are very cheap operations in historically common computer architectures. It is an incremental error algorithm, and one of the earliest algorithms developed in the field of computer graphics. An extension to the original algorithm called the midpoint circle algorithm may be used for drawing circles.
While algorithms such as Wu's algorithm are also frequently used in modern computer graphics because they can support antialiasing, Bresenham's line algorithm is still important because of its speed and simplicity. The algorithm is used in hardware such as plotters and in the graphics chips of modern graphics cards. It can also be found in many software graphics libraries. Because the algorithm is very simple, it is often implemented in either the firmware or the graphics hardware of modern graphics cards.
The label "Bresenham" is used today for a family of algorithms extending or modifying Bresenham's original algorithm.
History
Bresenham's line algorithm is named after Jack Elton Bresenham who developed it in 1962 at IBM. In 2001 Bresenham wrote:
I was working in the computation lab at IBM's San Jose development lab. A Calcomp plotter had been attached to an IBM 1401 via the 1407 typewriter console. was in production use by summer 1962, possibly a month or so earlier. Programs in those days were freely exchanged among corporations so Calcomp (Jim Newland and Calvin Hefte) had copies. When I returned to Stanford in Fall 1962, I put a copy in the Stanford comp center library.
A description of the line drawing routine was accepted for presentation at the 1963 ACM national convention in Denver, Colorado. It was a year in which no proceedings were published, only the agenda of speakers and topics in an issue of Communications of the ACM. A person from the IBM Systems Journal asked me after I made my presentation if they could publish the paper. I happily agreed, and they printed it in 1965.
Method
Illustration of the result of Bresenham's line algorithm. (0,0) is at the top left corner of the grid, (1,1) is at the top left end of the line and (11, 5) is at the bottom right end of the line.
The following conventions will be utilized:
the top-left is (0,0) such that pixel coordinates increase in the right and down directions (e.g. that the pixel at (7,4) is directly above the pixel at (7,5)), and
the pixel centers have integer coordinates.
The endpoints of the line are the pixels at
(
x
0
,
y
0
)
{\displaystyle (x_{0},y_{0})}
and
(
x
1
,
y
1
)
{\displaystyle (x_{1},y_{1})}
, where the first coordinate of the pair is the column and the second is the row.
The algorithm will be initially presented only for the octant in which the segment goes down and to the right (
x
0
≤
x
1
{\displaystyle x_{0}\leq x_{1}}
and
y
0
≤
y
1
{\displaystyle y_{0}\leq y_{1}}
), and its horizontal projection
x
1
−
x
0
{\displaystyle x_{1}-x_{0}}
is longer than the vertical projection
y
1
−
y
0
{\displaystyle y_{1}-y_{0}}
(the line has a positive slope less than 1).
In this octant, for each column x between
x
0
{\displaystyle x_{0}}
and
x
1
{\displaystyle x_{1}}
, there is exactly one row y (computed by the algorithm) containing a pixel of the line, while each row between
y
0
{\displaystyle y_{0}}
and
y
1
{\displaystyle y_{1}}
may contain multiple rasterized pixels.
Bresenham's algorithm chooses the integer y corresponding to the pixel center that is closest to the ideal (fractional) y for the same x; on successive columns y can remain the same or increase by 1.
The general equation of the line through the endpoints is given by:
y
−
y
0
y
1
−
y
0
=
x
−
x
0
x
1
−
x
0
{\displaystyle {\frac {y-y_{0}}{y_{1}-y_{0}}}={\frac {x-x_{0}}{x_{1}-x_{0}}}}
.
Since we know the column, x, the pixel's row, y, is given by rounding this quantity to the nearest integer:
y
=
y
1
−
y
0
x
1
−
x
0
(
x
−
x
0
)
+
y
0
{\displaystyle y={\frac {y_{1}-y_{0}}{x_{1}-x_{0}}}(x-x_{0})+y_{0}}
.
The slope
(
y
1
−
y
0
)
/
(
x
1
−
x
0
)
{\displaystyle (y_{1}-y_{0})/(x_{1}-x_{0})}
depends on the endpoint coordinates only and can be precomputed, and the ideal y for successive integer values of x can be computed starting from
y
0
{\displaystyle y_{0}}
and repeatedly adding the slope.
In practice, the algorithm does not keep track of the y coordinate, which increases by m = ∆y/∆x each time the x increases by one; it keeps an error bound at each
stage, which represents the negative of the distance from (a) the point where the line exits the pixel to (b) the top edge of the pixel.
This value is first set to
y
0
−
0.5
{\displaystyle y_{0}-0.5}
(due to using the pixel's center coordinates), and is incremented by m each time the x coordinate is incremented by one. If the error becomes greater than 0.5, we know that the line has moved upwards
one pixel, and that we must increment our y coordinate and readjust the error to represent the distance from the top of the new pixel – which is done by subtracting one from error.
Derivation
To derive Bresenham's algorithm, two steps must be taken. The first step is transforming the equation of a line from the typical slope-intercept form into something different; and then using this new equation to draw a line based on the idea of accumulation of error.
Line equation
y=f(x)=.5x+1 or f(x,y)=x-2y+2=0
Positive and negative half-planes
The slope-intercept form of a line is written as
y
=
f
(
x
)
=
m
x
+
b
{\displaystyle y=f(x)=mx+b}
where
m
{\displaystyle m}
is the slope and
b
{\displaystyle b}
is the y-intercept. Because this is a function of only
x
{\displaystyle x}
, it can't represent a vertical line. Therefore, it would be useful to make this equation written as a function of both
x
{\displaystyle x}
and
y
{\displaystyle y}
, to be able to draw lines at any angle. The angle (or slope) of a line can be stated as "rise over run", or
Δ
y
/
Δ
x
{\displaystyle \Delta y/\Delta x}
. Then, using algebraic manipulation,
y
=
m
x
+
b
y
=
Δ
y
Δ
x
x
+
b
(
Δ
x
)
y
=
(
Δ
y
)
x
+
(
Δ
x
)
b
0
=
(
Δ
y
)
x
−
(
Δ
x
)
y
+
(
Δ
x
)
b
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}y&=mx+b\\y&={\frac {\Delta y}{\Delta x}}x+b\\(\Delta x)y&=(\Delta y)x+(\Delta x)b\\0&=(\Delta y)x-(\Delta x)y+(\Delta x)b\end{aligned}}}
Letting this last equation be a function of
x
{\displaystyle x}
and
y
{\displaystyle y}
, it can be written as
f
(
x
,
y
)
:=
A
x
+
B
y
+
C
=
0
{\displaystyle f(x,y):=Ax+By+C=0}
where the constants are
A
=
Δ
y
=
y
1
−
y
0
{\displaystyle A=\Delta y=y_{1}-y_{0}}
B
=
−
Δ
x
=
−
(
x
1
−
x
0
)
{\displaystyle B=-\Delta x=-(x_{1}-x_{0})}
C
=
(
Δ
x
)
b
=
(
x
1
−
x
0
)
b
{\displaystyle C=(\Delta x)b=(x_{1}-x_{0})b}
The line is then defined for some constants
A
{\displaystyle A}
,
B
{\displaystyle B}
, and
C
{\displaystyle C}
anywhere
f
(
x
,
y
)
=
0
{\displaystyle f(x,y)=0}
. That is, for any
(
x
,
y
)
{\displaystyle (x,y)}
not on the line,
f
(
x
,
y
)
≠
0
{\displaystyle f(x,y)\neq 0}
. This form involves only integers if
x
{\displaystyle x}
and
y
{\displaystyle y}
are integers, since the constants
A
{\displaystyle A}
,
B
{\displaystyle B}
, and
C
{\displaystyle C}
are defined as integers.
As an example, the line
y
=
1
2
x
+
1
{\textstyle y={\frac {1}{2}}x+1}
then this could be written as
f
(
x
,
y
)
=
x
−
2
y
+
2
{\displaystyle f(x,y)=x-2y+2}
. The point (2,2) is on the line
f
(
2
,
2
)
=
x
−
2
y
+
2
=
(
2
)
−
2
(
2
)
+
2
=
2
−
4
+
2
=
0
{\displaystyle f(2,2)=x-2y+2=(2)-2(2)+2=2-4+2=0}
and the point (2,3) is not on the line
f
(
2
,
3
)
=
(
2
)
−
2
(
3
)
+
2
=
2
−
6
+
2
=
−
2
{\displaystyle f(2,3)=(2)-2(3)+2=2-6+2=-2}
and neither is the point (2,1)
f
(
2
,
1
)
=
(
2
)
−
2
(
1
)
+
2
=
2
−
2
+
2
=
2
{\displaystyle f(2,1)=(2)-2(1)+2=2-2+2=2}
Notice that the points (2,1) and (2,3) are on opposite sides of the line and
f
(
x
,
y
)
{\displaystyle f(x,y)}
evaluates to positive or negative. A line splits a plane into halves and the half-plane that has a negative
f
(
x
,
y
)
{\displaystyle f(x,y)}
can be called the negative half-plane, and the other half can be called the positive half-plane. This observation is very important in the remainder of the derivation.
Algorithm
Clearly, the starting point is on the line
f
(
x
0
,
y
0
)
=
0
{\displaystyle f(x_{0},y_{0})=0}
only because the line is defined to start and end on integer coordinates (though it is entirely reasonable to want to draw a line with non-integer end points).
Candidate point (2,2) in blue and two candidate points in green (3,2) and (3,3)
Keeping in mind that the slope is at most
1
{\displaystyle 1}
, the problem now presents itself as to whether the next point should be at
(
x
0
+
1
,
y
0
)
{\displaystyle (x_{0}+1,y_{0})}
or
(
x
0
+
1
,
y
0
+
1
)
{\displaystyle (x_{0}+1,y_{0}+1)}
. Perhaps intuitively, the point should be chosen based upon which is closer to the line at
x
0
+
1
{\displaystyle x_{0}+1}
. If it is closer to the former then include the former point on the line, if the latter then the latter. To answer this, evaluate the line function at the midpoint between these two points:
f
(
x
0
+
1
,
y
0
+
1
2
)
{\displaystyle f(x_{0}+1,y_{0}+{\tfrac {1}{2}})}
If the value of this is positive then the ideal line is below the midpoint and closer to the candidate point
(
x
0
+
1
,
y
0
+
1
)
{\displaystyle (x_{0}+1,y_{0}+1)}
; i.e. the y coordinate should increase. Otherwise, the ideal line passes through or above the midpoint, and the y coordinate should stay the same; in which case the point
(
x
0
+
1
,
y
0
)
{\displaystyle (x_{0}+1,y_{0})}
is chosen. The value of the line function at this midpoint is the sole determinant of which point should be chosen.
The adjacent image shows the blue point (2,2) chosen to be on the line with two candidate points in green (3,2) and (3,3). The black point (3, 2.5) is the midpoint between the two candidate points.
Algorithm for integer arithmetic
Alternatively, the difference between points can be used instead of evaluating f(x,y) at midpoints. This alternative method allows for integer-only arithmetic, which is generally faster than using floating-point arithmetic. To derive the other method, define the difference to be as follows:
D
=
f
(
x
0
+
1
,
y
0
+
1
2
)
−
f
(
x
0
,
y
0
)
{\displaystyle D=f(x_{0}+1,y_{0}+{\tfrac {1}{2}})-f(x_{0},y_{0})}
For the first decision, this formulation is equivalent to the midpoint method since
f
(
x
0
,
y
0
)
=
0
{\displaystyle f(x_{0},y_{0})=0}
at the starting point. Simplifying this expression yields:
D
=
[
A
(
x
0
+
1
)
+
B
(
y
0
+
1
2
)
+
C
]
−
[
A
x
0
+
B
y
0
+
C
]
=
[
A
x
0
+
B
y
0
+
C
+
A
+
1
2
B
]
−
[
A
x
0
+
B
y
0
+
C
]
=
A
+
1
2
B
=
Δ
y
−
1
2
Δ
x
{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{rclcl}D&=&\left&-&\left\\&=&\left&-&\left\\&=&A+{\frac {1}{2}}B=\Delta y-{\frac {1}{2}}\Delta x\end{array}}}
Just as with the midpoint method, if
D
{\displaystyle D}
is positive, then choose
(
x
0
+
1
,
y
0
+
1
)
{\displaystyle (x_{0}+1,y_{0}+1)}
, otherwise choose
(
x
0
+
1
,
y
0
)
{\displaystyle (x_{0}+1,y_{0})}
.
If
(
x
0
+
1
,
y
0
)
{\displaystyle (x_{0}+1,y_{0})}
is chosen, the change in D will be:
Δ
D
=
f
(
x
0
+
2
,
y
0
+
1
2
)
−
f
(
x
0
+
1
,
y
0
+
1
2
)
=
A
=
Δ
y
{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{lclcl}\Delta D&=&f(x_{0}+2,y_{0}+{\tfrac {1}{2}})-f(x_{0}+1,y_{0}+{\tfrac {1}{2}})&=&A&=&\Delta y\\\end{array}}}
If
(
x
0
+
1
,
y
0
+
1
)
{\displaystyle (x_{0}+1,y_{0}+1)}
is chosen the change in D will be:
Δ
D
=
f
(
x
0
+
2
,
y
0
+
3
2
)
−
f
(
x
0
+
1
,
y
0
+
1
2
)
=
A
+
B
=
Δ
y
−
Δ
x
{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{lclcl}\Delta D&=&f(x_{0}+2,y_{0}+{\tfrac {3}{2}})-f(x_{0}+1,y_{0}+{\tfrac {1}{2}})&=&A+B&=&\Delta y-\Delta x\end{array}}}
If the new D is positive then
(
x
0
+
2
,
y
0
+
1
)
{\displaystyle (x_{0}+2,y_{0}+1)}
is chosen, otherwise
(
x
0
+
2
,
y
0
)
{\displaystyle (x_{0}+2,y_{0})}
. This decision can be generalized by accumulating the error on each subsequent point.
Plotting the line from (0,1) to (6,4) showing a plot of grid lines and pixels
All of the derivation for the algorithm is done. One performance issue is the 1/2 factor in the initial value of D. Since all of this is about the sign of the accumulated difference, then everything can be multiplied by 2 with no consequence.
This results in an algorithm that uses only integer arithmetic.
plotLine(x0, y0, x1, y1)
dx = x1 - x0
dy = y1 - y0
D = 2*dy - dx
y = y0
for x from x0 to x1
plot(x, y)
if D > 0
y = y + 1
D = D - 2*dx
end if
D = D + 2*dy
Running this algorithm for
f
(
x
,
y
)
=
x
−
2
y
+
2
{\displaystyle f(x,y)=x-2y+2}
from (0,1) to (6,4) yields the following differences with dx=6 and dy=3:
D=2*3-6=0
Loop from 0 to 6
* x=0: plot(0, 1), D≤0: D=0+6=6
* x=1: plot(1, 1), D>0: D=6-12=-6, y=1+1=2, D=-6+6=0
* x=2: plot(2, 2), D≤0: D=0+6=6
* x=3: plot(3, 2), D>0: D=6-12=-6, y=2+1=3, D=-6+6=0
* x=4: plot(4, 3), D≤0: D=0+6=6
* x=5: plot(5, 3), D>0: D=6-12=-6, y=3+1=4, D=-6+6=0
* x=6: plot(6, 4), D≤0: D=0+6=6
The result of this plot is shown to the right. The plotting can be viewed by plotting at the intersection of lines (blue circles) or filling in pixel boxes (yellow squares). Regardless, the plotting is the same.
All cases
However, as mentioned above this only works for octant zero, that is lines starting at the origin with a slope between 0 and 1 where x increases by exactly 1 per iteration and y increases by 0 or 1.
The algorithm can be extended to cover slopes between 0 and -1 by checking whether y needs to increase or decrease (i.e. dy < 0)
plotLineLow(x0, y0, x1, y1)
dx = x1 - x0
dy = y1 - y0
yi = 1
if dy < 0
yi = -1
dy = -dy
end if
D = (2 * dy) - dx
y = y0
for x from x0 to x1
plot(x, y)
if D > 0
y = y + yi
D = D + (2 * (dy - dx))
else
D = D + 2*dy
end if
By switching the x and y axis an implementation for positive or negative steep slopes can be written as
plotLineHigh(x0, y0, x1, y1)
dx = x1 - x0
dy = y1 - y0
xi = 1
if dx < 0
xi = -1
dx = -dx
end if
D = (2 * dx) - dy
x = x0
for y from y0 to y1
plot(x, y)
if D > 0
x = x + xi
D = D + (2 * (dx - dy))
else
D = D + 2*dx
end if
A complete solution would need to detect whether x1 > x0 or y1 > y0 and reverse the input coordinates before drawing, thus
plotLine(x0, y0, x1, y1)
if abs(y1 - y0) < abs(x1 - x0)
if x0 > x1
plotLineLow(x1, y1, x0, y0)
else
plotLineLow(x0, y0, x1, y1)
end if
else
if y0 > y1
plotLineHigh(x1, y1, x0, y0)
else
plotLineHigh(x0, y0, x1, y1)
end if
end if
In low level implementations which access the video memory directly, it would be typical for the special cases of vertical and horizontal lines to be handled separately as they can be highly optimized.
Some versions use Bresenham's principles of integer incremental error to perform all octant line draws, balancing the positive and negative error between the x and y coordinates.
plotLine(x0, y0, x1, y1)
dx = abs(x1 - x0)
sx = x0 < x1 ? 1 : -1
dy = -abs(y1 - y0)
sy = y0 < y1 ? 1 : -1
error = dx + dy
while true
plot(x0, y0)
if x0 == x1 && y0 == y1 break
e2 = 2 * error
if e2 >= dy
if x0 == x1 break
error = error + dy
x0 = x0 + sx
end if
if e2 <= dx
if y0 == y1 break
error = error + dx
y0 = y0 + sy
end if
end while
Similar algorithms
The Bresenham algorithm can be interpreted as slightly modified digital differential analyzer (using 0.5 as error threshold instead of 0, which is required for non-overlapping polygon rasterizing).
The principle of using an incremental error in place of division operations has other applications in graphics. It is possible to use this technique to calculate the U,V co-ordinates during raster scan of texture mapped polygons. The voxel heightmap software-rendering engines seen in some PC games also used this principle.
Bresenham also published a Run-Slice computational algorithm: while the above described Run-Length algorithm runs the loop on the major axis, the Run-Slice variation loops the other way. This method has been represented in a number of US patents:
5,815,163
Method and apparatus to draw line slices during calculation
5,740,345
Method and apparatus for displaying computer graphics data stored in a compressed format with an efficient color indexing system
5,657,435
Run slice line draw engine with non-linear scaling capabilities
5,627,957
Run slice line draw engine with enhanced processing capabilities
5,627,956
Run slice line draw engine with stretching capabilities
5,617,524
Run slice line draw engine with shading capabilities
5,611,029
Run slice line draw engine with non-linear shading capabilities
5,604,852
Method and apparatus for displaying a parametric curve on a video display
5,600,769
Run slice line draw engine with enhanced clipping techniques
The algorithm has been extended to:
Draw lines of arbitrary thickness, an algorithm created by Alan Murphy at IBM.
Draw multiple kinds curves (circles, ellipses, cubic, quadratic, and rational bezier curves) and antialiased lines and curves; a set of algorithms by Alois Zingl.
See also
Digital differential analyzer (graphics algorithm), a simple and general method for rasterizing lines and triangles
Xiaolin Wu's line algorithm, a similarly fast method of drawing lines with antialiasing
Midpoint circle algorithm, a similar algorithm for drawing circles
Notes
^ Paul E. Black. Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures, NIST. https://xlinux.nist.gov/dads/HTML/bresenham.html
^ Joy, Kenneth. "Bresenham's Algorithm" (PDF). Visualization and Graphics Research Group, Department of Computer Science, University of California, Davis. Retrieved 20 December 2016.
^ a b Zingl, Alois (2012). A Rasterizing Algorithm for Drawing Curves (PDF) (Report).HTML abstract and demo: Zingl, Alois (2016). "Bresenham". members.chello.at.
^ US 5739818, Spackman, John Neil, "Apparatus and method for performing perspectively correct interpolation in computer graphics", published 1998-04-14, assigned to Canon KK
^ "Michael Abrash's Graphics Programming Black Book Special Edition: The Good, the Bad, and the Run-Sliced". www.phatcode.net. Retrieved 13 February 2024.;
^ "Murphy's Modified Bresenham Line Algorithm". homepages.enterprise.net. Retrieved 2018-06-09. ('Line Thickening by Modification to Bresenham's Algorithm' in the IBM Technical Disclosure Bulletin Vol. 20 No. 12 May 1978 pages 5358-5366.)
References
Bresenham, J. E. (1965). "Algorithm for computer control of a digital plotter" (PDF). IBM Systems Journal. 4 (1): 25–30. doi:10.1147/sj.41.0025. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 28, 2008.
"The Bresenham Line-Drawing Algorithm", by Colin Flanagan
Abrash, Michael (1997). Michael Abrash's graphics programming black book. Albany, NY: Coriolis. pp. 654–678. ISBN 978-1-57610-174-2. A very optimized version of the algorithm in C and assembly for use in video games with complete details of its inner workings
Zingl, Alois (2012). "A Rasterizing Algorithm for Drawing Curves" (PDF)., The Beauty of Bresenham's Algorithms
Further reading
Patrick-Gillesbanda Thesis, containing an extension of the Bresenham line drawing algorithm to perform 3D hidden lines removal
also published in MICAD '87 proceedings on CAD/CAM and Computer Graphics, page 591 - ISBN 2-86601-084-1.
Line Thickening by Modification To Bresenham's Algorithm, A.S. Murphy, IBM Technical Disclosure Bulletin, Vol. 20, No. 12, May 1978.
Bresenham, Jack (February 1977). "A linear algorithm for incremental digital display of circular arcs". Communications of the ACM. 20 (2): 100–106. doi:10.1145/359423.359432. – also Technical Report 1964 Jan-27 -11- Circle Algorithm TR-02-286 IBM San Jose Lab
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bresenham algorithm.
Michael Abrash's Graphics Programming Black Book Special Edition: Chapter 35: Bresenham Is Fast, and Fast Is Good
The Bresenham Line-Drawing Algorithm by Colin Flanagan
National Institute of Standards and Technology page on Bresenham's algorithm
Calcomp 563 Incremental Plotter Information
Bresenham Algorithm in several programming languages
The Beauty of Bresenham's Algorithm – A simple implementation to plot lines, circles, ellipses and Bézier curves
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"line drawing algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_drawing_algorithm"},{"link_name":"raster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raster_graphics"},{"link_name":"straight line between two points","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Straight_line_between_two_points"},{"link_name":"line primitives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_primitives"},{"link_name":"bitmap image","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitmap_image"},{"link_name":"computer screen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_screen"},{"link_name":"bit shifting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitwise_operation"},{"link_name":"incremental error algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incremental_error_algorithm"},{"link_name":"computer graphics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_graphics"},{"link_name":"midpoint circle algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midpoint_circle_algorithm"},{"link_name":"circles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circles"},{"link_name":"Wu's algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiaolin_Wu%27s_line_algorithm"},{"link_name":"antialiasing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatial_anti-aliasing"},{"link_name":"plotters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plotter"},{"link_name":"graphics chips","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_processing_unit"},{"link_name":"graphics cards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_card"},{"link_name":"software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software"},{"link_name":"graphics libraries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_library"},{"link_name":"firmware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firmware"},{"link_name":"graphics hardware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_hardware"},{"link_name":"graphics cards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_card"}],"text":"Bresenham's line algorithm is a line drawing algorithm that determines the points of an n-dimensional raster that should be selected in order to form a close approximation to a straight line between two points. It is commonly used to draw line primitives in a bitmap image (e.g. on a computer screen), as it uses only integer addition, subtraction, and bit shifting, all of which are very cheap operations in historically common computer architectures. It is an incremental error algorithm, and one of the earliest algorithms developed in the field of computer graphics. An extension to the original algorithm called the midpoint circle algorithm may be used for drawing circles.While algorithms such as Wu's algorithm are also frequently used in modern computer graphics because they can support antialiasing, Bresenham's line algorithm is still important because of its speed and simplicity. The algorithm is used in hardware such as plotters and in the graphics chips of modern graphics cards. It can also be found in many software graphics libraries. Because the algorithm is very simple, it is often implemented in either the firmware or the graphics hardware of modern graphics cards.The label \"Bresenham\" is used today for a family of algorithms extending or modifying Bresenham's original algorithm.","title":"Bresenham's line algorithm"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jack Elton Bresenham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Elton_Bresenham"},{"link_name":"IBM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DADS-1"},{"link_name":"Calcomp plotter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcomp_plotter"},{"link_name":"IBM 1401","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_1401"},{"link_name":"ACM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_for_Computing_Machinery"}],"text":"Bresenham's line algorithm is named after Jack Elton Bresenham who developed it in 1962 at IBM. In 2001 Bresenham wrote:[1]I was working in the computation lab at IBM's San Jose development lab. A Calcomp plotter had been attached to an IBM 1401 via the 1407 typewriter console. [The algorithm] was in production use by summer 1962, possibly a month or so earlier. Programs in those days were freely exchanged among corporations so Calcomp (Jim Newland and Calvin Hefte) had copies. When I returned to Stanford in Fall 1962, I put a copy in the Stanford comp center library.\nA description of the line drawing routine was accepted for presentation at the 1963 ACM national convention in Denver, Colorado. It was a year in which no proceedings were published, only the agenda of speakers and topics in an issue of Communications of the ACM. A person from the IBM Systems Journal asked me after I made my presentation if they could publish the paper. I happily agreed, and they printed it in 1965.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bresenham.svg"},{"link_name":"octant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octant_(plane_geometry)"},{"link_name":"slope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slope"},{"link_name":"pixel center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pixel_center"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Illustration of the result of Bresenham's line algorithm. (0,0) is at the top left corner of the grid, (1,1) is at the top left end of the line and (11, 5) is at the bottom right end of the line.The following conventions will be utilized:the top-left is (0,0) such that pixel coordinates increase in the right and down directions (e.g. that the pixel at (7,4) is directly above the pixel at (7,5)), and\nthe pixel centers have integer coordinates.The endpoints of the line are the pixels at \n \n \n \n (\n \n x\n \n 0\n \n \n ,\n \n y\n \n 0\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (x_{0},y_{0})}\n \n and \n \n \n \n (\n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n \n y\n \n 1\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (x_{1},y_{1})}\n \n, where the first coordinate of the pair is the column and the second is the row.The algorithm will be initially presented only for the octant in which the segment goes down and to the right (\n \n \n \n \n x\n \n 0\n \n \n ≤\n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x_{0}\\leq x_{1}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n y\n \n 0\n \n \n ≤\n \n y\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle y_{0}\\leq y_{1}}\n \n), and its horizontal projection \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n −\n \n x\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x_{1}-x_{0}}\n \n is longer than the vertical projection \n \n \n \n \n y\n \n 1\n \n \n −\n \n y\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle y_{1}-y_{0}}\n \n (the line has a positive slope less than 1).\nIn this octant, for each column x between \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x_{0}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x_{1}}\n \n, there is exactly one row y (computed by the algorithm) containing a pixel of the line, while each row between \n \n \n \n \n y\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle y_{0}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n y\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle y_{1}}\n \n may contain multiple rasterized pixels.Bresenham's algorithm chooses the integer y corresponding to the pixel center that is closest to the ideal (fractional) y for the same x; on successive columns y can remain the same or increase by 1.\nThe general equation of the line through the endpoints is given by:y\n −\n \n y\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n y\n \n 1\n \n \n −\n \n y\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n x\n −\n \n x\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n −\n \n x\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\frac {y-y_{0}}{y_{1}-y_{0}}}={\\frac {x-x_{0}}{x_{1}-x_{0}}}}\n \n.Since we know the column, x, the pixel's row, y, is given by rounding this quantity to the nearest integer:y\n =\n \n \n \n \n y\n \n 1\n \n \n −\n \n y\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n −\n \n x\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n (\n x\n −\n \n x\n \n 0\n \n \n )\n +\n \n y\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle y={\\frac {y_{1}-y_{0}}{x_{1}-x_{0}}}(x-x_{0})+y_{0}}\n \n.The slope \n \n \n \n (\n \n y\n \n 1\n \n \n −\n \n y\n \n 0\n \n \n )\n \n /\n \n (\n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n −\n \n x\n \n 0\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (y_{1}-y_{0})/(x_{1}-x_{0})}\n \n depends on the endpoint coordinates only and can be precomputed, and the ideal y for successive integer values of x can be computed starting from \n \n \n \n \n y\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle y_{0}}\n \n and repeatedly adding the slope.In practice, the algorithm does not keep track of the y coordinate, which increases by m = ∆y/∆x each time the x increases by one; it keeps an error bound at each\nstage, which represents the negative of the distance from (a) the point where the line exits the pixel to (b) the top edge of the pixel. \nThis value is first set to \n \n \n \n \n y\n \n 0\n \n \n −\n 0.5\n \n \n {\\displaystyle y_{0}-0.5}\n \n (due to using the pixel's center coordinates), and is incremented by m each time the x coordinate is incremented by one. If the error becomes greater than 0.5, we know that the line has moved upwards\none pixel, and that we must increment our y coordinate and readjust the error to represent the distance from the top of the new pixel – which is done by subtracting one from error.[2]","title":"Method"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"To derive Bresenham's algorithm, two steps must be taken. The first step is transforming the equation of a line from the typical slope-intercept form into something different; and then using this new equation to draw a line based on the idea of accumulation of error.","title":"Derivation"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Line_1.5x%2B1.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Line_1.5x%2B1_--_planes.svg"}],"sub_title":"Line equation","text":"y=f(x)=.5x+1 or f(x,y)=x-2y+2=0Positive and negative half-planesThe slope-intercept form of a line is written asy\n =\n f\n (\n x\n )\n =\n m\n x\n +\n b\n \n \n {\\displaystyle y=f(x)=mx+b}where \n \n \n \n m\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m}\n \n is the slope and \n \n \n \n b\n \n \n {\\displaystyle b}\n \n is the y-intercept. Because this is a function of only \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x}\n \n, it can't represent a vertical line. Therefore, it would be useful to make this equation written as a function of both \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x}\n \n and \n \n \n \n y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle y}\n \n, to be able to draw lines at any angle. The angle (or slope) of a line can be stated as \"rise over run\", or \n \n \n \n Δ\n y\n \n /\n \n Δ\n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Delta y/\\Delta x}\n \n. Then, using algebraic manipulation,y\n \n \n \n =\n m\n x\n +\n b\n \n \n \n \n y\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n Δ\n y\n \n \n Δ\n x\n \n \n \n x\n +\n b\n \n \n \n \n (\n Δ\n x\n )\n y\n \n \n \n =\n (\n Δ\n y\n )\n x\n +\n (\n Δ\n x\n )\n b\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n =\n (\n Δ\n y\n )\n x\n −\n (\n Δ\n x\n )\n y\n +\n (\n Δ\n x\n )\n b\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}y&=mx+b\\\\y&={\\frac {\\Delta y}{\\Delta x}}x+b\\\\(\\Delta x)y&=(\\Delta y)x+(\\Delta x)b\\\\0&=(\\Delta y)x-(\\Delta x)y+(\\Delta x)b\\end{aligned}}}Letting this last equation be a function of \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x}\n \n and \n \n \n \n y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle y}\n \n, it can be written asf\n (\n x\n ,\n y\n )\n :=\n A\n x\n +\n B\n y\n +\n C\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(x,y):=Ax+By+C=0}where the constants areA\n =\n Δ\n y\n =\n \n y\n \n 1\n \n \n −\n \n y\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle A=\\Delta y=y_{1}-y_{0}}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n B\n =\n −\n Δ\n x\n =\n −\n (\n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n −\n \n x\n \n 0\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle B=-\\Delta x=-(x_{1}-x_{0})}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n C\n =\n (\n Δ\n x\n )\n b\n =\n (\n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n −\n \n x\n \n 0\n \n \n )\n b\n \n \n {\\displaystyle C=(\\Delta x)b=(x_{1}-x_{0})b}The line is then defined for some constants \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A}\n \n, \n \n \n \n B\n \n \n {\\displaystyle B}\n \n, and \n \n \n \n C\n \n \n {\\displaystyle C}\n \n anywhere \n \n \n \n f\n (\n x\n ,\n y\n )\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(x,y)=0}\n \n. That is, for any \n \n \n \n (\n x\n ,\n y\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (x,y)}\n \n not on the line, \n \n \n \n f\n (\n x\n ,\n y\n )\n ≠\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(x,y)\\neq 0}\n \n. This form involves only integers if \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x}\n \n and \n \n \n \n y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle y}\n \n are integers, since the constants \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A}\n \n, \n \n \n \n B\n \n \n {\\displaystyle B}\n \n, and \n \n \n \n C\n \n \n {\\displaystyle C}\n \n are defined as integers.As an example, the line \n \n \n \n y\n =\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n x\n +\n 1\n \n \n {\\textstyle y={\\frac {1}{2}}x+1}\n \n then this could be written as \n \n \n \n f\n (\n x\n ,\n y\n )\n =\n x\n −\n 2\n y\n +\n 2\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(x,y)=x-2y+2}\n \n. The point (2,2) is on the linef\n (\n 2\n ,\n 2\n )\n =\n x\n −\n 2\n y\n +\n 2\n =\n (\n 2\n )\n −\n 2\n (\n 2\n )\n +\n 2\n =\n 2\n −\n 4\n +\n 2\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(2,2)=x-2y+2=(2)-2(2)+2=2-4+2=0}and the point (2,3) is not on the linef\n (\n 2\n ,\n 3\n )\n =\n (\n 2\n )\n −\n 2\n (\n 3\n )\n +\n 2\n =\n 2\n −\n 6\n +\n 2\n =\n −\n 2\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(2,3)=(2)-2(3)+2=2-6+2=-2}and neither is the point (2,1)f\n (\n 2\n ,\n 1\n )\n =\n (\n 2\n )\n −\n 2\n (\n 1\n )\n +\n 2\n =\n 2\n −\n 2\n +\n 2\n =\n 2\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(2,1)=(2)-2(1)+2=2-2+2=2}Notice that the points (2,1) and (2,3) are on opposite sides of the line and \n \n \n \n f\n (\n x\n ,\n y\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(x,y)}\n \n evaluates to positive or negative. A line splits a plane into halves and the half-plane that has a negative \n \n \n \n f\n (\n x\n ,\n y\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(x,y)}\n \n can be called the negative half-plane, and the other half can be called the positive half-plane. This observation is very important in the remainder of the derivation.","title":"Derivation"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Line_1.5x%2B1_--_candidates.svg"}],"sub_title":"Algorithm","text":"Clearly, the starting point is on the linef\n (\n \n x\n \n 0\n \n \n ,\n \n y\n \n 0\n \n \n )\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(x_{0},y_{0})=0}only because the line is defined to start and end on integer coordinates (though it is entirely reasonable to want to draw a line with non-integer end points).Candidate point (2,2) in blue and two candidate points in green (3,2) and (3,3)Keeping in mind that the slope is at most \n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 1}\n \n, the problem now presents itself as to whether the next point should be at \n \n \n \n (\n \n x\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n 1\n ,\n \n y\n \n 0\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (x_{0}+1,y_{0})}\n \n or \n \n \n \n (\n \n x\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n 1\n ,\n \n y\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n 1\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (x_{0}+1,y_{0}+1)}\n \n. Perhaps intuitively, the point should be chosen based upon which is closer to the line at \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x_{0}+1}\n \n. If it is closer to the former then include the former point on the line, if the latter then the latter. To answer this, evaluate the line function at the midpoint between these two points:f\n (\n \n x\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n 1\n ,\n \n y\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(x_{0}+1,y_{0}+{\\tfrac {1}{2}})}If the value of this is positive then the ideal line is below the midpoint and closer to the candidate point \n \n \n \n (\n \n x\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n 1\n ,\n \n y\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n 1\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (x_{0}+1,y_{0}+1)}\n \n; i.e. the y coordinate should increase. Otherwise, the ideal line passes through or above the midpoint, and the y coordinate should stay the same; in which case the point \n \n \n \n (\n \n x\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n 1\n ,\n \n y\n \n 0\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (x_{0}+1,y_{0})}\n \n is chosen. The value of the line function at this midpoint is the sole determinant of which point should be chosen.The adjacent image shows the blue point (2,2) chosen to be on the line with two candidate points in green (3,2) and (3,3). The black point (3, 2.5) is the midpoint between the two candidate points.","title":"Derivation"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Line_1.5x%2B1_--_points.svg"}],"sub_title":"Algorithm for integer arithmetic","text":"Alternatively, the difference between points can be used instead of evaluating f(x,y) at midpoints. This alternative method allows for integer-only arithmetic, which is generally faster than using floating-point arithmetic. To derive the other method, define the difference to be as follows:D\n =\n f\n (\n \n x\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n 1\n ,\n \n y\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n )\n −\n f\n (\n \n x\n \n 0\n \n \n ,\n \n y\n \n 0\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle D=f(x_{0}+1,y_{0}+{\\tfrac {1}{2}})-f(x_{0},y_{0})}For the first decision, this formulation is equivalent to the midpoint method since \n \n \n \n f\n (\n \n x\n \n 0\n \n \n ,\n \n y\n \n 0\n \n \n )\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(x_{0},y_{0})=0}\n \n at the starting point. Simplifying this expression yields:D\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n [\n \n A\n (\n \n x\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n 1\n )\n +\n B\n \n (\n \n \n y\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n )\n \n +\n C\n \n ]\n \n \n \n −\n \n \n \n [\n \n A\n \n x\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n B\n \n y\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n C\n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n [\n \n A\n \n x\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n B\n \n y\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n C\n +\n A\n +\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n B\n \n ]\n \n \n \n −\n \n \n \n [\n \n A\n \n x\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n B\n \n y\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n C\n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n A\n +\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n B\n =\n Δ\n y\n −\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n Δ\n x\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{array}{rclcl}D&=&\\left[A(x_{0}+1)+B\\left(y_{0}+{\\frac {1}{2}}\\right)+C\\right]&-&\\left[Ax_{0}+By_{0}+C\\right]\\\\&=&\\left[Ax_{0}+By_{0}+C+A+{\\frac {1}{2}}B\\right]&-&\\left[Ax_{0}+By_{0}+C\\right]\\\\&=&A+{\\frac {1}{2}}B=\\Delta y-{\\frac {1}{2}}\\Delta x\\end{array}}}Just as with the midpoint method, if \n \n \n \n D\n \n \n {\\displaystyle D}\n \n is positive, then choose \n \n \n \n (\n \n x\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n 1\n ,\n \n y\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n 1\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (x_{0}+1,y_{0}+1)}\n \n, otherwise choose \n \n \n \n (\n \n x\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n 1\n ,\n \n y\n \n 0\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (x_{0}+1,y_{0})}\n \n.If \n \n \n \n (\n \n x\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n 1\n ,\n \n y\n \n 0\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (x_{0}+1,y_{0})}\n \n is chosen, the change in D will be:Δ\n D\n \n \n =\n \n \n f\n (\n \n x\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n 2\n ,\n \n y\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n )\n −\n f\n (\n \n x\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n 1\n ,\n \n y\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n =\n \n \n A\n \n \n =\n \n \n Δ\n y\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{array}{lclcl}\\Delta D&=&f(x_{0}+2,y_{0}+{\\tfrac {1}{2}})-f(x_{0}+1,y_{0}+{\\tfrac {1}{2}})&=&A&=&\\Delta y\\\\\\end{array}}}If \n \n \n \n (\n \n x\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n 1\n ,\n \n y\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n 1\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (x_{0}+1,y_{0}+1)}\n \n is chosen the change in D will be:Δ\n D\n \n \n =\n \n \n f\n (\n \n x\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n 2\n ,\n \n y\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n \n \n \n 3\n 2\n \n \n \n )\n −\n f\n (\n \n x\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n 1\n ,\n \n y\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n =\n \n \n A\n +\n B\n \n \n =\n \n \n Δ\n y\n −\n Δ\n x\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{array}{lclcl}\\Delta D&=&f(x_{0}+2,y_{0}+{\\tfrac {3}{2}})-f(x_{0}+1,y_{0}+{\\tfrac {1}{2}})&=&A+B&=&\\Delta y-\\Delta x\\end{array}}}If the new D is positive then \n \n \n \n (\n \n x\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n 2\n ,\n \n y\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n 1\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (x_{0}+2,y_{0}+1)}\n \n is chosen, otherwise \n \n \n \n (\n \n x\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n 2\n ,\n \n y\n \n 0\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (x_{0}+2,y_{0})}\n \n. This decision can be generalized by accumulating the error on each subsequent point.Plotting the line from (0,1) to (6,4) showing a plot of grid lines and pixelsAll of the derivation for the algorithm is done. One performance issue is the 1/2 factor in the initial value of D. Since all of this is about the sign of the accumulated difference, then everything can be multiplied by 2 with no consequence.This results in an algorithm that uses only integer arithmetic.plotLine(x0, y0, x1, y1)\n dx = x1 - x0\n dy = y1 - y0\n D = 2*dy - dx\n y = y0\n\n for x from x0 to x1\n plot(x, y)\n if D > 0\n y = y + 1\n D = D - 2*dx\n end if\n D = D + 2*dyRunning this algorithm for \n \n \n \n f\n (\n x\n ,\n y\n )\n =\n x\n −\n 2\n y\n +\n 2\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(x,y)=x-2y+2}\n \n from (0,1) to (6,4) yields the following differences with dx=6 and dy=3:D=2*3-6=0\nLoop from 0 to 6\n * x=0: plot(0, 1), D≤0: D=0+6=6\n * x=1: plot(1, 1), D>0: D=6-12=-6, y=1+1=2, D=-6+6=0\n * x=2: plot(2, 2), D≤0: D=0+6=6\n * x=3: plot(3, 2), D>0: D=6-12=-6, y=2+1=3, D=-6+6=0\n * x=4: plot(4, 3), D≤0: D=0+6=6\n * x=5: plot(5, 3), D>0: D=6-12=-6, y=3+1=4, D=-6+6=0\n * x=6: plot(6, 4), D≤0: D=0+6=6The result of this plot is shown to the right. The plotting can be viewed by plotting at the intersection of lines (blue circles) or filling in pixel boxes (yellow squares). Regardless, the plotting is the same.","title":"Derivation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"octant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octant_(plane_geometry)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zingl-3"}],"sub_title":"All cases","text":"However, as mentioned above this only works for octant zero, that is lines starting at the origin with a slope between 0 and 1 where x increases by exactly 1 per iteration and y increases by 0 or 1.The algorithm can be extended to cover slopes between 0 and -1 by checking whether y needs to increase or decrease (i.e. dy < 0)plotLineLow(x0, y0, x1, y1)\n dx = x1 - x0\n dy = y1 - y0\n yi = 1\n if dy < 0\n yi = -1\n dy = -dy\n end if\n D = (2 * dy) - dx\n y = y0\n\n for x from x0 to x1\n plot(x, y)\n if D > 0\n y = y + yi\n D = D + (2 * (dy - dx))\n else\n D = D + 2*dy\n end ifBy switching the x and y axis an implementation for positive or negative steep slopes can be written asplotLineHigh(x0, y0, x1, y1)\n dx = x1 - x0\n dy = y1 - y0\n xi = 1\n if dx < 0\n xi = -1\n dx = -dx\n end if\n D = (2 * dx) - dy\n x = x0\n\n for y from y0 to y1\n plot(x, y)\n if D > 0\n x = x + xi\n D = D + (2 * (dx - dy))\n else\n D = D + 2*dx\n end ifA complete solution would need to detect whether x1 > x0 or y1 > y0 and reverse the input coordinates before drawing, thusplotLine(x0, y0, x1, y1)\n if abs(y1 - y0) < abs(x1 - x0)\n if x0 > x1\n plotLineLow(x1, y1, x0, y0)\n else\n plotLineLow(x0, y0, x1, y1)\n end if\n else\n if y0 > y1\n plotLineHigh(x1, y1, x0, y0)\n else\n plotLineHigh(x0, y0, x1, y1)\n end if\n end ifIn low level implementations which access the video memory directly, it would be typical for the special cases of vertical and horizontal lines to be handled separately as they can be highly optimized.Some versions use Bresenham's principles of integer incremental error to perform all octant line draws, balancing the positive and negative error between the x and y coordinates.[3]plotLine(x0, y0, x1, y1)\n dx = abs(x1 - x0)\n sx = x0 < x1 ? 1 : -1\n dy = -abs(y1 - y0)\n sy = y0 < y1 ? 1 : -1\n error = dx + dy\n \n while true\n plot(x0, y0)\n if x0 == x1 && y0 == y1 break\n e2 = 2 * error\n if e2 >= dy\n if x0 == x1 break\n error = error + dy\n x0 = x0 + sx\n end if\n if e2 <= dx\n if y0 == y1 break\n error = error + dx\n y0 = y0 + sy\n end if\n end while","title":"Derivation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"digital differential analyzer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_differential_analyzer_(graphics_algorithm)"},{"link_name":"incremental error","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incremental_error_algorithm"},{"link_name":"U,V co-ordinates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uv_mapping"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"voxel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voxel"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zingl-3"}],"text":"The Bresenham algorithm can be interpreted as slightly modified digital differential analyzer (using 0.5 as error threshold instead of 0, which is required for non-overlapping polygon rasterizing).The principle of using an incremental error in place of division operations has other applications in graphics. It is possible to use this technique to calculate the U,V co-ordinates during raster scan of texture mapped polygons.[4] The voxel heightmap software-rendering engines seen in some PC games also used this principle.Bresenham also published a Run-Slice computational algorithm: while the above described Run-Length algorithm runs the loop on the major axis, the Run-Slice variation loops the other way.[5] This method has been represented in a number of US patents:The algorithm has been extended to:Draw lines of arbitrary thickness, an algorithm created by Alan Murphy at IBM.[6]\nDraw multiple kinds curves (circles, ellipses, cubic, quadratic, and rational bezier curves) and antialiased lines and curves; a set of algorithms by Alois Zingl.[3]","title":"Similar algorithms"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-DADS_1-0"},{"link_name":"NIST","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology"},{"link_name":"https://xlinux.nist.gov/dads/HTML/bresenham.html","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//xlinux.nist.gov/dads/HTML/bresenham.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"\"Bresenham's Algorithm\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ercankoclar.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/Bresenhams-Algorithm.pdf"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Zingl_3-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Zingl_3-1"},{"link_name":"A Rasterizing Algorithm for Drawing Curves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//members.chello.at/~easyfilter/Bresenham.pdf"},{"link_name":"\"Bresenham\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//members.chello.at/easyfilter/bresenham.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"US 5739818","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US5739818"},{"link_name":"Canon KK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_Inc."},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"\"Michael Abrash's Graphics Programming Black Book Special Edition: The Good, the Bad, and the Run-Sliced\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.phatcode.net/res/224/files/html/ch36/36-01.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"\"Murphy's Modified Bresenham Line Algorithm\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//homepages.enterprise.net/murphy/thickline/index.html"}],"text":"^ Paul E. Black. Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures, NIST. https://xlinux.nist.gov/dads/HTML/bresenham.html\n\n^ Joy, Kenneth. \"Bresenham's Algorithm\" (PDF). Visualization and Graphics Research Group, Department of Computer Science, University of California, Davis. Retrieved 20 December 2016.\n\n^ a b Zingl, Alois (2012). A Rasterizing Algorithm for Drawing Curves (PDF) (Report).HTML abstract and demo: Zingl, Alois (2016). \"Bresenham\". members.chello.at.\n\n^ US 5739818, Spackman, John Neil, \"Apparatus and method for performing perspectively correct interpolation in computer graphics\", published 1998-04-14, assigned to Canon KK \n\n^ \"Michael Abrash's Graphics Programming Black Book Special Edition: The Good, the Bad, and the Run-Sliced\". www.phatcode.net. Retrieved 13 February 2024.; \n\n^ \"Murphy's Modified Bresenham Line Algorithm\". homepages.enterprise.net. Retrieved 2018-06-09. ('Line Thickening by Modification to Bresenham's Algorithm' in the IBM Technical Disclosure Bulletin Vol. 20 No. 12 May 1978 pages 5358-5366.)","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Patrick-Gillesbanda Thesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//sites.google.com/site/patrickmaillot/english"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2-86601-084-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-86601-084-1"},{"link_name":"Line Thickening by Modification To Bresenham's Algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//homepages.enterprise.net/murphy/thickline/index.html"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1145/359423.359432","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1145%2F359423.359432"}],"text":"Patrick-Gillesbanda Thesis, containing an extension of the Bresenham line drawing algorithm to perform 3D hidden lines removal\nalso published in MICAD '87 proceedings on CAD/CAM and Computer Graphics, page 591 - ISBN 2-86601-084-1.\nLine Thickening by Modification To Bresenham's Algorithm, A.S. Murphy, IBM Technical Disclosure Bulletin, Vol. 20, No. 12, May 1978.\nBresenham, Jack (February 1977). \"A linear algorithm for incremental digital display of circular arcs\". Communications of the ACM. 20 (2): 100–106. doi:10.1145/359423.359432. – also Technical Report 1964 Jan-27 -11- Circle Algorithm TR-02-286 IBM San Jose Lab","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"Illustration of the result of Bresenham's line algorithm. (0,0) is at the top left corner of the grid, (1,1) is at the top left end of the line and (11, 5) is at the bottom right end of the line.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Bresenham.svg/300px-Bresenham.svg.png"},{"image_text":"y=f(x)=.5x+1 or f(x,y)=x-2y+2=0","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Line_1.5x%2B1.svg/300px-Line_1.5x%2B1.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Positive and negative half-planes","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Line_1.5x%2B1_--_planes.svg/300px-Line_1.5x%2B1_--_planes.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Candidate point (2,2) in blue and two candidate points in green (3,2) and (3,3)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Line_1.5x%2B1_--_candidates.svg/300px-Line_1.5x%2B1_--_candidates.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Plotting the line from (0,1) to (6,4) showing a plot of grid lines and pixels","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Line_1.5x%2B1_--_points.svg/300px-Line_1.5x%2B1_--_points.svg.png"}]
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[{"title":"Digital differential analyzer (graphics algorithm)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_differential_analyzer_(graphics_algorithm)"},{"title":"Xiaolin Wu's line algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiaolin_Wu%27s_line_algorithm"},{"title":"antialiasing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatial_anti-aliasing"},{"title":"Midpoint circle algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midpoint_circle_algorithm"}]
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[{"reference":"Joy, Kenneth. \"Bresenham's Algorithm\" (PDF). Visualization and Graphics Research Group, Department of Computer Science, University of California, Davis. Retrieved 20 December 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ercankoclar.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/Bresenhams-Algorithm.pdf","url_text":"\"Bresenham's Algorithm\""}]},{"reference":"Zingl, Alois (2012). A Rasterizing Algorithm for Drawing Curves (PDF) (Report).","urls":[{"url":"http://members.chello.at/~easyfilter/Bresenham.pdf","url_text":"A Rasterizing Algorithm for Drawing Curves"}]},{"reference":"Zingl, Alois (2016). \"Bresenham\". members.chello.at.","urls":[{"url":"http://members.chello.at/easyfilter/bresenham.html","url_text":"\"Bresenham\""}]},{"reference":"\"Michael Abrash's Graphics Programming Black Book Special Edition: The Good, the Bad, and the Run-Sliced\". www.phatcode.net. Retrieved 13 February 2024.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.phatcode.net/res/224/files/html/ch36/36-01.html","url_text":"\"Michael Abrash's Graphics Programming Black Book Special Edition: The Good, the Bad, and the Run-Sliced\""}]},{"reference":"\"Murphy's Modified Bresenham Line Algorithm\". homepages.enterprise.net. Retrieved 2018-06-09.","urls":[{"url":"http://homepages.enterprise.net/murphy/thickline/index.html","url_text":"\"Murphy's Modified Bresenham Line Algorithm\""}]},{"reference":"Bresenham, J. E. (1965). \"Algorithm for computer control of a digital plotter\" (PDF). IBM Systems Journal. 4 (1): 25–30. doi:10.1147/sj.41.0025. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 28, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080528040104/http://www.research.ibm.com/journal/sj/041/ibmsjIVRIC.pdf","url_text":"\"Algorithm for computer control of a digital plotter\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1147%2Fsj.41.0025","url_text":"10.1147/sj.41.0025"},{"url":"http://www.research.ibm.com/journal/sj/041/ibmsjIVRIC.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Abrash, Michael (1997). Michael Abrash's graphics programming black book. Albany, NY: Coriolis. pp. 654–678. ISBN 978-1-57610-174-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/michaelabrashsgr00abra/page/654","url_text":"Michael Abrash's graphics programming black book"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/michaelabrashsgr00abra/page/654","url_text":"654–678"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57610-174-2","url_text":"978-1-57610-174-2"}]},{"reference":"Zingl, Alois (2012). \"A Rasterizing Algorithm for Drawing Curves\" (PDF).","urls":[{"url":"http://members.chello.at/~easyfilter/Bresenham.pdf","url_text":"\"A Rasterizing Algorithm for Drawing Curves\""}]},{"reference":"Bresenham, Jack (February 1977). \"A linear algorithm for incremental digital display of circular arcs\". Communications of the ACM. 20 (2): 100–106. doi:10.1145/359423.359432.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F359423.359432","url_text":"10.1145/359423.359432"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dating_sim
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Dating sim
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["1 History","2 Characteristics","3 Examples","4 See also","5 References"]
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Dating sim" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (June 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this message)Video game subgenre of simulation games
Part of a series onSimulation video games
Subgenres
Construction and management simulation
Business simulation game
City-building game
Government simulation
Life simulation game
Digital pet
God game
Social simulation game
Dating sim
Eroge
Bishōjo
Otome
Farm life sim
Immersive sim
Sports game
Racing game
Sim racing
Kart racing
Sports management game
Fishing video game
Vehicle simulations
Flight simulator
Amateur flight simulation
Combat flight simulator
Space flight simulator
Space combat game
Space trading game
Submarine simulator
Train simulator
Vehicular combat game
History
Chronology of business simulation video games
Chronology of city-building video games
Chronology of god video games
Chronology of space flight simulation games
vte
Dating sims, or romance simulation games (恋愛シミュレーションゲーム, ren'ai shimyurēshon gēmu), are a video game subgenre of simulation games with romantic elements. While dating sims share a similar visual presentation as visual novels, they are distinct genres. Dating sims are largely dependent on statistics, while visual novels focus on telling a branching story. Nevertheless, the term "dating sim" has become a generic term for romance-driven games (恋愛ゲーム, ren'ai games) in the West.
Dating sims are often dialog-heavy and focus on time management. The player must befriend and carefully build and maintain a relationship with one or more characters. The gameplay is largely dependent on statistics.
History
The dating simulator genre was preceded by the raising simulation genre best codified by the Princess Maker series by Gainax, which focused on child raising rather than dating.
The first game that set the standard for the dating sim genre was Dōkyūsei (1992), which relied more on timed events than dialogue choices. However, Tokimeki Memorial (1994) truly popularized dating sims in Japan, in which the player, a high school student has the ability to date a dozen different girls. The goal of the developers was to hearken back to high school days. Konami director Akihiko Nagata said "the person who created the game wanted to have experiences like this back in his high school days". The was a strong hit in Japan, with 1.1 million copies by 1996.
In general, simulation games (such as Tokimeki Memorial) or the train sim like Densha de Go! were more popular in Japan than in America which preferred more action orientaged video games.
Games such as Sakura Wars and Persona (both series started in 1996, the latter would add dating sim elements in 2006) are RPGs with dating sim elements.
Characteristics
Screenshot from the original PC Engine version of Tokimeki Memorial illustrating the complex system of statistics standard of the genre
In a typical dating sim, the player controls a male avatar surrounded by female characters. The gameplay involves conversing with a selection of girls, attempting to increase their internal "love meter" through correct choices of dialogue. The game lasts for a fixed period of game time, such as one month or three years. When the game ends, the player either loses the game if he failed to properly win over any of the girls, or "finishes" one of the girls, often by having sex with her, marrying her (as in Magical Date), and/or achieving eternal love.This gives the games more replay value, since the player can focus on a different girl each time, trying to get a different ending.
Dating sims often revolve almost entirely around relationship-building, usually featuring complex character interactions and branching dialogue trees, and often presenting the player's possible responses word-for-word as the player character would say them. Dating sims such as Tokimeki Memorial, and some role-playing games with similar relationship based mechanics to the genre such as Persona, often give choices that have a different number of associated "mood points" which influence a player character's relationship and future conversations with a non-player character. These games often feature a day-night cycle with a time scheduling system that provides context and relevance to character interactions, allowing players to choose when and if to interact with certain characters, which in turn influences their responses during later conversations.
While bishōjo games make up the bulk of dating sims, other types of games exist. Games where the player character is female and potential objects of affection are male are known as GxB or otome games. Homosexual relationships are also possible, as there are games with no specific gender lines ("all pairings").There are also Girls' Love games, which focus on female/female relationships, and Boys' Love games, which focus on male/male pairings.
There are many variations on this theme: high-school romances are the most common, but a dating sim may also take place in a fantasy setting and involve such challenges as defending one's girl from monsters.
One game series that often includes dating, with the goal of marriage, is the farming sim series Harvest Moon. The subplot of dating is more focused towards choosing one of several girls or guys (dependent on the player character's gender) and offering them presents or joining them on events in the game. The Star Ocean series of RPGs also feature dating sim elements in a similar manner.
Some Japanese dating sims may allow the player to have romantic or sexual relationships with characters in their teens. The degree of sexual content varies, but may often include intercourse. Sexually explicit dating sims may fall into the category of H Game or Eroge. Eroge only gets released to PC because large Japanese game companies do not want to release games with sexual content on their game consoles. Because of this, Eroge companies make a censored all-ages (15+) version of the PC version for various consoles. Censored versions often contain additional endings and added scenes to compensate for the absence of sexual scenes.
These games also often involve raising stats that reflect the player's skills and can be combined with other genres. Series such as Sakura Wars and Persona combine role-playing game (RPG) gameplay with dating sim gameplay.
Examples
Girl's Garden (1985)
Tenshitachi no Gogo (1985)
Nakayama Miho no Tokimeki High School (1987)
Dōkyūsei series (1992 onwards)
Tokimeki Memorial series (1994 onwards)
True Love (1995)
Magical Date (1996)
Sakura Wars series (1996 onwards)
Thousand Arms (1998)
Persona series (2006 onwards)
Summer Session (2008)
Amagami (2009)
Love Plus (2009)
Conception (2012 onwards)
Hatoful Boyfriend (2012 onwards)
Boyfriend Maker (2012)
Mystic Messenger (2016)
Doki Doki Literature Club! (2017)
House Party (2017)
See also
Bishōjo game
Eroge
Harem (genre)
References
^ a b Lebowitz, Josiah (2011). Interactive Storytelling for Video Games: a Player-centered Approach to Creating Memorable Characters and Stories. Klug, Chris. Burlington, MA: Focal Press. pp. 45. ISBN 9780240817187. OCLC 706802880.
^ a b c Pollack, Andrew (November 25, 1996). "Japan's Newest Young Heartthrobs Are Sexy, Talented and Virtual". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on January 29, 2018. Retrieved May 30, 2018.
^ Barnholt, Ray (2012). The National Girlfriend: The Not-So-Innocent Story of Japan's Puppy Love Video Game Phenomenon. Bipedal Dog.
^ "Games the World over are not the Same". Kenosha News. 2006-02-17. p. 47. Retrieved 2024-06-08.
^ Brent Ellison (July 8, 2008). "Defining Dialogue Systems". Gamasutra. Archived from the original on 2012-05-13. Retrieved 2011-03-30.
vteVideo game genres
List of video game genres
ActionPlatformer
Endless runner
Platform fighter
Shooter
Arena
First-person
Hero
Light gun
Shoot 'em up
Bullet hell
Rail
Twin-stick
Tactical
Third-person
Survival
Battle royale
Survival horror
Other
Beat 'em up
Hack and slash
Fighting
Platform fighter
Maze
Pac-Man clone
Snake
Stealth
Action-adventure
Grand Theft Auto clone
Metroidvania
Adventure
Escape room
Graphic adventure
Interactive fiction
Interactive film
Visual novel
Walking sim
Digital tabletop
Deck-building
Roguelike deck-building
Digital collectible card
Puzzle
Hidden object
Sokoban
Tile-matching
Role-playing
Action role-playing
Looter shooter
Soulslike
Dungeon crawl
Monster-taming
Roguelike
Roguelike deck-building
Tactical role-playing
SimulationLife
Dating
Farming
God
Social
Virtual pet
CMS
Business
City-building
Government
Sports
Fishing
Racing
Kart racing
Sim racing
Vehicle
Flight simulation
Combat
Lunar Lander
Space
Submarine simulator
Train simulator
Vehicular combat
Other
Falling-sand
Immersive sim
Strategy
4X
Auto battler
MOBA
Real-time strategy
Time management
Real-time tactics
Tactical role-playing
Tower defense
Turn-based strategy
Turn-based tactics
Artillery
Wargame
Grand strategy
Other genres
Cozy
Fitness
Horror
Survival horror
Incremental
Music
Rhythm
Non-game
Party
Photography
Programming
Typing
Related conceptsThemes
Advergame
Bishōjo
Christian
Comedy
Educational
Girls
Licensed
Otome
Sexual
Eroge
Nonviolent
Personalized
Sci-fi
Serious
Art
Climate change
News
Player modes
Multiplayer
Co-op
PVP
Single-player
Production
AAA
Indie
Doujin soft
Fan game
Design
Casual
Hypercasual
Emergent gameplay
FMV
Gacha
Kaizo
Masocore
Nonlinear gameplay
Open world
Sandbox
Side-scrolling
Twitch gameplay
Vertically scrolling
Other
Minigame
Toys-to-life
Video game clone
Video game modding
Video game remake
vteDating sims and visual novelsDistribution
AnimePlay
Dōjin soft
Genres
BL games
Dating sims
Erotic game
Visual novels
Gender target
Bishōjo games
Otome games
Engines and software
NScripter
Ren'Py
KiriKiri
DNML
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"video game subgenre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_genres"},{"link_name":"simulation games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulation_video_game"},{"link_name":"visual novels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_novel"},{"link_name":"branching story","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonlinear_gameplay#Branching_storylines"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"}],"text":"Video game subgenre of simulation gamesDating sims, or romance simulation games (恋愛シミュレーションゲーム, ren'ai shimyurēshon gēmu), are a video game subgenre of simulation games with romantic elements. While dating sims share a similar visual presentation as visual novels, they are distinct genres. Dating sims are largely dependent on statistics, while visual novels focus on telling a branching story.[citation needed] Nevertheless, the term \"dating sim\" has become a generic term for romance-driven games (恋愛ゲーム, ren'ai games) in the West.Dating sims are often dialog-heavy and focus on time management. The player must befriend and carefully build and maintain a relationship with one or more characters.[1] The gameplay is largely dependent on statistics.","title":"Dating sim"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"raising simulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raising_simulation"},{"link_name":"Princess Maker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princess_Maker"},{"link_name":"Gainax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gainax"},{"link_name":"child raising","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_raising"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:02-2"},{"link_name":"Dōkyūsei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C5%8Dky%C5%ABsei_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"Tokimeki Memorial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokimeki_Memorial_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:02-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:02-2"},{"link_name":"simulation games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulation_games"},{"link_name":"train sim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Train_simulator"},{"link_name":"Densha de Go!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Densha_de_Go!"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Sakura Wars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakura_Wars"},{"link_name":"Persona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persona_(series)"},{"link_name":"2006","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persona_3"}],"text":"The dating simulator genre was preceded by the raising simulation genre best codified by the Princess Maker series by Gainax, which focused on child raising rather than dating.[2]The first game that set the standard for the dating sim genre was Dōkyūsei (1992), which relied more on timed events than dialogue choices. However, Tokimeki Memorial (1994) truly popularized dating sims in Japan, in which the player, a high school student has the ability to date a dozen different girls.[3] The goal of the developers was to hearken back to high school days. Konami director Akihiko Nagata said \"the person who created the game wanted to have experiences like this back in his high school days\".[2] The was a strong hit in Japan, with 1.1 million copies by 1996.[2]In general, simulation games (such as Tokimeki Memorial) or the train sim like Densha de Go! were more popular in Japan than in America which preferred more action orientaged video games.[4]Games such as Sakura Wars and Persona (both series started in 1996, the latter would add dating sim elements in 2006) are RPGs with dating sim elements.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tokimekimemorial_pccd_03.png"},{"link_name":"PC Engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_Engine"},{"link_name":"Tokimeki Memorial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokimeki_Memorial_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"Magical Date","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magical_Date"},{"link_name":"replay value","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replay_value"},{"link_name":"dialogue trees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_tree"},{"link_name":"player character","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Player_character"},{"link_name":"Persona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persona_(series)"},{"link_name":"non-player character","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-player_character"},{"link_name":"day-night cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_world"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gamasutra-5"},{"link_name":"bishōjo games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bish%C5%8Djo_game"},{"link_name":"otome games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otome_game"},{"link_name":"Girls' Love","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girls%27_Love"},{"link_name":"Boys' Love","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boys%27_Love"},{"link_name":"Harvest Moon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvest_Moon_series"},{"link_name":"Star Ocean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Ocean"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"H Game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H_Game"},{"link_name":"Eroge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eroge"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Sakura Wars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakura_Wars"},{"link_name":"Persona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persona_(series)"},{"link_name":"role-playing game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Role-playing_game"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"}],"text":"Screenshot from the original PC Engine version of Tokimeki Memorial illustrating the complex system of statistics standard of the genreIn a typical dating sim, the player controls a male avatar surrounded by female characters. The gameplay involves conversing with a selection of girls, attempting to increase their internal \"love meter\" through correct choices of dialogue. The game lasts for a fixed period of game time, such as one month or three years. When the game ends, the player either loses the game if he failed to properly win over any of the girls, or \"finishes\" one of the girls, often by having sex with her, marrying her (as in Magical Date), and/or achieving eternal love.This gives the games more replay value, since the player can focus on a different girl each time, trying to get a different ending.Dating sims often revolve almost entirely around relationship-building, usually featuring complex character interactions and branching dialogue trees, and often presenting the player's possible responses word-for-word as the player character would say them. Dating sims such as Tokimeki Memorial, and some role-playing games with similar relationship based mechanics to the genre such as Persona, often give choices that have a different number of associated \"mood points\" which influence a player character's relationship and future conversations with a non-player character. These games often feature a day-night cycle with a time scheduling system that provides context and relevance to character interactions, allowing players to choose when and if to interact with certain characters, which in turn influences their responses during later conversations.[5]While bishōjo games make up the bulk of dating sims, other types of games exist. Games where the player character is female and potential objects of affection are male are known as GxB or otome games. Homosexual relationships are also possible, as there are games with no specific gender lines (\"all pairings\").There are also Girls' Love games, which focus on female/female relationships, and Boys' Love games, which focus on male/male pairings.There are many variations on this theme: high-school romances are the most common, but a dating sim may also take place in a fantasy setting and involve such challenges as defending one's girl from monsters.One game series that often includes dating, with the goal of marriage, is the farming sim series Harvest Moon. The subplot of dating is more focused towards choosing one of several girls or guys (dependent on the player character's gender) and offering them presents or joining them on events in the game. The Star Ocean series of RPGs also feature dating sim elements in a similar manner.Some Japanese dating sims may allow the player to have romantic or sexual relationships with characters in their teens.[citation needed] The degree of sexual content varies, but may often include intercourse. Sexually explicit dating sims may fall into the category of H Game or Eroge. Eroge only gets released to PC because large Japanese game companies do not want to release games with sexual content on their game consoles. Because of this, Eroge companies make a censored all-ages (15+) version of the PC version for various consoles. Censored versions often contain additional endings and added scenes to compensate for the absence of sexual scenes.[citation needed]These games also often involve raising stats that reflect the player's skills and can be combined with other genres. Series such as Sakura Wars and Persona combine role-playing game (RPG) gameplay with dating sim gameplay.[1]","title":"Characteristics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Girl's Garden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girl%27s_Garden"},{"link_name":"Tenshitachi no Gogo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenshitachi_no_Gogo"},{"link_name":"Nakayama Miho no Tokimeki High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nakayama_Miho_no_Tokimeki_High_School"},{"link_name":"Dōkyūsei series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C5%8Dky%C5%ABsei_(video_game_series)"},{"link_name":"Tokimeki Memorial series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokimeki_Memorial_(series)"},{"link_name":"True Love","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/True_Love_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"Magical Date","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magical_Date"},{"link_name":"Sakura Wars series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakura_Wars"},{"link_name":"Thousand Arms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thousand_Arms"},{"link_name":"Persona series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persona_(series)"},{"link_name":"Summer Session","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summer_Session"},{"link_name":"Amagami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amagami"},{"link_name":"Love Plus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love_Plus"},{"link_name":"Conception","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conception_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"Hatoful Boyfriend","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatoful_Boyfriend"},{"link_name":"Boyfriend Maker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boyfriend_Maker_(Smartphone_App)"},{"link_name":"Mystic Messenger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mystic_Messenger"},{"link_name":"Doki Doki Literature Club!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doki_Doki_Literature_Club!"},{"link_name":"House Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_Party_(video_game)"}],"text":"Girl's Garden (1985)\nTenshitachi no Gogo (1985)\nNakayama Miho no Tokimeki High School (1987)\nDōkyūsei series (1992 onwards)\nTokimeki Memorial series (1994 onwards)\nTrue Love (1995)\nMagical Date (1996)\nSakura Wars series (1996 onwards)\nThousand Arms (1998)\nPersona series (2006 onwards)\nSummer Session (2008)\nAmagami (2009)\nLove Plus (2009)\nConception (2012 onwards)\nHatoful Boyfriend (2012 onwards)\nBoyfriend Maker (2012)\nMystic Messenger (2016)\nDoki Doki Literature Club! (2017)\nHouse Party (2017)","title":"Examples"}]
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[{"image_text":"Screenshot from the original PC Engine version of Tokimeki Memorial illustrating the complex system of statistics standard of the genre","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/53/Tokimekimemorial_pccd_03.png/256px-Tokimekimemorial_pccd_03.png"}]
|
[{"title":"Bishōjo game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bish%C5%8Djo_game"},{"title":"Eroge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eroge"},{"title":"Harem (genre)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harem_(genre)"}]
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[{"reference":"Lebowitz, Josiah (2011). Interactive Storytelling for Video Games: a Player-centered Approach to Creating Memorable Characters and Stories. Klug, Chris. Burlington, MA: Focal Press. pp. 45. ISBN 9780240817187. OCLC 706802880.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/interactivestory00lebo","url_text":"Interactive Storytelling for Video Games: a Player-centered Approach to Creating Memorable Characters and Stories"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/interactivestory00lebo/page/n57","url_text":"45"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780240817187","url_text":"9780240817187"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/706802880","url_text":"706802880"}]},{"reference":"Pollack, Andrew (November 25, 1996). \"Japan's Newest Young Heartthrobs Are Sexy, Talented and Virtual\". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on January 29, 2018. Retrieved May 30, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1996/11/25/business/japan-s-newest-young-heartthrobs-are-sexy-talented-and-virtual.html","url_text":"\"Japan's Newest Young Heartthrobs Are Sexy, Talented and Virtual\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331","url_text":"0362-4331"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180129152846/http://www.nytimes.com/1996/11/25/business/japan-s-newest-young-heartthrobs-are-sexy-talented-and-virtual.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Barnholt, Ray (2012). The National Girlfriend: The Not-So-Innocent Story of Japan's Puppy Love Video Game Phenomenon. Bipedal Dog.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Games the World over are not the Same\". Kenosha News. 2006-02-17. p. 47. Retrieved 2024-06-08.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/article/kenosha-news-video-games/79459914/","url_text":"\"Games the World over are not the Same\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenosha_News","url_text":"Kenosha News"}]},{"reference":"Brent Ellison (July 8, 2008). \"Defining Dialogue Systems\". Gamasutra. Archived from the original on 2012-05-13. Retrieved 2011-03-30.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/3719/defining_dialogue_systems.php","url_text":"\"Defining Dialogue Systems\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamasutra","url_text":"Gamasutra"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120513020622/http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/3719/defining_dialogue_systems.php","url_text":"Archived"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jo%C5%BEe_Pu%C4%8Dnik
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Jože Pučnik
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["1 Early life and formation","2 The dissident years","3 Exile and academic career","4 Return to Slovenia","5 Legacy","6 Personal life","7 Major works","8 See also","9 References","10 Sources","11 Further reading","12 External links"]
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Jože PučnikPučnik in the late 1990sLeader of the Social Democratic PartyIn office1989 – May 1993Preceded byFrance TomšičSucceeded byJanez Janša
Personal detailsBorn(1932-03-09)9 March 1932Črešnjevec, YugoslaviaDied11 January 2003(2003-01-11) (aged 70)GermanyPolitical partySocial Democratic PartyOther politicalaffiliationsDEMOS
Jože Pučnik (9 March 1932 – 11 January 2003) was a Slovenian public intellectual, sociologist and politician. During the communist regime of Josip Broz Tito, he was one of the most outspoken Slovenian critics of dictatorship and lack of civil liberties in SFR Yugoslavia.
Pučnik was imprisoned for a total of seven years, and later forced into exile. After returning to Slovenia in the late 1980s, he became the leader of the Democratic Opposition of Slovenia, a platform of democratic parties that defeated the communists in the first free elections in 1990 and introduced a democratic system and market economy to Slovenia. Pučnik is also considered one of the fathers of Slovenian independence from Yugoslavia.
Early life and formation
Pučnik was born in the village of Črešnjevec in Slovenian Styria (now part of the municipality of Slovenska Bistrica), in what was then the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. He came from a Roman Catholic peasant background. His family had supported the Liberation Front of the Slovenian People during World War II: his older brother Ivan was an anti-Nazi resistance fighter in the Yugoslav Partisan movement.
Already as a teenager, Pučnik clashed with the communist establishment. Because of some critical thoughts published in the high school paper Iskanja (Quests) he was prohibited from taking his final exam. Since he couldn't enroll in the University, he was drafted in the Yugoslav People's Army. After completing the military service, he took the final exam, passed it and enrolled at the University of Ljubljana, where he studied philosophy and comparative literature, graduating in 1958.
While living in Ljubljana, he became involved with a group of young intellectuals, known as the Critical generation, which tried to open a space for public debate and challenged the rigid cultural policies of the Titoist regime in the Socialist Republic of Slovenia. Among Pučnik's closest collaborators from that period were the literary historian Taras Kermauner, sociologist Veljko Rus, and poet Veno Taufer. Pučnik believed that the system could be changed from inside and therefore joined the Communist Party of Slovenia. At the same time, he published several articles in the journal Revija 57, in which he openly criticised the economic policies of the communist regime.
The dissident years
In 1958, Pučnik was arrested accused of "subversion of the socialist system" and sentenced to 9 years in jail. At the trial, which lasted only a couple of hours, he was accused of having instigated workers to strike. Some have suggested that Pučnik's imprisonment was a deliberate attempt by the regime to silence dissident intellectuals. He was released in 1963 and immediately continued writing for the alternative journal Perspektive. At this point he was already publicly stating his disapproval of the regime. In 1964, his article Problemi našega kmetijstva (The Problems of Our Agriculture) was published in the journal Perspektive. In it, Pučnik criticized the agricultural policy of the regime, arguing that it was inefficient using publicly available official data. He was arrested again, sentenced to another two years in prison and expelled from the Communist Party.
During his time in prison, Pučnik became an idol for his generation. The playwright Dominik Smole dedicated the play Antigone to him and Primož Kozak portrayed him in the leading role of his play Afera (The Scandal). Both plays were metaphors for the totalitarian repression in communist Yugoslavia.
Exile and academic career
Pučnik was released from jail in 1966. After several unsuccessful attempts to find a job, he decided to emigrate to West Germany. He settled in Hamburg, making a living from manual jobs. When he decided to enrol as a postgraduate student at the University of Hamburg, the University of Ljubljana refused to provide him with a copy of his degree. He thus enrolled again to undergraduate study of philosophy and sociology, obtaining his PhD in 1971. He worked at the universities of Hamburg and Lüneburg, where he taught sociology. During his life in Germany, Pučnik became a supporter of the German Social Democratic Party, maintaining close relations with several of its leaders. In the late 1980s, he became an open admirer of the Social Democratic leader of Lower Saxony Gerhard Schröder, later chancellor of Germany, whom he took as his main role model for his subsequent political activity.
In the academic sphere, he became influenced by the theories of Jürgen Habermas, Niklas Luhmann and his system theory, as well as by several phenomenological sociologists such as Alfred Schutz and the Slovene-born Thomas Luckmann.
During his years of exile, he kept up a correspondence with several important critical intellectuals in Slovenia, especially Ivo Urbančič.
Return to Slovenia
In the 1980s, Pučnik could again publish articles in Slovenia, this time in the alternative journal Nova revija. In 1987, he co-authored the Contributions to the Slovenian National Program, published in the 57th issue of the Nova revija journal. The text was written as the response to the Memorandum of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts of 1986, and set the grounds for a political opposition to the communist regime. It was also the first legally published publication openly advocating Slovenia's independence from Yugoslavia. Pučnik's article was centred on issues of democratization and political plurality, and openly stressed the need for Slovenia's full sovereignty in order to secure such development.
He returned to Slovenia in 1989 at the invitation of the newly formed opposition Social Democratic Union of Slovenia. He was elected president of the party in 1989 and the following year he was chosen as the leader of the Democratic Opposition of Slovenia, a common platform of all democratic opposition parties in Slovenia. The coalition won the first democratic elections in 1990. Pučnik ran for President of Slovenia but lost to Milan Kučan, the last secretary general of the Communist Party of Slovenia. He was nevertheless elected to the Slovenian Parliament and remained the official leader of the Democratic Opposition of Slovenia, and the coalition's parliamentary leader.
Between 1990 and 1992, he was among those who led Slovenia to independence from Yugoslavia. In 1992, after the fall of Lojze Peterle's coalition government, Pučnik decided to lead his party into a coalition with the Liberal Democratic Party and briefly served as vice-president in the first government of Janez Drnovšek.
In the elections of 1992, the Social Democratic Party of Slovenia suffered a complete defeat, gaining a mere 3.4% of the vote, barely securing the entry into the Parliament. Pučnik resigned as president of the party in favour of Janez Janša. Between 1992 and 1996, Pučnik served as a member of the National Assembly of Slovenia. During this time, he led a parliamentary commission to clarify political responsibility for the summary executions perpetrated by the communist regime in Slovenia after World War II .
After 1996, he retired from active politics, but remained honorary president of the Social Democratic Party of Slovenia and continued to voice his opinion on matters of public interest. He remained utterly critical of the policies of Prime Minister Janez Drnovšek and President Milan Kučan. He also criticized the political transition to democracy in general, especially the insufficient implementation of the rule of law, the widespread corruption and the maintenance of the power networks from the previous regime.
He died in Germany in 2003 and was buried in his home village of Črešnjevec. His funeral was attended by a huge crowd. The eulogy was delivered by philosopher and his lifelong friend Ivo Urbančič.
Legacy
Pučnik is considered to be one of the fathers of independent Slovenia. Some, especially in the Slovenian right wing circles, have also called him "Father of Slovenian Democracy".
In 2006, he was posthumously awarded the Order of Distinct Merits of Slovenia. In 2007, the Government of Slovenia named the main international airport in Slovenia, the Ljubljana Jože Pučnik Airport, after him. The decision was criticized by some, including the then President of Slovenia Janez Drnovšek who publicly expressed his respect for Pučnik, but disagreed with the renaming of the airport after him. Author and journalist Spomenka Hribar, Pučnik's former colleague, stated that Pučnik would not have agreed with such renaming, because he was a modest person who disliked public praise and rejected any "cult of personality". A similar statement was made by Pučnik's son Gorazd, who however did not oppose the renaming and was present at the renaming ceremony.
The Slovenian liberal conservative think tank Jože Pučnik Institute and the elementary school in his native Črešnjevec are also named after him.
At the initiative of Milan Zver, the European Parliament announced on 11 June 2018 that a conference room will bear the name of Jože Pučnik.
The official inauguration took place on 28 June 2018 in Brussels, where President of the European Parliament Antonio Tajani, Chairman of the EPP Group in the European Parliament Manfred Weber, President of Slovenia Borut Pahor, President of Slovenian Democratic Party Janez Janša and initiator Milan Zver were among the honorary speakers. Family of Jože Pučnik was present at the inauguration as well.
Personal life
Jože Pučnik room in European Parliament, Brussels.
Jože Pučnik was the brother of Ivan Pučnik, a farmer and politician, who was initially member of the Communist Party and later also became a dissident and co-founder of the Slovenian Peasant Union in 1989.
Jože Pučnik was married twice. After his first release from jail in 1963, he met Irena Žerjal, a young Slovene author from Trieste, Italy, who studied Slavic philology in Ljubljana. They married the same year, when Pučnik was already imprisoned again; Pučnik was not allowed to attend his own wedding, and his brother Ivan had to represent him at the ceremony instead. His first son was born in 1964. When Pučnik was released from prison in 1966, the family moved to Germany; in 1969, however, the wife decided to return to Trieste with the son, while Pučnik decided to stay in Germany. He later married Christel Kunath. They had a daughter named Katharina. He also adopted his second wife's son, called Marcus.
His son from his first marriage, Gorazd Pučnik, is the director of the Srečko Kosovel Boarding School in Trieste, Italy. His stepson Marcus Pucnik is a journalist, based in Barcelona, Spain.
Major works
Kultura, družba in tehnologija (Culture, Society and Technology, 1988).
K političnemu sistemu Republike Slovenije (Towards a Political System of the Republic of Slovenia, 1990).
Iz arhivov slovenske politične policije (From the Archives of the Slovenian Political Police, 1996).
Izbrano delo (Selected Works, edited by Ivan Urbančič, Janez Janša et al., 2003).
See also
France Bučar
Contributions to the Slovenian National Program
Breakup of Yugoslavia
Ten Day War
Politics of Slovenia
References
^ Rosvita Pesek: Pučnik je bil motor slovenskega osamosvajanja Archived 2011-07-25 at the Wayback Machine, Pogvori drugisvet.com
^ Manske, Michael (3 December 2013). "Ljubljana Airport Is Named after Politician Pučnik". MMC RTV SLO. Retrieved 14 July 2021. seen as one of the fathers of independent Slovenia
^ Valič Zver, Andreja (2019). Jože Pučnik : oče slovenske države = Father of the Slovenian State. Ljubljana: Študijski center za narodno spravo.
^ a b c d Jože Pučnik (1932–2003) Archived 2011-09-28 at the Wayback Machine, Mladina.si ]
^ Interview with Taras Kermauner on the Slovenian National TV Archived 2008-04-11 at the Wayback Machine
^ a b Odprti kop - Intervju: Dr. Taras Kermauner Archived 2008-04-11 at the Wayback Machine
^ Inštitut Jožeta Pučnika => joze pucnik Archived 2008-03-16 at the Wayback Machine
^ Taras Kermauner, Skupinski portret z Dušanom Pirjevcem. Ljubljana: Znanstveno in raziskovalno središče, 2002. P. 139
^ "CEEOL - Error". www.ceeol.com. Retrieved 13 December 2021.
^ V čast domovini: Stati inu obstati, 6 January 2008
^ "Slovenske novice - kronika, vreme, horoskop, zdravje, čestitke in več". Archived from the original on 10 September 2012. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
^ Posmrtno odlikovanje za Jožeta Pučnika Pučnikovega odlikovanja ni prevzel nihče Objavljeno, 22 June 2006
^ Archived March 17, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
^ "Gorenjski glas". Gorenjskiglas.si. Archived from the original on 15 March 2012. Retrieved 28 December 2011.
^ "Miti in legende nove oblasti". Mladina.Si. 28 December 2021. Retrieved 28 December 2011.
^ Tekst: Miran Šubic. "Vlada samovoljno spremenila ime osrednjega letališča | Dnevnik". Moj.dnevnik.si. Retrieved 28 December 2011.
^ "Novo ime in nov terminal". 24ur.com. Retrieved 28 December 2011.
^ "Osnovna šola dr. Jožeta Pučnika Črešnjevec - mnenja -Filternet.si, uporabne informacije za učence, dijake in študente". Filternet.si. 16 November 2011. Archived from the original on 17 March 2012. Retrieved 28 December 2011.
^ "The Joze Pucnik Institute". Archived from the original on 19 March 2008. Retrieved 31 March 2008.
^ Dr. Zver: Ponosen, da ena vidnejših dvoran v EP zdaj nosi ime po dr. Jožetu Pučniku: http://www.eppgroup.eu/press-release/Dvorana-v-EP-poimenovana-po-dr.-Jožetu-Pučniku
^ Dr. Zver: Dr. Jože Pučnik sedaj domuje tudi v Evropskem parlamentu:http://www.eppgroup.eu/sl/press-release/Dr%3A-Zver%3A-Dr.-Jo%C5%BEe-Pu%C4%8Dnik-sedaj-domuje-tudi-v-EP Archived 2018-06-29 at the Wayback Machine
^ Tekst: (sta). "Umrl je Ivan Pučnik, eden od ustanoviteljev SLS | Dnevnik". Dnevnik.si. Retrieved 28 December 2011.
^ "Slovene Biographical Lexicon". Archived from the original on 4 January 2014. Retrieved 8 March 2012.
^ "gorazdpučnik - tinomamic". Retrieved 28 December 2011.
^ a b "Jože Pučnik – od političnega zapornika do očeta slovenske države | Slovenija - Planet Siol.net". Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 23 June 2014.
^ "Gorazd Pučnik". Mladina.Si. 28 December 2021. Retrieved 28 December 2011.
^ "Marcus Pucnik". Archived from the original on 4 August 2014. Retrieved 23 June 2014.
Sources
Niko Grafenauer, "Beseda o Jožetu Pučniku" in Ampak 4(1) (January 2003), 10.
Drago Jančar, "Stvar Jožeta Pučnika" in Konec tisočletja, račun stoletja (Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga, 1999).
Dean Komel, "Personal Freedom, Culture, and Politics" in Traditiones 43(1) (2014), 125–135, doi: 10.3986/Traditio2014430109.
Božo Repe, "Človek, ki je pospeševal in radikaliziral dogodke: Jože Pučnik" in Delo 45(14) (January 15, 2003), 6.
Rudi Šeligo, "Jože Pučnik: 1932–2003" in Ampak 4(1) (January 2003), 4–5.
Ivan Urbančič, "Jože Pučnik 1932–2003" in Delo, 45(17) (January 22, 2003), 2.
Further reading
Milan Zver (ed.), Pučnikova znanstvena in politična misel (The Scientific and Political Thought of Jože Pučnik, editor; Ljubljana, 2004).
Rosvita Pesek, "Pučnik", Celovec: Mohorjeva, 2013.
External links
The Jože Pučnik Institute
Party political offices
Preceded byFrance Tomšič
President of the Social Democratic Party of Slovenia 1990 – 1993
Succeeded byJanez Janša
Authority control databases International
FAST
ISNI
VIAF
WorldCat
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IdRef
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"communist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communism"},{"link_name":"Josip Broz Tito","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josip_Broz_Tito"},{"link_name":"SFR Yugoslavia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia"},{"link_name":"Democratic Opposition of Slovenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DEMOS_(Slovenia)"},{"link_name":"Slovenian independence from Yugoslavia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statehood_Day_(Slovenia)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"Jože Pučnik (9 March 1932 – 11 January 2003) was a Slovenian public intellectual, sociologist and politician. During the communist regime of Josip Broz Tito, he was one of the most outspoken Slovenian critics of dictatorship and lack of civil liberties in SFR Yugoslavia.Pučnik was imprisoned for a total of seven years, and later forced into exile. After returning to Slovenia in the late 1980s, he became the leader of the Democratic Opposition of Slovenia, a platform of democratic parties that defeated the communists in the first free elections in 1990 and introduced a democratic system and market economy to Slovenia. Pučnik is also considered one of the fathers of Slovenian independence from Yugoslavia.[1][2][3]","title":"Jože Pučnik"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Črešnjevec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Cre%C5%A1njevec,_Slovenska_Bistrica"},{"link_name":"Slovenian Styria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovenian_Styria"},{"link_name":"Slovenska Bistrica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovenska_Bistrica"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Yugoslavia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia"},{"link_name":"Roman Catholic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic"},{"link_name":"Liberation Front of the Slovenian People","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberation_Front_of_the_Slovenian_People"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Yugoslav Partisan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yugoslav_Partisans"},{"link_name":"communist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated1-4"},{"link_name":"Yugoslav People's Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yugoslav_People%27s_Army"},{"link_name":"University of Ljubljana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Ljubljana"},{"link_name":"philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy"},{"link_name":"comparative literature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_literature"},{"link_name":"Ljubljana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ljubljana"},{"link_name":"Critical generation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Critical_generation&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Titoist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titoist"},{"link_name":"Socialist Republic of Slovenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Slovenia"},{"link_name":"Taras Kermauner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taras_Kermauner"},{"link_name":"Veljko Rus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veljko_Rus"},{"link_name":"Veno Taufer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veno_Taufer"},{"link_name":"Communist Party of Slovenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Slovenia"},{"link_name":"Revija 57","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Revija_57&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"communist regime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_regime"}],"text":"Pučnik was born in the village of Črešnjevec in Slovenian Styria (now part of the municipality of Slovenska Bistrica), in what was then the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. He came from a Roman Catholic peasant background. His family had supported the Liberation Front of the Slovenian People during World War II: his older brother Ivan was an anti-Nazi resistance fighter in the Yugoslav Partisan movement.Already as a teenager, Pučnik clashed with the communist establishment. Because of some critical thoughts published in the high school paper Iskanja (Quests) he was prohibited from taking his final exam.[4] Since he couldn't enroll in the University, he was drafted in the Yugoslav People's Army. After completing the military service, he took the final exam, passed it and enrolled at the University of Ljubljana, where he studied philosophy and comparative literature, graduating in 1958.While living in Ljubljana, he became involved with a group of young intellectuals, known as the Critical generation, which tried to open a space for public debate and challenged the rigid cultural policies of the Titoist regime in the Socialist Republic of Slovenia. Among Pučnik's closest collaborators from that period were the literary historian Taras Kermauner, sociologist Veljko Rus, and poet Veno Taufer. Pučnik believed that the system could be changed from inside and therefore joined the Communist Party of Slovenia. At the same time, he published several articles in the journal Revija 57, in which he openly criticised the economic policies of the communist regime.","title":"Early life and formation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Perspektive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Perspektive&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated1-4"},{"link_name":"Perspektive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Perspektive&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated1-4"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated2-6"},{"link_name":"Dominik Smole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominik_Smole"},{"link_name":"Antigone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Antigone_(Dominik_Smole)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Primož Kozak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primo%C5%BE_Kozak"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated2-6"}],"text":"In 1958, Pučnik was arrested accused of \"subversion of the socialist system\" and sentenced to 9 years in jail. At the trial, which lasted only a couple of hours, he was accused of having instigated workers to strike. Some have suggested that Pučnik's imprisonment was a deliberate attempt by the regime to silence dissident intellectuals.[5] He was released in 1963 and immediately continued writing for the alternative journal Perspektive. At this point he was already publicly stating his disapproval of the regime.[4] In 1964, his article Problemi našega kmetijstva (The Problems of Our Agriculture) was published in the journal Perspektive. In it, Pučnik criticized the agricultural policy of the regime, arguing that it was inefficient using publicly available official data. He was arrested again, sentenced to another two years in prison and expelled from the Communist Party.During his time in prison, Pučnik became an idol for his generation.[4][6] The playwright Dominik Smole dedicated the play Antigone to him and Primož Kozak portrayed him in the leading role of his play Afera (The Scandal). Both plays were metaphors for the totalitarian repression in communist Yugoslavia.[6]","title":"The dissident years"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"West Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Germany"},{"link_name":"Hamburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamburg"},{"link_name":"University of Hamburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Hamburg"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated1-4"},{"link_name":"undergraduate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undergraduate"},{"link_name":"philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy"},{"link_name":"sociology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology"},{"link_name":"PhD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PhD"},{"link_name":"Lüneburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%BCneburg"},{"link_name":"German Social Democratic Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Social_Democratic_Party"},{"link_name":"Lower Saxony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_Saxony"},{"link_name":"Gerhard Schröder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerhard_Schr%C3%B6der"},{"link_name":"chancellor of Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chancellor_of_Germany_(Federal_Republic)"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Jürgen Habermas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas"},{"link_name":"Niklas Luhmann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann"},{"link_name":"system theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_theory"},{"link_name":"Alfred Schutz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Schutz"},{"link_name":"Slovene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovenes"},{"link_name":"Thomas Luckmann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Luckmann"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Ivo Urbančič","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivo_Urban%C4%8Di%C4%8D"}],"text":"Pučnik was released from jail in 1966. After several unsuccessful attempts to find a job, he decided to emigrate to West Germany. He settled in Hamburg, making a living from manual jobs. When he decided to enrol as a postgraduate student at the University of Hamburg, the University of Ljubljana refused to provide him with a copy of his degree.[7][4] He thus enrolled again to undergraduate study of philosophy and sociology, obtaining his PhD in 1971. He worked at the universities of Hamburg and Lüneburg, where he taught sociology. During his life in Germany, Pučnik became a supporter of the German Social Democratic Party, maintaining close relations with several of its leaders. In the late 1980s, he became an open admirer of the Social Democratic leader of Lower Saxony Gerhard Schröder, later chancellor of Germany, whom he took as his main role model for his subsequent political activity.[8]In the academic sphere, he became influenced by the theories of Jürgen Habermas, Niklas Luhmann and his system theory, as well as by several phenomenological sociologists such as Alfred Schutz and the Slovene-born Thomas Luckmann.[9]During his years of exile, he kept up a correspondence with several important critical intellectuals in Slovenia, especially Ivo Urbančič.","title":"Exile and academic career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Nova revija","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nova_revija_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"Contributions to the Slovenian National Program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contributions_to_the_Slovenian_National_Program"},{"link_name":"Memorandum of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memorandum_of_the_Serbian_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Arts"},{"link_name":"Social Democratic Union of Slovenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovenian_Democratic_Party"},{"link_name":"Democratic Opposition of Slovenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Opposition_of_Slovenia"},{"link_name":"President of Slovenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_Slovenia"},{"link_name":"Milan Kučan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milan_Ku%C4%8Dan"},{"link_name":"Communist Party of Slovenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Slovenia"},{"link_name":"Slovenian Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovenian_Parliament"},{"link_name":"Slovenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovenia"},{"link_name":"Yugoslavia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_Federative_Republic_of_Yugoslavia"},{"link_name":"Lojze Peterle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lojze_Peterle"},{"link_name":"Liberal Democratic Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Democracy_of_Slovenia"},{"link_name":"Janez Drnovšek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janez_Drnov%C5%A1ek"},{"link_name":"Social Democratic Party of Slovenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovenian_Democratic_Party"},{"link_name":"Janez Janša","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janez_Jan%C5%A1a"},{"link_name":"National Assembly of Slovenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Assembly_of_Slovenia"},{"link_name":"summary executions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summary_execution"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Social Democratic Party of Slovenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovenian_Democratic_Party"},{"link_name":"Prime Minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Slovenia"},{"link_name":"Janez Drnovšek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janez_Drnov%C5%A1ek"},{"link_name":"Milan Kučan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milan_Ku%C4%8Dan"},{"link_name":"Ivo Urbančič","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivo_Urban%C4%8Di%C4%8D"}],"text":"In the 1980s, Pučnik could again publish articles in Slovenia, this time in the alternative journal Nova revija. In 1987, he co-authored the Contributions to the Slovenian National Program, published in the 57th issue of the Nova revija journal. The text was written as the response to the Memorandum of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts of 1986, and set the grounds for a political opposition to the communist regime. It was also the first legally published publication openly advocating Slovenia's independence from Yugoslavia. Pučnik's article was centred on issues of democratization and political plurality, and openly stressed the need for Slovenia's full sovereignty in order to secure such development.He returned to Slovenia in 1989 at the invitation of the newly formed opposition Social Democratic Union of Slovenia. He was elected president of the party in 1989 and the following year he was chosen as the leader of the Democratic Opposition of Slovenia, a common platform of all democratic opposition parties in Slovenia. The coalition won the first democratic elections in 1990. Pučnik ran for President of Slovenia but lost to Milan Kučan, the last secretary general of the Communist Party of Slovenia. He was nevertheless elected to the Slovenian Parliament and remained the official leader of the Democratic Opposition of Slovenia, and the coalition's parliamentary leader.Between 1990 and 1992, he was among those who led Slovenia to independence from Yugoslavia. In 1992, after the fall of Lojze Peterle's coalition government, Pučnik decided to lead his party into a coalition with the Liberal Democratic Party and briefly served as vice-president in the first government of Janez Drnovšek.In the elections of 1992, the Social Democratic Party of Slovenia suffered a complete defeat, gaining a mere 3.4% of the vote, barely securing the entry into the Parliament. Pučnik resigned as president of the party in favour of Janez Janša. Between 1992 and 1996, Pučnik served as a member of the National Assembly of Slovenia. During this time, he led a parliamentary commission to clarify political responsibility for the summary executions perpetrated by the communist regime in Slovenia after World War II .After 1996, he retired from active politics, but remained honorary president of the Social Democratic Party of Slovenia and continued to voice his opinion on matters of public interest. He remained utterly critical of the policies of Prime Minister Janez Drnovšek and President Milan Kučan. He also criticized the political transition to democracy in general, especially the insufficient implementation of the rule of law, the widespread corruption and the maintenance of the power networks from the previous regime.He died in Germany in 2003 and was buried in his home village of Črešnjevec. His funeral was attended by a huge crowd. The eulogy was delivered by philosopher and his lifelong friend Ivo Urbančič.","title":"Return to Slovenia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Order of Distinct Merits of Slovenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Order_of_Distinct_Merits_of_Slovenia&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Ljubljana Jože Pučnik Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ljubljana_Jo%C5%BEe_Pu%C4%8Dnik_Airport"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Janez Drnovšek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janez_Drnov%C5%A1ek"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Spomenka Hribar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spomenka_Hribar"},{"link_name":"cult of personality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cult_of_personality"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"liberal conservative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_conservative"},{"link_name":"think tank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Think_tank"},{"link_name":"Jože Pučnik Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jo%C5%BEe_Pu%C4%8Dnik_Institute&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Milan Zver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milan_Zver"},{"link_name":"European Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Parliament"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"President of the European Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_European_Parliament"},{"link_name":"Antonio Tajani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Tajani"},{"link_name":"EPP Group in the European Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_People%27s_Party_group"},{"link_name":"Manfred Weber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manfred_Weber"},{"link_name":"President of Slovenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_Slovenia"},{"link_name":"Borut Pahor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borut_Pahor"},{"link_name":"Slovenian Democratic Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovenian_Democratic_Party"},{"link_name":"Janez Janša","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janez_Jan%C5%A1a"},{"link_name":"Milan Zver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milan_Zver"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"text":"Pučnik is considered to be one of the fathers of independent Slovenia.[10][11][12] Some, especially in the Slovenian right wing circles, have also called him \"Father of Slovenian Democracy\".[13]In 2006, he was posthumously awarded the Order of Distinct Merits of Slovenia. In 2007, the Government of Slovenia named the main international airport in Slovenia, the Ljubljana Jože Pučnik Airport, after him. The decision was criticized by some,[14] including the then President of Slovenia Janez Drnovšek who publicly expressed his respect for Pučnik, but disagreed with the renaming of the airport after him.[15] Author and journalist Spomenka Hribar, Pučnik's former colleague, stated that Pučnik would not have agreed with such renaming, because he was a modest person who disliked public praise and rejected any \"cult of personality\".[16] A similar statement was made by Pučnik's son Gorazd, who however did not oppose the renaming and was present at the renaming ceremony.[17]The Slovenian liberal conservative think tank Jože Pučnik Institute and the elementary school in his native Črešnjevec are also named after him.[18][19]At the initiative of Milan Zver, the European Parliament announced on 11 June 2018 that a conference room will bear the name of Jože Pučnik.[20]\nThe official inauguration took place on 28 June 2018 in Brussels, where President of the European Parliament Antonio Tajani, Chairman of the EPP Group in the European Parliament Manfred Weber, President of Slovenia Borut Pahor, President of Slovenian Democratic Party Janez Janša and initiator Milan Zver were among the honorary speakers. Family of Jože Pučnik was present at the inauguration as well.[21]","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dvorana_Jo%C5%BEeta_Pu%C4%8Dnika_Jo%C5%BEe_Pu%C4%8Dnik_Hall.jpg"},{"link_name":"European Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Parliament"},{"link_name":"Brussels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brussels"},{"link_name":"Ivan Pučnik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ivan_Pu%C4%8Dnik&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Slovenian Peasant Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovenian_Peasant_Union"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Irena Žerjal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irena_%C5%BDerjal"},{"link_name":"Trieste","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trieste"},{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"philology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philology"},{"link_name":"Ljubljana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ljubljana"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"unreliable source?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-siol.net-25"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-siol.net-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Barcelona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barcelona"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"}],"text":"Jože Pučnik room in European Parliament, Brussels.Jože Pučnik was the brother of Ivan Pučnik, a farmer and politician, who was initially member of the Communist Party and later also became a dissident and co-founder of the Slovenian Peasant Union in 1989.[22]Jože Pučnik was married twice. After his first release from jail in 1963, he met Irena Žerjal, a young Slovene author from Trieste, Italy, who studied Slavic philology in Ljubljana.[23] They married the same year, when Pučnik was already imprisoned again; Pučnik was not allowed to attend his own wedding, and his brother Ivan had to represent him at the ceremony instead.[24][unreliable source?] His first son was born in 1964. When Pučnik was released from prison in 1966, the family moved to Germany; in 1969, however, the wife decided to return to Trieste with the son, while Pučnik decided to stay in Germany.[25] He later married Christel Kunath. They had a daughter named Katharina. He also adopted his second wife's son, called Marcus.[25]His son from his first marriage, Gorazd Pučnik, is the director of the Srečko Kosovel Boarding School in Trieste, Italy.[26] His stepson Marcus Pucnik is a journalist, based in Barcelona, Spain.[27]","title":"Personal life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ivan Urbančič","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Urban%C4%8Di%C4%8D"},{"link_name":"Janez Janša","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janez_Jan%C5%A1a"}],"text":"Kultura, družba in tehnologija (Culture, Society and Technology, 1988).\nK političnemu sistemu Republike Slovenije (Towards a Political System of the Republic of Slovenia, 1990).\nIz arhivov slovenske politične policije (From the Archives of the Slovenian Political Police, 1996).\nIzbrano delo (Selected Works, edited by Ivan Urbančič, Janez Janša et al., 2003).","title":"Major works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Niko Grafenauer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niko_Grafenauer"},{"link_name":"Ampak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ampak&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Drago Jančar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drago_Jan%C4%8Dar"},{"link_name":"Dean Komel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dean_Komel"},{"link_name":"Personal Freedom, Culture, and Politics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//isn.zrc-sazu.si/files/file/Traditiones/Traditiones_43_1_separati/125_pdfsam_TR_43_1_txtM_cropped.pdf"},{"link_name":"Božo Repe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bo%C5%BEo_Repe&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Delo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delo_(newspaper)"},{"link_name":"Rudi Šeligo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudi_%C5%A0eligo"},{"link_name":"Ampak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ampak&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Ivan Urbančič","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Urban%C4%8Di%C4%8D"},{"link_name":"Delo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delo_(newspaper)"}],"text":"Niko Grafenauer, \"Beseda o Jožetu Pučniku\" in Ampak 4(1) (January 2003), 10.\nDrago Jančar, \"Stvar Jožeta Pučnika\" in Konec tisočletja, račun stoletja (Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga, 1999).\nDean Komel, \"Personal Freedom, Culture, and Politics\" in Traditiones 43(1) (2014), 125–135, doi: 10.3986/Traditio2014430109.\nBožo Repe, \"Človek, ki je pospeševal in radikaliziral dogodke: Jože Pučnik\" in Delo 45(14) (January 15, 2003), 6.\nRudi Šeligo, \"Jože Pučnik: 1932–2003\" in Ampak 4(1) (January 2003), 4–5.\nIvan Urbančič, \"Jože Pučnik 1932–2003\" in Delo, 45(17) (January 22, 2003), 2.","title":"Sources"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Milan Zver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milan_Zver"}],"text":"Milan Zver (ed.), Pučnikova znanstvena in politična misel (The Scientific and Political Thought of Jože Pučnik, editor; Ljubljana, 2004).\nRosvita Pesek, \"Pučnik\", Celovec: Mohorjeva, 2013.","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"Jože Pučnik room in European Parliament, Brussels.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Dvorana_Jo%C5%BEeta_Pu%C4%8Dnika_Jo%C5%BEe_Pu%C4%8Dnik_Hall.jpg/220px-Dvorana_Jo%C5%BEeta_Pu%C4%8Dnika_Jo%C5%BEe_Pu%C4%8Dnik_Hall.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"France Bučar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France_Bu%C4%8Dar"},{"title":"Contributions to the Slovenian National Program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contributions_to_the_Slovenian_National_Program"},{"title":"Breakup of Yugoslavia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakup_of_Yugoslavia"},{"title":"Ten Day War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ten_Day_War"},{"title":"Politics of Slovenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Slovenia"}]
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[{"reference":"Manske, Michael (3 December 2013). \"Ljubljana Airport Is Named after Politician Pučnik\". MMC RTV SLO. Retrieved 14 July 2021. seen as one of the fathers of independent Slovenia","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rtvslo.si/news-in-english/slovenia-facts/ljubljana-airport-is-named-after-politician-pucnik/314896","url_text":"\"Ljubljana Airport Is Named after Politician Pučnik\""}]},{"reference":"Valič Zver, Andreja (2019). Jože Pučnik : oče slovenske države = Father of the Slovenian State. Ljubljana: Študijski center za narodno spravo.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"CEEOL - Error\". www.ceeol.com. Retrieved 13 December 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ceeol.com/error-pages/object-not-found?aspxerrorpath=/aspx/getdocument.aspx","url_text":"\"CEEOL - Error\""}]},{"reference":"\"Slovenske novice - kronika, vreme, horoskop, zdravje, čestitke in več\". Archived from the original on 10 September 2012. Retrieved 16 January 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20120910093754/http://www.slovenskenovice.si/clanek/o144141","url_text":"\"Slovenske novice - kronika, vreme, horoskop, zdravje, čestitke in več\""},{"url":"http://www.slovenskenovice.si/clanek/o144141","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Gorenjski glas\". Gorenjskiglas.si. Archived from the original on 15 March 2012. Retrieved 28 December 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120315145119/http://www.gorenjskiglas.si/novice/politika/index.php?action=clanek&id=8103","url_text":"\"Gorenjski glas\""},{"url":"http://www.gorenjskiglas.si/novice/politika/index.php?action=clanek&id=8103","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Miti in legende nove oblasti\". Mladina.Si. 28 December 2021. Retrieved 28 December 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.mladina.si/tednik/200728/clanek/slo--ikone-jure_trampus/","url_text":"\"Miti in legende nove oblasti\""}]},{"reference":"Tekst: Miran Šubic. \"Vlada samovoljno spremenila ime osrednjega letališča | Dnevnik\". Moj.dnevnik.si. Retrieved 28 December 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://moj.dnevnik.si/novice/slovenija/250488","url_text":"\"Vlada samovoljno spremenila ime osrednjega letališča | Dnevnik\""}]},{"reference":"\"Novo ime in nov terminal\". 24ur.com. Retrieved 28 December 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://24ur.com/novice/slovenija/novo-ime-in-nov-terminal_comment_p11_a164.html?&page=11&p_all_items=164","url_text":"\"Novo ime in nov terminal\""}]},{"reference":"\"Osnovna šola dr. Jožeta Pučnika Črešnjevec - mnenja -Filternet.si, uporabne informacije za učence, dijake in študente\". Filternet.si. 16 November 2011. Archived from the original on 17 March 2012. Retrieved 28 December 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120317061343/http://www.filternet.si/os/sole/osnovna-sola-dr-jozeta-pucnika-cresnjevec/355/mnenja","url_text":"\"Osnovna šola dr. Jožeta Pučnika Črešnjevec - mnenja -Filternet.si, uporabne informacije za učence, dijake in študente\""},{"url":"http://www.filternet.si/os/sole/osnovna-sola-dr-jozeta-pucnika-cresnjevec/355/mnenja","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"The Joze Pucnik Institute\". Archived from the original on 19 March 2008. Retrieved 31 March 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080319232335/http://en.ijpucnik.si/","url_text":"\"The Joze Pucnik Institute\""},{"url":"http://en.ijpucnik.si/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Tekst: (sta). \"Umrl je Ivan Pučnik, eden od ustanoviteljev SLS | Dnevnik\". Dnevnik.si. Retrieved 28 December 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.dnevnik.si/novice/slovenija/1042227770","url_text":"\"Umrl je Ivan Pučnik, eden od ustanoviteljev SLS | Dnevnik\""}]},{"reference":"\"Slovene Biographical Lexicon\". Archived from the original on 4 January 2014. Retrieved 8 March 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140104211026/http://nl.ijs.si/fedora/get/sbl:4924/VIEW/","url_text":"\"Slovene Biographical Lexicon\""},{"url":"http://nl.ijs.si/fedora/get/sbl:4924/VIEW/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"gorazdpučnik - tinomamic\". Retrieved 28 December 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://sites.google.com/site/tinomamic/gorazdpu%C4%8Dnik","url_text":"\"gorazdpučnik - tinomamic\""}]},{"reference":"\"Jože Pučnik – od političnega zapornika do očeta slovenske države | Slovenija - Planet Siol.net\". Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 23 June 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160305011633/http://www.siol.net/novice/slovenija/2014/01/joze_pucnik.aspx","url_text":"\"Jože Pučnik – od političnega zapornika do očeta slovenske države | Slovenija - Planet Siol.net\""},{"url":"http://www.siol.net/novice/slovenija/2014/01/joze_pucnik.aspx","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Gorazd Pučnik\". Mladina.Si. 28 December 2021. Retrieved 28 December 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.mladina.si/tednik/200906/gorazd_pucnik","url_text":"\"Gorazd Pučnik\""}]},{"reference":"\"Marcus Pucnik\". Archived from the original on 4 August 2014. Retrieved 23 June 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140804114850/http://www.cronicaglobal.com/es/autores/marcus-pucnik-026","url_text":"\"Marcus Pucnik\""},{"url":"http://www.cronicaglobal.com/es/autores/marcus-pucnik-026","url_text":"the original"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Best_of_Broadway
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The Best of Broadway
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["1 Production","2 Episodes","3 Critical response","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]
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"The Royal Family (film)" redirects here. For the 1969 British television documentary, see Royal Family (film).
American TV series or program
The Best of BroadwayCreated byMartin ManulisDirected byDavid AlexanderSidney LumetPaul NickellFranklin J. SchaffnerHerbert B. Swope Jr.Country of originUnited StatesNo. of seasons1No. of episodes9ProductionProducersMartin ManulisFelix JacksonRunning time60 minsOriginal releaseNetworkCBSReleaseSeptember 15, 1954 (1954-09-15) –May 4, 1955 (1955-05-04)
The Best of Broadway is a 60-minute live television anthology series that aired on CBS Television on Wednesdays at 10 p.m. Eastern Standard Time from September 15, 1954, to May 4, 1955, for a total of nine episodes. Each show was broadcast live in color from New York City, was an adaptation of a famous Broadway play, and included commercials for Westinghouse featuring Betty Furness. Using a "giant new studio," plays were presented in front of a studio audience, which contributed a Broadway-like element.
Production
This series ran every fourth week, with Pabst Blue Ribbon Bouts being aired the other three weeks.
The series originated from CBS Television Studio 72 at WCBS-TV. Martin Manulis was the initial producer, and Paul Nickell was the director. David Brookman was in charge of the music. In February 1955, Felix Jackson became the producer when Manulis began producing Climax!.
Episodes
Play
Author(s)
Broadcast Date
Stars
1
The Royal Family
George S. Kaufman, Edna Ferber
September 15, 1954
Charles Coburn, Claudette Colbert, Helen Hayes, Fredric March, Nancy Olson
2
The Man Who Came to Dinner
George S. Kaufman, Moss Hart
October 13, 1954
Joan Bennett, Margaret Hamilton, Buster Keaton, Bert Lahr, Merle Oberon, ZaSu Pitts, Monty Woolley
3
Panama Hattie
Cole Porter, Herbert Fields, B. G. DeSylva
November 10, 1954
Art Carney, Ethel Merman
4
The Philadelphia Story
Philip Barry
December 8, 1954
Mary Astor, Herbert Marshall, Dorothy McGuire
5
Arsenic and Old Lace
Joseph Kesselring
January 5, 1955
Billie Burke, Helen Hayes, Edward Everett Horton, Boris Karloff, Peter Lorre
6
The Show-Off
George Kelly
February 2, 1955
Carleton Carpenter, Jackie Gleason, Thelma Ritter, Cathy O'Donnell, Alice Ghostley, Russell Collins
7
The Guardsman
Ferenc Molnár
March 2, 1955
Claudette Colbert, Margaret Hamilton, Franchot Tone
8
Stage Door
George S. Kaufman, Edna Ferber (adapted by Gore Vidal)
April 6, 1955
Rhonda Fleming, Elsa Lanchester, Diana Lynn, Victor Moore
9
Broadway
George Abbott, Philip Dunning
May 4, 1955
Joseph Cotten, Piper Laurie, Gene Nelson, Akim Tamiroff, Keenan Wynn
Critical response
A review of "The Show-Off" in the trade publication Variety said that the episode was "pretty feeble stuff" but that Gleason's performance kept it from being "a trying experience, indeed."
See also
1954-55 United States network television schedule
References
^ a b Hawes, William (2001). Filmed Television Drama, 1952–1958. McFarland. pp. 22–23. ISBN 9780786411320. Retrieved 27 March 2019.
^ a b "Wednesday (15)" (PDF). Ross Reports on Television. September 12, 1954. p. 152. Retrieved May 5, 2021.
^ a b Brooks, Tim; Marsh, Earle (1999). The Complete Directory to Prime Time Network and Cable TV Shows 1946-Present (7th ed.). New York: The Ballentine Publishing Group. p. 89. ISBN 0-345-42923-0.
^ "Other Network Changes & Additions" (PDF). Ross Reports on Television. February 6, 1955. p. 17. Retrieved May 5, 2021.
^ "Television in Review: Color Drama," The New York Times 17 Sept. 1954.
^ a b "The Show Off". Variety. February 9, 1955. p. 37. Retrieved August 12, 2023.
^ Shanley, J. P. "Television: 'Stage Door,'" The New York Times 8 Apr. 1955.
External links
The Best of Broadway at IMDb
The Best of Broadway list of episodes and cast lists at CTVA
vteGore VidalPlays
Visit to a Small Planet (1957)
The Best Man (1960)
Weekend (1968)
An Evening with Richard Nixon (1972)
Novels
Williwaw (1946)
The City and the Pillar (1948)
Dark Green, Bright Red (1950)
Messiah (1954)
Julian (1964)
Washington, D.C. (1967)
Myra Breckinridge (1968)
Two Sisters (1970)
Burr (1973)
Myron (1974)
1876 (1976)
Kalki (1978)
Creation (1981)
Duluth (1983)
Lincoln (1984)
Empire (1987)
Hollywood (1990)
Live from Golgotha: The Gospel According to Gore Vidal (1992)
The Smithsonian Institution (1998)
The Golden Age (2000)
Screenplays
The Catered Affair (1956)
I Accuse! (1958)
The Left Handed Gun (1958)
The Scapegoat (1959)
Ben Hur (1959) (uncredited)
Suddenly, Last Summer (1959)
The Best Man (1964)
Is Paris Burning? (1966)
Last of the Mobile Hot Shots (1970)
Caligula (1979)
Dress Gray (1986)
The Sicilian (1987) (uncredited)
Billy the Kid (1989)
The Palermo Connection (1989)
Teleplays
The Telltale Clue
Danger
Climax!
Suspense
The Best of Broadway
Goodyear Television Playhouse
Studio One
NBC Matinee Theater
General Electric Theater
NBC Sunday Showcase
Ford Startime
People
Eugene Luther Vidal (father)
Nina Auchincloss Straight (half-sister)
Burr Steers (nephew)
Hugh Auchincloss Steers (nephew)
|
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|
[]
|
[{"title":"1954-55 United States network television schedule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1954-55_United_States_network_television_schedule"}]
|
[{"reference":"Hawes, William (2001). Filmed Television Drama, 1952–1958. McFarland. pp. 22–23. ISBN 9780786411320. Retrieved 27 March 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=0pQKmPSfHCQC&dq=%22Best+of+Broadway%22+tv&pg=PA23","url_text":"Filmed Television Drama, 1952–1958"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780786411320","url_text":"9780786411320"}]},{"reference":"\"Wednesday (15)\" (PDF). Ross Reports on Television. September 12, 1954. p. 152. Retrieved May 5, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive-TV-Index/1954/TV-Index-1954-09-13.pdf#page=2","url_text":"\"Wednesday (15)\""}]},{"reference":"Brooks, Tim; Marsh, Earle (1999). The Complete Directory to Prime Time Network and Cable TV Shows 1946-Present (7th ed.). New York: The Ballentine Publishing Group. p. 89. ISBN 0-345-42923-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/completedirector1999broo/page/89","url_text":"The Complete Directory to Prime Time Network and Cable TV Shows 1946-Present"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/completedirector1999broo/page/89","url_text":"89"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-345-42923-0","url_text":"0-345-42923-0"}]},{"reference":"\"Other Network Changes & Additions\" (PDF). Ross Reports on Television. February 6, 1955. p. 17. Retrieved May 5, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive-TV-Index/1954/TV-Index-1954-09-13.pdf#page=3","url_text":"\"Other Network Changes & Additions\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Show Off\". Variety. February 9, 1955. p. 37. Retrieved August 12, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/variety197-1955-02/page/n118/mode/1up","url_text":"\"The Show Off\""}]}]
|
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Champion_of_Lost_Causes
|
Champion of Lost Causes
|
["1 Plot","2 Cast","3 Preservation","4 References","5 Bibliography","6 External links"]
|
1925 film
Champion of Lost CausesTheatrical posterDirected byChester BennettWritten byThomas Dixon Jr.Based on"Champion of Lost Causes"by Max BrandProduced byWilliam FoxStarringEdmund LoweBarbara BedfordWalter McGrailCinematographyErnest PalmerProductioncompanyFox Film CorporationDistributed byFox Film CorporationRelease date
January 22, 1925 (1925-01-22)
Running time50 minutesCountryUnited StatesLanguageSilent (English intertitles)
Barbara Bedford, 1925
Champion of Lost Causes is a lost 1925 American silent mystery film directed by Chester Bennett and starring Edmund Lowe, Barbara Bedford, and Walter McGrail. A writer in search of a story visits a gambling club and witnesses a murder, which he attempts to solve.
Plot
As described in a film magazine review, Loring, an author, in getting material for a book, goes to a gambling den. He sees Wilbur, who acts strangely. He follows him and when Wilbur is killed, Peter Charles, father of Beatrice Charles, is accused of the murder. The gambler gives him a fictitious story about a murderous gang when Loring attempts to solve the murder mystery. Several attempts are made on his life by the gang but fail. The gambler proves to be Beatrice’s villainous fiancee, and when he confesses the murder Loring wins the young woman.
Cast
Edmund Lowe as Loring
Barbara Bedford as Beatrice Charles
Walter McGrail as Zanten / Dick Sterling
Jack McDonald as Joseph Wilbur
Alec B. Francis as Peter Charles
Preservation
With no prints of Champion of Lost Causes located in any film archives, it is a lost film.
References
^ Solomon p. 292.
^ Progressive Silent Film List: Champion of Lost Causes at silentera.com
^ "New Pictures: Champion of Lost Causes", Exhibitors Herald, 20 (13): 51, March 21, 1925, retrieved December 19, 2021
^ Library of Congress American Silent Feature Film Survival Database: Champion of Lost Causes
Bibliography
Solomon, Aubrey. The Fox Film Corporation, 1915-1935: A History and Filmography. McFarland, 2011.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Champion of Lost Causes.
Champion of Lost Causes at IMDb
vteWorks by Thomas Dixon Jr.Novels
The Leopard's Spots
The One Woman
The Clansman
The Traitor
Comrades
The Root of Evil
The Sins of the Father
The Foolish Virgin
The Fall of a Nation
The Flaming Sword
Plays
The Clansman
The Traitor
The Sins of the Father
The Leopard's Spots
Films
The Birth of a Nation
The Fall of a Nation
The Foolish Virgin (1916)
The One Woman
Bolshevism on Trial
Wing Toy
The Brass Bowl
The Foolish Virgin (1924)
Champion of Lost Causes
The Trail Rider
The Gentle Cyclone
Nation Aflame
vteFilms directed by Chester Bennett
When a Man Loves (1919)
A Master Stroke (1920)
Captain Swift (1920)
The Purple Cipher (1920)
The Romance Promoters (1920)
Diamonds Adrift (1921)
Three Sevens (1921)
The Secret of the Hills (1921)
Belle of Alaska (1922)
Colleen of the Pines (1922)
The Snowshoe Trail (1922)
Thelma (1922)
Divorce (1923)
The Painted Lady (1924)
The Lullaby (1924)
The Ancient Mariner (1925)
Champion of Lost Causes (1925)
Honesty – The Best Policy (1926)
This article about a silent film is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
|
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|
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| null |
[{"reference":"\"New Pictures: Champion of Lost Causes\", Exhibitors Herald, 20 (13): 51, March 21, 1925, retrieved December 19, 2021","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/exhibitorsherald20unse/page/51/mode/1up","url_text":"\"New Pictures: Champion of Lost Causes\""}]}]
|
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetanus
|
Tetanus
|
["1 Signs and symptoms","1.1 Incubation period","1.2 Generalized tetanus","1.3 Neonatal tetanus","1.4 Local tetanus","1.5 Cephalic tetanus","2 Cause","3 Pathophysiology","3.1 Neurospecific binding","3.2 Internalization","3.3 Membrane translocation","3.4 Enzymatic target cleavage","4 Diagnosis","5 Prevention","5.1 Post-exposure prophylaxis","6 Treatment","6.1 Mild tetanus","6.2 Severe tetanus","7 Epidemiology","8 In animals","9 History","9.1 Etymology","10 Research","11 See also","12 References","13 External links"]
|
Bacterial infection characterized by muscle spasms
This article is about the disease. For the physiological use of the term, see Tetanic contraction.
Medical conditionTetanusOther namesLockjawMuscle spasms (specifically opisthotonos) in a person with tetanus. Painting by Sir Charles Bell, 1809.SpecialtyInfectious diseaseSymptomsfever, cramped-up jaw, muscle spasms, headache, seizures, sweating, and trouble swallowingUsual onset3–21 days following exposureDurationMonthsCausesClostridium tetaniRisk factorsBreak in the skinDiagnostic methodBased on symptomsPreventionTetanus vaccineTreatmentTetanus immune globulin, muscle relaxants, mechanical ventilationMedicationdiazepam and methocarbamolPrognosis10% risk of deathFrequency209,000 (2015)Deaths56,700 (2015)
Tetanus, also known as lockjaw, is a bacterial infection caused by Clostridium tetani and characterized by muscle spasms. In the most common type, the spasms begin in the jaw, and then progress to the rest of the body. Each spasm usually lasts for a few minutes. Spasms occur frequently for three to four weeks. Some spasms may be severe enough to fracture bones. Other symptoms of tetanus may include fever, sweating, headache, trouble swallowing, high blood pressure, and a fast heart rate. Onset of symptoms is typically 3 to 21 days following infection. Recovery may take months; about 10% of cases prove to be fatal.
C. tetani is commonly found in soil, saliva, dust, and manure. The bacteria generally enter through a break in the skin, such as a cut or puncture wound caused by a contaminated object. They produce toxins that interfere with normal muscle contractions. Diagnosis is based on the presenting signs and symptoms. The disease does not spread between people.
Tetanus can be prevented by immunization with the tetanus vaccine. In those who have a significant wound and have had fewer than three doses of the vaccine, both vaccination and tetanus immune globulin are recommended. The wound should be cleaned, and any dead tissue should be removed. In those who are infected, tetanus immune globulin, or, if unavailable, intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) is used. Muscle relaxants may be used to control spasms. Mechanical ventilation may be required if a person's breathing is affected.
Tetanus occurs in all parts of the world, but is most frequent in hot and wet climates where the soil has a high organic content. In 2015, there were about 209,000 infections and about 59,000 deaths globally. This is down from 356,000 deaths in 1990. In the US, there are about 30 cases per year, almost all of which were in people who had not been vaccinated. An early description of the disease was made by Hippocrates in the 5th century BC. The cause of the disease was determined in 1884 by Antonio Carle and Giorgio Rattone at the University of Turin, and a vaccine was developed in 1924.
Signs and symptoms
Tetanus often begins with mild spasms in the jaw muscles—also known as lockjaw. Similar spasms can also be a feature of trismus. The spasms can also affect the facial muscles, resulting in an appearance called risus sardonicus. Chest, neck, back, abdominal muscles, and buttocks may be affected. Back muscle spasms often cause arching, called opisthotonus. Sometimes, the spasms affect muscles utilized during inhalation and exhalation, which can lead to breathing problems.
Prolonged muscular action causes sudden, powerful, and painful contractions of muscle groups, called tetany. These episodes can cause fractures and muscle tears. Other symptoms include fever, headache, restlessness, irritability, feeding difficulties, breathing problems, burning sensation during urination, urinary retention, and loss of stool control.
Even with treatment, about 10% of people who contract tetanus die. The mortality rate is higher in unvaccinated individuals, and in people over 60 years of age.
Incubation period
The incubation period of tetanus may be up to several months, but is usually about ten days. In general, the farther the injury site is from the central nervous system, the longer the incubation period. However, shorter incubation periods will have more severe symptoms. In trismus nascentium (i.e. neonatal tetanus), symptoms usually appear from 4 to 14 days after birth, averaging about 7 days. On the basis of clinical findings, four different forms of tetanus have been described.
Generalized tetanus
Generalized tetanus is the most common type of tetanus, representing about 80% of cases. The generalized form usually presents with a descending pattern. The first sign is trismus or lockjaw, then facial spasms (called risus sardonicus), followed by stiffness of the neck, difficulty in swallowing, and rigidity of pectoral and calf muscles. Other symptoms include elevated temperature, sweating, elevated blood pressure, and episodic rapid heart rate. Spasms may occur frequently and last for several minutes, with the body shaped into a characteristic form called opisthotonos. Spasms continue for up to four weeks, and complete recovery may take months.
Neonatal tetanus
Main article: Neonatal tetanus
Neonatal tetanus (trismus nascentium) is a form of generalized tetanus that occurs in newborns, usually those born to mothers who themselves have not been vaccinated. If the mother has been vaccinated against tetanus, the infants acquire passive immunity, and are thus protected. It usually occurs through infection of the unhealed umbilical stump, particularly when the stump is cut with a non-sterile instrument. As of 1998, neonatal tetanus was common in many developing countries, and was responsible for about 14% (215,000) of all neonatal deaths. In 2010, the worldwide death toll was approximately 58,000 newborns. As the result of a public health campaign, the death toll from neonatal tetanus was reduced by 90% between 1990 and 2010, and by 2013, the disease had been largely eliminated from all but 25 countries. Neonatal tetanus is rare in developed countries.
Local tetanus
Local tetanus is an uncommon form of the disease, in which people have persistent contraction of muscles in the same anatomic area as the injury. The contractions may persist for many weeks before gradually subsiding. Local tetanus is generally milder; only about 1% of cases are fatal, but it may precede the onset of generalized tetanus.
Cephalic tetanus
Cephalic tetanus is the rarest form of the disease (0.9–3% of cases), and is limited to muscles and nerves in the head. It usually occurs after trauma to the head area, including: skull fracture, laceration, eye injury, dental extraction, and otitis media, but it has been observed from injuries to other parts of the body. Paralysis of the facial nerve is most frequently implicated, which may cause lockjaw, facial palsy, or ptosis, but other cranial nerves can also be affected. Cephalic tetanus may progress to a more generalized form of the disease. Due to its rarity, clinicians may be unfamiliar with the clinical presentation, and may not suspect tetanus as the illness. Treatment can be complicated, as symptoms may be concurrent with the initial injury that caused the infection. Cephalic tetanus is more likely than other forms of tetanus to be fatal, with the progression to generalized tetanus carrying a 15–30% case fatality rate.
Cause
Clostridium tetani is durable due to its endospores. Pictured is the bacterium alone, with a spore being produced, and the spore alone.
Tetanus is caused by the tetanus bacterium, Clostridium tetani. The disease is an international health problem, as C. tetani endospores are ubiquitous. Endospores can be introduced into the body through a puncture wound (penetrating trauma). Due to C. tetani being an anaerobic bacterium, it and its endospores thrive in environments that lack oxygen, such as a puncture wound. With the changes in oxygen levels, the drumstick-shaped endospore can quickly spread.
The disease occurs almost exclusively in people who are inadequately immunized. It is more common in hot, damp climates with soil rich in organic matter. Manure-treated soils may contain spores, as they are widely distributed in the intestines and feces of many animals, such as horses, sheep, cattle, dogs, cats, rats, guinea pigs, and chickens. In agricultural areas, a significant number of human adults may harbor the organism.
The spores can also be found on skin surfaces and in contaminated heroin. Rarely, tetanus can be contracted through surgical procedures, intramuscular injections, compound fractures, and dental infections. Animal bites can transmit tetanus.
Tetanus is often associated with rust, especially rusty nails. Although rust itself does not cause tetanus, objects that accumulate rust are often found outdoors or in places that harbor soil bacteria. Additionally, the rough surface of rusty metal provides crevices for dirt containing C. tetani, while a nail affords a means to puncture skin and deliver endospores deep within the body at the site of the wound. An endospore is a non-metabolizing survival structure that begins to metabolize and cause infection once in an adequate environment. Hence, stepping on a nail (rusty or not) may result in a tetanus infection, as the low-oxygen (anaerobic) environment may exist under the skin, and the puncturing object can deliver endospores to a suitable environment for growth. It is a common misconception that rust itself is the cause, and that a puncture from a rust-free nail is not a risk.
Pathophysiology
A neurotransmitter-filled vesicle before and after exposure to the tetanus toxin. The cleavage of the VAMP protein by the toxin inhibits vesicle fusion and neurotransmitter release into the synapse.
Tetanus neurotoxin (TeNT) binds to the presynaptic membrane of the neuromuscular junction, is internalized, and is transported back through the axon until it reaches the central nervous system. Here, it selectively binds to and is transported into inhibitory neurons via endocytosis. It then leaves the vesicle for the neuron cytosol, where it cleaves vesicle associated membrane protein (VAMP) synaptobrevin, which is necessary for membrane fusion of small synaptic vesicles (SSV's). SSV's carry neurotransmitter to the membrane for release, so inhibition of this process blocks neurotransmitter release.
Tetanus toxin specifically blocks the release of the neurotransmitters GABA and glycine from inhibitory neurons. These neurotransmitters keep overactive motor neurons from firing, and also play a role in the relaxation of muscles after contraction. When inhibitory neurons are unable to release their neurotransmitters, motor neurons fire out of control, and muscles have difficulty relaxing. This causes the muscle spasms and spastic paralysis seen in tetanus infection.
The tetanus toxin, tetanospasmin, is made up of a heavy chain and a light chain. There are three domains, each of which contributes to the pathophysiology of the toxin. The heavy chain has two of the domains. The N-terminal side of the heavy chain helps with membrane translocation, and the C-terminal side helps the toxin locate the specific receptor site on the correct neuron. The light chain domain cleaves the VAMP protein once it arrives in the inhibitory neuron cytosol.
There are four main steps in tetanus's mechanism of action: binding to the neuron, internalization of the toxin, membrane translocation, and cleavage of the target VAMP.
Neurospecific binding
The toxin travels from the wound site to the neuromuscular junction through the bloodstream, where it binds to the presynaptic membrane of a motor neuron. The heavy chain C-terminal domain aids in the binding to the correct site, recognizing and binding to the correct glycoproteins and glycolipids in the presynaptic membrane. The toxin binds to a site that will be taken into the neuron as an endocytic vesicle that will travel down the axon, past the cell body, and down the dendrites to the dendritic terminal at the spine and central nervous system. Here, it will be released into the synaptic cleft, and allowed to bind with the presynaptic membrane of inhibitory neurons in a similar manner seen with the binding to the motor neuron.
Internalization
Tetanus toxin is then internalized again via endocytosis, this time, in an acidic vesicle. In a mechanism not well understood, depolarization caused by the firing of the inhibitory neuron causes the toxin to be pulled into the neuron inside vesicles.
Membrane translocation
The toxin then needs a way to get out of the vesicle and into the neuron cytosol for it to act on its target. The low pH of the vesicle lumen causes a conformational change in the toxin, shifting it from a water-soluble form to a hydrophobic form. With the hydrophobic patches exposed, the toxin can slide into the vesicle membrane. The toxin forms an ion channel in the membrane that is nonspecific for Na+, K+, Ca2+, and Cl− ions. There is a consensus among experts that this new channel is involved in the translocation of the toxin's light chain from the inside of the vesicle to the neuron cytosol, but the mechanism is not well understood or agreed upon. It has been proposed that the channel could allow the light chain (unfolded from the low pH environment) to leave through the toxin pore, or that the pore could alter the electrochemical gradient enough, by letting in or out ions, to cause osmotic lysis of the vesicle, spilling the vesicle's contents.
Enzymatic target cleavage
The light chain of the tetanus toxin is zinc-dependent protease. It shares a common zinc protease motif (His-Glu-Xaa-Xaa-His) that researchers hypothesized was essential for target cleavage, until this was more recently confirmed by experiment: when all zinc was removed from the neuron with heavy metal chelators, the toxin was inhibited, only to be reactivated when the zinc was added back in. The light chain binds to VAMP, and cleaves it between Gln76 and Phe77. Without VAMP, vesicles holding the neurotransmitters needed for motor neuron regulation (GABA and glycine) cannot be released, causing the above-mentioned deregulation of motor neurons and muscle tension.
Diagnosis
There are currently no blood tests for diagnosing tetanus. The diagnosis is based on the presentation of tetanus symptoms, and does not depend upon isolation of the bacterium, which is recovered from the wound in only 30% of cases, and can be isolated from people without tetanus. Laboratory identification of C. tetani can be demonstrated only by production of tetanospasmin in mice. Having recently experienced head trauma may indicate cephalic tetanus if no other diagnosis has been made.
The "spatula test" is a clinical test for tetanus that involves touching the posterior pharyngeal wall with a soft-tipped instrument and observing the effect. A positive test result is the involuntary contraction of the jaw (biting down on the "spatula"), and a negative test result would normally be a gag reflex attempting to expel the foreign object. A short report in The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene states that, in an affected subject research study, the spatula test had a high specificity (zero false-positive test results) and a high sensitivity (94% of infected people produced a positive test).
Prevention
Unlike many infectious diseases, recovery from naturally acquired tetanus does not usually result in immunity. This is due to the extreme potency of the tetanospasmin toxin. Tetanospasmin will likely be lethal before it will provoke an immune response.
Tetanus can be prevented by vaccination with tetanus toxoid. The CDC recommends that adults receive a booster vaccine every ten years, and standard care practice in many places is to give the booster to any person with a puncture wound who is uncertain of when he or she was last vaccinated, or if he or she has had fewer than three lifetime doses of the vaccine. The booster may not prevent a potentially fatal case of tetanus from the current wound, however, as it can take up to two weeks for tetanus antibodies to form.
In children under the age of seven, the tetanus vaccine is often administered as a combined vaccine, DPT/DTaP vaccine, which also includes vaccines against diphtheria and pertussis. For adults and children over seven, the Td vaccine (tetanus and diphtheria) or Tdap (tetanus, diphtheria, and acellular pertussis) is commonly used.
The World Health Organization certifies countries as having eliminated maternal or neonatal tetanus. Certification requires at least two years of rates of less than 1 case per 1,000 live births. In 1998 in Uganda, 3,433 tetanus cases were recorded in newborn babies; of these, 2,403 died. After a major public health effort, Uganda was certified as having eliminated maternal and neonatal tetanus in 2011.
Post-exposure prophylaxis
Tetanus toxoid can be given in case of suspected exposure to tetanus. In such cases, it can be given with or without tetanus immunoglobulin (also called tetanus antibodies or tetanus antitoxin). It can be given as intravenous therapy or by intramuscular injection.
The guidelines for such events in the United States for people at least 11 years old (and not pregnant) are as follows:
Vaccination status
Clean, minor wounds
All other wounds
Unknown or less than 3 doses of tetanus toxoid containing vaccine
Tdap and recommend catch-up vaccination
Tdap and recommend catch-up vaccination Tetanus immunoglobulin
3 or more doses of tetanus toxoid containing vaccine AND less than 5 years since the last dose
No indication
No indication
3 or more doses of tetanus toxoid containing vaccine AND 5–10 years since the last dose
No indication
Tdap preferred (if not yet received) or Td
3 or more doses of tetanus toxoid containing vaccine AND more than 10 years since the last dose
Tdap preferred (if not yet received) or Td
Tdap preferred (if not yet received) or Td
Treatment
Tetanus deaths per million persons in 2012 0–1 1–2 2–3 4–8 9–13 14–28 29–151
Mild tetanus
Mild cases of tetanus can be treated with:
Tetanus immunoglobulin (TIG), also called tetanus antibodies or tetanus antitoxin. It can be given as intravenous therapy or by intramuscular injection.
Antibiotic therapy to reduce toxin production. Metronidazole intravenous (IV) is a preferred treatment.
Benzodiazepines can be used to control muscle spasms. Options include diazepam and lorazepam, oral or IV.
Severe tetanus
Severe cases will require admission to intensive care. In addition to the measures listed above for mild tetanus:
Human tetanus immunoglobulin injected intrathecally (which increases clinical improvement from 4% to 35%).
Tracheotomy and mechanical ventilation for 3 to 4 weeks. Tracheotomy is recommended for securing the airway, because the presence of an endotracheal tube is a stimulus for spasm.
Magnesium sulfate, as an intravenous infusion, to control spasm and autonomic dysfunction.
Diazepam as a continuous IV infusion.
The autonomic effects of tetanus can be difficult to manage (alternating hyper- and hypotension hyperpyrexia/hypothermia), and may require IV labetalol, magnesium, clonidine, or nifedipine.
Drugs, such as diazepam or other muscle relaxants, can be given to control the muscle spasms. In extreme cases, it may be necessary to paralyze the person with curare-like drugs, and use a mechanical ventilator.
To survive a tetanus infection, the maintenance of an airway and proper nutrition are required. An intake of 3,500 to 4,000 calories and at least 150 g of protein per day is often given in liquid form through a tube directly into the stomach (percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy), or through a drip into a vein (parenteral nutrition). This high-caloric diet maintenance is required because of the increased metabolic strain brought on by the increased muscle activity. Full recovery takes 4 to 6 weeks, because the body must regenerate destroyed nerve axon terminals.
The antibiotic of choice is metronidazole. It can be given as intravenously, by mouth, or by rectum. Of likewise efficiency is penicillin, but some raise the concern of provoking spasms because it inhibits GABA receptor, which is already affected by tetanospasmin.
Epidemiology
Disability-adjusted life year for tetanus per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004. no data ≤10 10–25 25–50 50–75 75–100 100–125 125–150 150–200 200–250 250–500 500–750 ≥750
In 2013, it caused about 59,000 deaths—down from 356,000 in 1990. Tetanus, notably the neonatal form, remains a significant public health problem in non-industrialized countries, with 59,000 newborns dying worldwide in 2008 as a result of neonatal tetanus. In the United States, from 2000 through 2007, an average of 31 cases were reported per year. Nearly all of the cases in the United States occur in unimmunized individuals, or individuals who have allowed their inoculations to lapse.
Tetanus cases reported worldwide (1990–2004). Ranging from some (in dark red), to very few (in light yellow) (grey, no data).
Tetanus deaths between 1990 and 2017 by age group.
In animals
Tetanus is found primarily in goats and sheep. The following are clinical symptoms found in affected goats and sheep. Extended head and neck, tail rigors
(tail becomes rigid and straight), abnormal gait (walking becomes stiff and abnormal), arched back, stiffness of the jaw muscles, lockjaw,
twitching of eyes, drooping eyelids, difficulty swallowing, difficulty or inability to eat and drink, abdominal bloat, spasms (uncontrolled muscular contractions) before death.
Death sometimes is due to asphyxiation, secondary to respiratory paralysis.
History
Tetanus was well known to ancient civilizations, who recognized the relationship between wounds and fatal muscle spasms. In 1884, Arthur Nicolaier isolated the strychnine-like toxin of tetanus from free-living, anaerobic soil bacteria. The etiology of the disease was further elucidated in 1884 by Antonio Carle and Giorgio Rattone, two pathologists of the University of Turin, who demonstrated the transmissibility of tetanus for the first time. They produced tetanus in rabbits by injecting pus from a person with fatal tetanus into their sciatic nerves, and testing their reactions while tetanus was spreading.
In 1891, C. tetani was isolated from a human victim by Kitasato Shibasaburō, who later showed that the organism could produce disease when injected into animals, and that the toxin could be neutralized by specific antibodies. In 1897, Edmond Nocard showed that tetanus antitoxin induced passive immunity in humans, and could be used for prophylaxis and treatment. Tetanus toxoid vaccine was developed by P. Descombey in 1924, and was widely used to prevent tetanus induced by battle wounds during World War II.
Etymology
The word tetanus comes from the Ancient Greek: τέτανος, romanized: tetanos, lit. 'taut', which is further from the Ancient Greek: τείνειν, romanized: teinein, lit. 'to stretch'.
Research
There is insufficient evidence that tetanus can be treated or prevented by vitamin C. This is at least partially due to the fact that the historical trials that were conducted in attempts to look for a possible connection between vitamin C and alleviating tetanus patients were of poor quality.
See also
Renshaw cell
Tetanized state
References
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External links
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Tetanus Information from Medline Plus
Tetanus Surveillance -- United States, 1998-2000 (Data and Analysis)
"Tetanus". MedlinePlus. U.S. National Library of Medicine.
ClassificationDICD-10: A33-A35ICD-9-CM: 037, 771.3MeSH: D013742DiseasesDB: 2829External resourcesMedlinePlus: 000615eMedicine: emerg/574
vte
Bacillota (low-G+C) Infectious diseases
Bacterial diseases: G+
BacilliLactobacillales(Cat-)Streptococcusαoptochin susceptible
S. pneumoniae
Pneumococcal infection
optochin resistant
Viridans streptococci: S. mitis
S. mutans
S. oralis
S. sanguinis
S. sobrinus
S. anginosus group
βA
bacitracin susceptible: S. pyogenes
Group A streptococcal infection
Streptococcal pharyngitis
Scarlet fever
Erysipelas
Rheumatic fever
B
bacitracin resistant, CAMP test+: S. agalactiae
Group B streptococcal infection
ungrouped
Streptococcus iniae
Cutaneous Streptococcus iniae infection
γ
D
BEA+: Streptococcus bovis
Enterococcus
BEA+: Enterococcus faecalis
Urinary tract infection
Enterococcus faecium
Bacillales(Cat+)StaphylococcusCg+
S. aureus
Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome
Toxic shock syndrome
MRSA
Cg-
novobiocin susceptible
S. epidermidis
novobiocin resistant
S. saprophyticus
Bacillus
Bacillus anthracis
Anthrax
Bacillus cereus
Food poisoning
Listeria
Listeria monocytogenes
Listeriosis
ClostridiaClostridium (spore-forming)motile:
Clostridium botulinum
Botulism
Clostridium tetani
Tetanus
nonmotile:
Clostridium perfringens
Gas gangrene
Clostridial necrotizing enteritis
Clostridioides (spore-forming)
Clostridioides difficile
Pseudomembranous colitis
Finegoldia (non-spore forming)
Finegoldia magna
MollicutesMycoplasmataceae
Ureaplasma urealyticum
Ureaplasma infection
Mycoplasma genitalium
Mycoplasma pneumoniae
Mycoplasma pneumonia
Anaeroplasmatales
Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae
Erysipeloid
Authority control databases: National
Spain
France
BnF data
Germany
Israel
United States
Japan
Czech Republic
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tetanic contraction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetanic_contraction"},{"link_name":"bacterial infection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacterial_infection"},{"link_name":"Clostridium tetani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clostridium_tetani"},{"link_name":"muscle spasms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscle_spasm"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2012Pink-1"},{"link_name":"fracture bones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bone_fracture"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2013S-2"},{"link_name":"fever","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fever"},{"link_name":"sweating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweating"},{"link_name":"headache","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Headache"},{"link_name":"trouble swallowing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysphagia"},{"link_name":"high blood pressure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypertension"},{"link_name":"fast heart rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tachycardia"},{"link_name":"fatal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2012Pink-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2012Pink-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2013C-3"},{"link_name":"toxins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxin"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2013Doc-4"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2012Pink-1"},{"link_name":"immunization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunization"},{"link_name":"tetanus vaccine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetanus_vaccine"},{"link_name":"tetanus immune globulin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetanus_immune_globulin"},{"link_name":"intravenous immunoglobulin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intravenous_immunoglobulin"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2012Pink-1"},{"link_name":"Muscle relaxants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscle_relaxant"},{"link_name":"Mechanical ventilation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_ventilation"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2013Doc-4"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2012Pink-1"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GBD2015Pre-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GBD2015De-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GBD2014-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Hippocrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocrates"},{"link_name":"University of Turin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Turin"},{"link_name":"vaccine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2012Pink-1"}],"text":"This article is about the disease. For the physiological use of the term, see Tetanic contraction.Medical conditionTetanus, also known as lockjaw, is a bacterial infection caused by Clostridium tetani and characterized by muscle spasms. In the most common type, the spasms begin in the jaw, and then progress to the rest of the body. Each spasm usually lasts for a few minutes. Spasms occur frequently for three to four weeks.[1] Some spasms may be severe enough to fracture bones.[2] Other symptoms of tetanus may include fever, sweating, headache, trouble swallowing, high blood pressure, and a fast heart rate. Onset of symptoms is typically 3 to 21 days following infection. Recovery may take months; about 10% of cases prove to be fatal.[1]C. tetani is commonly found in soil, saliva, dust, and manure. The bacteria generally enter through a break in the skin, such as a cut or puncture wound caused by a contaminated object.[1][3] They produce toxins that interfere with normal muscle contractions.[4] Diagnosis is based on the presenting signs and symptoms. The disease does not spread between people.[1]Tetanus can be prevented by immunization with the tetanus vaccine. In those who have a significant wound and have had fewer than three doses of the vaccine, both vaccination and tetanus immune globulin are recommended. The wound should be cleaned, and any dead tissue should be removed. In those who are infected, tetanus immune globulin, or, if unavailable, intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) is used.[1] Muscle relaxants may be used to control spasms. Mechanical ventilation may be required if a person's breathing is affected.[4]Tetanus occurs in all parts of the world, but is most frequent in hot and wet climates where the soil has a high organic content.[1] In 2015, there were about 209,000 infections and about 59,000 deaths globally.[5][6] This is down from 356,000 deaths in 1990.[7] In the US, there are about 30 cases per year, almost all of which were in people who had not been vaccinated.[8] An early description of the disease was made by Hippocrates in the 5th century BC. The cause of the disease was determined in 1884 by Antonio Carle and Giorgio Rattone at the University of Turin, and a vaccine was developed in 1924.[1]","title":"Tetanus"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"spasms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spasm"},{"link_name":"jaw muscles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscles_of_mastication"},{"link_name":"trismus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trismus"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OCF-9"},{"link_name":"facial muscles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facial_muscles"},{"link_name":"risus sardonicus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risus_sardonicus"},{"link_name":"Back muscle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_back#Muscles"},{"link_name":"opisthotonus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opisthotonus"},{"link_name":"muscles utilized during inhalation and exhalation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscles_of_respiration"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2020Pink-10"},{"link_name":"tetany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetany"},{"link_name":"fever","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fever"},{"link_name":"headache","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Headache"},{"link_name":"irritability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irritability"},{"link_name":"breathing problems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respiratory_failure"},{"link_name":"burning sensation during urination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysuria"},{"link_name":"urinary retention","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urinary_retention"},{"link_name":"loss of stool control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fecal_incontinence"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2012Pink-1"},{"link_name":"mortality rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortality_rate"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2012Pink-1"}],"text":"Tetanus often begins with mild spasms in the jaw muscles—also known as lockjaw. Similar spasms can also be a feature of trismus.[9] The spasms can also affect the facial muscles, resulting in an appearance called risus sardonicus. Chest, neck, back, abdominal muscles, and buttocks may be affected. Back muscle spasms often cause arching, called opisthotonus. Sometimes, the spasms affect muscles utilized during inhalation and exhalation, which can lead to breathing problems.[10]Prolonged muscular action causes sudden, powerful, and painful contractions of muscle groups, called tetany. These episodes can cause fractures and muscle tears. Other symptoms include fever, headache, restlessness, irritability, feeding difficulties, breathing problems, burning sensation during urination, urinary retention, and loss of stool control.[11]Even with treatment, about 10% of people who contract tetanus die.[1] The mortality rate is higher in unvaccinated individuals, and in people over 60 years of age.[1]","title":"Signs and symptoms"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"incubation period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incubation_period"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid12850356-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid12122532-13"},{"link_name":"central nervous system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_nervous_system"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Farrar-14"},{"link_name":"trismus nascentium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neonatal_tetanus"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2012Pink-1"}],"sub_title":"Incubation period","text":"The incubation period of tetanus may be up to several months, but is usually about ten days.[12][13] In general, the farther the injury site is from the central nervous system, the longer the incubation period. However, shorter incubation periods will have more severe symptoms.[14] In trismus nascentium (i.e. neonatal tetanus), symptoms usually appear from 4 to 14 days after birth, averaging about 7 days. On the basis of clinical findings, four different forms of tetanus have been described.[1]","title":"Signs and symptoms"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"risus sardonicus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risus_sardonicus"},{"link_name":"calf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calf_(anatomy)"},{"link_name":"blood pressure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_pressure"},{"link_name":"Spasms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spasm"},{"link_name":"opisthotonos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opisthotonos"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2012Pink-1"}],"sub_title":"Generalized tetanus","text":"Generalized tetanus is the most common type of tetanus, representing about 80% of cases. The generalized form usually presents with a descending pattern. The first sign is trismus or lockjaw, then facial spasms (called risus sardonicus), followed by stiffness of the neck, difficulty in swallowing, and rigidity of pectoral and calf muscles. Other symptoms include elevated temperature, sweating, elevated blood pressure, and episodic rapid heart rate. Spasms may occur frequently and last for several minutes, with the body shaped into a characteristic form called opisthotonos. Spasms continue for up to four weeks, and complete recovery may take months.[1]","title":"Signs and symptoms"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"passive immunity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive_immunity"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"umbilical stump","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umbilical_cord"},{"link_name":"developing countries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developing_country"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WHO_2000-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-elimination-17"},{"link_name":"developed countries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developed_country"}],"sub_title":"Neonatal tetanus","text":"Neonatal tetanus (trismus nascentium) is a form of generalized tetanus that occurs in newborns, usually those born to mothers who themselves have not been vaccinated. If the mother has been vaccinated against tetanus, the infants acquire passive immunity, and are thus protected.[15] It usually occurs through infection of the unhealed umbilical stump, particularly when the stump is cut with a non-sterile instrument. As of 1998, neonatal tetanus was common in many developing countries, and was responsible for about 14% (215,000) of all neonatal deaths.[16] In 2010, the worldwide death toll was approximately 58,000 newborns. As the result of a public health campaign, the death toll from neonatal tetanus was reduced by 90% between 1990 and 2010, and by 2013, the disease had been largely eliminated from all but 25 countries.[17] Neonatal tetanus is rare in developed countries.","title":"Signs and symptoms"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2012Pink-1"}],"sub_title":"Local tetanus","text":"Local tetanus is an uncommon form of the disease, in which people have persistent contraction of muscles in the same anatomic area as the injury. The contractions may persist for many weeks before gradually subsiding. Local tetanus is generally milder; only about 1% of cases are fatal, but it may precede the onset of generalized tetanus.[1]","title":"Signs and symptoms"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-doshi-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-morales-19"},{"link_name":"skull fracture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skull_fracture"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-adeleye-20"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-adeleye-20"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-morales-19"},{"link_name":"dental extraction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental_extraction"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ajayi-21"},{"link_name":"otitis media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otitis_media"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid23468033-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid23346010-23"},{"link_name":"facial nerve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facial_nerve"},{"link_name":"facial palsy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell%27s_palsy"},{"link_name":"ptosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptosis_(eyelid)"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ajayi-21"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-seo-24"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-doshi-18"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-seo-24"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-morales-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-adeleye-20"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-doshi-18"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-adeleye-20"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-seo-24"}],"sub_title":"Cephalic tetanus","text":"Cephalic tetanus is the rarest form of the disease (0.9–3% of cases),[18] and is limited to muscles and nerves in the head.[19] It usually occurs after trauma to the head area, including: skull fracture,[20] laceration,[20] eye injury,[19] dental extraction,[21] and otitis media,[22] but it has been observed from injuries to other parts of the body.[23] Paralysis of the facial nerve is most frequently implicated, which may cause lockjaw, facial palsy, or ptosis, but other cranial nerves can also be affected.[21][24] Cephalic tetanus may progress to a more generalized form of the disease.[18][24] Due to its rarity, clinicians may be unfamiliar with the clinical presentation, and may not suspect tetanus as the illness.[19] Treatment can be complicated, as symptoms may be concurrent with the initial injury that caused the infection.[20] Cephalic tetanus is more likely than other forms of tetanus to be fatal, with the progression to generalized tetanus carrying a 15–30% case fatality rate.[18][20][24]","title":"Signs and symptoms"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Clostridium_Tetani.svg"},{"link_name":"endospores","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endospore"},{"link_name":"Clostridium tetani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clostridium_tetani"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2012Pink-1"},{"link_name":"endospores","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endospore"},{"link_name":"penetrating trauma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penetrating_trauma"},{"link_name":"oxygen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Baron-26"},{"link_name":"organic matter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_organic_matter"},{"link_name":"Manure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manure"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2012Pink-1"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"heroin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heroin"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2012Pink-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2012Pink-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2012Pink-1"},{"link_name":"rust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rust"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"common misconception","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jennings2013-31"}],"text":"Clostridium tetani is durable due to its endospores. Pictured is the bacterium alone, with a spore being produced, and the spore alone.Tetanus is caused by the tetanus bacterium, Clostridium tetani.[1] The disease is an international health problem, as C. tetani endospores are ubiquitous. Endospores can be introduced into the body through a puncture wound (penetrating trauma). Due to C. tetani being an anaerobic bacterium, it and its endospores thrive in environments that lack oxygen, such as a puncture wound. With the changes in oxygen levels, the drumstick-shaped endospore can quickly spread.[25]The disease occurs almost exclusively in people who are inadequately immunized.[26] It is more common in hot, damp climates with soil rich in organic matter. Manure-treated soils may contain spores, as they are widely distributed in the intestines and feces of many animals, such as horses, sheep, cattle, dogs, cats, rats, guinea pigs, and chickens.[1] In agricultural areas, a significant number of human adults may harbor the organism.[27]The spores can also be found on skin surfaces and in contaminated heroin.[1] Rarely, tetanus can be contracted through surgical procedures, intramuscular injections, compound fractures, and dental infections.[1] Animal bites can transmit tetanus.[1]Tetanus is often associated with rust, especially rusty nails. Although rust itself does not cause tetanus, objects that accumulate rust are often found outdoors or in places that harbor soil bacteria. Additionally, the rough surface of rusty metal provides crevices for dirt containing C. tetani, while a nail affords a means to puncture skin and deliver endospores deep within the body at the site of the wound.[28] An endospore is a non-metabolizing survival structure that begins to metabolize and cause infection once in an adequate environment. Hence, stepping on a nail (rusty or not) may result in a tetanus infection, as the low-oxygen (anaerobic) environment may exist under the skin, and the puncturing object can deliver endospores to a suitable environment for growth.[29] It is a common misconception that rust itself is the cause, and that a puncture from a rust-free nail is not a risk.[30][31]","title":"Cause"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Neurotransmitter_vesicle_before_and_after_exposure_to_Tetanus_Toxin.jpg"},{"link_name":"neurotoxin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotoxin"},{"link_name":"neuromuscular junction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuromuscular_junction"},{"link_name":"central nervous system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_nervous_system"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-32"},{"link_name":"endocytosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endocytosis"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-33"},{"link_name":"vesicle associated membrane protein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesicle-associated_membrane_protein"},{"link_name":"synaptobrevin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synaptobrevin"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-32"},{"link_name":"neurotransmitter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmitter"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"GABA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma-Aminobutyric_acid"},{"link_name":"glycine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycine"},{"link_name":"spastic paralysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spasticity"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-32"},{"link_name":"tetanospasmin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetanospasmin"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-34"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"}],"text":"A neurotransmitter-filled vesicle before and after exposure to the tetanus toxin. The cleavage of the VAMP protein by the toxin inhibits vesicle fusion and neurotransmitter release into the synapse.Tetanus neurotoxin (TeNT) binds to the presynaptic membrane of the neuromuscular junction, is internalized, and is transported back through the axon until it reaches the central nervous system.[32] Here, it selectively binds to and is transported into inhibitory neurons via endocytosis.[33] It then leaves the vesicle for the neuron cytosol, where it cleaves vesicle associated membrane protein (VAMP) synaptobrevin, which is necessary for membrane fusion of small synaptic vesicles (SSV's).[32] SSV's carry neurotransmitter to the membrane for release, so inhibition of this process blocks neurotransmitter release.[citation needed]Tetanus toxin specifically blocks the release of the neurotransmitters GABA and glycine from inhibitory neurons. These neurotransmitters keep overactive motor neurons from firing, and also play a role in the relaxation of muscles after contraction. When inhibitory neurons are unable to release their neurotransmitters, motor neurons fire out of control, and muscles have difficulty relaxing. This causes the muscle spasms and spastic paralysis seen in tetanus infection.[32]The tetanus toxin, tetanospasmin, is made up of a heavy chain and a light chain. There are three domains, each of which contributes to the pathophysiology of the toxin.[34] The heavy chain has two of the domains. The N-terminal side of the heavy chain helps with membrane translocation, and the C-terminal side helps the toxin locate the specific receptor site on the correct neuron. The light chain domain cleaves the VAMP protein once it arrives in the inhibitory neuron cytosol.[34]There are four main steps in tetanus's mechanism of action: binding to the neuron, internalization of the toxin, membrane translocation, and cleavage of the target VAMP.[35]","title":"Pathophysiology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"neuromuscular junction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuromuscular_junction"},{"link_name":"presynaptic membrane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presynaptic_membrane"},{"link_name":"motor neuron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_neuron"},{"link_name":"glycoproteins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycoprotein"},{"link_name":"glycolipids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycolipid"},{"link_name":"endocytic vesicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endocytosis"},{"link_name":"synaptic cleft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synaptic_cleft"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-33"}],"sub_title":"Neurospecific binding","text":"The toxin travels from the wound site to the neuromuscular junction through the bloodstream, where it binds to the presynaptic membrane of a motor neuron. The heavy chain C-terminal domain aids in the binding to the correct site, recognizing and binding to the correct glycoproteins and glycolipids in the presynaptic membrane. The toxin binds to a site that will be taken into the neuron as an endocytic vesicle that will travel down the axon, past the cell body, and down the dendrites to the dendritic terminal at the spine and central nervous system. Here, it will be released into the synaptic cleft, and allowed to bind with the presynaptic membrane of inhibitory neurons in a similar manner seen with the binding to the motor neuron.[33]","title":"Pathophysiology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"endocytosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endocytosis"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-34"},{"link_name":"depolarization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depolarization"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Internalization","text":"Tetanus toxin is then internalized again via endocytosis, this time, in an acidic vesicle.[34] In a mechanism not well understood, depolarization caused by the firing of the inhibitory neuron causes the toxin to be pulled into the neuron inside vesicles.[citation needed]","title":"Pathophysiology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"hydrophobic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrophobe"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-33"},{"link_name":"ion channel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion_channel"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-32"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"electrochemical gradient","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrochemical_gradient"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"}],"sub_title":"Membrane translocation","text":"The toxin then needs a way to get out of the vesicle and into the neuron cytosol for it to act on its target. The low pH of the vesicle lumen causes a conformational change in the toxin, shifting it from a water-soluble form to a hydrophobic form.[33] With the hydrophobic patches exposed, the toxin can slide into the vesicle membrane. The toxin forms an ion channel in the membrane that is nonspecific for Na+, K+, Ca2+, and Cl− ions.[32] There is a consensus among experts that this new channel is involved in the translocation of the toxin's light chain from the inside of the vesicle to the neuron cytosol, but the mechanism is not well understood or agreed upon. It has been proposed that the channel could allow the light chain (unfolded from the low pH environment) to leave through the toxin pore,[36] or that the pore could alter the electrochemical gradient enough, by letting in or out ions, to cause osmotic lysis of the vesicle, spilling the vesicle's contents.[37]","title":"Pathophysiology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"protease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protease"},{"link_name":"chelators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chelation"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-32"},{"link_name":"GABA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma-Aminobutyric_acid"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"}],"sub_title":"Enzymatic target cleavage","text":"The light chain of the tetanus toxin is zinc-dependent protease. It shares a common zinc protease motif (His-Glu-Xaa-Xaa-His) that researchers hypothesized was essential for target cleavage, until this was more recently confirmed by experiment: when all zinc was removed from the neuron with heavy metal chelators, the toxin was inhibited, only to be reactivated when the zinc was added back in.[32] The light chain binds to VAMP, and cleaves it between Gln76 and Phe77. Without VAMP, vesicles holding the neurotransmitters needed for motor neuron regulation (GABA and glycine) cannot be released, causing the above-mentioned deregulation of motor neurons and muscle tension.[38]","title":"Pathophysiology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"tetanospasmin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetanospasmin"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2012Pink-1"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"posterior","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location#Anterior_and_posterior"},{"link_name":"pharyngeal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharynx"},{"link_name":"gag reflex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharyngeal_reflex"},{"link_name":"specificity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensitivity_and_specificity#Specificity"},{"link_name":"false-positive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_positives_and_false_negatives"},{"link_name":"sensitivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensitivity_and_specificity#Sensitivity"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AJTMH1995-39"}],"text":"There are currently no blood tests for diagnosing tetanus. The diagnosis is based on the presentation of tetanus symptoms, and does not depend upon isolation of the bacterium, which is recovered from the wound in only 30% of cases, and can be isolated from people without tetanus. Laboratory identification of C. tetani can be demonstrated only by production of tetanospasmin in mice.[1] Having recently experienced head trauma may indicate cephalic tetanus if no other diagnosis has been made.[citation needed]The \"spatula test\" is a clinical test for tetanus that involves touching the posterior pharyngeal wall with a soft-tipped instrument and observing the effect. A positive test result is the involuntary contraction of the jaw (biting down on the \"spatula\"), and a negative test result would normally be a gag reflex attempting to expel the foreign object. A short report in The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene states that, in an affected subject research study, the spatula test had a high specificity (zero false-positive test results) and a high sensitivity (94% of infected people produced a positive test).[39]","title":"Diagnosis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"immunity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunity_(medical)"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"vaccination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccination"},{"link_name":"tetanus toxoid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetanus_vaccine"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MMWR_1991-41"},{"link_name":"CDC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention"},{"link_name":"booster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booster_shot"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2012Pink-1"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid1574917-42"},{"link_name":"DPT/DTaP vaccine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DPT_vaccine"},{"link_name":"diphtheria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diphtheria"},{"link_name":"pertussis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pertussis"},{"link_name":"Td vaccine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DPT_vaccine#Excluding_pertussis"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MMWR_1991-41"},{"link_name":"World Health Organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization"},{"link_name":"neonatal tetanus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neonatal_tetanus"},{"link_name":"Uganda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uganda"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"}],"text":"Unlike many infectious diseases, recovery from naturally acquired tetanus does not usually result in immunity. This is due to the extreme potency of the tetanospasmin toxin. Tetanospasmin will likely be lethal before it will provoke an immune response.[40]Tetanus can be prevented by vaccination with tetanus toxoid.[41] The CDC recommends that adults receive a booster vaccine every ten years,[1] and standard care practice in many places is to give the booster to any person with a puncture wound who is uncertain of when he or she was last vaccinated, or if he or she has had fewer than three lifetime doses of the vaccine. The booster may not prevent a potentially fatal case of tetanus from the current wound, however, as it can take up to two weeks for tetanus antibodies to form.[42]In children under the age of seven, the tetanus vaccine is often administered as a combined vaccine, DPT/DTaP vaccine, which also includes vaccines against diphtheria and pertussis. For adults and children over seven, the Td vaccine (tetanus and diphtheria) or Tdap (tetanus, diphtheria, and acellular pertussis) is commonly used.[41]The World Health Organization certifies countries as having eliminated maternal or neonatal tetanus. Certification requires at least two years of rates of less than 1 case per 1,000 live births. In 1998 in Uganda, 3,433 tetanus cases were recorded in newborn babies; of these, 2,403 died. After a major public health effort, Uganda was certified as having eliminated maternal and neonatal tetanus in 2011.[43]","title":"Prevention"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"immunoglobulin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunoglobulin"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-britannica2013-44"},{"link_name":"intravenous therapy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intravenous_therapy"},{"link_name":"intramuscular injection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intramuscular_injection"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2012Pink-1"}],"sub_title":"Post-exposure prophylaxis","text":"Tetanus toxoid can be given in case of suspected exposure to tetanus. In such cases, it can be given with or without tetanus immunoglobulin (also called tetanus antibodies or tetanus antitoxin[44]). It can be given as intravenous therapy or by intramuscular injection.[citation needed]The guidelines for such events in the United States for people at least 11 years old (and not pregnant) are as follows:[1]","title":"Prevention"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tetanus_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg"}],"text":"Tetanus deaths per million persons in 2012 0–1 1–2 2–3 4–8 9–13 14–28 29–151","title":"Treatment"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-World_Health_Organization-45"},{"link_name":"Tetanus immunoglobulin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetanus_immunoglobulin"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2012Pink-1"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-britannica2013-44"},{"link_name":"intravenous therapy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intravenous_therapy"},{"link_name":"intramuscular injection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intramuscular_injection"},{"link_name":"Metronidazole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metronidazole"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-World_Health_Organization-45"},{"link_name":"Benzodiazepines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzodiazepines"},{"link_name":"diazepam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diazepam"},{"link_name":"lorazepam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorazepam"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-World_Health_Organization-45"}],"sub_title":"Mild tetanus","text":"Mild cases of tetanus can be treated with:[45]Tetanus immunoglobulin (TIG),[1] also called tetanus antibodies or tetanus antitoxin.[44] It can be given as intravenous therapy or by intramuscular injection.\nAntibiotic therapy to reduce toxin production. Metronidazole intravenous (IV) is a preferred treatment.[45]\nBenzodiazepines can be used to control muscle spasms. Options include diazepam and lorazepam, oral or IV.[45]","title":"Treatment"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"intensive care","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intensive_care"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-World_Health_Organization-45"},{"link_name":"intrathecally","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrathecal"},{"link_name":"Tracheotomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tracheotomy"},{"link_name":"mechanical ventilation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_ventilation"},{"link_name":"Magnesium sulfate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium_sulfate_(medical_use)"},{"link_name":"Diazepam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diazepam"},{"link_name":"autonomic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system"},{"link_name":"hypotension","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypotension"},{"link_name":"hyperpyrexia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperpyrexia"},{"link_name":"hypothermia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothermia"},{"link_name":"labetalol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labetalol"},{"link_name":"clonidine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clonidine"},{"link_name":"nifedipine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nifedipine"},{"link_name":"muscle relaxants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscle_relaxant"},{"link_name":"curare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curare"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"nutrition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutrition"},{"link_name":"percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percutaneous_endoscopic_gastrostomy"},{"link_name":"parenteral nutrition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parenteral_nutrition"},{"link_name":"axon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axon"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"metronidazole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metronidazole"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-World_Health_Organization-45"},{"link_name":"penicillin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicillin"},{"link_name":"GABA receptor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma-Aminobutyric_acid"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"}],"sub_title":"Severe tetanus","text":"Severe cases will require admission to intensive care. In addition to the measures listed above for mild tetanus:[45]Human tetanus immunoglobulin injected intrathecally (which increases clinical improvement from 4% to 35%).\nTracheotomy and mechanical ventilation for 3 to 4 weeks. Tracheotomy is recommended for securing the airway, because the presence of an endotracheal tube is a stimulus for spasm.\nMagnesium sulfate, as an intravenous infusion, to control spasm and autonomic dysfunction.\nDiazepam as a continuous IV infusion.\nThe autonomic effects of tetanus can be difficult to manage (alternating hyper- and hypotension hyperpyrexia/hypothermia), and may require IV labetalol, magnesium, clonidine, or nifedipine.Drugs, such as diazepam or other muscle relaxants, can be given to control the muscle spasms. In extreme cases, it may be necessary to paralyze the person with curare-like drugs, and use a mechanical ventilator.[citation needed]To survive a tetanus infection, the maintenance of an airway and proper nutrition are required. An intake of 3,500 to 4,000 calories and at least 150 g of protein per day is often given in liquid form through a tube directly into the stomach (percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy), or through a drip into a vein (parenteral nutrition). This high-caloric diet maintenance is required because of the increased metabolic strain brought on by the increased muscle activity. Full recovery takes 4 to 6 weeks, because the body must regenerate destroyed nerve axon terminals.[citation needed]The antibiotic of choice is metronidazole. It can be given as intravenously, by mouth, or by rectum.[46][45] Of likewise efficiency is penicillin, but some raise the concern of provoking spasms because it inhibits GABA receptor, which is already affected by tetanospasmin.[47]","title":"Treatment"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tetanus_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg"},{"link_name":"Disability-adjusted life year","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disability-adjusted_life_year"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GBD2014-7"},{"link_name":"neonatal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neonatal"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2012Pink-1"},{"link_name":"inoculations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inoculation"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2012Pink-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tetanos.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tetanus-deaths-by-age-group.png"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"}],"text":"Disability-adjusted life year for tetanus per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004. no data ≤10 10–25 25–50 50–75 75–100 100–125 125–150 150–200 200–250 250–500 500–750 ≥750In 2013, it caused about 59,000 deaths—down from 356,000 in 1990.[7] Tetanus, notably the neonatal form, remains a significant public health problem in non-industrialized countries, with 59,000 newborns dying worldwide in 2008 as a result of neonatal tetanus.[48][49] In the United States, from 2000 through 2007, an average of 31 cases were reported per year.[1] Nearly all of the cases in the United States occur in unimmunized individuals, or individuals who have allowed their inoculations to lapse.[1]Tetanus cases reported worldwide (1990–2004). Ranging from some (in dark red), to very few (in light yellow) (grey, no data).\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTetanus deaths between 1990 and 2017 by age group.[50]","title":"Epidemiology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"}],"text":"Tetanus is found primarily in goats and sheep. The following are clinical symptoms found in affected goats and sheep. Extended head and neck, tail rigors \n(tail becomes rigid and straight), abnormal gait (walking becomes stiff and abnormal), arched back, stiffness of the jaw muscles, lockjaw,\ntwitching of eyes, drooping eyelids, difficulty swallowing, difficulty or inability to eat and drink, abdominal bloat, spasms (uncontrolled muscular contractions) before death. \nDeath sometimes is due to asphyxiation, secondary to respiratory paralysis.[51]","title":"In animals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PMC1073859-52"},{"link_name":"Arthur Nicolaier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Nicolaier"},{"link_name":"strychnine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strychnine"},{"link_name":"University of Turin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Turin"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2012Pink-1"},{"link_name":"C. tetani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clostridium_tetani"},{"link_name":"Kitasato Shibasaburō","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitasato_Shibasabur%C5%8D"},{"link_name":"antibodies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibodies"},{"link_name":"Edmond Nocard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmond_Nocard"},{"link_name":"passive immunity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive_immunity"},{"link_name":"prophylaxis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prophylaxis"},{"link_name":"vaccine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine"},{"link_name":"P. Descombey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=P._Descombey&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2012Pink-1"}],"text":"Tetanus was well known to ancient civilizations, who recognized the relationship between wounds and fatal muscle spasms.[52] In 1884, Arthur Nicolaier isolated the strychnine-like toxin of tetanus from free-living, anaerobic soil bacteria. The etiology of the disease was further elucidated in 1884 by Antonio Carle and Giorgio Rattone, two pathologists of the University of Turin, who demonstrated the transmissibility of tetanus for the first time. They produced tetanus in rabbits by injecting pus from a person with fatal tetanus into their sciatic nerves, and testing their reactions while tetanus was spreading.[1]In 1891, C. tetani was isolated from a human victim by Kitasato Shibasaburō, who later showed that the organism could produce disease when injected into animals, and that the toxin could be neutralized by specific antibodies. In 1897, Edmond Nocard showed that tetanus antitoxin induced passive immunity in humans, and could be used for prophylaxis and treatment. Tetanus toxoid vaccine was developed by P. Descombey in 1924, and was widely used to prevent tetanus induced by battle wounds during World War II.[1]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ancient Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language"},{"link_name":"romanized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Ancient_Greek"},{"link_name":"lit.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literal_translation"},{"link_name":"Ancient Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language"},{"link_name":"romanized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Ancient_Greek"},{"link_name":"lit.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literal_translation"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"}],"sub_title":"Etymology","text":"The word tetanus comes from the Ancient Greek: τέτανος, romanized: tetanos, lit. 'taut', which is further from the Ancient Greek: τείνειν, romanized: teinein, lit. 'to stretch'.[53]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"vitamin C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_C"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"}],"text":"There is insufficient evidence that tetanus can be treated or prevented by vitamin C. This is at least partially due to the fact that the historical trials that were conducted in attempts to look for a possible connection between vitamin C and alleviating tetanus patients were of poor quality.[54]","title":"Research"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Clostridium tetani is durable due to its endospores. Pictured is the bacterium alone, with a spore being produced, and the spore alone.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Clostridium_Tetani.svg/220px-Clostridium_Tetani.svg.png"},{"image_text":"A neurotransmitter-filled vesicle before and after exposure to the tetanus toxin. The cleavage of the VAMP protein by the toxin inhibits vesicle fusion and neurotransmitter release into the synapse.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Neurotransmitter_vesicle_before_and_after_exposure_to_Tetanus_Toxin.jpg/310px-Neurotransmitter_vesicle_before_and_after_exposure_to_Tetanus_Toxin.jpg"},{"image_text":"Tetanus deaths per million persons in 2012 0–1 1–2 2–3 4–8 9–13 14–28 29–151","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Tetanus_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg/290px-Tetanus_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Disability-adjusted life year for tetanus per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004. no data ≤10 10–25 25–50 50–75 75–100 100–125 125–150 150–200 200–250 250–500 500–750 ≥750 ","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Tetanus_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg/290px-Tetanus_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg.png"}]
|
[{"title":"Renshaw cell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renshaw_cell"},{"title":"Tetanized state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetanized_state"}]
|
[{"reference":"Atkinson, William (May 2012). Tetanus Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases (12 ed.). Public Health Foundation. pp. 291–300. ISBN 9780983263135. Archived from the original on February 13, 2015. Retrieved 12 February 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/pubs/pinkbook/tetanus.html","url_text":"Tetanus Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780983263135","url_text":"9780983263135"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150213010501/http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/pubs/pinkbook/tetanus.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Tetanus Symptoms and Complications\". cdc.gov. January 9, 2013. Archived from the original on 12 February 2015. Retrieved 12 February 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cdc.gov/tetanus/about/symptoms-complications.html","url_text":"\"Tetanus Symptoms and Complications\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150212225108/http://www.cdc.gov/tetanus/about/symptoms-complications.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Tetanus Causes and Transmission\". www.cdc.gov. January 9, 2013. Archived from the original on 12 February 2015. Retrieved 12 February 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cdc.gov/tetanus/about/causes-transmission.html","url_text":"\"Tetanus Causes and Transmission\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150212223308/http://www.cdc.gov/tetanus/about/causes-transmission.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Tetanus For Clinicians\". cdc.gov. January 9, 2013. Archived from the original on 12 February 2015. Retrieved 12 February 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cdc.gov/tetanus/clinicians.html","url_text":"\"Tetanus For Clinicians\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150212224705/http://www.cdc.gov/tetanus/clinicians.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Vos T, Allen C, Arora M, Barber RM, Bhutta ZA, Brown A, et al. (GBD 2015 Disease and Injury Incidence and Prevalence Collaborators) (October 2016). \"Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 310 diseases and injuries, 1990-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015\". Lancet. 388 (10053): 1545–1602. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31678-6. PMC 5055577. PMID 27733282.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5055577","url_text":"\"Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 310 diseases and injuries, 1990-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2816%2931678-6","url_text":"10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31678-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5055577","url_text":"5055577"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27733282","url_text":"27733282"}]},{"reference":"Wang H, Naghavi M, Allen C, Barber RM, Bhutta ZA, Carter A, et al. (GBD 2015 Mortality and Causes of Death Collaborators) (October 2016). \"Global, regional, and national life expectancy, all-cause mortality, and cause-specific mortality for 249 causes of death, 1980-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015\". Lancet. 388 (10053): 1459–1544. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31012-1. PMC 5388903. PMID 27733281.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5388903","url_text":"\"Global, regional, and national life expectancy, all-cause mortality, and cause-specific mortality for 249 causes of death, 1980-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2816%2931012-1","url_text":"10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31012-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5388903","url_text":"5388903"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27733281","url_text":"27733281"}]},{"reference":"Naghavi M, Wang H, Lozano R, Davis A, Liang X, Zhou M, et al. 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data"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/4190325-0","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007531729705171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85134166","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00563005","external_links_name":"Japan"},{"Link":"https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph922721&CON_LNG=ENG","external_links_name":"Czech Republic"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michal_Aharon
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Michal Aharon
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["1 Education and career","2 References","3 External links"]
|
Israeli computer scientist
Michal AharonAlma materTechnion – Israel Institute of TechnologyOccupationComputer scientist at Yahoo!
Michal Aharon is an Israeli computer scientist known for her research on sparse dictionary learning, image denoising, and the K-SVD algorithm in machine learning. She is a researcher on advertisement ranking for Yahoo! in Haifa.
Education and career
Aharon was a student at the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology, earning bachelor's and master's degrees there in 2001 and 2004, and completing her Ph.D. in 2006. Her dissertation, Learning Dictionaries for Sparse Representations, was supervised by Michael Elad.
After working for HP Labs in Haifa, Aharon moved to Yahoo! Labs in 2011. In 2014, she became head of the Yahoo! ad ranking science team, which develops algorithms for advertisement selection for Yahoo! Native.
References
^ "Michal Aharon", IEEE Xplore, IEEE, retrieved 2022-01-27
^ Michal Aharon at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
^ "Speaker biographies", DMBI 2017, retrieved 2022-01-27
External links
Michal Aharon publications indexed by Google Scholar
Authority control databases: Academics
Google Scholar
MathSciNet
Mathematics Genealogy Project
This article about an Israeli scientist is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
P ≟ NP This biographical article relating to a computer scientist is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"sparse dictionary learning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparse_dictionary_learning"},{"link_name":"image denoising","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_denoising"},{"link_name":"K-SVD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K-SVD"},{"link_name":"machine learning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_learning"},{"link_name":"advertisement ranking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_Score"},{"link_name":"Yahoo!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahoo!"},{"link_name":"Haifa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haifa"}],"text":"Michal Aharon is an Israeli computer scientist known for her research on sparse dictionary learning, image denoising, and the K-SVD algorithm in machine learning. She is a researcher on advertisement ranking for Yahoo! in Haifa.","title":"Michal Aharon"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Technion – Israel Institute of Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technion_%E2%80%93_Israel_Institute_of_Technology"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-x-1"},{"link_name":"Michael Elad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Elad"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mg-2"},{"link_name":"HP Labs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_Labs"},{"link_name":"Yahoo! Native","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahoo!_Native"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dmbi-3"}],"text":"Aharon was a student at the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology, earning bachelor's and master's degrees there in 2001 and 2004,[1] and completing her Ph.D. in 2006. Her dissertation, Learning Dictionaries for Sparse Representations, was supervised by Michael Elad.[2]After working for HP Labs in Haifa, Aharon moved to Yahoo! Labs in 2011. In 2014, she became head of the Yahoo! ad ranking science team, which develops algorithms for advertisement selection for Yahoo! Native.[3]","title":"Education and career"}]
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[]
| null |
[{"reference":"\"Michal Aharon\", IEEE Xplore, IEEE, retrieved 2022-01-27","urls":[{"url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/author/37829920600","url_text":"\"Michal Aharon\""}]},{"reference":"\"Speaker biographies\", DMBI 2017, retrieved 2022-01-27","urls":[{"url":"https://bgu-sise.wixsite.com/dmbi2017","url_text":"\"Speaker biographies\""}]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/author/37829920600","external_links_name":"\"Michal Aharon\""},{"Link":"https://mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=113492","external_links_name":"Michal Aharon"},{"Link":"https://bgu-sise.wixsite.com/dmbi2017","external_links_name":"\"Speaker biographies\""},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=jbGNKU8AAAAJ","external_links_name":"Michal Aharon"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=jbGNKU8AAAAJ","external_links_name":"Google Scholar"},{"Link":"https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet/MRAuthorID/787081","external_links_name":"MathSciNet"},{"Link":"https://www.mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=113492","external_links_name":"Mathematics Genealogy Project"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Michal_Aharon&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Michal_Aharon&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948_Progressive_National_Convention
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1948 Progressive National Convention
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["1 Background","2 Vice presidential running mate","3 The convention","4 The platform","5 Supporters","6 Election outcome","7 References"]
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The 1948 Progressive National Convention was held in Philadelphia from July 23 to 25, 1948. The convention ratified the candidacies of former Vice President Henry A. Wallace from Iowa for president and U.S. Senator Glen H. Taylor of Idaho for vice president. The Progressive Party's platform opposed the Cold War and emphasized foreign policy.
Henry A. Wallace, 1940
Background
Henry Wallace who formed the Progressive Party in 1948 was deemed one of the most liberal idealists in the Roosevelt administration. He was the secretary of agriculture before he served as FDR's vice president during his (1941–45) third term, but was dropped from the ticket for the 1944 election. He later became secretary of commerce under FDR. Roosevelt died during his fourth term and Vice President Harry S. Truman succeeded to the presidency. He further resented Truman after the president fired Wallace, from his cabinet in 1946. In a speech, Wallace had broken with administration policy and became a public advocate for peaceful coexistence with the Soviet Union. Truman was unpopular in 1947, and some polls from the end of that year showed that Wallace had the support of more than 20% of the voters. Wallace started a left-wing independent candidacy under the name of the Progressive Party, named after two previous parties who used the name for the 1912 election and the 1924 election. He was supported by the American Labor Party, the Progressive Citizens of America, and other progressive groups in Illinois and California. Wallace would announce his candidacy in December 1947. The formal launch of the Progressive party was held in Philadelphia the following July.
Vice presidential running mate
Wallace wanted a US Senator as his running mate, as he thought a Senator would add legitimacy and popular appeal to his fledgling party. After Florida Senator Claude Pepper declined Wallace's entreaties, Wallace approached Idaho Senator Glen H. Taylor about being his running mate. Taylor, a first term Democratic Senator, shared Wallace's concerns about President Truman, but was worried about his own career. A former country music singer, Taylor did not have a lucrative career to fall back on, and took his time considering Wallace's offer. Finally, Taylor accepted Wallace's offer, motivated by fears about rising Cold War tensions. In February 1948, Wallace announced that Senator Taylor had agreed to become his running mate.
The convention
By the time of the convention, the Wallace campaign had already peaked. Wallace's criticism of the Marshall Plan and "red baiting", had left Wallace and his supporters open to the charge of being "fellow travellers" if not being outright communists, a charge that was, for some at least, quite true.
Progressive Citizens of America party members. Left to right, seated, are Henry A. Wallace and Elliott Roosevelt; standing are Dr. Harlow Shapley and Jo Davidson.
The convention began on July 23, 1948, at the Municipal Auditorium. Among the delegates were such past and future luminaries as H.L. Mencken, Norman Mailer, Norman Thomas, Pete Seeger and George McGovern. There were also numerous FBI agents. The first item on the agenda was to formally name the party the Progressives. Wallace and Taylor were nominated by acclamation.
Wallace and Taylor accepted their nominations at the Shibe Park baseball stadium.
The platform
The platform opposed the Cold War and emphasized foreign policy. They called for the end of the Marshall Plan, Truman Doctrine, and nuclear weapons. They promoted coexistence with the Soviets and support for Israel. In domestic policy, the party supported civil rights, worker's rights and women's rights.
Supporters
Underrepresented groups such as women, blacks, Hispanics, Jews, and youth were very active in the Progressive movement. The Communist Party was another supporter of the Progressive party. Wallace accepted the Communist Party's endorsement, characterizing his philosophy as "progressive capitalism". Their endorsement brought damage to the life of the party which was now portrayed as a left-wing front.
Election outcome
Democratic nominee President Harry S. Truman with running mate Senator Alben Barkley from Kentucky, defeated Republican nominee Governor Thomas E. Dewey of New York and running mate Governor Earl Warren of California. Henry Wallace's Progressive Party received no electoral votes, but received 1,156,103 popular votes, coming in fourth place behind the States' Rights Democratic party, or the Dixiecrats.
Presidential candidate
Political party
Electoral votes
Popular votes
Harry S. Truman
Democratic
303
24,105,695
Thomas E. Dewey
Republican
189
21,969,170
Strom Thurmond
States' Rights Democratic (Dixiecrat)
39
1,169,021
Henry Wallace
Progressive Party
0
1,156,103
References
^ "Political Conventions | Encyclopedia of Greater Philadelphia". philadelphiaencyclopedia.org. Retrieved 2019-04-30.
^ a b c d e Tarr, David (2012). Elections A to Z. USF ONLINE RESOURCE General Collection: SAGE Publications. pp. 491–492. ISBN 9780872897694.
^ Peterson, F. Ross (2015). Prophet Without Honor: Glen H. Taylor and the Fight for American Liberalism. University Press of Kentucky. pp. 99–101. ISBN 9780813164021.
^ a b c Flint, Peter B. (May 5, 1984). "GLEN H. TAYLOR OF IDAHO DIES; WALLACE RUNNING MATE IN '48". The New York Times. Retrieved 2019-04-30.
^ Richard J. Walton, Henry Wallace, Harry Truman and the Cold War, New York: Viking, 1976.
^ Times, W. h Lawrencespecial To the New York (1948-07-24). "'Wallace or War' Keynotes Progressive Party Conclave; Group's Name Is Adopted by Delegates, Who Hear That Peace, Prices and Race Relations Are Big Issues of 1948 Campaign A DEMONSTRATION AT PROGRESSIVE PARTY CONCLAVE IN PHILADELPHIA 'WALLACE OR WAR' CALLED '48 CHOICE". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2019-04-30.
^ "United States presidential election of 1948 | United States government". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2019-04-30.
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Henry-A.-Wallace-Townsend.jpeg"}],"text":"Henry A. Wallace, 1940","title":"1948 Progressive National Convention"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Henry Wallace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_A._Wallace"},{"link_name":"Progressive Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_Party_(United_States,_1948)"},{"link_name":"Roosevelt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"secretary of agriculture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Agriculture"},{"link_name":"secretary of commerce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Commerce"},{"link_name":"Harry S. Truman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_S._Truman"},{"link_name":"Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"American Labor Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Labor_Party"},{"link_name":"Progressive Citizens of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_Citizens_of_America"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"Philadelphia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphia"}],"text":"Henry Wallace who formed the Progressive Party in 1948 was deemed one of the most liberal idealists in the Roosevelt administration.[2] He was the secretary of agriculture before he served as FDR's vice president during his (1941–45) third term, but was dropped from the ticket for the 1944 election. He later became secretary of commerce under FDR. Roosevelt died during his fourth term and Vice President Harry S. Truman succeeded to the presidency. He further resented Truman after the president fired Wallace, from his cabinet in 1946. In a speech, Wallace had broken with administration policy and became a public advocate for peaceful coexistence with the Soviet Union. Truman was unpopular in 1947, and some polls from the end of that year showed that Wallace had the support of more than 20% of the voters. Wallace started a left-wing independent candidacy under the name of the Progressive Party, named after two previous parties who used the name for the 1912 election and the 1924 election. He was supported by the American Labor Party, the Progressive Citizens of America, and other progressive groups in Illinois and California.[2] Wallace would announce his candidacy in December 1947. The formal launch of the Progressive party was held in Philadelphia the following July.","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Claude Pepper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Pepper"},{"link_name":"Glen H. Taylor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glen_H._Taylor"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-4"},{"link_name":"Cold War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-4"}],"text":"Wallace wanted a US Senator as his running mate, as he thought a Senator would add legitimacy and popular appeal to his fledgling party.[3] After Florida Senator Claude Pepper declined Wallace's entreaties, Wallace approached Idaho Senator Glen H. Taylor about being his running mate. Taylor, a first term Democratic Senator, shared Wallace's concerns about President Truman, but was worried about his own career.[4] A former country music singer, Taylor did not have a lucrative career to fall back on, and took his time considering Wallace's offer.[4] Finally, Taylor accepted Wallace's offer, motivated by fears about rising Cold War tensions.[4] In February 1948, Wallace announced that Senator Taylor had agreed to become his running mate.","title":"Vice presidential running mate"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Marshall Plan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_Plan"},{"link_name":"red baiting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_baiting"},{"link_name":"fellow travellers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellow_travellers"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Progressive-Citizens-of-America-1947.jpg"},{"link_name":"Municipal Auditorium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphia_Convention_Hall_and_Civic_Center"},{"link_name":"H.L. Mencken","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H.L._Mencken"},{"link_name":"Norman Mailer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_Mailer"},{"link_name":"Norman Thomas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_Thomas"},{"link_name":"Pete Seeger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pete_Seeger"},{"link_name":"George McGovern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_McGovern"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Shibe Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shibe_Park"}],"text":"By the time of the convention, the Wallace campaign had already peaked.[5] Wallace's criticism of the Marshall Plan and \"red baiting\", had left Wallace and his supporters open to the charge of being \"fellow travellers\" if not being outright communists, a charge that was, for some at least, quite true.Progressive Citizens of America party members. Left to right, seated, are Henry A. Wallace and Elliott Roosevelt; standing are Dr. Harlow Shapley and Jo Davidson.The convention began on July 23, 1948, at the Municipal Auditorium. Among the delegates were such past and future luminaries as H.L. Mencken, Norman Mailer, Norman Thomas, Pete Seeger and George McGovern. There were also numerous FBI agents. The first item on the agenda was to formally name the party the Progressives.[6] Wallace and Taylor were nominated by acclamation.Wallace and Taylor accepted their nominations at the Shibe Park baseball stadium.","title":"The convention"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Marshall Plan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_Plan"},{"link_name":"Truman Doctrine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truman_Doctrine"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"}],"text":"The platform opposed the Cold War and emphasized foreign policy. They called for the end of the Marshall Plan, Truman Doctrine, and nuclear weapons. They promoted coexistence with the Soviets and support for Israel. In domestic policy, the party supported civil rights, worker's rights and women's rights.[2]","title":"The platform"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"}],"text":"Underrepresented groups such as women, blacks, Hispanics, Jews, and youth were very active in the Progressive movement. The Communist Party was another supporter of the Progressive party. Wallace accepted the Communist Party's endorsement, characterizing his philosophy as \"progressive capitalism\".[2] Their endorsement brought damage to the life of the party which was now portrayed as a left-wing front.","title":"Supporters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Alben Barkley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alben_W._Barkley"},{"link_name":"Thomas E. Dewey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_E._Dewey"},{"link_name":"New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_(state)"},{"link_name":"Earl Warren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl_Warren"},{"link_name":"California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California"},{"link_name":"States' Rights Democratic party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dixiecrat"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"Democratic nominee President Harry S. Truman with running mate Senator Alben Barkley from Kentucky, defeated Republican nominee Governor Thomas E. Dewey of New York and running mate Governor Earl Warren of California. Henry Wallace's Progressive Party received no electoral votes, but received 1,156,103 popular votes, coming in fourth place behind the States' Rights Democratic party, or the Dixiecrats.[7]","title":"Election outcome"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Henry A. Wallace, 1940","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Henry-A.-Wallace-Townsend.jpeg/220px-Henry-A.-Wallace-Townsend.jpeg"},{"image_text":"Progressive Citizens of America party members. Left to right, seated, are Henry A. Wallace and Elliott Roosevelt; standing are Dr. Harlow Shapley and Jo Davidson.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Progressive-Citizens-of-America-1947.jpg/250px-Progressive-Citizens-of-America-1947.jpg"}]
| null |
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|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brielle
|
Brielle
|
["1 History","2 Twin cities","3 Notable people","4 See also","5 Gallery","6 References","7 External links"]
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Coordinates: 51°54′N 4°10′E / 51.900°N 4.167°E / 51.900; 4.167This article is about the city and former municipality in the Netherlands. For the borough in New Jersey, see Brielle, New Jersey.
City in South Holland, NetherlandsBrielle
BrillCityHistoric city centre
FlagCoat of armsLocation in South HollandCoordinates: 51°54′N 4°10′E / 51.900°N 4.167°E / 51.900; 4.167CountryNetherlandsProvinceSouth HollandMunicipalityVoorne aan ZeeArea • Total31.14 km2 (12.02 sq mi) • Land27.55 km2 (10.64 sq mi) • Water3.59 km2 (1.39 sq mi)Elevation2 m (7 ft)Population (January 2021) • Total17,439 • Density633/km2 (1,640/sq mi)DemonymBriellenaarTime zoneUTC+1 (CET) • Summer (DST)UTC+2 (CEST)Postcode3230–3232Area code0181Websitewww.brielle.nl
Dutch Topographic map of Brielle, June 2015
Brielle (pronounced ⓘ), also called Den Briel in Dutch and Brill in English, is a town and historic seaport in the western Netherlands, in the province of South Holland, on the north side of the island of Voorne-Putten, at the mouth of the New Maas. The former municipality covered an area of 31.14 km2 (12.02 sq mi) of which 3.59 km2 (1.39 sq mi) was water. In 2021 its population was 17,439.
The former municipality of Brielle also included the communities of Vierpolders and Zwartewaal.
On 1 January 2023, the municipality of Brielle merged with Hellevoetsluis and Westvoorne into the new municipality of Voorne aan Zee.
History
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Brielle is a very old, fortified city. Its name is derived from the Celtic word brogilo (meaning "closed area" or "hunting grounds"). The oldest writings about Brielle indicate that the current location is the "new" Brielle. Den ouden Briel (Old Brill) must have been situated somewhere else on the Voorne-Putten Island. It received city rights in 1306. The city was for a long time the seat of the Count of Voorne, until this fiefdom was added to Holland in 1371. It had its own harbour and traded with the countries around the Baltic Sea. Brielle even had its own trading colony in Sweden.
Historic parade in Den Briel to celebrate the 540th anniversary of the Capture of Brielle on April 1st, 2012. The leaders of the sea beggars, William II de La Marck, Lord Lumey (middle), Willem Bloys van Treslong (left) and Lenaert Jansz de Graeff (right).
During the Eighty Years' War between the Netherlands and Spain, the Capture of Brielle on April 1, 1572, by Protestant rebels, the Watergeuzen, marked a turning point in the conflict, as many towns in Holland then began to support William of Orange against the Spanish Duke Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba who was sent to pacify The Netherlands. This event is still celebrated each year on April 1 and the night before (known as Chalk Night (kalknacht) when the city is defaced with chalk - and now also white paint). Dutch students are taught a short rhyme to remember this fact, which rhyme refers to April Fools' Day:
Op 1 april verloor Alva de bril.
Op April zes verloor Alva zijn fles
On April 1st, Alva lost his glasses
On April 6th Alva lost his bottle
In Dutch, "de bril" is the word for "the glasses," and closely rhymes with Den Briel; as does "Fles" which stands for the town of Vlissingen or Flushing, the next town to be captured by the Dutch rebels.
After the capture of Brielle the Protestant rebels tortured and murdered the Catholic Martyrs of Gorkum and Brielle has become a pilgrimage location since then.
In August 1585, Brielle was one of the three Dutch towns that became an English possession by the Treaty of Nonsuch when Queen Elizabeth I received it as security of payment for 5000 soldiers (led by the Earl of Leicester) and used by the Dutch in their struggle against the Spanish. The first English governor of Brielle was Thomas Cecil, 1st Earl of Exeter, succeeded by Edward Conway, 1st Viscount Conway who named his daughter Brilliana in honour of the city. English garrisons were stationed here and at Flushing. In 1617, these cities returned to the Netherlands.
Twin cities
Brielle is twinned with:
Queenborough, on the Isle of Sheppey, in Kent, since 1967
Havlíčkův Brod, Czech Republic, since 1985
Notable people
Witte Cornelisz de With
Anneke Esaiasdochter (1509 in Brielle – 1539), a Dutch Anabaptist executed as a heretic, a Protestant martyr.
Willem Bloys van Treslong (1529–1594), a nobleman, lead the Sea Beggars and the Capture of Brielle in 1572.
Maarten Tromp (1598 in Brielle – 1653), a Dutch army general and admiral in the Dutch navy
Witte de With (1599 in Hoogendijk – 1658), a Dutch naval officer during the Eighty Years War and the First Anglo-Dutch war
Ludowyk Smits (1635 in Zwartewaal – 1707), a Dutch Golden Age painter
Philips van Almonde (1644 in Den Briel – 1711), a Dutch Lieutenant Admiral
Constantijn van Daalen (1884 in Brielle – 1931), a Dutch gymnast who competed in the 1908 Summer Olympics
Toon Tellegen (born 1941 in Brielle), a Dutch writer and poet, known for children's books and a physician
See also
Historisch Museum Den Briel
Gallery
Brielle, church: de Sint Catharijne kerk
Brielle, monumental houses at the Wellerondom
Brielle - panoramio
Brielle, former orphanage
Brielle, monumental houses Vischstraat
References
^ "Kerncijfers wijken en buurten 2020" . StatLine (in Dutch). CBS. 24 July 2020. Retrieved 19 September 2020.
^ "Postcodetool for 3231AP". Actueel Hoogtebestand Nederland (in Dutch). Het Waterschapshuis. Retrieved 16 July 2013.
^ "Bevolkingsontwikkeling; regio per maand" . CBS Statline (in Dutch). CBS. 1 January 2021. Retrieved 2 January 2022.
^ Garrett Mattingly (1959), The Armada, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, Ch. V, "Plans of Operations", p. 44.
External links
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Brielle".
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Brielle.
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Brielle.
Official website (some pages in English)
http://www.catharijnekerk.nl Website of St Catharijnekerk
Places adjacent to Brielle
RotterdamHartel Canal
Westvoorne
Brielle
Hellevoetsluis
Nissewaard
Authority control databases International
VIAF
National
Czech Republic
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Brielle, New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brielle,_New_Jersey"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gem-Brielle-OpenTopo.jpg"},{"link_name":"[ˈbrilə]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Dutch"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/72/Nl-Brielle.ogg/Nl-Brielle.ogg.mp3"},{"link_name":"ⓘ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nl-Brielle.ogg"},{"link_name":"Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands"},{"link_name":"South Holland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Holland"},{"link_name":"Voorne-Putten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voorne-Putten"},{"link_name":"Vierpolders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vierpolders"},{"link_name":"Zwartewaal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zwartewaal"},{"link_name":"Hellevoetsluis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellevoetsluis"},{"link_name":"Westvoorne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westvoorne"},{"link_name":"Voorne aan Zee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voorne_aan_Zee"}],"text":"This article is about the city and former municipality in the Netherlands. For the borough in New Jersey, see Brielle, New Jersey.City in South Holland, NetherlandsDutch Topographic map of Brielle, June 2015Brielle (pronounced [ˈbrilə] ⓘ), also called Den Briel in Dutch and Brill in English, is a town and historic seaport in the western Netherlands, in the province of South Holland, on the north side of the island of Voorne-Putten, at the mouth of the New Maas. The former municipality covered an area of 31.14 km2 (12.02 sq mi) of which 3.59 km2 (1.39 sq mi) was water. In 2021 its population was 17,439.The former municipality of Brielle also included the communities of Vierpolders and Zwartewaal.On 1 January 2023, the municipality of Brielle merged with Hellevoetsluis and Westvoorne into the new municipality of Voorne aan Zee.","title":"Brielle"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Voorne-Putten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voorne-Putten"},{"link_name":"city rights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_rights_in_the_Netherlands"},{"link_name":"fiefdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiefdom"},{"link_name":"Baltic Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_Sea"},{"link_name":"Sweden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Watergeuzen_leaders_William_van_der_Marck,_Willem_Bloys_van_Treslong,_Lenaert_Jansz_de_Graeff_(Capture_of_Brielle,_NL,_April_1st_1572).jpg"},{"link_name":"William II de La Marck, Lord Lumey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_II_de_La_Marck"},{"link_name":"Willem Bloys van Treslong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willem_Bloys_van_Treslong"},{"link_name":"Lenaert Jansz de Graeff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenaert_Jansz_de_Graeff"},{"link_name":"Eighty Years' War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War"},{"link_name":"Capture of Brielle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capture_of_Brielle"},{"link_name":"Watergeuzen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_Gueux"},{"link_name":"William of Orange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_I_of_Orange"},{"link_name":"Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernando_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo,_3rd_Duke_of_Alba"},{"link_name":"April Fools' Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_Fools%27_Day"},{"link_name":"Vlissingen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vlissingen"},{"link_name":"Martyrs of Gorkum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martyrs_of_Gorkum"},{"link_name":"one of the three Dutch towns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cautionary_Towns"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Nonsuch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Nonsuch"},{"link_name":"Queen Elizabeth I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England"},{"link_name":"Earl of Leicester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl_of_Leicester"},{"link_name":"Thomas Cecil, 1st Earl of Exeter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Cecil,_1st_Earl_of_Exeter"},{"link_name":"Edward Conway, 1st Viscount Conway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Conway,_1st_Viscount_Conway"},{"link_name":"Brilliana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brilliana_Harley"},{"link_name":"Flushing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vlissingen"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Brielle is a very old, fortified city. Its name is derived from the Celtic word brogilo (meaning \"closed area\" or \"hunting grounds\"). The oldest writings about Brielle indicate that the current location is the \"new\" Brielle. Den ouden Briel (Old Brill) must have been situated somewhere else on the Voorne-Putten Island. It received city rights in 1306. The city was for a long time the seat of the Count of Voorne, until this fiefdom was added to Holland in 1371. It had its own harbour and traded with the countries around the Baltic Sea. Brielle even had its own trading colony in Sweden.Historic parade in Den Briel to celebrate the 540th anniversary of the Capture of Brielle on April 1st, 2012. The leaders of the sea beggars, William II de La Marck, Lord Lumey (middle), Willem Bloys van Treslong (left) and Lenaert Jansz de Graeff (right).During the Eighty Years' War between the Netherlands and Spain, the Capture of Brielle on April 1, 1572, by Protestant rebels, the Watergeuzen, marked a turning point in the conflict, as many towns in Holland then began to support William of Orange against the Spanish Duke Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba who was sent to pacify The Netherlands. This event is still celebrated each year on April 1 and the night before (known as Chalk Night (kalknacht) when the city is defaced with chalk - and now also white paint). Dutch students are taught a short rhyme to remember this fact, which rhyme refers to April Fools' Day:In Dutch, \"de bril\" is the word for \"the glasses,\" and closely rhymes with Den Briel; as does \"Fles\" which stands for the town of Vlissingen or Flushing, the next town to be captured by the Dutch rebels.After the capture of Brielle the Protestant rebels tortured and murdered the Catholic Martyrs of Gorkum and Brielle has become a pilgrimage location since then.In August 1585, Brielle was one of the three Dutch towns that became an English possession by the Treaty of Nonsuch when Queen Elizabeth I received it as security of payment for 5000 soldiers (led by the Earl of Leicester) and used by the Dutch in their struggle against the Spanish. The first English governor of Brielle was Thomas Cecil, 1st Earl of Exeter, succeeded by Edward Conway, 1st Viscount Conway who named his daughter Brilliana in honour of the city. English garrisons were stationed here and at Flushing.[4] In 1617, these cities returned to the Netherlands.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"twinned","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Town_twinning"}],"text":"Brielle is twinned with:","title":"Twin cities"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Witte_Cornelisz_de_With_(1599%E2%80%931658),_by_Abraham_van_Westerveldt.jpg"},{"link_name":"Anneke Esaiasdochter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anneke_Esaiasdochter"},{"link_name":"Anabaptist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anabaptist"},{"link_name":"Willem Bloys van Treslong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willem_Bloys_van_Treslong"},{"link_name":"Sea Beggars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geuzen"},{"link_name":"Capture of Brielle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capture_of_Brielle"},{"link_name":"Maarten Tromp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maarten_Tromp"},{"link_name":"Witte de With","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witte_de_With"},{"link_name":"Eighty Years War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eighty_Years_War"},{"link_name":"First Anglo-Dutch war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Anglo-Dutch_war"},{"link_name":"Ludowyk Smits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludowyk_Smits"},{"link_name":"Dutch Golden Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_Golden_Age"},{"link_name":"Philips van Almonde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philips_van_Almonde"},{"link_name":"Lieutenant Admiral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieutenant_Admiral"},{"link_name":"Constantijn van Daalen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantijn_van_Daalen"},{"link_name":"1908 Summer Olympics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1908_Summer_Olympics"},{"link_name":"Toon Tellegen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toon_Tellegen"}],"text":"Witte Cornelisz de WithAnneke Esaiasdochter (1509 in Brielle – 1539), a Dutch Anabaptist executed as a heretic, a Protestant martyr.\nWillem Bloys van Treslong (1529–1594), a nobleman, lead the Sea Beggars and the Capture of Brielle in 1572.\nMaarten Tromp (1598 in Brielle – 1653), a Dutch army general and admiral in the Dutch navy\nWitte de With (1599 in Hoogendijk – 1658), a Dutch naval officer during the Eighty Years War and the First Anglo-Dutch war\nLudowyk Smits (1635 in Zwartewaal – 1707), a Dutch Golden Age painter\nPhilips van Almonde (1644 in Den Briel – 1711), a Dutch Lieutenant Admiral\nConstantijn van Daalen (1884 in Brielle – 1931), a Dutch gymnast who competed in the 1908 Summer Olympics\nToon Tellegen (born 1941 in Brielle), a Dutch writer and poet, known for children's books and a physician","title":"Notable people"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brielle,_Sint_Catharijnekerk_positie2_foto1_2011-06-26_14.21.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brielle,_het_Wellerondom_foto5_2011-06-26_14.04.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Briele_9-10-2004_-_panoramio.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brielle,_voormalig_weeshuis_in_monumentaal_pand_RM10647_foto3_2011-06-26_14.16.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brielle,_monumentaal_panden_aan_de_Vischstraat_21_en_23_2011-06-26_13.07.JPG"}],"text":"Brielle, church: de Sint Catharijne kerk\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tBrielle, monumental houses at the Wellerondom\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tBrielle - panoramio\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tBrielle, former orphanage\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tBrielle, monumental houses Vischstraat","title":"Gallery"}]
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[{"image_text":"Dutch Topographic map of Brielle, June 2015","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Gem-Brielle-OpenTopo.jpg/300px-Gem-Brielle-OpenTopo.jpg"},{"image_text":"Historic parade in Den Briel to celebrate the 540th anniversary of the Capture of Brielle on April 1st, 2012. The leaders of the sea beggars, William II de La Marck, Lord Lumey (middle), Willem Bloys van Treslong (left) and Lenaert Jansz de Graeff (right).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/The_Watergeuzen_leaders_William_van_der_Marck%2C_Willem_Bloys_van_Treslong%2C_Lenaert_Jansz_de_Graeff_%28Capture_of_Brielle%2C_NL%2C_April_1st_1572%29.jpg/220px-The_Watergeuzen_leaders_William_van_der_Marck%2C_Willem_Bloys_van_Treslong%2C_Lenaert_Jansz_de_Graeff_%28Capture_of_Brielle%2C_NL%2C_April_1st_1572%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Witte Cornelisz de With","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Witte_Cornelisz_de_With_%281599%E2%80%931658%29%2C_by_Abraham_van_Westerveldt.jpg/140px-Witte_Cornelisz_de_With_%281599%E2%80%931658%29%2C_by_Abraham_van_Westerveldt.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Historisch Museum Den Briel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historisch_Museum_Den_Briel"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Kerncijfers wijken en buurten 2020\" [Key figures for neighbourhoods 2020]. StatLine (in Dutch). CBS. 24 July 2020. Retrieved 19 September 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://opendata.cbs.nl/statline/#/CBS/nl/dataset/84799NED/table?dl=41062","url_text":"\"Kerncijfers wijken en buurten 2020\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics_Netherlands","url_text":"CBS"}]},{"reference":"\"Postcodetool for 3231AP\". Actueel Hoogtebestand Nederland (in Dutch). Het Waterschapshuis. Retrieved 16 July 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ahn.nl/postcodetool","url_text":"\"Postcodetool for 3231AP\""}]},{"reference":"\"Bevolkingsontwikkeling; regio per maand\" [Population growth; regions per month]. CBS Statline (in Dutch). CBS. 1 January 2021. Retrieved 2 January 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/publication/?DM=SLNL&PA=37230NED&D1=17-18&D2=57-650&D3=l&LA=EN&HDR=T&STB=G1,G2&VW=T","url_text":"\"Bevolkingsontwikkeling; regio per maand\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics_Netherlands","url_text":"CBS"}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Brielle¶ms=51_54_N_4_10_E_region:NL_type:city(17439)","external_links_name":"51°54′N 4°10′E / 51.900°N 4.167°E / 51.900; 4.167"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Brielle¶ms=51_54_N_4_10_E_region:NL_type:city(17439)","external_links_name":"51°54′N 4°10′E / 51.900°N 4.167°E / 51.900; 4.167"},{"Link":"http://www.brielle.nl/","external_links_name":"www.brielle.nl"},{"Link":"https://opendata.cbs.nl/statline/#/CBS/nl/dataset/84799NED/table?dl=41062","external_links_name":"\"Kerncijfers wijken en buurten 2020\""},{"Link":"http://www.ahn.nl/postcodetool","external_links_name":"\"Postcodetool for 3231AP\""},{"Link":"https://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/publication/?DM=SLNL&PA=37230NED&D1=17-18&D2=57-650&D3=l&LA=EN&HDR=T&STB=G1,G2&VW=T","external_links_name":"\"Bevolkingsontwikkeling; regio per maand\""},{"Link":"http://www.brielle.nl/","external_links_name":"Official website"},{"Link":"http://www.catharijnekerk.nl/","external_links_name":"http://www.catharijnekerk.nl"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/239557336","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=xx0217145&CON_LNG=ENG","external_links_name":"Czech Republic"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DEAP
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DEAP
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["1 Argon scintillation properties and background rejection","2 DEAP-1","3 DEAP-3600","4 Collaborating institutions","4.1 Status of DEAP-3600","5 References","6 External links"]
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Dark matter search experiment
This article is about the experiment into dark matter. For computation framework, see DEAP (software).
DEAP-3600 detector during construction in 2014
DEAP (Dark matter Experiment using Argon Pulse-shape discrimination) is a direct dark matter search experiment which uses liquid argon as a target material. DEAP utilizes background discrimination based on the characteristic scintillation pulse-shape of argon. A first-generation detector (DEAP-1) with a 7 kg target mass was operated at Queen's University to test the performance of pulse-shape discrimination at low recoil energies in liquid argon. DEAP-1 was then moved to SNOLAB, 2 km below Earth's surface, in October 2007 and collected data into 2011.
DEAP-3600 was designed with 3600 kg of active liquid argon mass to achieve sensitivity to WIMP-nucleon scattering cross-sections as low as 10−46 cm2 for a dark matter particle mass of 100 GeV/c2. The DEAP-3600 detector finished construction and began data collection in 2016. An incident with the detector forced a short pause in the data collection in 2016. As of 2019, the experiment is collecting data.
To reach even better sensitivity to dark matter, the Global Argon Dark Matter Collaboration was formed with scientists from DEAP, DarkSide, CLEAN and ArDM experiments. A detector with a liquid argon mass above 20 tonnes (DarkSide-20k) is planned for operation at Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso. Research and development efforts are working towards a next generation detector (ARGO) with a multi-hundred tonne liquid argon target mass designed to reach the neutrino floor, planned to operate at SNOLAB due to its extremely low-background radiation environment.
Argon scintillation properties and background rejection
Since liquid argon is a scintillating material a particle interacting with it produces light in proportion to the energy deposited from the incident particle, this is a linear effect for low energies before quenching becomes a major contributing factor. The interaction of a particle with the argon causes ionization and recoiling along the path of interaction. The recoiling argon nuclei undergo recombination or self-trapping, ultimately resulting in the emission of 128nm vacuum ultra-violet (VUV) photons. Additionally liquid argon has the unique property of being transparent to its own scintillation light, this allows for light yields of tens of thousands of photons produced for every MeV of energy deposited.
The elastic scattering of a WIMP dark matter particle with an argon nucleus is expected to cause the nucleus to recoil. This is expected to be a very low energy interaction (keV) and requires a low detection threshold in order to be sensitive. Due to the necessarily low detection threshold, the number of background events detected is very high. The faint signature of a dark matter particle such as a WIMP will be masked by the many different types of possible background events. A technique for identifying these non-dark matter events is pulse shape discrimination (PSD), which characterizes an event based on the timing signature of the scintillation light from liquid argon.
PSD is possible in a liquid argon detector because interactions due to different incident particles such as electrons, high energy photons, alphas, and neutrons create different proportions of excited states of the recoiling argon nuclei, these are known as singlet and triplet states and they decay with characteristic lifetimes of 6 ns and 1300 ns respectively. Interactions from gammas and electrons produce primarily triplet excited states through electronic recoils, while neutron and alpha interactions produce primarily singlet excited states through nuclear recoils. It is expected that WIMP-nucleon interactions also produce a nuclear recoil type signal due to the elastic scattering of the dark matter particle with the argon nucleus.
By using the arrival time distribution of light for an event, it is possible to identify its likely source. This is done quantitatively by measuring the ratio of the light measured by the photo-detectors in a "prompt" window (<60 ns) over the light measured in a "late" window (<10,000 ns). In DEAP this parameter is called Fprompt. Nuclear recoil type events have high Fprompt (~0.7) values while electronic recoil events have a low Fprompt value (~0.3). Due to this separation in Fprompt for WIMP-like (Nuclear Recoil) and background-like (Electronic Recoil) events, it is possible to uniquely identify the most dominant sources of background in the detector.
The most abundant background in DEAP comes from the beta decay of Argon-39 which has an activity of approximately 1 Bq/kg in atmospheric argon. Discrimination of beta and gamma background events from nuclear recoils in the energy region of interest (near 20 keV of electron energy) is required to be better than 1 in 108 to sufficiently suppress these backgrounds for a dark matter search in liquid atmospheric argon.
DEAP-1
The first stage of the DEAP project, DEAP-1, was designed in order to characterize several properties of liquid argon, demonstrate pulse-shape discrimination, and refine engineering. This detector was too small to perform dark matter searches.
DEAP-1 used 7 kg of liquid argon as a target for WIMP interactions. Two photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) were used to detect the scintillation light produced by a particle interacting with the liquid argon. As the scintillation light produced is of short wavelength (128 nm) a wavelength-shifting film was used to absorb the ultraviolet scintillation light and re-emit in the visible spectrum (440 nm) enabling the light to pass through ordinary windows without any losses and eventually be detected by the PMTs.
DEAP-1 demonstrated good pulse-shape discrimination of backgrounds on the surface and began operation at SNOLAB. The deep underground location reduced unwanted cosmogenic background events. DEAP-1 ran from 2007 to 2011, including two changes in the experimental setup. DEAP-1 characterized background events, determining design improvements needed in DEAP-3600.
DEAP-3600
The DEAP-3600 detector was designed to use 3600 kg of liquid argon, with a 1000 kg fiducial volume, the remaining volume is used as self-shielding and background veto. This is contained in a ~2 m diameter spherical acrylic vessel, the first of its kind ever created. The acrylic vessel is surrounded by 255 high quantum efficiency photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) to detect the argon scintillation light. The acrylic vessel is housed in a stainless steel shell submerged in a 7.8m diameter shield tank filled with ultra-pure water. The outside of the steel shell has additional 48 veto PMTs to detect Cherenkov radiation produced by incoming cosmic particles, primarily muons.
The materials used in the DEAP detector were required to adhere to strict radio-purity standards to reduce background event contamination. All materials used were assayed to determine levels of radiation present, and inner detector components had strict requirements for radon emanation, which emits alpha radiation from its decay daughters. The inner vessel is coated with wavelength shifting material TPB which was vacuum evaporated onto the surface. TPB is a common wavelength shifting material used in liquid argon and liquid xenon experiments due to its fast re-emission and high light yield, with an emission spectra peaked at 425nm, in the sensitivity region for most PMTs.
The projected sensitivity of DEAP in terms of spin-independent WIMP-nucleus cross-section is 10−46 cm2 at 100 GeV/c2 after three live years of data taking.
Collaborating institutions
Collaborating institutions include :
University of Alberta
AstroCeNT
Canadian Nuclear Laboratories Archived 2015-11-30 at the Wayback Machine
Carleton University
CIEMAT
INFN
Kurchatov Institute
Laurentian University
Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz
National Autonomous University of Mexico
Princeton University
Queen's University
Royal Holloway University of London
Rutherford Appleton Laboratory
SNOLAB
University of Sussex
Technical University of Munich
TRIUMF
This collaboration benefits largely from the experience many of the members and institutions gained on the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO) project, which studied neutrinos, another weakly interacting particle.
Status of DEAP-3600
After construction was completed, the DEAP-3600 detector started taking commissioning and calibration data in February 2015 with nitrogen gas purge in the detector. The detector fill was completed and data-taking to search for dark matter was started on August 5, 2016.
Shortly after the initial fill of the detector with liquid argon, a butyl O-ring seal failed on August 17, 2016 and contaminated the argon with 100 ppm of N2 The detector was then vented and re-filled, but this time to a level of 3300 kg to avoid a re-occurrence of the seal failure: this second fill was completed in November 2016. The first dark matter search results with an exposure of 4.44 live days from the initial fill were published in August 2017, giving a cross-section limit of 1.2×10−44 cm2 for a 100 GeV/c2 WIMP mass.
Improved sensitivity to dark matter was achieved in February 2019, with an analysis of data collected over 231 live days from the second fill in 2016-2017, giving a cross-section limit of 3.9×10−45 cm2 for a 100 GeV/c2 WIMP mass.
This updated analysis demonstrated the best performance ever achieved in liquid argon at threshold, for the pulse-shape discrimination technique against beta and gamma backgrounds. The collaboration also developed new techniques to reject rare nuclear recoil backgrounds, using the observed distribution of light in space and time after a scintillation event.
As of 2022, DEAP-3600 has been continuously searching for dark matter since 2016. On 5 January 2022 the experiment published its results (up to that point naturally); no dark matter was detected by DEAP-3600, this non-detection setting constraints for dark matter with Planck-scale mass with energy between
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{\displaystyle 1.2\times 10^{19}GeV/c^{2}}
and cross section from
1
×
10
−
23
c
m
2
{\displaystyle 1\times 10^{-23}cm^{2}}
to
2.4
×
10
−
18
c
m
2
{\displaystyle 2.4\times 10^{-18}cm^{2}}
. These were the first results for dark matter on this super-heavy mass-scale. The ongoing DEAP-3600 experiment is currently (as of January 2022) undergoing upgrades and the team will operate it for another couple of years with even better sensitivity to dark matter.
References
^ "Formation of GADMC". Archived from the original on 2019-08-08. Retrieved 2019-08-08.
^ Aalseth, C. E. (29 March 2018). "DarkSide-20k: A 20 tonne two-phase LAr TPC for direct dark matter detection at LNGS". The European Physical Journal Plus. 133 (131): 131. arXiv:1707.08145. Bibcode:2018EPJP..133..131A. doi:10.1140/epjp/i2018-11973-4. S2CID 119067979.
^ Heindl, T. (2010). "The scintillation of liquid argon". EPL. 91 (62002): 62002. arXiv:1511.07718. Bibcode:2010EL.....9162002H. doi:10.1209/0295-5075/91/62002. S2CID 55110486.
^ Boulay; et al. (2004). "Direct WIMP Detection Using Scintillation Time Discrimination in Liquid Argon". arXiv:astro-ph/0411358.
^ "DEAP-1 website". Archived from the original on 2009-04-02. Retrieved 2008-03-08.
^ a b DEAP Collaboration (2014). "DEAP-3600 Dark Matter Search". International Conference on High Energy Physics (ICHEP 2014). 273–275: 340–346. arXiv:1410.7673. Bibcode:2014arXiv1410.7673D. doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysbps.2015.09.048. S2CID 55008520.
^ a b DEAP Collaboration (2019). "Design and Construction of the DEAP-3600 Dark Matter Detector". Astroparticle Physics. 108: 1–23. arXiv:1712.01982. Bibcode:2019APh...108....1A. doi:10.1016/j.astropartphys.2018.09.006. S2CID 119029164.
^ Broerman, B (18 April 2017). "Application of the TPB Wavelength Shifter to the DEAP-3600 Spherical Acrylic Vessel Inner Surface". JINST. 12 (4): P04017. arXiv:1704.01882. Bibcode:2017JInst..12P4017B. doi:10.1088/1748-0221/12/04/P04017. S2CID 118925932.
^ Current Status of DEAP-3600. Nov 2015
^ a b DEAP Collaboration (2018). "First results from the DEAP-3600 dark matter search with argon at SNOLAB". Physical Review Letters. 121 (7): 071801. arXiv:1707.08042. Bibcode:2017arXiv170708042D. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.121.071801. PMID 30169081. S2CID 206315242.
^ Ajaj et al. (DEAP Collaboration), R. (24 July 2019). "Search for dark matter with a 231-day exposure of liquid argon using DEAP-3600 at SNOLAB". Physical Review D. 100 (2): 022004. arXiv:1902.04048. Bibcode:2019PhRvD.100b2004A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.100.022004. S2CID 119342085.
^ Adhikari, P.; Ajaj, R.; Alpízar-Venegas, M.; Auty, D. J.; Benmansour, H.; Bina, C. E.; Bonivento, W.; Boulay, M. G.; Cadeddu, M.; Cai, B.; Cárdenas-Montes, M. (2022-01-05). "First Direct Detection Constraints on Planck-Scale Mass Dark Matter with Multiple-Scatter Signatures Using the DEAP-3600 Detector". Physical Review Letters. 128 (1): 011801. arXiv:2108.09405. Bibcode:2022PhRvL.128a1801A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.128.011801. ISSN 0031-9007. PMID 35061499. S2CID 237266740.
^ "Experiment at SNOLAB Achieves World-Leading Result in the Search for Dark Matter". Research. Retrieved 2022-02-03.
External links
DEAP-3600 website
DEAP-1 Project website Archived 2009-04-02 at the Wayback Machine
SNOLAB Website
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|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"DEAP (software)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DEAP_(software)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DEAP3600.jpg"},{"link_name":"dark matter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_matter"},{"link_name":"argon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argon"},{"link_name":"scintillation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scintillation_(physics)"},{"link_name":"Queen's University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen%27s_University_at_Kingston"},{"link_name":"SNOLAB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SNOLAB"},{"link_name":"WIMP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weakly_interacting_massive_particle"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"DarkSide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DarkSide_(dark_matter_experiment)"},{"link_name":"CLEAN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryogenic_Low-Energy_Astrophysics_with_Neon"},{"link_name":"ArDM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArDM"},{"link_name":"Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratori_Nazionali_del_Gran_Sasso"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ds20k-2"},{"link_name":"SNOLAB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SNOLAB"}],"text":"This article is about the experiment into dark matter. For computation framework, see DEAP (software).DEAP-3600 detector during construction in 2014DEAP (Dark matter Experiment using Argon Pulse-shape discrimination) is a direct dark matter search experiment which uses liquid argon as a target material. DEAP utilizes background discrimination based on the characteristic scintillation pulse-shape of argon. A first-generation detector (DEAP-1) with a 7 kg target mass was operated at Queen's University to test the performance of pulse-shape discrimination at low recoil energies in liquid argon. DEAP-1 was then moved to SNOLAB, 2 km below Earth's surface, in October 2007 and collected data into 2011.DEAP-3600 was designed with 3600 kg of active liquid argon mass to achieve sensitivity to WIMP-nucleon scattering cross-sections as low as 10−46 cm2 for a dark matter particle mass of 100 GeV/c2. The DEAP-3600 detector finished construction and began data collection in 2016. An incident with the detector forced a short pause in the data collection in 2016. As of 2019, the experiment is collecting data.To reach even better sensitivity to dark matter, the Global Argon Dark Matter Collaboration[1] was formed with scientists from DEAP, DarkSide, CLEAN and ArDM experiments. A detector with a liquid argon mass above 20 tonnes (DarkSide-20k) is planned for operation at Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso.[2] Research and development efforts are working towards a next generation detector (ARGO) with a multi-hundred tonne liquid argon target mass designed to reach the neutrino floor, planned to operate at SNOLAB due to its extremely low-background radiation environment.","title":"DEAP"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"quenching","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birks%27_Law"},{"link_name":"electrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_decay"},{"link_name":"high energy photons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_ray"},{"link_name":"alphas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_decay"},{"link_name":"neutrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_radiation"},{"link_name":"singlet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singlet_state"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-scint-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Boulay2004-4"},{"link_name":"Argon-39","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotopes_of_argon"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Since liquid argon is a scintillating material a particle interacting with it produces light in proportion to the energy deposited from the incident particle, this is a linear effect for low energies before quenching becomes a major contributing factor. The interaction of a particle with the argon causes ionization and recoiling along the path of interaction. The recoiling argon nuclei undergo recombination or self-trapping, ultimately resulting in the emission of 128nm vacuum ultra-violet (VUV) photons. Additionally liquid argon has the unique property of being transparent to its own scintillation light, this allows for light yields of tens of thousands of photons produced for every MeV of energy deposited.The elastic scattering of a WIMP dark matter particle with an argon nucleus is expected to cause the nucleus to recoil. This is expected to be a very low energy interaction (keV) and requires a low detection threshold in order to be sensitive. Due to the necessarily low detection threshold, the number of background events detected is very high. The faint signature of a dark matter particle such as a WIMP will be masked by the many different types of possible background events. A technique for identifying these non-dark matter events is pulse shape discrimination (PSD), which characterizes an event based on the timing signature of the scintillation light from liquid argon.PSD is possible in a liquid argon detector because interactions due to different incident particles such as electrons, high energy photons, alphas, and neutrons create different proportions of excited states of the recoiling argon nuclei, these are known as singlet and triplet states and they decay with characteristic lifetimes of 6 ns and 1300 ns respectively.[3] Interactions from gammas and electrons produce primarily triplet excited states through electronic recoils, while neutron and alpha interactions produce primarily singlet excited states through nuclear recoils. It is expected that WIMP-nucleon interactions also produce a nuclear recoil type signal due to the elastic scattering of the dark matter particle with the argon nucleus.By using the arrival time distribution of light for an event, it is possible to identify its likely source. This is done quantitatively by measuring the ratio of the light measured by the photo-detectors in a \"prompt\" window (<60 ns) over the light measured in a \"late\" window (<10,000 ns). In DEAP this parameter is called Fprompt. Nuclear recoil type events have high Fprompt (~0.7) values while electronic recoil events have a low Fprompt value (~0.3). Due to this separation in Fprompt for WIMP-like (Nuclear Recoil) and background-like (Electronic Recoil) events, it is possible to uniquely identify the most dominant sources of background in the detector.[4]The most abundant background in DEAP comes from the beta decay of Argon-39 which has an activity of approximately 1 Bq/kg in atmospheric argon.[5] Discrimination of beta and gamma background events from nuclear recoils in the energy region of interest (near 20 keV of electron energy) is required to be better than 1 in 108 to sufficiently suppress these backgrounds for a dark matter search in liquid atmospheric argon.","title":"Argon scintillation properties and background rejection"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"photomultiplier tubes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photomultiplier_tubes"},{"link_name":"cosmogenic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmogenic#Natural"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DEAP-2014-6"}],"text":"The first stage of the DEAP project, DEAP-1, was designed in order to characterize several properties of liquid argon, demonstrate pulse-shape discrimination, and refine engineering. This detector was too small to perform dark matter searches.\nDEAP-1 used 7 kg of liquid argon as a target for WIMP interactions. Two photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) were used to detect the scintillation light produced by a particle interacting with the liquid argon. As the scintillation light produced is of short wavelength (128 nm) a wavelength-shifting film was used to absorb the ultraviolet scintillation light and re-emit in the visible spectrum (440 nm) enabling the light to pass through ordinary windows without any losses and eventually be detected by the PMTs.DEAP-1 demonstrated good pulse-shape discrimination of backgrounds on the surface and began operation at SNOLAB. The deep underground location reduced unwanted cosmogenic background events. DEAP-1 ran from 2007 to 2011, including two changes in the experimental setup. DEAP-1 characterized background events, determining design improvements needed in DEAP-3600. [6]","title":"DEAP-1"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"acrylic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acrylate_polymer"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-deap_construction-7"},{"link_name":"Cherenkov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherenkov_radiation"},{"link_name":"muons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muon"},{"link_name":"radon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radon-222"},{"link_name":"decay daughters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decay_product"},{"link_name":"TPB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetraphenyl_butadiene"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TPB_Depo-8"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DEAP-2014-6"}],"text":"The DEAP-3600 detector was designed to use 3600 kg of liquid argon, with a 1000 kg fiducial volume, the remaining volume is used as self-shielding and background veto. This is contained in a ~2 m diameter spherical acrylic vessel, the first of its kind ever created.[7] The acrylic vessel is surrounded by 255 high quantum efficiency photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) to detect the argon scintillation light. The acrylic vessel is housed in a stainless steel shell submerged in a 7.8m diameter shield tank filled with ultra-pure water. The outside of the steel shell has additional 48 veto PMTs to detect Cherenkov radiation produced by incoming cosmic particles, primarily muons.The materials used in the DEAP detector were required to adhere to strict radio-purity standards to reduce background event contamination. All materials used were assayed to determine levels of radiation present, and inner detector components had strict requirements for radon emanation, which emits alpha radiation from its decay daughters. The inner vessel is coated with wavelength shifting material TPB which was vacuum evaporated onto the surface.[8] TPB is a common wavelength shifting material used in liquid argon and liquid xenon experiments due to its fast re-emission and high light yield, with an emission spectra peaked at 425nm, in the sensitivity region for most PMTs.The projected sensitivity of DEAP in terms of spin-independent WIMP-nucleus cross-section is 10−46 cm2 at 100 GeV/c2 after three live years of data taking.[6]","title":"DEAP-3600"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"University of Alberta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Alberta"},{"link_name":"AstroCeNT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//astrocent.camk.edu.pl/"},{"link_name":"Canadian Nuclear Laboratories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.cnl.ca/en/home/default.aspx"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20151130235258/http://www.cnl.ca/en/home/default.aspx"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"Carleton University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carleton_University"},{"link_name":"CIEMAT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.ciemat.es"},{"link_name":"INFN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INFN"},{"link_name":"Kurchatov Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurchatov_Institute"},{"link_name":"Laurentian University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurentian_University"},{"link_name":"Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg_University_Mainz"},{"link_name":"National Autonomous University of Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Autonomous_University_of_Mexico"},{"link_name":"Princeton University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton_University"},{"link_name":"Queen's University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen%27s_University_at_Kingston"},{"link_name":"Royal Holloway University of London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Holloway_University_of_London"},{"link_name":"Rutherford Appleton Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutherford_Appleton_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"SNOLAB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SNOLAB"},{"link_name":"University of Sussex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Sussex"},{"link_name":"Technical University of Munich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_University_of_Munich"},{"link_name":"TRIUMF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRIUMF"},{"link_name":"Sudbury Neutrino Observatory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudbury_Neutrino_Observatory"},{"link_name":"neutrinos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrinos"}],"text":"Collaborating institutions include :University of Alberta\nAstroCeNT\nCanadian Nuclear Laboratories Archived 2015-11-30 at the Wayback Machine\nCarleton University\nCIEMAT\nINFN\nKurchatov Institute\nLaurentian University\nJohannes Gutenberg University Mainz\nNational Autonomous University of Mexico\nPrinceton University\nQueen's University\nRoyal Holloway University of London\nRutherford Appleton Laboratory\nSNOLAB\nUniversity of Sussex\nTechnical University of Munich\nTRIUMFThis collaboration benefits largely from the experience many of the members and institutions gained on the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO) project, which studied neutrinos, another weakly interacting particle.","title":"Collaborating institutions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FIRST_DATA-10"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-deap_construction-7"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FIRST_DATA-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-231day_results-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"sub_title":"Status of DEAP-3600","text":"After construction was completed, the DEAP-3600 detector started taking commissioning and calibration data in February 2015 with nitrogen gas purge in the detector.[9] The detector fill was completed and data-taking to search for dark matter was started on August 5, 2016.[10]\nShortly after the initial fill of the detector with liquid argon, a butyl O-ring seal failed on August 17, 2016 and contaminated the argon with 100 ppm of N2[7] The detector was then vented and re-filled, but this time to a level of 3300 kg to avoid a re-occurrence of the seal failure: this second fill was completed in November 2016. The first dark matter search results with an exposure of 4.44 live days from the initial fill were published in August 2017, giving a cross-section limit of 1.2×10−44 cm2 for a 100 GeV/c2 WIMP mass.[10]Improved sensitivity to dark matter was achieved in February 2019, with an analysis of data collected over 231 live days from the second fill in 2016-2017, giving a cross-section limit of 3.9×10−45 cm2 for a 100 GeV/c2 WIMP mass.[11]\nThis updated analysis demonstrated the best performance ever achieved in liquid argon at threshold, for the pulse-shape discrimination technique against beta and gamma backgrounds. The collaboration also developed new techniques to reject rare nuclear recoil backgrounds, using the observed distribution of light in space and time after a scintillation event.As of 2022, DEAP-3600 has been continuously searching for dark matter since 2016. On 5 January 2022 the experiment published its results (up to that point naturally); no dark matter was detected by DEAP-3600, this non-detection setting constraints for dark matter with Planck-scale mass with energy between \n \n \n \n 8.3\n ×\n \n 10\n \n 6\n \n \n G\n e\n V\n \n /\n \n \n c\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 8.3\\times 10^{6}GeV/c^{2}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n 1.2\n ×\n \n 10\n \n 19\n \n \n G\n e\n V\n \n /\n \n \n c\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 1.2\\times 10^{19}GeV/c^{2}}\n \n and cross section from \n \n \n \n 1\n ×\n \n 10\n \n −\n 23\n \n \n c\n \n m\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 1\\times 10^{-23}cm^{2}}\n \n to \n \n \n \n 2.4\n ×\n \n 10\n \n −\n 18\n \n \n c\n \n m\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2.4\\times 10^{-18}cm^{2}}\n \n. These were the first results for dark matter on this super-heavy mass-scale.[12] The ongoing DEAP-3600 experiment is currently (as of January 2022) undergoing upgrades and the team will operate it for another couple of years with even better sensitivity to dark matter.[13]","title":"Collaborating institutions"}]
|
[{"image_text":"DEAP-3600 detector during construction in 2014","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/DEAP3600.jpg/390px-DEAP3600.jpg"}]
| null |
[{"reference":"\"Formation of GADMC\". Archived from the original on 2019-08-08. Retrieved 2019-08-08.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190808225910/https://www.snolab.ca/news/2017-09-21-formation-global-argon-dark-matter-collaboration","url_text":"\"Formation of GADMC\""},{"url":"https://www.snolab.ca/news/2017-09-21-formation-global-argon-dark-matter-collaboration","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Aalseth, C. E. (29 March 2018). \"DarkSide-20k: A 20 tonne two-phase LAr TPC for direct dark matter detection at LNGS\". The European Physical Journal Plus. 133 (131): 131. arXiv:1707.08145. Bibcode:2018EPJP..133..131A. doi:10.1140/epjp/i2018-11973-4. S2CID 119067979.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/1707.08145","url_text":"1707.08145"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018EPJP..133..131A","url_text":"2018EPJP..133..131A"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1140%2Fepjp%2Fi2018-11973-4","url_text":"10.1140/epjp/i2018-11973-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119067979","url_text":"119067979"}]},{"reference":"Heindl, T. (2010). \"The scintillation of liquid argon\". EPL. 91 (62002): 62002. arXiv:1511.07718. Bibcode:2010EL.....9162002H. doi:10.1209/0295-5075/91/62002. S2CID 55110486.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/1511.07718","url_text":"1511.07718"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010EL.....9162002H","url_text":"2010EL.....9162002H"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1209%2F0295-5075%2F91%2F62002","url_text":"10.1209/0295-5075/91/62002"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:55110486","url_text":"55110486"}]},{"reference":"Boulay; et al. (2004). \"Direct WIMP Detection Using Scintillation Time Discrimination in Liquid Argon\". arXiv:astro-ph/0411358.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0411358","url_text":"astro-ph/0411358"}]},{"reference":"\"DEAP-1 website\". Archived from the original on 2009-04-02. Retrieved 2008-03-08.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090402072710/http://www.snolab.ca/deap1/","url_text":"\"DEAP-1 website\""},{"url":"http://www.snolab.ca/deap1/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"DEAP Collaboration (2014). \"DEAP-3600 Dark Matter Search\". International Conference on High Energy Physics (ICHEP 2014). 273–275: 340–346. arXiv:1410.7673. Bibcode:2014arXiv1410.7673D. doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysbps.2015.09.048. S2CID 55008520.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/1410.7673","url_text":"1410.7673"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014arXiv1410.7673D","url_text":"2014arXiv1410.7673D"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.nuclphysbps.2015.09.048","url_text":"10.1016/j.nuclphysbps.2015.09.048"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:55008520","url_text":"55008520"}]},{"reference":"DEAP Collaboration (2019). \"Design and Construction of the DEAP-3600 Dark Matter Detector\". Astroparticle Physics. 108: 1–23. arXiv:1712.01982. Bibcode:2019APh...108....1A. doi:10.1016/j.astropartphys.2018.09.006. 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S2CID 206315242.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/1707.08042","url_text":"1707.08042"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017arXiv170708042D","url_text":"2017arXiv170708042D"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.121.071801","url_text":"10.1103/PhysRevLett.121.071801"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30169081","url_text":"30169081"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:206315242","url_text":"206315242"}]},{"reference":"Ajaj et al. (DEAP Collaboration), R. (24 July 2019). \"Search for dark matter with a 231-day exposure of liquid argon using DEAP-3600 at SNOLAB\". Physical Review D. 100 (2): 022004. arXiv:1902.04048. Bibcode:2019PhRvD.100b2004A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.100.022004. S2CID 119342085.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/1902.04048","url_text":"1902.04048"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019PhRvD.100b2004A","url_text":"2019PhRvD.100b2004A"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.100.022004","url_text":"10.1103/PhysRevD.100.022004"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119342085","url_text":"119342085"}]},{"reference":"Adhikari, P.; Ajaj, R.; Alpízar-Venegas, M.; Auty, D. J.; Benmansour, H.; Bina, C. E.; Bonivento, W.; Boulay, M. G.; Cadeddu, M.; Cai, B.; Cárdenas-Montes, M. (2022-01-05). \"First Direct Detection Constraints on Planck-Scale Mass Dark Matter with Multiple-Scatter Signatures Using the DEAP-3600 Detector\". Physical Review Letters. 128 (1): 011801. arXiv:2108.09405. Bibcode:2022PhRvL.128a1801A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.128.011801. ISSN 0031-9007. PMID 35061499. 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Research. Retrieved 2022-02-03.","urls":[{"url":"https://research.carleton.ca/story/experiment-at-snolab-achieves-world-leading-result-in-the-search-for-dark-matter/","url_text":"\"Experiment at SNOLAB Achieves World-Leading Result in the Search for Dark Matter\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proceedings_and_Addresses_of_the_American_Philosophical_Association
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American Philosophical Association
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["1 Activities","2 Presidents","3 Prizes","4 Other philosophical societies","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]
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Body encompassing professional philosophers in USA
For the general learned society, see American Philosophical Society.
Not to be confused with the American Psychiatric Association or the American Psychological Association.
American Philosophical AssociationEstablished1900LocationNewark, DelawarePresidentChristia Mercer (Eastern)Julia Driver (Central)Penelope Maddy (Pacific)First PresidentMary Whiton CalkinsAffiliationsAmerican Council of Learned Societies, National Humanities AllianceWebsitewww.apaonline.org
The American Philosophical Association (APA) is the main professional organization for philosophers in the United States. Founded in 1900, its mission is to promote the exchange of ideas among philosophers, to encourage creative and scholarly activity in philosophy, to facilitate the professional work and teaching of philosophers, and to represent philosophy as a discipline. The APA's governance has included Robert Audi, Jaegwon Kim and Ruth Barcan Marcus.
Activities
The association has three divisions: Pacific, Central, and Eastern. Each division organizes a large annual conference. The biggest of these is the Eastern Division Meeting, which usually attracts around 2,000 philosophers and takes place in a different East Coast city each December. The Eastern Division Meeting is also the United States' largest recruitment event for philosophy jobs, with numerous universities sending teams to interview candidates for academic posts. The two evening receptions are traditionally referred to as 'smokers,' a carry over from the days in which smoking was common. These events serve the dual purpose of informally continuing interviews and catching up with friends from across the country.
Presidents
The presidency of a division of the American Philosophical Association is considered to be a professional honor.
Recent presidents of the Eastern Division include:
Louise Antony
Sally Haslanger
Linda Martín Alcoff
Paul Guyer
Edward S. Casey
Daniel Dennett
Virginia Held
John Cooper
T. M. Scanlon
Stanley Cavell
Alexander Nehamas
Ernest Sosa
Jerry Fodor
Seyla Benhabib
Kwame Anthony Appiah
Christine Korsgaard
Robert Nozick
Recent presidents of the Central Division include:
Jennifer Lackey
Russ Shafer-Landau
Julia Driver
Jennifer Nagel
Charles Mills
Valerie Tiberius
Linda Zagzebski
Elizabeth Anderson
Steven Nadler
Margaret Atherton
Peter Railton
Claudia Card
Sally Sedgwick
Peter van Inwagen
James P. Sterba
Ted Cohen
Eleonore Stump
Karl Ameriks
Stephen Darwall
Marcia Baron
Allan Gibbard
Lawrence Sklar
Martha Nussbaum
Recent presidents of the Pacific Division include:
Terence Parsons
John Martin Fischer
Alison Wylie
Calvin Normore
Jeffrie Murphy
Hubert Dreyfus
Richard Wollheim
Paul Churchland
Prizes
The American Philosophical Association awards several prizes. A prominent example is the American Philosophical Association Book Prize (formerly known as the Matchette Foundation Book Prize, one of the oldest prizes in philosophy). It is awarded biannually to the best book published in the field over a two-year period by a "younger scholar" (defined as someone age 40 or younger at the time of publication or someone who received his or her Ph.D. 10 or fewer years before the time of publication). Awarded for the first time in 2000, the Book Prize is now awarded in odd years, alternating with the Article Prize awarded in even years. The APA Book Prize has been won by such figures as David Kellogg Lewis, Lawrence Sklar, Bas van Fraassen, Michael Friedman, Loran Lomasky, Paul Guyer, John Cooper, Ted Sider, and Michael Smith. Another of the most distinguished prizes is the Royce Lectures in the philosophy of mind, awarded to a distinguished philosopher every four years. They have been delivered by Robert Stalnaker, Jerry Fodor, Hilary Putnam, Sydney Shoemaker, Saul Kripke, and Elizabeth Anscombe. Another such prize is the Rockefeller Prize. The Rockefeller Prize ($1,000) is awarded every two years for the best unpublished article-length work in philosophy by a non-academically affiliated philosopher. The winning work is then published in the Journal of Value Inquiry at the behest of the winner and the journal.
Other philosophical societies
While the APA serves as the main learned society for philosophy professors in North America, many other philosophy societies have sprung up to serve as venues for philosophers to specialize.
Next to the APA, the second largest philosophic society is the Society for Phenomenology and Existential Philosophy, which was created in 1962 by American philosophers who were interested in continental philosophy, some of whom were dissatisfied with the analytic approach of the APA. Since then, however, many members of SPEP have participated extensively in the APA and have also served in leadership positions, including Linda Alcoff and Edward S. Casey.
See also
Barwise Prize
Carus Lectures
Journal of the American Philosophical Association
Journal of the History of Philosophy
PLATO (The Philosophy Learning and Teaching Organization)
References
^ American Philosophical Association Prizes and Fellowships
^ Princeton Professor David Lewis dies at 60
^ Michael Smith. Brief biography
^ American Philosophical Association Book Prize
^ Royce Lectures in the Philosophy of Mind
^ Rockefeller Prize Archived 2013-09-27 at the Wayback Machine
^ See Wikipedia category:philosophical societies
^ Gutting, Gary (2012-02-19). "Bridging the Analytic–Continental Divide". The New York Times. Retrieved 2012-02-26.
External links
Official website
Official Pacific Division website
Official Eastern Division website
Chronological list of the presidents of the divisions
American Philosophical Association at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project
Authority control databases International
ISNI
2
VIAF
National
Norway
France
BnF data
Catalonia
Germany
Israel
United States
Czech Republic
Australia
Other
IdRef
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The two evening receptions are traditionally referred to as 'smokers,' a carry over from the days in which smoking was common. These events serve the dual purpose of informally continuing interviews and catching up with friends from across the country.","title":"Activities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Louise Antony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louise_Antony"},{"link_name":"Sally Haslanger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sally_Haslanger"},{"link_name":"Linda Martín Alcoff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linda_Mart%C3%ADn_Alcoff"},{"link_name":"Paul Guyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Guyer"},{"link_name":"Edward S. 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Scanlon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T._M._Scanlon"},{"link_name":"Stanley Cavell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Cavell"},{"link_name":"Alexander Nehamas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Nehamas"},{"link_name":"Ernest Sosa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Sosa"},{"link_name":"Jerry Fodor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry_Fodor"},{"link_name":"Seyla Benhabib","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seyla_Benhabib"},{"link_name":"Kwame Anthony Appiah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwame_Anthony_Appiah"},{"link_name":"Christine Korsgaard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christine_Korsgaard"},{"link_name":"Robert Nozick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Nozick"},{"link_name":"Jennifer Lackey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jennifer_Lackey"},{"link_name":"Russ Shafer-Landau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russ_Shafer-Landau"},{"link_name":"Julia Driver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julia_Driver"},{"link_name":"Jennifer Nagel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jennifer_Nagel"},{"link_name":"Charles Mills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_W._Mills"},{"link_name":"Valerie Tiberius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valerie_Tiberius"},{"link_name":"Linda Zagzebski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linda_Zagzebski"},{"link_name":"Elizabeth Anderson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_S._Anderson"},{"link_name":"Steven Nadler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Nadler"},{"link_name":"Margaret Atherton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Atherton"},{"link_name":"Peter Railton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Railton"},{"link_name":"Claudia Card","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claudia_Card"},{"link_name":"Sally Sedgwick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sally_Sedgwick"},{"link_name":"Peter van Inwagen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen"},{"link_name":"James P. Sterba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_P._Sterba"},{"link_name":"Ted Cohen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ted_Cohen_(philosopher)"},{"link_name":"Eleonore Stump","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleonore_Stump"},{"link_name":"Karl Ameriks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Ameriks"},{"link_name":"Stephen Darwall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Darwall"},{"link_name":"Marcia Baron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcia_Baron"},{"link_name":"Allan Gibbard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allan_Gibbard"},{"link_name":"Lawrence Sklar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Sklar"},{"link_name":"Martha Nussbaum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum"},{"link_name":"Terence Parsons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terence_Parsons"},{"link_name":"John Martin Fischer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Martin_Fischer"},{"link_name":"Alison Wylie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alison_Wylie"},{"link_name":"Calvin Normore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calvin_Normore"},{"link_name":"Jeffrie Murphy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jeffrie_Murphy&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Hubert Dreyfus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubert_Dreyfus"},{"link_name":"Richard Wollheim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Wollheim"},{"link_name":"Paul Churchland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Churchland"}],"text":"The presidency of a division of the American Philosophical Association is considered to be a professional honor.Recent presidents of the Eastern Division include:Louise Antony\nSally Haslanger\nLinda Martín Alcoff\nPaul Guyer\nEdward S. Casey\nDaniel Dennett\nVirginia Held\nJohn Cooper\nT. M. Scanlon\nStanley Cavell\nAlexander Nehamas\nErnest Sosa\nJerry Fodor\nSeyla Benhabib\nKwame Anthony Appiah\nChristine Korsgaard\nRobert NozickRecent presidents of the Central Division include:Jennifer Lackey\nRuss Shafer-Landau\nJulia Driver\nJennifer Nagel\nCharles Mills\nValerie Tiberius\nLinda Zagzebski\nElizabeth Anderson\nSteven Nadler\nMargaret Atherton\nPeter Railton\nClaudia Card\nSally Sedgwick\nPeter van Inwagen\nJames P. Sterba\nTed Cohen\nEleonore Stump\nKarl Ameriks\nStephen Darwall\nMarcia Baron\nAllan Gibbard\nLawrence Sklar\nMartha NussbaumRecent presidents of the Pacific Division include:Terence Parsons\nJohn Martin Fischer\nAlison Wylie\nCalvin Normore\nJeffrie Murphy\nHubert Dreyfus\nRichard Wollheim\nPaul Churchland","title":"Presidents"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"David Kellogg Lewis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Kellogg_Lewis"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.umich.edu/~urecord/0203/Sep30_02/fac-sklar.html"},{"link_name":"Bas van Fraassen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen"},{"link_name":"Paul Guyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Guyer"},{"link_name":"Ted Sider","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ted_Sider"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Robert Stalnaker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Stalnaker"},{"link_name":"Jerry Fodor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry_Fodor"},{"link_name":"Hilary Putnam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilary_Putnam"},{"link_name":"Sydney Shoemaker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney_Shoemaker"},{"link_name":"Saul Kripke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saul_Kripke"},{"link_name":"Elizabeth Anscombe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Anscombe"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Journal of Value Inquiry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Value_Inquiry"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"The American Philosophical Association awards several prizes.[1] A prominent example is the American Philosophical Association Book Prize (formerly known as the Matchette Foundation Book Prize, one of the oldest prizes in philosophy). It is awarded biannually to the best book published in the field over a two-year period by a \"younger scholar\" (defined as someone age 40 or younger at the time of publication or someone who received his or her Ph.D. 10 or fewer years before the time of publication). Awarded for the first time in 2000, the Book Prize is now awarded in odd years, alternating with the Article Prize awarded in even years. The APA Book Prize has been won by such figures as David Kellogg Lewis,[2] Lawrence Sklar,[1] Bas van Fraassen, Michael Friedman, Loran Lomasky, Paul Guyer, John Cooper, Ted Sider, and Michael Smith.[3][4] Another of the most distinguished prizes is the Royce Lectures in the philosophy of mind, awarded to a distinguished philosopher every four years. They have been delivered by Robert Stalnaker, Jerry Fodor, Hilary Putnam, Sydney Shoemaker, Saul Kripke, and Elizabeth Anscombe.[5] Another such prize is the Rockefeller Prize. The Rockefeller Prize ($1,000) is awarded every two years for the best unpublished article-length work in philosophy by a non-academically affiliated philosopher. The winning work is then published in the Journal of Value Inquiry at the behest of the winner and the journal.[6]","title":"Prizes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"learned society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learned_society"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Society for Phenomenology and Existential Philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_Phenomenology_and_Existential_Philosophy"},{"link_name":"continental philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_philosophy"},{"link_name":"analytic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_philosophy"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-spep-8"},{"link_name":"Linda Alcoff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linda_Alcoff"},{"link_name":"Edward S. Casey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_S._Casey"}],"text":"While the APA serves as the main learned society for philosophy professors in North America, many other philosophy societies have sprung up to serve as venues for philosophers to specialize.[7]Next to the APA, the second largest philosophic society is the Society for Phenomenology and Existential Philosophy, which was created in 1962 by American philosophers who were interested in continental philosophy, some of whom were dissatisfied with the analytic approach of the APA.[8] Since then, however, many members of SPEP have participated extensively in the APA and have also served in leadership positions, including Linda Alcoff and Edward S. Casey.","title":"Other philosophical societies"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"Barwise Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barwise_Prize"},{"title":"Carus Lectures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carus_Lectures"},{"title":"Journal of the American Philosophical Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_the_American_Philosophical_Association"},{"title":"Journal of the History of Philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_the_History_of_Philosophy"},{"title":"PLATO (The Philosophy Learning and Teaching Organization)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_Learning_and_Teaching_Organization"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_systems
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Physical system
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["1 See also","2 References","3 Further reading"]
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Portion of the universe chosen for analysis
Weather map as an example of a physical system
A physical system is a collection of physical objects under study. The collection differs from a set: all the objects must coexist and have some physical relationship.
In other words, it is a portion of the physical universe chosen for analysis. Everything outside the system is known as the environment, which is ignored except for its effects on the system.
The split between system and environment is the analyst's choice, generally made to simplify the analysis. For example, the water in a lake, the water in half of a lake, or an individual molecule of water in the lake can each be considered a physical system. An isolated system is one that has negligible interaction with its environment. Often a system in this sense is chosen to correspond to the more usual meaning of system, such as a particular machine.
In the study of quantum coherence, the "system" may refer to the microscopic properties of an object (e.g. the mean of a pendulum bob), while the relevant "environment" may be the internal degrees of freedom, described classically by the pendulum's thermal vibrations. Because no quantum system is completely isolated from its surroundings, it is important to develop a theoretical framework for treating these interactions in order to obtain an accurate understanding of quantum systems.
In control theory, a physical system being controlled (a "controlled system") is called a "plant".
See also
Conceptual systems
Phase space
Physical phenomenon
Physical ontology
Signal-flow graph
Systems engineering
Systems science
Thermodynamic system
Open quantum system
References
^ Belkind, Ori (2 February 2012). Physical Systems: Conceptual Pathways between Flat Space-time and Matter. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 1. ISBN 978-94-007-2373-3. The notion of physical system is so ubiquitous it is mentioned in almost every work in physics. Scientists use the term, without much reflection, to refer to an aggregate of physical objects.
^ Bunge, Mario (1967). Foundations of Physics. Springer Tracts in Natural Philosophy. Vol. 10. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-49287-7. ISBN 978-3-642-49289-1.
^ Breuer, H.-P.; Petruccione, F. (2007). The Theory of Open Quantum Systems. Oxford University Press. p. vii. Quantum mechanical systems must be considered as open systems
Further reading
Bunge, Mario (13 March 2013). Foundations of Physics. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-3-642-49287-7. Retrieved 21 June 2023.
Bunge, Mario; Mahner, Martin (2004). Über die Natur der Dinge: Materialismus und Wissenschaft (in German). S. Hirzel. ISBN 978-3-7776-1321-5.
Halloun, Ibrahim A. (25 January 2007). Modeling Theory in Science Education. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4020-2140-4. Retrieved 21 June 2023.
Schmutzer, Ernst (29 August 2005). Grundlagen der Theoretischen Physik (in German). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-3-527-40555-8. Retrieved 21 June 2023.
vteSystems scienceSystemtypes
Art
Biological
Complex
Coupled human–environment
Ecological
Economic
Multi-agent
Nervous
Social
Concepts
Doubling time
Leverage points
Limiting factor
Negative feedback
Positive feedback
Theoreticalfields
Control theory
Cybernetics
Earth system science
Living systems
Sociotechnical system
Systemics
Urban metabolism
World-systems theory
Analysis
Biology
Dynamics
Ecology
Engineering
Neuroscience
Pharmacology
Philosophy
Psychology
Theory (Systems thinking)
Scientists
Russell L. Ackoff
Victor Aladjev
William Ross Ashby
Ruzena Bajcsy
Béla H. Bánáthy
Gregory Bateson
Anthony Stafford Beer
Richard E. Bellman
Ludwig von Bertalanffy
Margaret Boden
Alexander Bogdanov
Kenneth E. Boulding
Murray Bowen
Kathleen Carley
Mary Cartwright
C. West Churchman
Manfred Clynes
George Dantzig
Edsger W. Dijkstra
Fred Emery
Heinz von Foerster
Stephanie Forrest
Jay Wright Forrester
Barbara Grosz
Charles A. S. Hall
Mike Jackson
Lydia Kavraki
James J. Kay
Faina M. Kirillova
George Klir
Allenna Leonard
Edward Norton Lorenz
Niklas Luhmann
Humberto Maturana
Margaret Mead
Donella Meadows
Mihajlo D. Mesarovic
James Grier Miller
Radhika Nagpal
Howard T. Odum
Talcott Parsons
Ilya Prigogine
Qian Xuesen
Anatol Rapoport
John Seddon
Peter Senge
Claude Shannon
Katia Sycara
Eric Trist
Francisco Varela
Manuela M. Veloso
Kevin Warwick
Norbert Wiener
Jennifer Wilby
Anthony Wilden
Applications
Systems theory in anthropology
Systems theory in archaeology
Systems theory in political science
Organizations
List
Principia Cybernetica
Category
Portal
Commons
Authority control databases: National
Germany
This physics-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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Foundations of Physics. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-3-642-49287-7. Retrieved 21 June 2023.\nBunge, Mario; Mahner, Martin (2004). Über die Natur der Dinge: Materialismus und Wissenschaft (in German). S. Hirzel. ISBN 978-3-7776-1321-5.\nHalloun, Ibrahim A. (25 January 2007). Modeling Theory in Science Education. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4020-2140-4. Retrieved 21 June 2023.\nSchmutzer, Ernst (29 August 2005). Grundlagen der Theoretischen Physik (in German). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-3-527-40555-8. Retrieved 21 June 2023.vteSystems scienceSystemtypes\nArt\nBiological\nComplex\nCoupled human–environment\nEcological\nEconomic\nMulti-agent\nNervous\nSocial\nConcepts\nDoubling time\nLeverage points\nLimiting factor\nNegative feedback\nPositive feedback\nTheoreticalfields\nControl theory\nCybernetics\nEarth system science\nLiving systems\nSociotechnical system\nSystemics\nUrban metabolism\nWorld-systems theory\n\nAnalysis\nBiology\nDynamics\nEcology\nEngineering\nNeuroscience\nPharmacology\nPhilosophy\nPsychology\nTheory (Systems thinking)\nScientists\nRussell L. Ackoff\nVictor Aladjev\nWilliam Ross Ashby\nRuzena Bajcsy\nBéla H. Bánáthy\nGregory Bateson\nAnthony Stafford Beer\nRichard E. Bellman\nLudwig von Bertalanffy\nMargaret Boden\nAlexander Bogdanov\nKenneth E. Boulding\nMurray Bowen\nKathleen Carley\nMary Cartwright\nC. West Churchman\nManfred Clynes\nGeorge Dantzig\nEdsger W. Dijkstra\nFred Emery\nHeinz von Foerster\nStephanie Forrest\nJay Wright Forrester\nBarbara Grosz\nCharles A. S. Hall\nMike Jackson\nLydia Kavraki\nJames J. Kay\nFaina M. Kirillova\nGeorge Klir\nAllenna Leonard\nEdward Norton Lorenz\nNiklas Luhmann\nHumberto Maturana\nMargaret Mead\nDonella Meadows\nMihajlo D. Mesarovic\nJames Grier Miller\nRadhika Nagpal\nHoward T. Odum\nTalcott Parsons\nIlya Prigogine\nQian Xuesen\nAnatol Rapoport\nJohn Seddon\nPeter Senge\nClaude Shannon\nKatia Sycara\nEric Trist\nFrancisco Varela\nManuela M. Veloso\nKevin Warwick\nNorbert Wiener\nJennifer Wilby\nAnthony Wilden\nApplications\nSystems theory in anthropology\nSystems theory in archaeology\nSystems theory in political science\nOrganizations\nList\nPrincipia Cybernetica\n\n Category\n Portal\n CommonsAuthority control databases: National \nGermanyThis physics-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"Weather map as an example of a physical system","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Physical_systems-en.svg/175px-Physical_systems-en.svg.png"}]
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[{"title":"Conceptual systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conceptual_systems"},{"title":"Phase space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_space"},{"title":"Physical phenomenon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_phenomenon"},{"title":"Physical ontology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_ontology"},{"title":"Signal-flow graph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal-flow_graph"},{"title":"Systems engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_engineering"},{"title":"Systems science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_science"},{"title":"Thermodynamic system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamic_system"},{"title":"Open quantum system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_quantum_system"}]
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[{"reference":"Belkind, Ori (2 February 2012). Physical Systems: Conceptual Pathways between Flat Space-time and Matter. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 1. ISBN 978-94-007-2373-3. The notion of physical system is so ubiquitous it is mentioned in almost every work in physics. Scientists use the term, without much reflection, to refer to an aggregate of physical objects.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Wo1kuGWhcEcC&q=Physical+system","url_text":"Physical Systems: Conceptual Pathways between Flat Space-time and Matter"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-007-2373-3","url_text":"978-94-007-2373-3"}]},{"reference":"Bunge, Mario (1967). Foundations of Physics. Springer Tracts in Natural Philosophy. Vol. 10. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-49287-7. ISBN 978-3-642-49289-1.","urls":[{"url":"http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-642-49287-7","url_text":"Foundations of Physics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-49287-7","url_text":"10.1007/978-3-642-49287-7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-49289-1","url_text":"978-3-642-49289-1"}]},{"reference":"Breuer, H.-P.; Petruccione, F. (2007). The Theory of Open Quantum Systems. Oxford University Press. p. vii. Quantum mechanical systems must be considered as open systems","urls":[]},{"reference":"Bunge, Mario (13 March 2013). Foundations of Physics. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-3-642-49287-7. Retrieved 21 June 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Alp-BgAAQBAJ","url_text":"Foundations of Physics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-49287-7","url_text":"978-3-642-49287-7"}]},{"reference":"Bunge, Mario; Mahner, Martin (2004). Über die Natur der Dinge: Materialismus und Wissenschaft (in German). S. Hirzel. ISBN 978-3-7776-1321-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=fTUkAAAACAAJ","url_text":"Über die Natur der Dinge: Materialismus und Wissenschaft"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7776-1321-5","url_text":"978-3-7776-1321-5"}]},{"reference":"Halloun, Ibrahim A. (25 January 2007). Modeling Theory in Science Education. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4020-2140-4. Retrieved 21 June 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Rn48Xb7CuD0C","url_text":"Modeling Theory in Science Education"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-2140-4","url_text":"978-1-4020-2140-4"}]},{"reference":"Schmutzer, Ernst (29 August 2005). Grundlagen der Theoretischen Physik (in German). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-3-527-40555-8. Retrieved 21 June 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=a0YkRomfSjIC&pg=PA895","url_text":"Grundlagen der Theoretischen Physik"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-527-40555-8","url_text":"978-3-527-40555-8"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mada%27in_Saleh
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Hegra (Mada'in Salih)
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["1 Location","2 History","2.1 Name","2.2 Rock writings","2.3 Lihyan/Dedanite era","2.4 Nabatean era","2.5 Roman era","2.6 Ottoman era","2.7 19th century","2.8 Recent developments","2.9 Architecture","3 In the Qur'an","4 See also","5 Footnotes","6 Further reading","7 External links","7.1 Videos"]
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Coordinates: 26°47′30″N 37°57′10″E / 26.79167°N 37.95278°E / 26.79167; 37.95278Historical site in northwest Saudi Arabia
See also: List of World Heritage sites in Saudi Arabia
Hegra (Mada’in Saleh)مَدَائِن صَالِحAl-Hijr or Mada'in SalihShown within Saudi ArabiaAlternative nameAl-HijrٱلْحِجْرMada’in SalihLocationMedina province, Hejaz, Saudi ArabiaCoordinates26°47′30″N 37°57′10″E / 26.79167°N 37.95278°E / 26.79167; 37.95278TypeSettlement
UNESCO World Heritage SiteOfficial nameHegra Archaeological Site (Al-Hijr / Madâ’in Sâlih)TypeCulturalCriteriaii, iiiDesignated2008 (32nd session)Reference no.1293RegionArab states
Hegra (Ancient Greek: Ἕγρα, Arabic: ٱلْحِجْر, romanized: al-Ḥijr), also known as Mada’in Salih (Arabic: مَدَائِن صَالِح, romanized: madāʼin Ṣāliḥ, lit. 'Cities of Salih'), is an archaeological site located in the area of Al-'Ula within Medina Province in the Hejaz region, Saudi Arabia. A majority of the remains date from the Nabataean Kingdom (1st century AD). The site constituted the kingdom's southernmost and second largest city after Petra (now in Jordan), its capital city. Traces of Lihyanite and Roman occupation before and after the Nabatean rule, respectively, can also be found.
The archaeological site lies in an arid environment. The dry climate, the lack of resettlement after the site was abandoned, and the prevailing local beliefs about the locality have all led to the extraordinary state of preservation of Al-Hijr, providing an extensive picture of the Nabatean lifestyle. Thought to mark the southern extent of the Nabatean kingdom, Al-Hijr's oasis agriculture and extant wells exhibit the necessary adaptations made by the Nabateans in the given environment—its markedly distinct settlement is the second largest among the Nabatean kingdom, complementing that of the more famous Petra archaeological site in Jordan. The location of the site at the crossroads of trade, as well as the various languages, scripts and artistic styles reflected in the façades of its monumental tombs further set it apart from other archaeological sites. It has duly earned the nickname "The Capital of Monuments" among Saudi Arabia's 4,000 archaeological sites.
The Quran places the settlement of the area by the Thamudi people during the days of the prophet Salih, between those of Nuh (Noah) and Hud on one hand, and those of Ibrahim (Abraham) and Musa (Moses) on the other. However, a definitive historical chronology can not be obtained through the order of verses due to the fact that the Quranic chapters (see surah) deal with different subjects in non-chronologic order. According to the Quran, the Thamudis were punished by God for their idolatry, struck by an earthquake and lightning blasts. Thus, the site has earned a reputation as a cursed place—an image which the national government is attempting to overcome as it seeks to develop Mada'in Salih for its potential for tourism.
In 2008, UNESCO proclaimed Mada'in Salih as a site of patrimony, becoming Saudi Arabia's first World Heritage Site. It was chosen for its well-preserved remains from late antiquity, especially the 131 monumental rock-cut tombs, with their elaborately ornamented façades, of the Nabataean Kingdom.
Location
The archaeological site of Hegra is situated 20 km (12 mi) north of the town of Al-'Ula, 400 km (250 mi) northwest of Medina, and 500 km (310 mi) southeast of Petra, Jordan. Istakhri wrote in his Routes of the Realms (مسالك الممالك):
Al-Hijr is a small village. It belongs to Wadi al Gura and is located at one day's travel inside the mountains. It was the homeland of the Thamudians. I have seen those mountains and their carvings. Their houses are similar to ours but are carved in the mountains, which are called the Ithlib mountains. It looks as if they are a continuous range but they are separated and have sand dunes around them. You can reach the top of the mountains, but this is extremely tiring. The well of the Thamudians which is mentioned in the Holy Quran is located in the middle of the mountains.
The site is on a plain at the foot of a basalt plateau that forms a portion of the Hijaz Mountains. Beneath the western and northwestern parts of the site, the water table can be reached at a depth of 20 metres (66 ft). The setting is notable for its desert landscape, marked by sandstone outcroppings of various sizes and heights.
History
Name
Its long history and the multitude of cultures occupying the site have produced several names. References by Strabo and other Mediterranean writers use the name Hegra (Ancient Greek: Ἔγρα) for the Nabatean site. The use of Mada'in Salih refers to the (Prophet) Salih, sent to Ancient Arabs, a name and identity which may be derived from the Biblical Figure Methuselah (Hebrew: מְתוּשֶׁלַח Məṯūšélaḥ, in pausa מְתוּשָׁלַח Məṯūšālaḥ "Man of the javelin" or "Death of Sword"; Greek: Μαθουσάλας Mathousalas)
The word hgr (Hegra) on an Egyptian-style statue of the Persian king Darius
Although Hegra was for a long time not as important as Dedan, foreigners appear to have called the oasis Hegra. For example, the famous statue of the Achaemenid king Darius the Great made in Egypt and erected in Susa calls the Arabs hgr.
Rock writings
Recent archaeological work has revealed numerous rock writings and pictures not only on Mount Athleb, but also throughout central Arabia. They date between the sixth century BC and the fourth century AD and are labelled as being Thamudic. "Thamudic" was the name invented by nineteenth-century scholars for these large numbers of inscriptions which had not yet been properly studied.
Lihyan/Dedanite era
Archaeological traces of cave art on the sandstones and epigraphic inscriptions, considered by experts to be Lihyanite script, on top of the Athleb Mountain, near Hegra (Mada’in Salih), have been dated to the 3rd–2nd century BC, indicating the early human settlement of the area, which has an accessible source of freshwater and fertile soil. The settlement of the Lihyans became a center of commerce, with goods from the east, north and south converging in the locality.
Nabatean era
Myrrh was one of the luxury items that had to pass through the Nabatean territory to be traded elsewhere
The extensive settlement of the site took place during the 1st century AD, when it came under the rule of the Nabatean king Aretas IV Philopatris (Al-Harith IV) (9 BC – 40 AD), who made Hegra (Mada’in Salih) the kingdom's second capital, after Petra in the north. The place enjoyed a huge urbanization movement, turning it into a city. Characteristic of Nabatean rock-cut architecture, the geology of Hegra (Mada’in Salih) provided the perfect medium for the carving of monumental structures, with Nabatean scripts inscribed on their façades. The Nabateans also developed oasis agriculture—digging wells and rainwater tanks in the rock and carving places of worship in the sandstone outcroppings. Similar structures were featured in other Nabatean settlements, ranging from southern Syria (region) to the north, going south to the Negev, and down to the immediate area of the Hejaz. The most prominent and the largest of these is Petra.
At the crossroad of commerce, the Nabatean kingdom flourished, holding a monopoly for the trade of incense, myrrh and spices. Situated on the overland caravan route and connected to the Red Sea port of Egra Kome, Hegra, as it was known among the Nabateans, reached its peak as the major staging post on the main north–south trade route.
Roman era
In 106 AD, the Nabatean kingdom was annexed by the contemporary Roman Empire. The Hejaz, which encompasses Hegra, became part of the Roman province of Arabia.
The Hedjaz region was integrated into the Roman province of Arabia in 106 AD. A monumental Roman epigraph of 175–177 AD was recently discovered at al-Hijr (then called "Hijr" and now Mada'in Salih).
Hegra Roman inscription dedicated to Emperor Marcus Aurelius
The trading itinerary shifted from the overland north–south axis on the Arabian Peninsula to the maritime route through the Red Sea. Thus, Hegra as a center of trade began to decline, leading to its abandonment. Supported by the lack of later developments based on archaeological studies, experts have hypothesized that the site had lost all of its urban functions beginning in the late Antiquity (mainly due to the process of desertification). In the 1960s and 1970s, evidence was discovered that the Roman legions of Trajan occupied Mada'in Salih in northeastern Arabia, increasing the extension of the Arabia Petraea province of the Romans in Arabia.
The history of Hegra, from the decline of the Roman Empire until the emergence of Islam, remains unknown. It was only sporadically mentioned by travelers and pilgrims making their way to Mecca in the succeeding centuries. Hegra served as a station along the Hajj route, providing supplies and water for pilgrims. Among the accounts is a description made by 14th-century traveler Ibn Battuta, noting the red stone-cut tombs of Hegra, by then known as "al-Hijr." However, he made no mention of human activities there.
Ottoman era
The Ottoman Hajj Fort at Mada'in Salih, 1907
The Ottoman Empire annexed western Arabia from the Mamluks by 1517. In early Ottoman accounts of the Hajj road between Damascus and Mecca, Hegra (Mada’in Salih) is not mentioned, until 1672, when the Turkish traveler, Evliya Celebi noted that the caravan passed through a place called "Abyar Salih" where there were the remains of seven cities. It is again mentioned by the traveler Murtada ibn 'Alawan as a rest stop on the route called "al-Mada'in." Between 1744 and 1757, a fort was built at al-Hijr on the orders of the Ottoman governor of Damascus, As'ad Pasha al-Azm. A cistern supplied by a large well within the fort was also built, and the site served as a one-day stop for Hajj pilgrims where they could purchase goods such as dates, lemons and oranges. It was part of a series of fortifications built to protect the pilgrimage route to Mecca.
According to the researches of Al-Ansari, the Ottoman castle was found near the settlement dating to the year 1600 A.D in 1984
19th century
Spanish map of the Hejaz Railway that passed through Mada'in Salih
Following the discovery of Petra by the Swiss explorer Johann Ludwig Burckhardt in 1812, Charles Montagu Doughty, an English traveler, heard of a similar site near Hegra (Mada’in Salih), a fortified Ottoman town on the Hajj road from Damascus. In order to access the site, Doughty joined the Hajj caravan, and reached the site of the ruins in 1876, recording the visit in his journal which was published as Travels in Arabia Deserta. Doughty described the Ottoman fort, where he resided for two months, and noted that Bedouin tribesmen had a permanent encampment just outside of the building.
In the 19th century, there were accounts that the extant wells and oasis agriculture of al-Hijr were being periodically used by settlers from the nearby village of Tayma. This continued until the 20th century, when the Hejaz Railway that passed through the site was constructed (1901–08) on the orders of Ottoman sultan Abdul Hamid II to link Damascus and Jerusalem in the north-west with Medina and Mecca, hence facilitating the pilgrimage journey to the latter and to politically and economically consolidate the Ottoman administration of the centers of Islamic faith. A station was built north of al-Hijr for the maintenance of locomotives, and offices and dormitories for railroad staff. The railway provided greater accessibility to the site. However, this was destroyed in a local revolt during World War I. Despite this, several archaeological investigations continued to be conducted in the site beginning in the World War I period to the establishment of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in the 1930s up to the 1960s. The railway station is, in 2024, still under restoration and includes the site of a new Chedi resort.
By the end of the 1960s, the Saudi Arabian government devised a program to introduce a sedentary lifestyle to the nomadic Bedouin tribes inhabiting the area. It was proposed that they settle down in al-Hijr, re-using the already existent wells and agricultural features of the site. However, the official identification of al-Hijr as an archaeological site in 1972 led to the resettlement of the Bedouins towards the north, beyond the site boundary. This also included the development of new agricultural land and freshly dug wells, thereby preserving the state of al-Hijr.
Recent developments
In 1962, examples of many inscriptions were discovered and renewed the archaeological assessment of Hijr (Mada’in Salih) by Winnett and Reed. Although the Al-Hijr site was proclaimed as an archaeological treasure in the early 1970s, few investigations had been conducted since. Mirdad had lived here for a short time and wrote notices about the region since 1977. Healey studied here in 1985 and wrote a book about the inscriptions of Hijr (Mada’in Salih) in 1993.
The prohibition on the veneration of objects/artifacts has resulted in minimal archaeological activities. These conservative measures started to ease up beginning in 2000, when Saudi Arabia invited expeditions to carry out archaeological explorations as part of the government's push to promote cultural heritage protection and tourism. The archaeological site was proclaimed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2008. More recent archaeological studies of the area have been made as part of efforts to document and preserve the heritage sites prior to opening the area to more tourism.
Architecture
The archaeological vestiges of Mada'in Salih are often compared with those of Petra (above), the Nabatean capital situated 500 km (310 mi) north-west of Mada'in Salih.Qaṣr al-Farīd (Arabic: قَصْر ٱلْفَرِيْد, lit. 'the Lonely Castle') is largest tomb at the archaeological site.
The Nabatean site of Hegra was built around a residential zone and its oasis during the 1st century CE. The sandstone outcroppings were carved to build the necropolis. A total of four necropolis sites have survived, which featured 131 monumental rock-cut tombs spread out over 13.4 km (8.3 mi), many with inscribed Nabatean epigraphs on their façades:
Necropolis
Location
Period of construction
Notable features
Jabal al-Mahjar
North
no information
Tombs were cut on the eastern and western sides of four parallel rock outcrops. Façade decorations are small in size.
Qasr al walad
no information
0–58 AD
Includes 31 tombs decorated with fine inscriptions as well as artistic elements like birds, human faces and imaginary beings. Contains the most monumental of rock-cut tombs, including the largest façade measuring 16 m (52 ft) high.
Area C
South-east
16–61 AD
Consists of a single isolated outcrop containing 19 cut tombs. No ornamentations were carved on the façades.
Jabal al-Khuraymat
South-west
7–73 AD
The largest of the four, consisting of numerous outcrops separated by sandy zones, although only eight of the outcrops have cut tombs, totaling 48 in quantity. The poor quality of sandstone and exposure to prevailing winds resulted to the poor state of conservation of most façades.
Non-monumental burial sites, totaling 2,000, are also part of the place. A closer observation of the façades indicates the social status of the buried person—the size and ornamentation of the structure reflect the wealth of the person. Some façades had plates on top of the entrances providing information about the grave owners, the religious system, and the masons who carved them. Many graves indicate military ranks, leading archaeologists to speculate that the site might once have been a Nabatean military base, meant to protect the settlement's trading activities.
The Nabatean kingdom was not just situated at the crossroad of trade but also of culture. This is reflected in the varying motifs of the façade decorations, borrowing stylistic elements from Assyria, Phoenicia, Egypt and Hellenistic Alexandria, combined with the native artistic style. Roman decorations and Latin scripts also figured on the troglodytic tombs when the territory was annexed by the Roman Empire. In contrast to the elaborate exteriors, the interiors of the rock-cut structures are severe and plain.
A religious area, known as "Jabal Ithlib," is located to the north-east of the site. It is believed to have been originally dedicated to the Nabatean deity Dushara. A narrow corridor, 40 metres (131 ft) long between the high rocks and reminiscent of the Siq in Petra, leads to the hall of the Diwan, a Muslim's council-chamber or law-court. Small religious sanctuaries bearing inscriptions were also cut into the rock in the vicinity.
The residential area is located in the middle of the plain, far from the outcrops. The primary material of construction for the houses and the enclosing wall was sun-dried mudbrick. Few vestiges of the residential area remain.
Water is supplied by 130 wells, situated in the western and north-western part of the site, where the water table was at a depth of only 20 m (66 ft). The wells, with diameters ranging 4–7 m (13–23 ft), were cut into the rock, although some, dug in loose ground, had to be reinforced with sandstone.
In the Qur'an
According to the Quran, the site of al-Hijr was settled by the tribe of Thamud, who "(took) for (themselves) palaces from its plains and (carved) from the mountains, homes". The tribe fell to idol worship, and oppression became prevalent. The prophet Salih, to whom the site's name of Mada'in Salih is often attributed, called on the Thamudis to repent. The Thamudis disregarded the warning and instead commanded Salih to summon a pregnant she-camel from the back of a mountain. And so a pregnant she-camel was sent to the people from the back of the mountain, as proof of Salih's divine mission.
However, only a minority heeded his words. The non-believers killed the sacred camel instead of caring for it as they were told, and its calf ran back to the mountain from whence it came. The Thamudis were given three days before their punishment was to take place, since they disbelieved and did not heed the warning. Salih and his monotheistic followers left the city, but the others were punished by God—their souls leaving their lifeless bodies in the midst of an earthquake and lightning blasts.
Robert G. Hoyland suggested that their name was subsequently adopted by other new groups that inhabited the region of Mada'in Salih after the disappearance of the original people of Thamud. This suggestion is also supported by the narration of ʿAbdullah ibn ʿUmar and analysis of Ibn Kathir which report that people called the region of Thamud al-Hijr, while they called the province of Mada'in Salih as Arḍ Thamūd "Land of Thamud" and Bayt Thamud (house of Thamud). So the term "Thamud" was not applied to the groups that lived in Mada'in Salih, such as Lihyanites and Nabataeans, but rather to the region itself, and according to classical sources, it was agreed upon that the only remaining group of the native people of Thamud is the tribe of Banu Thaqif which inhabited the city of Taif south of Mecca.
See also
Saudi Arabia portal
List of World Heritage Sites in Saudi Arabia
Iram of the Pillars
Leuke Kome
Lihyan
Nabataeans
List of colossal sculptures in situ
Ancient towns in Saudi Arabia
Footnotes
^ a b Quran 15:80–84 (Translated by Pickthall)
^ Stephanus of Byzantium, Ethnica, §E260.11
^ Strabo, Geography, § 16.4.24
^ "Hijr UNESCO World Heritage Site, Mada'in Salih | ExperienceAlUla.com". experiencealula.com. Retrieved 2020-06-03.
^ "Mada'in Saleh - Arabian Rock Art Heritage". Retrieved 2022-12-03.
^ Marjory Woodfield (21 April 2017). "Saudi Arabia's silent desert city". BBC News.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af "ICOMOS Evaluation of Al-Hijr Archaeological Site (Madâin Sâlih) World Heritage Nomination" (PDF). World Heritage Center. Retrieved 2009-09-16.
^ "HISTORY: Expansion of the Nabataeans". Historical Madain Salih. Retrieved 2014-04-07.
^ a b c d Abu-Nasr, Donna (2009-08-30). "Digging up the Saudi past: Some would rather not". Associated Press. Retrieved 2014-04-07.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m "HISTORY: Madain Salih". Historical Madain Salih. Retrieved 2013-02-20.
^ a b Quran 7:73–79 (Translated by Pickthall)
^ a b Quran 11:61–69 (Translated by Pickthall)
^ a b Quran 26:141–158 (Translated by Pickthall)
^ a b Quran 54:23–31 (Translated by Pickthall)
^ a b Quran 89:6–13 (Translated by Pickthall)
^ a b Quran 91:11–15 (Translated by Pickthall)
^ Asad, M. "The Message of the Quran, 1982. Surah 17:2 briefly discusses Moses, followed by 17:3 dealing with Noah. Then Surah 17:59 deals with the Thamud, 17:61 deals with Adam's creation". Archived from the original on 2019-12-22. Retrieved 2019-12-21.
^ Wood, Graeme (2022-03-03). "Absolute Power". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2022-03-10.
^ "Buried stories: the tombs of Hegra". Travel. 2022-07-05. Archived from the original on July 1, 2022. Retrieved 2022-12-03.
^ Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "Al-Hijr Archaeological Site (Madâin Sâlih)". whc.unesco.org. Retrieved 2018-11-23.
^ "AlUla the place of heritage for the world". experiencealula.com. Archived from the original on 2020-05-11. Retrieved 2020-06-12.
^ a b c d "Mada'in Salih, a Nabataean town in north west Arabia: analysis and interpretation of the excavation 1986-1990".
^ a b c d e f Hizon, Danny. "Madain Salih: Arabia's Hidden Treasure – Saudi Arabia". Retrieved 2009-09-17.
^ Harrison, Timothy P.. "Ḥijr." Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān. General Editor: Jane Dammen McAuliffe, Georgetown University, Washington DC. Brill Online, 2016.
^ Strabo, Geography, 16.4.24
^ Stephanus of Byzantium, Ethnica, E260.11
^ Klein, Reuven Chaim (2019-10-22). "Bereishis: The Sword of Methusaleh". Times of Israel. Retrieved 2019-10-22.
^ "Hegra - Livius". www.livius.org. Retrieved 2023-03-14.
^ "Thamūd". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. April 21, 2016.
^ dan. "The Online Corpus of the Inscriptions of Ancient North Arabia - Home". krc.orient.ox.ac.uk. Retrieved 2016-07-15.
^ a b c d e f g "HISTORY: Creation of Al-Hijr". Historical Madain Salih. Retrieved 2014-04-07.
^ The New Encyclopædia Britannica: Macropædia Volume 13. USA: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 1995. p. 818. ISBN 0-85229-605-3.
^ "Hegra: A carved phenomenon envisioning the past". www.visitsaudi.com. Retrieved 2022-12-03.
^ a b The New Encyclopædia Britannica: Micropædia Volume 8. USA: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 1995. p. 473. ISBN 0-85229-605-3.
^ a b c d e f g "HISTORY: Fall of Al-Hegra". Historical Madain Salih. Retrieved 2014-04-07.
^ Kesting, Piney. "Well of Good Fortune". Saudi Aramco World (May/June 2001). Archived from the original on 2014-10-23. Retrieved 2014-04-07.
^ The New Encyclopædia Britannica: Macropædia Volume 13. USA: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 1995. p. 820. ISBN 0-85229-605-3.
^ a b c d e f Petersen 2012, p. 146.
^ Baker, Randall (1979). King Hussein And The Kingdom of Hejaz. The Oleander Press. p. 18. ISBN 0-900891-48-3.
^ The New Encyclopædia Britannica: Micropædia Volume 5. USA: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 1995. p. 809. ISBN 0-85229-605-3.
^ The New Encyclopædia Britannica: Macropædia Volume 13. USA: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 1995. p. 840. ISBN 0-85229-605-3.
^ AlUla, Royal Commission for. "Royal Commission for AlUla (RCU) partners with luxury hotel operator GHM to develop The Chedi Hegra within the Hegra UNESCO World Heritage Site". www.prnewswire.com. Retrieved 2024-05-02.
^ "Al-Hijr Archaeological Site (Madâin Sâlih)". UNESCO. Retrieved 2014-04-07.
^ "Heritage Sites in AlUla, Saudi Arabia | ExperienceAlUla.com". experiencealula.com. Archived from the original on 2020-06-03. Retrieved 2020-06-23.
^ Keith, Lauren. "Hegra, an Ancient City in Saudi Arabia Untouched for Millennia, Makes Its Public Debut". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 2022-12-03.
^ "Information at nabataea.net". Retrieved 2009-09-17.
^ "HISTORY: Al-Hijr". Historical Madain Salih. Retrieved 2014-04-07.
^ a b "HISTORY: Tourist sites in Madain Salih". Historical Madain Salih. Retrieved 2014-04-07.
^ a b c d "HISTORY: Explanation of the Verses". Historical Madain Salih. Retrieved 2014-04-07.
^ "Madain Salih – Cities inhabited by the People of Thamud". Retrieved 2009-09-17.
^ Hoyland, Robert G. (2001). Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge. p. 69. ISBN 0415195349.
^ Sahih al-Bukhari, Narrated: ʿAbdullah ibn ʿUmar, Hadiths: 2116 & 3379
^ Ibn Kathir (2003). Al-Bidâya wa-l-Nihâya ("The Beginning and the End") Vol.1. Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyya. p. 159.
^ The New Encyclopædia Britannica: Macropædia Volume 13. USA: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 1995. Page: 818
^ Encyclopædia Britannica, Under the Category of: History of Arabia, the Section of: Dedān and Al-Ḥijr
^ The Detailed History of Arabs before Islam, Prof. Jawwad Ali, Volume: 15, Page: 301
^ The Historical Record of Ibn Khaldon, Volume: 2, Page: 641
^ Kitab Al-Aghani, Abu Al-Faraj Al-Asfahani, Volume: 4, Page: 74
Further reading
Abdul Rahman Ansary; Ḥusayn Abu Al-Ḥassān (2001). The civilization of two cities: Al-ʻUlā & Madāʼin Sāliḥ. Riyadh: Dar Al-Qawafil. ISBN 9960-9301-0-6. ISBN 978-9960-9301-0-7
Mohammed Babelli (2003). Mada'in Salih. Riyadh: Desert Publisher. ISBN 978-603-00-2777-4. (I./2003, II./2005, III./2006, IV./2009.)
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Meda'in Saleh.
World Heritage listing submission
Explore Hijr: the Archaeological Site of Al-Hijr (Mada'in Salih) in the UNESCO coleection on Google Arts and Culture
ExperienceAlUla.com (Official Tourism Website)
Photo gallery at nabataea.net
Photos from Mauritian photographer Zubeyr Kureemun
Historical Wonder by Mohammad Nowfal
Saudi Arabia's Hidden City from France24
Madain Salah: Saudi Arabia's Cursed City
Uncovering secrets of mystery civilization in Saudi Arabia – BBC
"Saudi Arabia's Al Ula archaeologists unearth Gulf's first domesticated dogs. The dig at Hegra uncovered remains of human beings and canines dating back 6,000 years. "The National News", March 25, 2021.
Videos
The Road to Mada'in Salih
Round in Mada'in Salih : Part1 – Part2 – Part3 – Part4
vtePeople and things in the QuranCharactersNon-humans
Allāh ('The God')
Names of Allah found in the Quran, such as Karīm (Generous)
AnimalsRelated
The baqara (cow) of Israelites
The dhiʾb (wolf) that Jacob feared could attack Joseph
The fīl (elephant) of the Abyssinians
Ḥimār (Domesticated donkey)
The hud-hud (hoopoe) of Solomon
The kalb (dog) of the sleepers of the cave
The namlah (female ant) of Solomon
The nūn (fish or whale) of Jonah
The nāqat (she-camel) of Ṣāliḥ
Non-related
ʿAnkabūt (Female spider)
Dābbat al-Arḍ (Beast of the Earth)
Ḥimār (Wild ass)
Naḥl (Honey bee)
Qaswarah ('Lion', 'beast of prey' or 'hunter')
Malāʾikah (Angels)
Angels of Hell
Mālik
Zabāniyah
Bearers of the Throne
Harut and Marut
Kirāman Kātibīn (Honourable Scribes)
Raqib
Atid
Munkar and Nakir
Muqarrabun
Jibrīl (Gabriel, chief)
Ar-Rūḥ ('The Spirit')
Ar-Rūḥ al-Amīn ('The Trustworthy Spirit')
Ar-Rūḥ al-Qudus ('The Holy Spirit')
Angel of the Trumpet (Isrāfīl or Raphael)
Malakul-Mawt (Angel of Death, Azrael)
Mīkāil (Michael)
Jinn (Genies)
Jann
ʿIfrīt
Sakhr (Asmodeus)
Qarīn
Shayāṭīn (Demons)
Iblīs ash-Shayṭān (the (chief) Devil)
Mārid ('Rebellious one')
Others
Ghilmān or Wildān
Ḥūr
ProphetsMentioned
Ādam (Adam)
Al-Yasaʿ (Elisha)
Ayyūb (Job)
Dāwūd (David)
Dhūl-Kifl (Ezekiel?)
Hārūn (Aaron)
Hūd (Eber?)
Idrīs (Enoch?)
Ilyās (Elijah)
ʿImrān (Joachim the father of Maryam)
Isḥāq (Isaac)
Ismāʿīl (Ishmael)
Dhabih Ullah
Lūṭ (Lot)
Ṣāliḥ
Shuʿayb (Jethro, Reuel or Hobab?)
Sulaymān ibn Dāwūd (Solomon son of David)
ʿUzair (Ezra?)
Yaḥyā ibn Zakariyyā (John the Baptist the son of Zechariah)
Yaʿqūb (Jacob)
Isrāʾīl (Israel)
Yūnus (Jonah)
Dhūn-Nūn ('He of the Fish (or Whale)' or 'Owner of the Fish (or Whale)')
Ṣāḥib al-Ḥūt ('Companion of the Whale')
Yūsuf ibn Ya‘qūb (Joseph son of Jacob)
Zakariyyā (Zechariah)
Ulul-ʿAzm('Those of the Perseverance and Strong Will')
Muḥammad
Aḥmad
Other names and titles of Muhammad
ʿĪsā (Jesus)
Al-Masīḥ (The Messiah)
Ibn Maryam (Son of Mary)
Mūsā Kalīmullāh (Moses He who spoke to God)
Ibrāhīm Khalīlullāh (Abraham Friend of God)
Nūḥ (Noah)
Debatable ones
Dhūl-Qarnain
Luqmān
Maryam (Mary)
Ṭālūt (Saul or Gideon?)
Implied
Irmiyā (Jeremiah)
Ṣamūʾīl (Samuel)
Yūshaʿ ibn Nūn (Joshua, companion and successor of Moses)
People of ProphetsGood ones
Adam's immediate relatives
Martyred son
Wife
Believer of Ya-Sin
Family of Noah
Father Lamech
Mother Shamkhah bint Anush or Betenos
Luqman's son
People of Abraham
Mother Abiona or Amtelai the daughter of Karnebo
Ishmael's mother
Isaac's mother
People of Jesus
Disciples (including Peter)
Mary's mother
Zechariah's wife
People of Solomon
Mother
Queen of Sheba
Vizier
Zayd (Muhammad's adopted son)
People of Joseph
Brothers (including Binyāmin (Benjamin) and Simeon)
Egyptians
ʿAzīz (Potiphar, Qatafir or Qittin)
Malik (King Ar-Rayyān ibn Al-Walīd))
Wife of ʿAzīz (Zulaykhah)
Mother
People of Aaron and Moses
Egyptians
Believer (Hizbil or Hizqil ibn Sabura)
Imraʾat Firʿawn (Āsiyá bint Muzāḥim the Wife of Pharaoh, who adopted Moses)
Magicians of the Pharaoh
Wise, pious man
Moses' wife
Moses' sister-in-law
Mother
Sister
Evil ones
Āzar (possibly Terah)
Firʿawn (Pharaoh of Moses' time)
Hāmān
Jālūt (Goliath)
Qārūn (Korah, cousin of Moses)
As-Sāmirī
Abū Lahab
Slayers of Ṣāliḥ's she-camel (Qaddar ibn Salif and Musda' ibn Dahr)
Implied ornot specified
Abraha
Abu Bakr
Bal'am/Balaam
Barṣīṣā
Caleb or Kaleb the companion of Joshua
Luqman's son
Nebuchadnezzar II
Nimrod
Rahmah the wife of Ayyub
Shaddad
GroupsMentioned
Aṣḥāb al-Jannah
People of Paradise
People of the Burnt Garden
Aṣḥāb as-Sabt (Companions of the Sabbath)
Jesus' apostles
Ḥawāriyyūn (Disciples of Jesus)
Companions of Noah's Ark
Aṣḥāb al-Kahf war-Raqīm (Companions of the Cave and Al-Raqaim?
Companions of the Elephant
People of al-Ukhdūd
People of a township in Surah Ya-Sin
People of Yathrib or Medina
Qawm Lūṭ (People of Sodom and Gomorrah)
Nation of Noah
Tribes, ethnicitiesor families
‘Ajam
Ar-Rūm (literally 'The Romans')
Banī Isrāʾīl (Children of Israel)
Muʾtafikāt (Sodom and Gomorrah)
People of Ibrahim
People of Ilyas
People of Nuh
People of Shuaib
Ahl Madyan People of Madyan)
Aṣḥāb al-Aykah ('Companions of the Wood')
Qawm Yūnus (People of Jonah)
Ya'juj and Ma'juj/Gog and Magog
People of Fir'aun
Current Ummah of Islam (Ummah of Muhammad)
Aṣḥāb Muḥammad (Companions of Muhammad)
Anṣār (literally 'Helpers')
Muhajirun (Emigrants from Mecca to Medina)
People of Mecca
Wife of Abu Lahab
Children of Ayyub
Sons of Adam
Wife of Nuh
Wife of Lut
Yaʾjūj wa Maʾjūj (Gog and Magog)
Son of Nuh
Aʿrāb (Arabs or Bedouins)
ʿĀd (people of Hud)
Companions of the Rass
Qawm Tubbaʿ (People of Tubba)
People of Sabaʾ or Sheba
Quraysh
Thamūd (people of Ṣāliḥ)
Aṣḥāb al-Ḥijr ('Companions of the Stoneland')
Ahl al-Bayt ('People of the Household')
Household of Abraham
Brothers of Yūsuf
Lot's daughters
Progeny of Imran
Household of Moses
Household of Muhammad
ibn Abdullah ibn Abdul-Muttalib ibn Hashim
Daughters of Muhammad
Muhammad's wives
Household of Salih
Implicitlymentioned
Amalek
Ahl as-Suffa (People of the Verandah)
Banu Nadir
Banu Qaynuqa
Banu Qurayza
Iranian people
Umayyad Dynasty
Aus and Khazraj
People of Quba
Religious groups
Ahl al-Dhimmah
Kāfirūn
disbelievers
Majūs Zoroastrians
Munāfiqūn (Hypocrites)
Muslims
Believers
Ahl al-Kitāb (People of the Book)
Naṣārā (Christian(s) or People of the Injil)
Ruhban (Christian monks)
Qissis (Christian priest)
Yahūd (Jews)
Ahbār (Jewish scholars)
Rabbani/Rabbi
Sabians
Polytheists
Meccan polytheists at the time of Muhammad
Mesopotamian polytheists at the time of Abraham and Lot
LocationsMentioned
Al-Arḍ Al-Muqaddasah ('The Holy Land')
'Blessed' Land'
Al-Jannah (Paradise, literally 'The Garden')
Jahannam (Hell)
Door of Hittah
Madyan (Midian)
Majmaʿ al-Baḥrayn
Miṣr (Mainland Egypt)
Salsabīl (A river in Paradise)
In the Arabian Peninsula (excluding Madyan)
Al-Aḥqāf ('The Sandy Plains,' or 'the Wind-curved Sand-hills')
Iram dhāt al-ʿImād (Iram of the Pillars)
Al-Madīnah (formerly Yathrib)
ʿArafāt and Al-Mashʿar Al-Ḥarām
Al-Ḥijr (Hegra)
Badr
Ḥunayn
Makkah (Mecca)
Bakkah
Ḥaraman Āminan ('Sanctuary (which is) Secure')
Kaʿbah (Kaaba)
Maqām Ibrāhīm (Station of Abraham)
Safa and Marwa
Sabaʾ (Sheba)
ʿArim Sabaʾ (Dam of Sheba)
Rass
Sinai Region or Tīh Desert
Al-Wād Al-Muqaddas Ṭuwan (The Holy Valley of Tuwa)
Al-Wādil-Ayman (The valley on the 'righthand' side of the Valley of Tuwa and Mount Sinai)
Al-Buqʿah Al-Mubārakah ('The Blessed Place')
Mount Sinai or Mount Tabor
In Mesopotamia
Al-Jūdiyy
Munzalanm-Mubārakan ('Place-of-Landing Blessed')
Bābil (Babylon)
Qaryat Yūnus ('Township of Jonah,' that is Nineveh)
Religious locations
Bayʿa (Church)
Miḥrāb
Monastery
Masjid (Mosque, literally 'Place of Prostration')
Al-Mashʿar Al-Ḥarām ('The Sacred Grove')
Al-Masjid Al-Aqṣā (Al-Aqsa, literally 'The Farthest Place-of-Prostration')
Al-Masjid Al-Ḥarām (The Sacred Mosque of Mecca)
Masjid al-Dirar
A Mosque in the area of Medina, possibly:
Masjid Qubāʾ (Quba Mosque)
The Prophet's Mosque
Salat (Synagogue)
Implied
Antioch
Antakya
Arabia
Al-Ḥijāz (literally 'The Barrier')
Al-Ḥajar al-Aswad (Black Stone) & Al-Hijr of Isma'il
Cave of Hira
Ghār ath-Thawr (Cave of the Bull)
Hudaybiyyah
Ta'if
Ayla
Barrier of Dhul-Qarnayn
Bayt al-Muqaddas & 'Ariha
Bilād ar-Rāfidayn (Mesopotamia)
Canaan
Cave of Seven Sleepers
Dār an-Nadwa
Jordan River
Nile River
Palestine River
Paradise of Shaddad
Events, incidents, occasions or times
Incident of Ifk
Laylat al-Qadr (Night of Decree)
Event of Mubahala
Sayl al-ʿArim (Flood of the Great Dam of Ma'rib in Sheba)
The Farewell Pilgrimage
Treaty of Hudaybiyyah
Battles ormilitary expeditions
Battle of al-Aḥzāb ('the Confederates')
Battle of Badr
Battle of Hunayn
Battle of Khaybar
Battle of Uhud
Expedition of Tabuk
Conquest of Mecca
Days
Al-Jumuʿah (The Friday)
As-Sabt (The Sabbath or Saturday)
Days of battles
Days of Hajj
Doomsday
Months of theIslamic calendar
12 months: Four holy months
Ash-Shahr Al-Ḥarām (The Sacred or Forbidden Month)
Ramaḍān
Pilgrimages
Al-Ḥajj (literally 'The Pilgrimage', the Greater Pilgrimage)
Al-ʿUmrah (The Lesser Pilgrimage)
Times for prayeror remembranceTimes for Duʿāʾ ('Invocation'), Ṣalāh and Dhikr ('Remembrance', including Taḥmīd ('Praising'), Takbīr and Tasbīḥ):
Al-ʿAshiyy (The Afternoon or the Night)
Al-Ghuduww ('The Mornings')
Al-Bukrah ('The Morning')
Aṣ-Ṣabāḥ ('The Morning')
Al-Layl ('The Night')
Al-ʿIshāʾ ('The Late-Night')
Aẓ-Ẓuhr ('The Noon')
Dulūk ash-Shams ('Decline of the Sun')
Al-Masāʾ ('The Evening')
Qabl al-Ghurūb ('Before the Setting (of the Sun)')
Al-Aṣīl ('The Afternoon')
Al-ʿAṣr ('The Afternoon')
Qabl ṭulūʿ ash-Shams ('Before the rising of the Sun')
Al-Fajr ('The Dawn')Implied
Ghadir Khumm
Laylat al-Mabit
First Pilgrimage
OtherHoly books
Al-Injīl (The Gospel of Jesus)
Al-Qurʾān (The Book of Muhammad)
Ṣuḥuf-i Ibrāhīm (Scroll(s) of Abraham)
At-Tawrāt (The Torah)
Ṣuḥuf-i-Mūsā (Scroll(s) of Moses)
Tablets of Stone
Az-Zabūr (The Psalms of David)
Umm al-Kitāb ('Mother of the Book(s)')
Objects of peopleor beings
Heavenly food of Jesus' apostles
Noah's Ark
Staff of Musa
Tābūt as-Sakīnah (Casket of Shekhinah)
Throne of Bilqis
Trumpet of Israfil
Mentioned idols(cult images)
'Ansāb
Jibt and Ṭāghūt (False god)
Of Israelites
Baʿal
The ʿijl (golden calf statue) of Israelites
Of Noah's people
Nasr
Suwāʿ
Wadd
Yaghūth
Yaʿūq
Of Quraysh
Al-Lāt
Al-ʿUzzā
Manāt
Celestial bodiesMaṣābīḥ (literally 'lamps'):
Al-Qamar (The Moon)
Kawākib (Planets)
Al-Arḍ (The Earth)
Nujūm (Stars)
Ash-Shams (The Sun)Plant matter
Baṣal (Onion)
Fūm (Garlic or wheat)
Shaṭʾ (Shoot)
Sūq (Plant stem)
Zarʿ (Seed)
Fruits
ʿAdas (Lentil)
Baql (Herb)
Qith-thāʾ (Cucumber)
Rummān (Pomegranate)
Tīn (Fig)
Zaytūn (Olive)
In Paradise
Forbidden fruit of Adam
Bushes, treesor plants
Plants of Sheba
Athl (Tamarisk)
Sidr (Lote-tree)
Līnah (Tender Palm tree)
Nakhl (Date palm)
Sidrat al-Muntahā
Zaqqūm
Liquids
Māʾ (Water or fluid)
Nahr (River)
Yamm (River or sea)
Sharāb (Drink)
Note: Names are sorted alphabetically. Standard form: Islamic name / Biblical name (title or relationship)
vte World Heritage Sites in Saudi Arabia
Al-Hijr Archaeological Site (2008)
At-Turaif District in ad-Dir'iyah (2010)
Historic Jeddah (2014)
Rock Art in the Ha'il Region (2015)
Al-Ahsa Oasis (2018)
Bir Hima Rock Petroglyphs and Inscriptions (2021)
'Uruq Bani Ma'arid (2023)
vteOttoman hajj routesSyrian route
1. Sulaymaniyya Takiyya
2. Maydan
3. Kiswa
4. Khan Dannun
5. Ghabaghib
6. Sanamayn
7. Muzayrib
8. Mafraq
9. Birkat Zizia
10. Dab'a
11. Qatrana
12. Hasa
13. Unayzah
14. Ma'an
15. Fassu'a
16. Mudawwara
17. Dhat al-Hajj
18. Tabuk
19. Qalandariyya
20. al-Ukhaydir
21. Mu'azzam
22. Dar al-Hamra
23. Mada'in Saleh
24. Al-'Ula
25. Bir al-Ghannam
26. Zumurrud
27. Sawrah
28. Hadiyya
29. Nakhlatayn
30. Wadi al-Qura
31. Hafira
Authority control databases International
VIAF
National
Israel
United States
Geographic
Pleiades
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of World Heritage sites in Saudi Arabia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_sites_in_Saudi_Arabia"},{"link_name":"Ancient Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language"},{"link_name":"Arabic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_language"},{"link_name":"romanized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Q15:80-84-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Arabic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_language"},{"link_name":"romanized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic"},{"link_name":"lit.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literal_translation"},{"link_name":"archaeological site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_site"},{"link_name":"Al-'Ula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-%27Ula"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Medina Province","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medina_Province_(Saudi_Arabia)"},{"link_name":"Hejaz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hejaz"},{"link_name":"Saudi Arabia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabia"},{"link_name":"Nabataean Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabataean_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Petra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petra"},{"link_name":"capital city","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital_city"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Lihyanite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lihyan"},{"link_name":"Roman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"preservation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historic_preservation"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-whs-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-expansion-8"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-whs-7"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-digging-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-madain-10"},{"link_name":"Quran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quran"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Q7:73-79-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Q11:61-69-12"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Q15:80-84-1"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Q26:141-158-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Q54:23-31-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Q89:6-13-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Q91:11-15-16"},{"link_name":"Thamudi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thamud"},{"link_name":"Salih","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saleh_(prophet)"},{"link_name":"Nuh (Noah)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noah_in_Islam"},{"link_name":"Hud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hud_(prophet)"},{"link_name":"Ibrahim (Abraham)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_in_Islam"},{"link_name":"Musa (Moses)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moses_in_Islam"},{"link_name":"surah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surah"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"idolatry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idolatry"},{"link_name":"earthquake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake"},{"link_name":"lightning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightning"},{"link_name":"cursed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curse"},{"link_name":"tourism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tourism"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"UNESCO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO"},{"link_name":"first World Heritage Site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_sites_in_Saudi_Arabia"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"late antiquity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_antiquity"},{"link_name":"rock-cut tombs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock-cut_tomb"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"text":"Historical site in northwest Saudi ArabiaSee also: List of World Heritage sites in Saudi ArabiaHegra (Ancient Greek: Ἕγρα, Arabic: ٱلْحِجْر, romanized: al-Ḥijr),[1][2][3] also known as Mada’in Salih[4] (Arabic: مَدَائِن صَالِح, romanized: madāʼin Ṣāliḥ, lit. 'Cities of Salih'), is an archaeological site located in the area of Al-'Ula[5] within Medina Province in the Hejaz region, Saudi Arabia. A majority of the remains date from the Nabataean Kingdom (1st century AD). The site constituted the kingdom's southernmost and second largest city after Petra (now in Jordan), its capital city.[6] Traces of Lihyanite and Roman occupation before and after the Nabatean rule, respectively, can also be found.The archaeological site lies in an arid environment. The dry climate, the lack of resettlement after the site was abandoned, and the prevailing local beliefs about the locality have all led to the extraordinary state of preservation of Al-Hijr,[7] providing an extensive picture of the Nabatean lifestyle. Thought to mark the southern extent of the Nabatean kingdom,[8] Al-Hijr's oasis agriculture and extant wells exhibit the necessary adaptations made by the Nabateans in the given environment—its markedly distinct settlement is the second largest among the Nabatean kingdom, complementing that of the more famous Petra archaeological site in Jordan.[7] The location of the site at the crossroads of trade, as well as the various languages, scripts and artistic styles reflected in the façades of its monumental tombs further set it apart from other archaeological sites. It has duly earned the nickname \"The Capital of Monuments\" among Saudi Arabia's 4,000 archaeological sites.[9][10]The Quran[11][12][1][13][14][15][16] places the settlement of the area by the Thamudi people during the days of the prophet Salih, between those of Nuh (Noah) and Hud on one hand, and those of Ibrahim (Abraham) and Musa (Moses) on the other. However, a definitive historical chronology can not be obtained through the order of verses due to the fact that the Quranic chapters (see surah) deal with different subjects in non-chronologic order.[17] According to the Quran, the Thamudis were punished by God for their idolatry, struck by an earthquake and lightning blasts. Thus, the site has earned a reputation as a cursed place—an image which the national government is attempting to overcome as it seeks to develop Mada'in Salih for its potential for tourism.[18]In 2008, UNESCO proclaimed Mada'in Salih as a site of patrimony, becoming Saudi Arabia's first World Heritage Site.[19] It was chosen for its well-preserved remains from late antiquity, especially the 131 monumental rock-cut tombs, with their elaborately ornamented façades, of the Nabataean Kingdom.[20]","title":"Hegra (Mada'in Salih)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"archaeological","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology"},{"link_name":"Al-'Ula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-%27Ula"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Medina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medina"},{"link_name":"Petra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petra"},{"link_name":"Jordan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan"},{"link_name":"Istakhri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istakhri"},{"link_name":"Wadi al Gura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wadi_al-Qura"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-town-22"},{"link_name":"basalt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basalt"},{"link_name":"plateau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plateau"},{"link_name":"Hijaz Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hijaz_Mountains"},{"link_name":"water table","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_table"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-whs-7"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hidden-23"}],"text":"The archaeological site of Hegra is situated 20 km (12 mi) north of the town of Al-'Ula,[21] 400 km (250 mi) northwest of Medina, and 500 km (310 mi) southeast of Petra, Jordan. Istakhri wrote in his Routes of the Realms (مسالك الممالك):Al-Hijr is a small village. It belongs to Wadi al Gura and is located at one day's travel inside the mountains. It was the homeland of the Thamudians. I have seen those mountains and their carvings. Their houses are similar to ours but are carved in the mountains, which are called the Ithlib mountains. It looks as if they are a continuous range but they are separated and have sand dunes around them. You can reach the top of the mountains, but this is extremely tiring. The well of the Thamudians which is mentioned in the Holy Quran is located in the middle of the mountains.[22]The site is on a plain at the foot of a basalt plateau that forms a portion of the Hijaz Mountains. Beneath the western and northwestern parts of the site, the water table can be reached at a depth of 20 metres (66 ft).[7] The setting is notable for its desert landscape, marked by sandstone outcroppings of various sizes and heights.[23]","title":"Location"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Strabo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strabo"},{"link_name":"Ancient Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Harrison2016-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Prophet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prophet"},{"link_name":"Salih","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salih"},{"link_name":"Hebrew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_language"},{"link_name":"pausa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pausa"},{"link_name":"javelin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Javelin"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sword-27"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Susa_darius_statue_subject_l07_arab_(1).jpg"},{"link_name":"Dedan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-%27Ula"},{"link_name":"Darius the Great","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darius_the_Great"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"sub_title":"Name","text":"Its long history and the multitude of cultures occupying the site have produced several names. References by Strabo and other Mediterranean writers use the name Hegra (Ancient Greek: Ἔγρα) for the Nabatean site.[24][25][26] The use of Mada'in Salih refers to the (Prophet) Salih, sent to Ancient Arabs, a name and identity which may be derived from the Biblical Figure Methuselah (Hebrew: מְתוּשֶׁלַח Məṯūšélaḥ, in pausa מְתוּשָׁלַח Məṯūšālaḥ \"Man of the javelin\" or \"Death of Sword\";[27] Greek: Μαθουσάλας Mathousalas)[citation needed]The word hgr (Hegra) on an Egyptian-style statue of the Persian king DariusAlthough Hegra was for a long time not as important as Dedan, foreigners appear to have called the oasis Hegra. For example, the famous statue of the Achaemenid king Darius the Great made in Egypt and erected in Susa calls the Arabs hgr.[28]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"}],"sub_title":"Rock writings","text":"Recent archaeological work has revealed numerous rock writings and pictures not only on Mount Athleb, but also throughout central Arabia.[29] They date between the sixth century BC and the fourth century AD and are labelled as being Thamudic. \"Thamudic\" was the name invented by nineteenth-century scholars for these large numbers of inscriptions which had not yet been properly studied.[30]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cave art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cave_art"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-creation-31"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-whs-7"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-creation-31"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-madain-10"},{"link_name":"Lihyans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lihyan"},{"link_name":"commerce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commerce"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-creation-31"}],"sub_title":"Lihyan/Dedanite era","text":"Archaeological traces of cave art on the sandstones and epigraphic inscriptions, considered by experts to be Lihyanite script, on top of the Athleb Mountain,[31] near Hegra (Mada’in Salih), have been dated to the 3rd–2nd century BC,[7] indicating the early human settlement of the area, which has an accessible source of freshwater and fertile soil.[31][10] The settlement of the Lihyans became a center of commerce, with goods from the east, north and south converging in the locality.[31]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Myrrh.JPG"},{"link_name":"Myrrh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myrrh"},{"link_name":"luxury items","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luxury_good"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-britannica-13-818-32"},{"link_name":"Aretas IV Philopatris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aretas_IV_Philopatris"},{"link_name":"Petra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petra"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-creation-31"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"urbanization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanization"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-creation-31"},{"link_name":"Nabatean scripts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabataean_alphabet"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-whs-7"},{"link_name":"oasis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oasis"},{"link_name":"agriculture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-whs-7"},{"link_name":"wells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_well"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-madain-10"},{"link_name":"Syria (region)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria_(region)"},{"link_name":"Negev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negev"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-whs-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-whs-7"},{"link_name":"crossroad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossroads_(culture)"},{"link_name":"monopoly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monopoly"},{"link_name":"incense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incense"},{"link_name":"myrrh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myrrh"},{"link_name":"spices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spices"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hidden-23"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-britannica-8-473-34"},{"link_name":"caravan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camel_train"},{"link_name":"Red Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Sea"},{"link_name":"port","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-whs-7"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-madain-10"}],"sub_title":"Nabatean era","text":"Myrrh was one of the luxury items that had to pass through the Nabatean territory to be traded elsewhereThe extensive settlement of the site took place during the 1st century AD,[32] when it came under the rule of the Nabatean king Aretas IV Philopatris (Al-Harith IV) (9 BC – 40 AD), who made Hegra (Mada’in Salih) the kingdom's second capital, after Petra in the north.[31][33] The place enjoyed a huge urbanization movement, turning it into a city.[31] Characteristic of Nabatean rock-cut architecture, the geology of Hegra (Mada’in Salih) provided the perfect medium for the carving of monumental structures, with Nabatean scripts inscribed on their façades.[7] The Nabateans also developed oasis agriculture[7]—digging wells and rainwater tanks in the rock and carving places of worship in the sandstone outcroppings.[10] Similar structures were featured in other Nabatean settlements, ranging from southern Syria (region) to the north, going south to the Negev, and down to the immediate area of the Hejaz.[7] The most prominent and the largest of these is Petra.[7]At the crossroad of commerce, the Nabatean kingdom flourished, holding a monopoly for the trade of incense, myrrh and spices.[23][34] Situated on the overland caravan route and connected to the Red Sea port of Egra Kome,[7] Hegra, as it was known among the Nabateans, reached its peak as the major staging post on the main north–south trade route.[10]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Roman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-britannica-8-473-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fall-35"},{"link_name":"province of Arabia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabia_Petraea"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-whs-7"},{"link_name":"Roman province of Arabia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Arabia"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-whs-7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hegra_Inscription_Marcus_Aurelius.jpg"},{"link_name":"Arabian Peninsula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-madain-10"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fall-35"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-whs-7"},{"link_name":"Trajan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trajan"},{"link_name":"Arabia Petraea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabia_Petraea"},{"link_name":"Romans in Arabia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romans_in_Arabia"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-romans2-36"},{"link_name":"Roman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fall-35"},{"link_name":"pilgrims","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilgrims"},{"link_name":"Mecca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mecca"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-madain-10"},{"link_name":"Hajj","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hajj"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fall-35"},{"link_name":"Ibn Battuta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Battuta"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-whs-7"}],"sub_title":"Roman era","text":"In 106 AD, the Nabatean kingdom was annexed by the contemporary Roman Empire.[34][35] The Hejaz, which encompasses Hegra, became part of the Roman province of Arabia.[7]The Hedjaz region was integrated into the Roman province of Arabia in 106 AD. A monumental Roman epigraph of 175–177 AD was recently discovered at al-Hijr (then called \"Hijr\" and now Mada'in Salih).[7]Hegra Roman inscription dedicated to Emperor Marcus AureliusThe trading itinerary shifted from the overland north–south axis on the Arabian Peninsula to the maritime route through the Red Sea.[10] Thus, Hegra as a center of trade began to decline, leading to its abandonment.[35] Supported by the lack of later developments based on archaeological studies, experts have hypothesized that the site had lost all of its urban functions beginning in the late Antiquity (mainly due to the process of desertification).[7] In the 1960s and 1970s, evidence was discovered that the Roman legions of Trajan occupied Mada'in Salih in northeastern Arabia, increasing the extension of the Arabia Petraea province of the Romans in Arabia.[36]The history of Hegra, from the decline of the Roman Empire until the emergence of Islam, remains unknown.[35] It was only sporadically mentioned by travelers and pilgrims making their way to Mecca in the succeeding centuries.[10] Hegra served as a station along the Hajj route, providing supplies and water for pilgrims.[35] Among the accounts is a description made by 14th-century traveler Ibn Battuta, noting the red stone-cut tombs of Hegra, by then known as \"al-Hijr.\"[7] However, he made no mention of human activities there.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mada%27in_Salih_Ottoman_fort.jpg"},{"link_name":"Ottoman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Mamluks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_(Cairo)"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-britannica-13-820-37"},{"link_name":"Damascus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damascus"},{"link_name":"Evliya Celebi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evliya_Celebi"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Petersen146-38"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Petersen146-38"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-whs-7"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-madain-10"},{"link_name":"Damascus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damascus_Eyalet"},{"link_name":"As'ad Pasha al-Azm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/As%27ad_Pasha_al-Azm"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Petersen146-38"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Petersen146-38"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Petersen146-38"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-town-22"}],"sub_title":"Ottoman era","text":"The Ottoman Hajj Fort at Mada'in Salih, 1907The Ottoman Empire annexed western Arabia from the Mamluks by 1517.[37] In early Ottoman accounts of the Hajj road between Damascus and Mecca, Hegra (Mada’in Salih) is not mentioned, until 1672, when the Turkish traveler, Evliya Celebi noted that the caravan passed through a place called \"Abyar Salih\" where there were the remains of seven cities.[38] It is again mentioned by the traveler Murtada ibn 'Alawan as a rest stop on the route called \"al-Mada'in.\"[38] Between 1744 and 1757,[7][10] a fort was built at al-Hijr on the orders of the Ottoman governor of Damascus, As'ad Pasha al-Azm.[38] A cistern supplied by a large well within the fort was also built, and the site served as a one-day stop for Hajj pilgrims where they could purchase goods such as dates, lemons and oranges.[38] It was part of a series of fortifications built to protect the pilgrimage route to Mecca.[38]According to the researches of Al-Ansari, the Ottoman castle was found near the settlement dating to the year 1600 A.D in 1984[22]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ferrocarril_del_hiyaz_EN.PNG"},{"link_name":"Hejaz Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hejaz_Railway"},{"link_name":"Johann Ludwig Burckhardt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Ludwig_Burckhardt"},{"link_name":"Charles Montagu Doughty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Montagu_Doughty"},{"link_name":"Travels in Arabia Deserta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Travels_in_Arabia_Deserta"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-madain-10"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fall-35"},{"link_name":"Bedouin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bedouin"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Petersen146-38"},{"link_name":"Tayma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tayma"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-madain-10"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fall-35"},{"link_name":"Hejaz Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hejaz_Railway"},{"link_name":"sultan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultan"},{"link_name":"Abdul Hamid II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdul_Hamid_II"},{"link_name":"Damascus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damascus"},{"link_name":"Jerusalem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalem"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-madain-10"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fall-35"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-baker-39"},{"link_name":"locomotives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locomotive"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-madain-10"},{"link_name":"railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railway"},{"link_name":"local revolt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_Revolt"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-britannica-5-809-40"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-whs-7"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-britannica-13-840-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"nomadic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomadic"},{"link_name":"Bedouin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bedouin"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-whs-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-whs-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-whs-7"}],"sub_title":"19th century","text":"Spanish map of the Hejaz Railway that passed through Mada'in SalihFollowing the discovery of Petra by the Swiss explorer Johann Ludwig Burckhardt in 1812, Charles Montagu Doughty, an English traveler, heard of a similar site near Hegra (Mada’in Salih), a fortified Ottoman town on the Hajj road from Damascus. In order to access the site, Doughty joined the Hajj caravan, and reached the site of the ruins in 1876, recording the visit in his journal which was published as Travels in Arabia Deserta.[10][35] Doughty described the Ottoman fort, where he resided for two months, and noted that Bedouin tribesmen had a permanent encampment just outside of the building.[38]In the 19th century, there were accounts that the extant wells and oasis agriculture of al-Hijr were being periodically used by settlers from the nearby village of Tayma.[10][35] This continued until the 20th century, when the Hejaz Railway that passed through the site was constructed (1901–08) on the orders of Ottoman sultan Abdul Hamid II to link Damascus and Jerusalem in the north-west with Medina and Mecca,[10][35] hence facilitating the pilgrimage journey to the latter and to politically and economically consolidate the Ottoman administration of the centers of Islamic faith.[39] A station was built north of al-Hijr for the maintenance of locomotives, and offices and dormitories for railroad staff.[10] The railway provided greater accessibility to the site. However, this was destroyed in a local revolt during World War I.[40] Despite this, several archaeological investigations continued to be conducted in the site beginning in the World War I period to the establishment of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in the 1930s up to the 1960s.[7][41] The railway station is, in 2024, still under restoration and includes the site of a new Chedi resort.[42]By the end of the 1960s, the Saudi Arabian government devised a program to introduce a sedentary lifestyle to the nomadic Bedouin tribes inhabiting the area.[7] It was proposed that they settle down in al-Hijr, re-using the already existent wells and agricultural features of the site.[7] However, the official identification of al-Hijr as an archaeological site in 1972 led to the resettlement of the Bedouins towards the north, beyond the site boundary.[7] This also included the development of new agricultural land and freshly dug wells, thereby preserving the state of al-Hijr.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"inscriptions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigraphy"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-town-22"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-digging-9"},{"link_name":"inscriptions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigraphy"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-town-22"},{"link_name":"The prohibition on the veneration of objects/artifacts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#Destruction_of_Islam's_early_historical_sites"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-digging-9"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hidden-23"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-unesco-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"}],"sub_title":"Recent developments","text":"In 1962, examples of many inscriptions were discovered and renewed the archaeological assessment of Hijr (Mada’in Salih) by Winnett and Reed.[22] Although the Al-Hijr site was proclaimed as an archaeological treasure in the early 1970s, few investigations had been conducted since.[9] Mirdad had lived here for a short time and wrote notices about the region since 1977. Healey studied here in 1985 and wrote a book about the inscriptions of Hijr (Mada’in Salih) in 1993.[22]The prohibition on the veneration of objects/artifacts has resulted in minimal archaeological activities. These conservative measures started to ease up beginning in 2000, when Saudi Arabia invited expeditions to carry out archaeological explorations as part of the government's push to promote cultural heritage protection and tourism.[9][23] The archaeological site was proclaimed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2008.[43] More recent archaeological studies of the area have been made as part of efforts to document and preserve the heritage sites prior to opening the area to more tourism.[44][45]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Monastery,_Petra,_Jordan8.jpg"},{"link_name":"vestiges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestigiality"},{"link_name":"Petra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petra"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-whs-7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Qasr_al_Farid.JPG"},{"link_name":"Arabic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_language"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-whs-7"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-info-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-alhijr-47"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-whs-7"},{"link_name":"social status","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_status"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-madain-10"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hidden-23"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-creation-31"},{"link_name":"Assyria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assyria"},{"link_name":"Phoenicia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenicia"},{"link_name":"Egypt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt"},{"link_name":"Hellenistic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_period"},{"link_name":"Alexandria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandria"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-whs-7"},{"link_name":"Latin scripts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_alphabet"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-digging-9"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hidden-23"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-whs-7"},{"link_name":"Dushara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dushara"},{"link_name":"Siq","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siq"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-whs-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-whs-7"},{"link_name":"mudbrick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mudbrick"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-whs-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-whs-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-whs-7"}],"sub_title":"Architecture","text":"The archaeological vestiges of Mada'in Salih are often compared with those of Petra (above), the Nabatean capital situated 500 km (310 mi) north-west of Mada'in Salih.[7]Qaṣr al-Farīd (Arabic: قَصْر ٱلْفَرِيْد, lit. 'the Lonely Castle') is largest tomb at the archaeological site.The Nabatean site of Hegra was built around a residential zone and its oasis during the 1st century CE.[7] The sandstone outcroppings were carved to build the necropolis. A total of four necropolis sites have survived, which featured 131 monumental rock-cut tombs spread out over 13.4 km (8.3 mi),[46][47] many with inscribed Nabatean epigraphs on their façades:Non-monumental burial sites, totaling 2,000, are also part of the place.[7] A closer observation of the façades indicates the social status of the buried person[10]—the size and ornamentation of the structure reflect the wealth of the person. Some façades had plates on top of the entrances providing information about the grave owners, the religious system, and the masons who carved them.[23] Many graves indicate military ranks, leading archaeologists to speculate that the site might once have been a Nabatean military base, meant to protect the settlement's trading activities.[31]The Nabatean kingdom was not just situated at the crossroad of trade but also of culture. This is reflected in the varying motifs of the façade decorations, borrowing stylistic elements from Assyria, Phoenicia, Egypt and Hellenistic Alexandria, combined with the native artistic style.[7] Roman decorations and Latin scripts also figured on the troglodytic tombs when the territory was annexed by the Roman Empire.[9] In contrast to the elaborate exteriors, the interiors of the rock-cut structures are severe and plain.[23]A religious area, known as \"Jabal Ithlib,\" is located to the north-east of the site.[7] It is believed to have been originally dedicated to the Nabatean deity Dushara. A narrow corridor, 40 metres (131 ft) long between the high rocks and reminiscent of the Siq in Petra, leads to the hall of the Diwan, a Muslim's council-chamber or law-court.[7] Small religious sanctuaries bearing inscriptions were also cut into the rock in the vicinity.The residential area is located in the middle of the plain, far from the outcrops.[7] The primary material of construction for the houses and the enclosing wall was sun-dried mudbrick.[7] Few vestiges of the residential area remain.Water is supplied by 130 wells, situated in the western and north-western part of the site, where the water table was at a depth of only 20 m (66 ft).[7] The wells, with diameters ranging 4–7 m (13–23 ft), were cut into the rock, although some, dug in loose ground, had to be reinforced with sandstone.[7]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"al-Hijr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mada%27in_Saleh"},{"link_name":"Thamud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thamud"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-creation-31"},{"link_name":"Quran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quran"},{"link_name":"7:73-79","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2002.02.0006%3Asura%3D7%3Averse%3D73-79"},{"link_name":"Quran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quran"},{"link_name":"11:61-69","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2002.02.0006%3Asura%3D11%3Averse%3D61-69"},{"link_name":"Quran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quran"},{"link_name":"15:80-84","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2002.02.0006%3Asura%3D15%3Averse%3D80-84"},{"link_name":"idol worship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shirk_(Islam)"},{"link_name":"oppression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppression"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-verses-49"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Q7:73-79-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Q11:61-69-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Q26:141-158-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Q54:23-31-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Q89:6-13-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Q91:11-15-16"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-madain-10"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-verses-49"},{"link_name":"she-camel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/She-Camel_of_God"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-verses-49"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-thamud-50"},{"link_name":"sacred","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacred"},{"link_name":"monotheistic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tawhid"},{"link_name":"God","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_in_Islam"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hidden-23"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-verses-49"},{"link_name":"Robert G. Hoyland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_G._Hoyland"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"ʿAbdullah ibn ʿUmar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_Allah_ibn_Umar_ibn_al-Khattab"},{"link_name":"Ibn Kathir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Kathir"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"Lihyanites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lihyan"},{"link_name":"Nabataeans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabataeans"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"Banu Thaqif","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banu_Thaqif"},{"link_name":"Taif","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taif"},{"link_name":"Mecca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mecca"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"}],"text":"According to the Quran, the site of al-Hijr was settled by the tribe of Thamud,[31] who \"(took) for (themselves) palaces from its plains and (carved) from the mountains, homes\".[Quran 7:73-79][Quran 11:61-69][Quran 15:80-84] The tribe fell to idol worship, and oppression became prevalent.[49] The prophet Salih,[11][12][13][14][15][16] to whom the site's name of Mada'in Salih is often attributed,[10] called on the Thamudis to repent.[49] The Thamudis disregarded the warning and instead commanded Salih to summon a pregnant she-camel from the back of a mountain. And so a pregnant she-camel was sent to the people from the back of the mountain, as proof of Salih's divine mission.[49][50]However, only a minority heeded his words. The non-believers killed the sacred camel instead of caring for it as they were told, and its calf ran back to the mountain from whence it came. The Thamudis were given three days before their punishment was to take place, since they disbelieved and did not heed the warning. Salih and his monotheistic followers left the city, but the others were punished by God—their souls leaving their lifeless bodies in the midst of an earthquake and lightning blasts.[23][49]Robert G. Hoyland suggested that their name was subsequently adopted by other new groups that inhabited the region of Mada'in Salih after the disappearance of the original people of Thamud.[51] This suggestion is also supported by the narration of ʿAbdullah ibn ʿUmar and analysis of Ibn Kathir which report that people called the region of Thamud al-Hijr, while they called the province of Mada'in Salih as Arḍ Thamūd \"Land of Thamud\" and Bayt Thamud (house of Thamud).[52][53] So the term \"Thamud\" was not applied to the groups that lived in Mada'in Salih, such as Lihyanites and Nabataeans,[54][55] but rather to the region itself, and according to classical sources, it was agreed upon that the only remaining group of the native people of Thamud is the tribe of Banu Thaqif which inhabited the city of Taif south of Mecca.[56][57][58]","title":"In the 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link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-thamud_50-0"},{"link_name":"\"Madain Salih – Cities inhabited by the People of Thamud\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.iqrasense.com/islamic-history/madain-Salih-cities-inhabited-by-the-people-of-thamud.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-51"},{"link_name":"Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=lZ8LydOFoScC&pg=PA69"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0415195349","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415195349"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-52"},{"link_name":"Sahih al-Bukhari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahih_al-Bukhari"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-53"},{"link_name":"Ibn Kathir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Kathir"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-54"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-55"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-56"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-57"},{"link_name":"Ibn Khaldon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Khaldon"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-58"}],"text":"^ a b Quran 15:80–84 (Translated by Pickthall)\n\n^ Stephanus of Byzantium, Ethnica, §E260.11\n\n^ Strabo, Geography, § 16.4.24\n\n^ \"Hijr UNESCO World Heritage Site, Mada'in Salih | ExperienceAlUla.com\". experiencealula.com. Retrieved 2020-06-03.[permanent dead link]\n\n^ \"Mada'in Saleh - Arabian Rock Art Heritage\". Retrieved 2022-12-03.\n\n^ Marjory Woodfield (21 April 2017). \"Saudi Arabia's silent desert city\". BBC News.\n\n^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af \"ICOMOS Evaluation of Al-Hijr Archaeological Site (Madâin Sâlih) World Heritage Nomination\" (PDF). World Heritage Center. Retrieved 2009-09-16.\n\n^ \"HISTORY: Expansion of the Nabataeans\". Historical Madain Salih. Retrieved 2014-04-07.[permanent dead link]\n\n^ a b c d Abu-Nasr, Donna (2009-08-30). \"Digging up the Saudi past: Some would rather not\". Associated Press. Retrieved 2014-04-07.\n\n^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m \"HISTORY: Madain Salih\". Historical Madain Salih. Retrieved 2013-02-20.[permanent dead link]\n\n^ a b Quran 7:73–79 (Translated by Pickthall)\n\n^ a b Quran 11:61–69 (Translated by Pickthall)\n\n^ a b Quran 26:141–158 (Translated by Pickthall)\n\n^ a b Quran 54:23–31 (Translated by Pickthall)\n\n^ a b Quran 89:6–13 (Translated by Pickthall)\n\n^ a b Quran 91:11–15 (Translated by Pickthall)\n\n^ Asad, M. \"The Message of the Quran, 1982. [Note] Surah 17:2 briefly discusses Moses, followed by 17:3 dealing with Noah. Then Surah 17:59 deals with the Thamud, 17:61 deals with Adam's creation\". Archived from the original on 2019-12-22. Retrieved 2019-12-21.\n\n^ Wood, Graeme (2022-03-03). \"Absolute Power\". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2022-03-10.\n\n^ \"Buried stories: the tombs of Hegra\". Travel. 2022-07-05. Archived from the original on July 1, 2022. Retrieved 2022-12-03.\n\n^ Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. \"Al-Hijr Archaeological Site (Madâin Sâlih)\". whc.unesco.org. Retrieved 2018-11-23.\n\n^ \"AlUla the place of heritage for the world\". experiencealula.com. Archived from the original on 2020-05-11. Retrieved 2020-06-12.\n\n^ a b c d \"Mada'in Salih, a Nabataean town in north west Arabia: analysis and interpretation of the excavation 1986-1990\".\n\n^ a b c d e f Hizon, Danny. \"Madain Salih: Arabia's Hidden Treasure – Saudi Arabia\". Retrieved 2009-09-17.\n\n^ Harrison, Timothy P.. \"Ḥijr.\" Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān. General Editor: Jane Dammen McAuliffe, Georgetown University, Washington DC. Brill Online, 2016.\n\n^ Strabo, Geography, 16.4.24\n\n^ Stephanus of Byzantium, Ethnica, E260.11\n\n^ Klein, Reuven Chaim (2019-10-22). \"Bereishis: The Sword of Methusaleh\". Times of Israel. Retrieved 2019-10-22.\n\n^ \"Hegra - Livius\". www.livius.org. Retrieved 2023-03-14.\n\n^ \"Thamūd\". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. April 21, 2016.\n\n^ dan. \"The Online Corpus of the Inscriptions of Ancient North Arabia - Home\". krc.orient.ox.ac.uk. Retrieved 2016-07-15.\n\n^ a b c d e f g \"HISTORY: Creation of Al-Hijr\". Historical Madain Salih. Retrieved 2014-04-07.[permanent dead link]\n\n^ The New Encyclopædia Britannica: Macropædia Volume 13. USA: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 1995. p. 818. ISBN 0-85229-605-3.\n\n^ \"Hegra: A carved phenomenon envisioning the past\". www.visitsaudi.com. Retrieved 2022-12-03.\n\n^ a b The New Encyclopædia Britannica: Micropædia Volume 8. USA: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 1995. p. 473. ISBN 0-85229-605-3.\n\n^ a b c d e f g \"HISTORY: Fall of Al-Hegra\". Historical Madain Salih. Retrieved 2014-04-07.[permanent dead link]\n\n^ Kesting, Piney. \"Well of Good Fortune\". Saudi Aramco World (May/June 2001). Archived from the original on 2014-10-23. Retrieved 2014-04-07.\n\n^ The New Encyclopædia Britannica: Macropædia Volume 13. USA: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 1995. p. 820. ISBN 0-85229-605-3.\n\n^ a b c d e f Petersen 2012, p. 146.\n\n^ Baker, Randall (1979). King Hussein And The Kingdom of Hejaz. The Oleander Press. p. 18. ISBN 0-900891-48-3.\n\n^ The New Encyclopædia Britannica: Micropædia Volume 5. USA: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 1995. p. 809. ISBN 0-85229-605-3.\n\n^ The New Encyclopædia Britannica: Macropædia Volume 13. USA: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 1995. p. 840. ISBN 0-85229-605-3.\n\n^ AlUla, Royal Commission for. \"Royal Commission for AlUla (RCU) partners with luxury hotel operator GHM to develop The Chedi Hegra within the Hegra UNESCO World Heritage Site\". www.prnewswire.com. Retrieved 2024-05-02.\n\n^ \"Al-Hijr Archaeological Site (Madâin Sâlih)\". UNESCO. Retrieved 2014-04-07.\n\n^ \"Heritage Sites in AlUla, Saudi Arabia | ExperienceAlUla.com\". experiencealula.com. Archived from the original on 2020-06-03. Retrieved 2020-06-23.\n\n^ Keith, Lauren. \"Hegra, an Ancient City in Saudi Arabia Untouched for Millennia, Makes Its Public Debut\". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 2022-12-03.\n\n^ \"Information at nabataea.net\". Retrieved 2009-09-17.\n\n^ \"HISTORY: Al-Hijr\". Historical Madain Salih. Retrieved 2014-04-07.[permanent dead link]\n\n^ a b \"HISTORY: Tourist sites in Madain Salih\". Historical Madain Salih. Retrieved 2014-04-07.[permanent dead link]\n\n^ a b c d \"HISTORY: Explanation of the Verses\". Historical Madain Salih. Retrieved 2014-04-07.[permanent dead link]\n\n^ \"Madain Salih – Cities inhabited by the People of Thamud\". Retrieved 2009-09-17.\n\n^ Hoyland, Robert G. (2001). Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge. p. 69. ISBN 0415195349.\n\n^ Sahih al-Bukhari, Narrated: ʿAbdullah ibn ʿUmar, Hadiths: 2116 & 3379\n\n^ Ibn Kathir (2003). Al-Bidâya wa-l-Nihâya (\"The Beginning and the End\") Vol.1. Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyya. p. 159.\n\n^ The New Encyclopædia Britannica: Macropædia Volume 13. USA: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 1995. Page: 818\n\n^ Encyclopædia Britannica, Under the Category of: History of Arabia, the Section of: Dedān and Al-Ḥijr\n\n^ The Detailed History of Arabs before Islam, Prof. Jawwad Ali, Volume: 15, Page: 301\n\n^ The Historical Record of Ibn Khaldon, Volume: 2, Page: 641\n\n^ Kitab Al-Aghani, Abu Al-Faraj Al-Asfahani, Volume: 4, Page: 74","title":"Footnotes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9960-9301-0-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9960-9301-0-6"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-9960-9301-0-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9960-9301-0-7"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-603-00-2777-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-603-00-2777-4"}],"text":"Abdul Rahman Ansary; Ḥusayn Abu Al-Ḥassān (2001). The civilization of two cities: Al-ʻUlā & Madāʼin Sāliḥ. Riyadh: Dar Al-Qawafil. ISBN 9960-9301-0-6. ISBN 978-9960-9301-0-7\nMohammed Babelli (2003). Mada'in Salih. Riyadh: Desert Publisher. ISBN 978-603-00-2777-4. (I./2003, II./2005, III./2006, IV./2009.)","title":"Further reading"}]
|
[{"image_text":"The word hgr (Hegra) on an Egyptian-style statue of the Persian king Darius","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Susa_darius_statue_subject_l07_arab_%281%29.jpg/220px-Susa_darius_statue_subject_l07_arab_%281%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Myrrh was one of the luxury items that had to pass through the Nabatean territory to be traded elsewhere","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Myrrh.JPG/220px-Myrrh.JPG"},{"image_text":"Hegra Roman inscription dedicated to Emperor Marcus Aurelius","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Hegra_Inscription_Marcus_Aurelius.jpg/250px-Hegra_Inscription_Marcus_Aurelius.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Ottoman Hajj Fort at Mada'in Salih, 1907","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Mada%27in_Salih_Ottoman_fort.jpg/250px-Mada%27in_Salih_Ottoman_fort.jpg"},{"image_text":"Spanish map of the Hejaz Railway that passed through Mada'in Salih","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Ferrocarril_del_hiyaz_EN.PNG/290px-Ferrocarril_del_hiyaz_EN.PNG"}]
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[{"title":"Saudi Arabia portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Saudi_Arabia"},{"title":"List of World Heritage Sites in Saudi Arabia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Saudi_Arabia"},{"title":"Iram of the Pillars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iram_of_the_Pillars"},{"title":"Leuke Kome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leuke_Kome"},{"title":"Lihyan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lihyan"},{"title":"Nabataeans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabataeans"},{"title":"List of colossal sculptures in situ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_colossal_sculptures_in_situ"},{"title":"Ancient towns in Saudi Arabia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_towns_in_Saudi_Arabia"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Hijr UNESCO World Heritage Site, Mada'in Salih | ExperienceAlUla.com\". experiencealula.com. Retrieved 2020-06-03.","urls":[{"url":"https://experiencealula.com/en/Discover_AlUla/Heritage/Pages/Hijr.aspx","url_text":"\"Hijr UNESCO World Heritage Site, Mada'in Salih | ExperienceAlUla.com\""}]},{"reference":"\"Mada'in Saleh - Arabian Rock Art Heritage\". Retrieved 2022-12-03.","urls":[{"url":"http://saudi-archaeology.com/sites/madain-saleh/","url_text":"\"Mada'in Saleh - Arabian Rock Art Heritage\""}]},{"reference":"Marjory Woodfield (21 April 2017). \"Saudi Arabia's silent desert city\". BBC News.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.com/travel/story/20170418-saudi-arabias-silent-desert-city","url_text":"\"Saudi Arabia's silent desert city\""}]},{"reference":"\"ICOMOS Evaluation of Al-Hijr Archaeological Site (Madâin Sâlih) World Heritage Nomination\" (PDF). World Heritage Center. Retrieved 2009-09-16.","urls":[{"url":"https://whc.unesco.org/archive/advisory_body_evaluation/1293.pdf","url_text":"\"ICOMOS Evaluation of Al-Hijr Archaeological Site (Madâin Sâlih) World Heritage Nomination\""}]},{"reference":"\"HISTORY: Expansion of the Nabataeans\". Historical Madain Salih. Retrieved 2014-04-07.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.madainsalih.net/Expansion_of..html","url_text":"\"HISTORY: Expansion of the Nabataeans\""}]},{"reference":"Abu-Nasr, Donna (2009-08-30). \"Digging up the Saudi past: Some would rather not\". Associated Press. Retrieved 2014-04-07.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.usnews.com/science/articles/2009/08/31/digging-up-the-saudi-past-some-would-rather-not","url_text":"\"Digging up the Saudi past: Some would rather not\""}]},{"reference":"\"HISTORY: Madain Salih\". Historical Madain Salih. Retrieved 2013-02-20.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.madainsalih.net/HISTORY.html","url_text":"\"HISTORY: Madain Salih\""}]},{"reference":"Asad, M. \"The Message of the Quran, 1982. [Note] Surah 17:2 briefly discusses Moses, followed by 17:3 dealing with Noah. Then Surah 17:59 deals with the Thamud, 17:61 deals with Adam's creation\". Archived from the original on 2019-12-22. Retrieved 2019-12-21.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20191222134656/http://www.alim.org/library/quran/surah/english/17/ASD","url_text":"\"The Message of the Quran, 1982. [Note] Surah 17:2 briefly discusses Moses, followed by 17:3 dealing with Noah. Then Surah 17:59 deals with the Thamud, 17:61 deals with Adam's creation\""},{"url":"http://www.alim.org/library/quran/surah/english/17/ASD","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Wood, Graeme (2022-03-03). \"Absolute Power\". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2022-03-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2022/04/mohammed-bin-salman-saudi-arabia-palace-interview/622822/","url_text":"\"Absolute Power\""}]},{"reference":"\"Buried stories: the tombs of Hegra\". Travel. 2022-07-05. Archived from the original on July 1, 2022. Retrieved 2022-12-03.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220701103624/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/paid-content-buried-stories-the-tombs-of-hegra","url_text":"\"Buried stories: the tombs of Hegra\""},{"url":"https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/paid-content-buried-stories-the-tombs-of-hegra","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. \"Al-Hijr Archaeological Site (Madâin Sâlih)\". whc.unesco.org. Retrieved 2018-11-23.","urls":[{"url":"https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1293","url_text":"\"Al-Hijr Archaeological Site (Madâin Sâlih)\""}]},{"reference":"\"AlUla the place of heritage for the world\". experiencealula.com. Archived from the original on 2020-05-11. Retrieved 2020-06-12.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200511200544/https://experiencealula.com/en/Pages/default.aspx","url_text":"\"AlUla the place of heritage for the world\""},{"url":"https://experiencealula.com/en/Pages/default.aspx","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Mada'in Salih, a Nabataean town in north west Arabia: analysis and interpretation of the excavation 1986-1990\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299451129","url_text":"\"Mada'in Salih, a Nabataean town in north west Arabia: analysis and interpretation of the excavation 1986-1990\""}]},{"reference":"Hizon, Danny. \"Madain Salih: Arabia's Hidden Treasure – Saudi Arabia\". Retrieved 2009-09-17.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.bootsnall.com/articles/06-11/madain-Salih-arabias-hidden-treasure-madain-Salih-saudi-arabia.html","url_text":"\"Madain Salih: Arabia's Hidden Treasure – Saudi Arabia\""}]},{"reference":"Klein, Reuven Chaim (2019-10-22). \"Bereishis: The Sword of Methusaleh\". Times of Israel. Retrieved 2019-10-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://blogs.timesofisrael.com/bereishis-the-sword-of-methusaleh/","url_text":"\"Bereishis: The Sword of Methusaleh\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Times_of_Israel","url_text":"Times of Israel"}]},{"reference":"\"Hegra - Livius\". www.livius.org. Retrieved 2023-03-14.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.livius.org/articles/place/dedan/hegra/","url_text":"\"Hegra - Livius\""}]},{"reference":"\"Thamūd\". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. April 21, 2016.","urls":[]},{"reference":"dan. \"The Online Corpus of the Inscriptions of Ancient North Arabia - Home\". krc.orient.ox.ac.uk. Retrieved 2016-07-15.","urls":[{"url":"http://krc.orient.ox.ac.uk/ociana/","url_text":"\"The Online Corpus of the Inscriptions of Ancient North Arabia - Home\""}]},{"reference":"\"HISTORY: Creation of Al-Hijr\". Historical Madain Salih. Retrieved 2014-04-07.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.madainsalih.net/Creation_of_Al-Hijr.html","url_text":"\"HISTORY: Creation of Al-Hijr\""}]},{"reference":"The New Encyclopædia Britannica: Macropædia Volume 13. USA: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 1995. p. 818. ISBN 0-85229-605-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85229-605-3","url_text":"0-85229-605-3"}]},{"reference":"\"Hegra: A carved phenomenon envisioning the past\". www.visitsaudi.com. Retrieved 2022-12-03.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.visitsaudi.com/en/see-do/destinations/alula/a-carved-phenomenon-envisioning-the-past","url_text":"\"Hegra: A carved phenomenon envisioning the past\""}]},{"reference":"The New Encyclopædia Britannica: Micropædia Volume 8. USA: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 1995. p. 473. ISBN 0-85229-605-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85229-605-3","url_text":"0-85229-605-3"}]},{"reference":"\"HISTORY: Fall of Al-Hegra\". Historical Madain Salih. Retrieved 2014-04-07.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.madainsalih.net/Fall_of_Al-Hijr.html","url_text":"\"HISTORY: Fall of Al-Hegra\""}]},{"reference":"Kesting, Piney. \"Well of Good Fortune\". Saudi Aramco World (May/June 2001). Archived from the original on 2014-10-23. Retrieved 2014-04-07.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141023201749/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200103/well.of.good.fortune.htm","url_text":"\"Well of Good Fortune\""},{"url":"http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200103/well.of.good.fortune.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"The New Encyclopædia Britannica: Macropædia Volume 13. USA: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 1995. p. 820. ISBN 0-85229-605-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85229-605-3","url_text":"0-85229-605-3"}]},{"reference":"Baker, Randall (1979). King Hussein And The Kingdom of Hejaz. The Oleander Press. p. 18. ISBN 0-900891-48-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-900891-48-3","url_text":"0-900891-48-3"}]},{"reference":"The New Encyclopædia Britannica: Micropædia Volume 5. USA: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 1995. p. 809. ISBN 0-85229-605-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85229-605-3","url_text":"0-85229-605-3"}]},{"reference":"The New Encyclopædia Britannica: Macropædia Volume 13. USA: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 1995. p. 840. ISBN 0-85229-605-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85229-605-3","url_text":"0-85229-605-3"}]},{"reference":"AlUla, Royal Commission for. \"Royal Commission for AlUla (RCU) partners with luxury hotel operator GHM to develop The Chedi Hegra within the Hegra UNESCO World Heritage Site\". www.prnewswire.com. Retrieved 2024-05-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.prnewswire.com/in/news-releases/royal-commission-for-alula-rcu-partners-with-luxury-hotel-operator-ghm-to-develop-the-chedi-hegra-within-the-hegra-unesco-world-heritage-site-301799032.html","url_text":"\"Royal Commission for AlUla (RCU) partners with luxury hotel operator GHM to develop The Chedi Hegra within the Hegra UNESCO World Heritage Site\""}]},{"reference":"\"Al-Hijr Archaeological Site (Madâin Sâlih)\". UNESCO. Retrieved 2014-04-07.","urls":[{"url":"https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1293","url_text":"\"Al-Hijr Archaeological Site (Madâin Sâlih)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Heritage Sites in AlUla, Saudi Arabia | ExperienceAlUla.com\". experiencealula.com. Archived from the original on 2020-06-03. Retrieved 2020-06-23.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200603043452/https://experiencealula.com/en/Discover_AlUla/Heritage/Pages/default.aspx","url_text":"\"Heritage Sites in AlUla, Saudi Arabia | ExperienceAlUla.com\""},{"url":"https://experiencealula.com/en/Discover_AlUla/Heritage/Pages/default.aspx","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Keith, Lauren. \"Hegra, an Ancient City in Saudi Arabia Untouched for Millennia, Makes Its Public Debut\". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 2022-12-03.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/hegra-ancient-city-saudi-arabia-untouched-for-millennia-makes-its-public-debut-180976361/","url_text":"\"Hegra, an Ancient City in Saudi Arabia Untouched for Millennia, Makes Its Public Debut\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smithsonian_Magazine","url_text":"Smithsonian Magazine"}]},{"reference":"\"Information at nabataea.net\". Retrieved 2009-09-17.","urls":[{"url":"http://nabataea.net/medain.html","url_text":"\"Information at nabataea.net\""}]},{"reference":"\"HISTORY: Al-Hijr\". Historical Madain Salih. Retrieved 2014-04-07.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.madainsalih.net/Al-Hijr.html","url_text":"\"HISTORY: Al-Hijr\""}]},{"reference":"\"HISTORY: Tourist sites in Madain Salih\". Historical Madain Salih. Retrieved 2014-04-07.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.madainsalih.net/Tourist_Sites_in..html","url_text":"\"HISTORY: Tourist sites in Madain Salih\""}]},{"reference":"\"HISTORY: Explanation of the Verses\". Historical Madain Salih. Retrieved 2014-04-07.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.madainsalih.net/Explanation_of__Verses.html","url_text":"\"HISTORY: Explanation of the Verses\""}]},{"reference":"\"Madain Salih – Cities inhabited by the People of Thamud\". Retrieved 2009-09-17.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.iqrasense.com/islamic-history/madain-Salih-cities-inhabited-by-the-people-of-thamud.html","url_text":"\"Madain Salih – Cities inhabited by the People of Thamud\""}]},{"reference":"Hoyland, Robert G. (2001). Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge. p. 69. ISBN 0415195349.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=lZ8LydOFoScC&pg=PA69","url_text":"Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415195349","url_text":"0415195349"}]},{"reference":"Ibn Kathir (2003). Al-Bidâya wa-l-Nihâya (\"The Beginning and the End\") Vol.1. Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyya. p. 159.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Kathir","url_text":"Ibn Kathir"}]},{"reference":"Abdul Rahman Ansary; Ḥusayn Abu Al-Ḥassān (2001). The civilization of two cities: Al-ʻUlā & Madāʼin Sāliḥ. Riyadh: Dar Al-Qawafil. ISBN 9960-9301-0-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9960-9301-0-6","url_text":"9960-9301-0-6"}]},{"reference":"Mohammed Babelli (2003). Mada'in Salih. Riyadh: Desert Publisher. ISBN 978-603-00-2777-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-603-00-2777-4","url_text":"978-603-00-2777-4"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_San_Fernando_Valley
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History of the San Fernando Valley
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["1 Native peoples and the coming of the Spaniards","1.1 Topography and early settlement","1.2 Exploration","1.3 Mission San Fernando","2 Mexican rule","2.1 Ranchos","2.2 Mexican–American War","3 Gold Rush and statehood","3.1 Cattle boom","3.2 Stage stops and the overland mail","3.3 Civil War years","4 After the Dons","4.1 New names on the land","4.2 Railroads and boom towns","5 The 20th century","5.1 Development in the new century","5.2 Annexation","6 References: San Fernando Valley Movie Making 1912 to 1915","7 See also","8 References","9 Sources","10 External links"]
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Part of a series on the
History of California
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The history of the San Fernando Valley from its exploration by the 1769 Portola expedition to the annexation of much of it by the City of Los Angeles in 1915 is a story of booms and busts, as cattle ranching, sheep ranching, large-scale wheat farming, and fruit orchards flourished and faded. Throughout its history, settlement in the San Fernando Valley (usually called simply "The Valley") was shaped by availability of reliable water supplies and by proximity to the major transportation routes through the surrounding mountains.
Native peoples and the coming of the Spaniards
See also: Chaguayanga
Topography and early settlement
Before the flood control measures of the 20th century, the location of human settlements in the San Fernando Valley was constrained by two forces: the necessity of avoiding winter floods and need for year-round water sources to sustain communities through the dry summer and fall months. In winter, torrential downpours over the western-draining watershed of the San Gabriel Mountains entered the northeast Valley through Big Tujunga Canyon, Little Tujunga Canyon, and Pacoima Canyon. These waters spread over the Valley floor in a series of braided washes that was seven miles wide as late as the 1890s, periodically cutting new channels and reusing old ones, before sinking into the gravelly subterranean reservoir below the eastern Valley and continuing their southward journey underground. Only when the waters encountered the rocky roots of the Santa Monica Mountains were they pushed to the surface where they fed a series of tule marshes, sloughs, and the sluggish stream that is now the Los Angeles River.
By the time the Spanish conquest of Mexico reached Alta California in 1769, successive groups of indigenous peoples, or Native Americans, had inhabited the area for at least 7,000 years. These peoples tended to settle on well-watered and wooded areas at the Valley's margins. The Tongva, who spoke the Tongva language, a Uto-Aztecan or Shoshonean language, had a series of villages in the southern Valley along or near the river, including Totongna (near modern-day Calabasas), Siutcanga (near Encino; means "place of the oak" in Fernandeño) and Kawengna (which the Spanish would write as Cahuenga; it means "place of the mountain"). In the north-central Valley was an apparently permanent village called Pasakngna (Fernandeño: Paséknga, of unclear etymology), in the lower foothills of the mountains near natural springs and a tule marsh. Other characteristic place-names of Tongva origin in the Valley include Tujunga (Fernandeño: tuxunga, which means "place of the old woman") and Topanga (in Tongva, Topaa’nga, and in Fernandeño, Tupá’nga, with a root topaa’-/tupá’- that likely comes from Ventureño). The Tataviam were established in the valleys to the north; Pacoima (Fernandeño: pakoinga or pakɨynga) is believed to be of Tataviam-Fernandeño people's Tataviam language origin and means the entrance in the Fernandeño dialect.
The Hokan-speaking Chumash people inhabited Malibu, the Santa Monica Mountains, and the Simi Hills in the western area of the Valley, and much of the coastal areas to the northwest. At Bell Creek below the rocky outcropping called Escorpión Peak (Castle Peak), Chumash pictographs and other artifacts have been identified by archeologists at a site, Hu'wam, which is thought to have been a meeting place and trading center for the Tongva-Fernandeño and Chumash-Venturaño. In the Simi Hills the Burro Flats Painted Cave pictographs are located on Rocketdyne's Santa Susana Field Laboratory property, inaccessible but well protected. The Tataviam-Fernandeño people inhabited the foothills of the Santa Susana Mountains in the Valley (and north in the Santa Clara River area). The Tongva-Fernandeño inhabited the Valley, along the tributaries to the Los Angeles River.
Exploration
In 1769, the expedition led by explorer Gaspar de Portolà reached the Los Angeles area of California overland from Baja California. Accompanying him were two Franciscan Padres, Junípero Serra and Juan Crespí, who recorded the expedition and identified locations for a proposed network of missions, along which the royal highway (El Camino Real) was eventually built.
After camping at and naming the location that would become the Pueblo de Los Angeles, the expedition proceeded westward before turning north through the Sepulveda Pass over the Santa Monica Mountains on the feast day of Saint Catherine of Bologna.
We saw a very pleasant and spacious valley. We descended to it and stopped close to a watering place, which is a large pool. Near it we found a village of heathen, very friendly and docile. We gave to this plain the name of Santa Catalina de Bononia de Los Encinos. It has on its hills and its valleys many live oak and walnuts.— Father Juan Crespi, August, 1769
The watering place was a pool fed by a perennial spring at what is now Encino, near the village of Siutangna. The name El Valle de Santa Catalina de Bononia de los Encinos refers to the encinos or evergreen Coast Live Oaks that studded the area. The expedition proceeded northward, camping at a site in the northern Valley before crossing over the mountains into the Santa Clarita Valley.
Father Crespí had identified a location along the Los Angeles River that would be perfect for a settlement, possibly a mission, but in 1781, King Charles III of Spain ordered that a pueblo be built on the site, which would be the second town in Alta California after San José de Guadalupe, founded in 1777. By royal edict, all of the waters of the river and its tributaries were reserved for the Pueblo de Los Angeles, a condition which would have a profound impact on development of the Valley.
Mission San Fernando
Mission San Fernando c. 1900
By the end of the century, Spain had issued two grazing concessions north of the pueblo that included the southeastern corner of the Valley, Rancho San Rafael and Rancho Portesuelo. Francisco Reyes, alcalde or mayor of Los Angeles from 1793 to 1795, had set up a grazing operation which he called Rancho Encino located in what is now Mission Hills near the village of Pasakngna. Reyes's property had a substantial water supply from artesian wells and limestone for building, and was situated a day's walk from the existing missions San Gabriel and San Buenaventura. In or shortly before 1797 he was persuaded to cede this land to the Franciscans to be the site of a new mission, receiving in exchange a square league (4,460 acres (18 km2)) of land in the southern valley by the perennial spring where the Portola Expedition had first entered the Valley. This property he also called Rancho Encino (also recorded as El Encino and Los Encinos).
Mission San Fernando Rey de España was founded at Reyes's original rancho site on September 8, 1797, by Father Fermín Lasuén. The mission's grazing lands extended over the flatlands of the valley, and it also claimed jurisdiction over several smaller valleys to the north and west. From this time, the valley began to be called after the mission.
The fathers were charged with "civilizing" the native peoples, which they named according to the mission which had jurisdiction over them. The native peoples associated with Mission San Fernando were called Fernandeños regardless of tribal affiliation or language, as those associated with Mission San Gabriel were called Gabrielinos. As the 19th century dawned, 541 Indians did the heavy work of the Mission San Fernando, tending the livestock and working the farmlands watered by irrigation from the mission's wells. The mission was famed for its red wine, and also grew pomegranates, figs and olives. By 1826, 56,000 longhorn cattle and 1,500 horses grazed on the mission lands of the valley floor.
Mexican rule
Ranchos
Sketch map or diseño of the Scott Tract of Rancho Rafael in modern Burbank, 1870s.
Main article: Ranchos of California
Californio ranchero Eulogio F. de Celis owned most of the San Fernando Valley.
In 1821, Mexico achieved its independence from Spain, and California came under control of the Mexican government. The 1824 Mexican Colony Law established rules for petitioning for land grants to individuals in California. Regulations enacted in 1828 attempted to break the monopoly of the missions and also made land grants easier to obtain. The procedure included a diseño - a hand drawn sketch map. The Mexican Governors of Alta California gained the power to grant state lands, and many of the earlier Spanish grazing concessions were subsequently patented under Mexican law.
Many Californios in the Los Angeles area wanted the mission's rich grazing lands to be made available to private citizens, while those in the north, including Mexican governor General Manuel Victoria, preferred to keep the mission system intact. Late in 1831, the Californios rose in armed rebellion against the governor, who led a party of soldiers to the Valley to put down the rebellion. The southern ranchers rode into the Valley via the Cahuenga Pass and the two armies faced off in a skirmish (Battle of Cahuenga Pass) that left one man dead on either side. Although the rebels retreated to the pueblo, they were victorious in defeat; the wounded governor resigned and returned to Mexico. Popular pressure increased on the government to disestablish the missions, and laws were passed to secularize the missions on August 17, 1833.
In 1843, Don Vicente de la Osa (or del la Ossa) was granted one league of land along the Los Angeles River at the southeast corner of the Valley which he named Rancho Providencia. The nearby Battle of Providencia of February 20, 1845, was another face-off between Californios and an unpopular Mexican governor, Manuel Micheltorena, who proposed to return the mission lands to the control of the church. The only reported fatalities in the day-long cannon battle along the river were two horses and a mule, but Governor Micheltorena was captured and summarily shipped back to Mexico. He was replaced by Pío Pico, a native Californio, who would become the last Mexican governor of California.
Mexican–American War
Don Andrés Pico
California was "land rich but poor in every other way, lacking cash, gunpowder, and support from Mexico." Governor Pico prepared for the inevitable war with the United States, and in 1845 began dispersing the vast mission lands. A square of land at the west end of the Valley near the historic Chumash village Hu'wam was granted to three of the mission Indians under the name Rancho El Escorpión. The majority of the mission's grazing lands and mission buildings were leased to the governor's brother Andrés Pico. After the United States declared war on Mexico on May 13, 1846, Pico sold the mission property outright to Eulogio de Celis for much-needed cash; Celis graciously extended the terms of his friend Andrés Pico's lease. From this time the property was known as Rancho Ex-Mission San Fernando.
On June 18, 1846, a small group of Yankees raised the California Bear Flag and declared independence from Mexico. United States troops quickly took control of the presidios at Monterey and San Francisco and proclaimed the Conquest complete. In Southern California, the Mexicans, for a time, resisted American troops, but when defeat became inevitable, Pío Pico fled to Mexico. Don Andrés Pico arranged the peaceful surrender of Los Angeles to American forces under Lieutenant-Colonel John C. Frémont. The Treaty of Cahuenga ending the hostilities in California was signed at an adobe owned by the Verdugo Family at Campo de Cahuenga near the mouth of the Cahuenga Pass, at the southeast corner of the Valley, on January 13, 1847.
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed on February 2, 1848, ended the war and ceded California to the United States, paving the way for California statehood in 1850.
Gold Rush and statehood
Cattle boom
The California Gold Rush of 1849 created a near-insatiable demand for beef, which was raised on the ranchos of southern California, including those in the San Fernando Valley, and driven on the hoof to northern markets serving the gold fields. In the southern Valley, de la Osa sold Rancho La Providencia to David W. Alexander and acquired the Rancho Encino, successfully raising cattle on the property. De la Osa took formal title to the Rancho under California law in 1851.
Andrés Pico returned to his rancho in the Valley and made the former mission into "one of the most celebrated homes in the new California." After California became a state on September 9, 1850, Pico served as a state assemblyman and senator, and became a brigadier general in the state militia. In 1854, Andrés Pico's nine-year lease on the Rancho Ex-Mission San Fernando expired, and he purchased a half-interest in the property.
Stage stops and the overland mail
Lopez Station in the 1860s.
In 1851 the Los Angeles Court of Sessions recognized two rights of way through the Cahuenga Pass that connected Los Angeles with the Valley. One followed the old El Camino Real to Santa Barbara via Rancho Encino. The other, Tulare Road, joined El Camino Viejo ("the old road") north via Mission San Fernando, over the San Fernando Pass (now the Newhall Pass) to the Santa Clarita Valley, and through the Old Tejon Pass to the Central Valley and the gold fields beyond. In 1854, the Army established Fort Tejon in the Grapevine Canyon (La Cañada de las Uvas) near Fort Tejon Pass. The Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors authorized funds to construct a 30-foot (9.1 m) deep cut to make the steep route north over the San Fernando Pass easier for stagecoach traffic, and a group of businessmen raised funds by subscription to complete the work. Young entrepreneur Phineas Banning's staging and shipping partnership with County Supervisor David W. Alexander acquired the contract to supply Fort Tejon, and Banning drove the first stage run over the new cut in December 1854. Also the U. S. Army Pacific Railroad Surveys found the Fort Tejon Pass a much easier route for wagons than the old Tejon Pass, and this route became the Stockton - Los Angeles Road, the new wagon route to the southern goldfields on the Kern River and northward on the east side of the San Joaquin Valley to Stockton.
The Butterfield Overland Mail stagecoach route between St. Louis, Missouri and San Francisco, California via Fort Yuma and Los Angeles made its first run in the fall of 1858. The original route entered the Valley through Cahuenga Pass and traveled northwest to the San Fernando Pass with a stage stop at Lopez Station north of the mission.
In 1859, the California Legislature appropriated $15,000 (with additional funding provided by Los Angeles and Santa Barbara Counties) towards improving the old Santa Susana Pass wagon road into a new stagecoach road, now known as the Old Santa Susana Stage Road. The road ran over the Simi Hills between Santa Susana (now Chatsworth) and the Simi Valley. The precipitous portion of the route down from the summit on the San Fernando Valley side was called the Devil's Slide; horses were usually blindfolded and chains were used to augment brakes on the steep descent. Passengers debarked and walked.
Southern California's boom market in beef had begun to decline as early as 1855 as it became profitable to drive cattle and sheep to California from the Midwest and Texas, and a drought in 1856 increased the pressure on the ranchos. By 1859, with the cattle market in collapse and besieged by mounting debts, De la Osa converted his house at Rancho Encino into a roadside inn and began to charge patrons for his legendary Californio hospitality.
The outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 disrupted mail service to California from the east via the old southerly "oxbow route". That year, Butterfield obtained a new contract to deliver mail between Los Angeles and San Francisco via a route diverging from the old road at the southeast corner of the Valley and traveling via the former El Camino Real as far as Rancho Encino before striking northwest across the valley floor for Santa Barbara via the recently improved Santa Susana wagon road over the Santa Susana Pass. This road became the main passenger route between Los Angeles and San Francisco, although traffic over the San Fernando Pass to the Central Valley continued.
Civil War years
Beale's Cut through the San Fernando Pass, c.1872
Main article: Great Flood of 1862
The devastation that ravaged the old rancho way of life between 1861 and 1865 had little to do with the Civil War raging to the east. The rains that started shortly before Christmas, 1861, continued for most of the following month. The flooding that followed drowned thousands of cattle and washed away fruit trees and vineyards. The Los Angeles Star reported that
The road from Tejon, we hear, has been almost washed away. The San Fernando mountain cannot be crossed except by the old trail ... over the top of the mountain. The plain has been cut up into gulches and arroyos, and streams are rushing down every declivity.
No mail was received at Los Angeles for five weeks. After the floods abated, grazing lands were turned into lush meadows and cattle flourished on the abundant grass. Surveyor General Edward Fitzgerald Beale had the damaged cut in the San Fernando Pass deepened to 90 feet (27.4 m) and named the slot-like roadway Beale's Cut. But the reprieve was only brief.
The flood of 1861–62 was followed by severe droughts in 1863 and 1864. Cattle perished, or were slaughtered and sold for the salvage value of their hides and horn, and land values plummeted. Ravenous locusts and a major smallpox epidemic completed the devastation. The rancho economy of the Dons and the Californio way of life fell to a wave of overwhelming debt and unpaid taxes, never to rise again.
After the Dons
New names on the land
In the decade after the Civil War, the majority of the old ranchos in the Valley changed hands. In 1867, David Burbank, a dentist and entrepreneur from Los Angeles, purchased Rancho Providencia and 4,607 acres (19 km2) of the adjacent Rancho San Rafael. Burbank combined his properties into a nearly 9,000-acre (36 km2) sheep ranch.
That same year, De La Osa's widow sold Rancho Encino to James Thompson, who raised sheep on the rancho for two years. Thompson in turn sold the property to the Garnier brothers in 1869. The Garniers also raised sheep on the property, and were known for the fine quality of their fleece, but they in turn became overextended and lost the property to foreclosure in 1878.
Home of Isaac Van Nuys, 1882
Eulogio de Celis had tried to sell his vast holdings in the Valley, but found no buyers. Squeezed by debt after the flood years, Andrés Pico had sold his half-interest in the Rancho ex-Mission San Fernando to his brother Pío Pico in 1862, retaining 2,000 acres (8 km2) called the Pico Reserve around the old Mission. When De Celis died in 1869, Pío Pico, desperately in need of cash, sold his half-share to a group of investors assembled as the San Fernando Farm Homestead Association. The leading investor was Isaac Lankershim, a Northern California stockman and grain farmer, who was impressed by the Valley's wild oats and proposed to raise sheep on the property. Other investors included Levi Strauss. To complete the sale, the Valley was split lengthwise, with the Association purchasing the southern half and the northern half devolving to De Celis's heirs. The line of demarcation was a ploughed furrow across the Valley floor near the route of today's Roscoe Boulevard. In 1873, Isaac Lankershim's son and future son-in-law, James Boon Lankershim and Isaac Newton Van Nuys, moved to the Valley and took over management of the property. Van Nuys built the first wood-frame house in the Valley. Initially, the two men raised sheep, changing the name of the company to the San Fernando Sheep Company. Van Nuys, however, thought the property could profitably grow wheat using the dryland farming technique developed on the Great Plains, and leased land from the Association to test his theories. After a drought destroyed the majority of the sheep in 1875, the remainder of the property was given over to raising wheat and barley. In time, the Lankershim property, under its third name, the Los Angeles Farming and Milling Company, would become the world's largest wheat-growing empire.
Railroads and boom towns
Map of the San Fernando Valley in 1880 by William Hammond Hall.
A 56,000-acre (227 km2) parcel of De Celis's property north of the great furrow was purchased in 1874 by state senator Charles Maclay of Santa Clara and his partner, George K. Porter of San Francisco. Porter's cousin Benjamin F. Porter subsequently purchased portions of Porter and Maclay's interests. Most of the land except the parcel northeast of the mission was used for wheat farming. Ben Porter's portion to the west (now Porter Ranch) remained one of the last parts of the Valley to be developed.
In the eastern section nearest the San Gabriel Mountains, Maclay platted the Valley's first town, San Fernando, on September 15, 1874. The town plan included land for a station for Leland Stanford's Southern Pacific Railroad from Los Angeles, which became the depot for the north Valley farmers to ship their wheat crops south to the port at Wilmington. In 1876, Southern Pacific opened a tunnel through the pass at San Fernando and ran the first through train from the transcontinental railroad's western terminus in San Francisco to Los Angeles. From this time, rail travel superseded long-distance travel by stagecoach in California.
Map of the Lankershim Ranch properties, 1887
The world wheat market remained strong through the 1870s and early 1880s, but then supply began to exceed demand, and prices began to fall. When the rival Santa Fe Railroad reached Los Angeles in 1885, fare wars between the two transportation giants brought ever more settlers to Southern California, and pressure rose to subdivide the great ranches of the Valley. In 1886, David Burbank sold his ranch to Los Angeles land speculators who formed the Providencia Land, Water and Development Company, with Burbank as one of the directors. The land was surveyed and a business district was laid out, surrounded by residential lots. The outlying area was divided into small farms. They named the town Burbank and opened the tract for sale on May 1, 1887.
In October 1887, J. B. Lankershim and eight other developers organized the Lankershim Ranch Land and Water Company, purchasing 12,000 acres (49 km2) north of the Caheunga Pass from the Lankershim Farming and Milling Company. Lankershim established a townsite which the residents named Toluca (later Lankershim, and now North Hollywood) along the old Tulare Road from Cahuenga Pass to San Fernando. On April 1, 1888, they offered ready-made small farms for sale, already planted with deep-rooted deciduous fruit and nut trees—mostly peaches, pears, and walnuts—that could survive the rainless summers of the Valley by relying on the high water table along the Pacoima River (now the central or main branch of the Tujunga Wash) rather than surface irrigation.
In 1888, Ben Porter sold a portion of his property near the base of Santa Susana Pass to the Porter Land and Water Company, which platted it as the community of Chatsworth Park.
The land boom of the 1880s went bust by the 1890s, but despite another brutal drought cycle in the late 1890s, the fruit and nut farmers remained solvent for a time. The Toluca Fruit Growers Association was formed in 1894. The next year the Southern Pacific opened a branch line slanting northwest across the Valley to Chatsworth Park, which made one freight stop a day at Toluca, though the depot bore the new name of Lankershim. In 1896, under pressure from J. B. Lankershim, the post office at Toluca was renamed "Lankershim" after his father, although the new name of the town would not be officially recognized until 1905.
A new Santa Susana Pass wagon route bypassing the deteriorating Devil's Slide was opened in 1895 to the north. Initially called El Camino Nuevo (the New Road), it was later named the Chatsworth Grade Road, which continued in use until Santa Susana Pass Road (now Old Santa Susana Pass Road) was built in 1917. This was the first automobile route between the San Fernando and Simi Valleys. It also was the main northbound 'coast road' to Santa Barbara and San Francisco, until the Conejo Grade in Ventura County between Conejo Valley and the Oxnard Plain on "Camino Real Viejo" (the Old Royal Road, now U.S. Route 101), was improved. Rail traffic through Toluca and Chatsworth Park to Ventura County and points north was made possible by the opening of the Santa Susana Tunnels in 1904, and the new coast route soon superseded the old rail route to San Francisco via the San Fernando Pass for passenger travel, as that route had superseded the stagecoach route via Santa Susana Pass in the 1870s.
Late in the decade the City of Los Angeles sued all the ranchers of the Valley, claiming the rights not only to the surface water of the Los Angeles River and its tributaries, but to the groundwater as well. In 1899, the California Supreme Court sided with the city. Without a reliable water supply, it became impossible to sell farm sites in the Valley.
The 20th century
Development in the new century
In October 1903, George K. Porter sold an option to purchase his last 16,200 acres (66 km2) of land in the north Valley to a syndicate led by Leslie C. Brand of Glendale. In 1904, Brand's syndicate incorporated as the San Fernando Mission Land Company, whose major shareholders included Los Angeles businessmen Henry E. Huntington, E.H. Harriman, Edwin T. Earl, Joseph F. Sartori, and Harrison Gray Otis. One day after the city water commission, on which Moses Sherman sat, approved a proposal to build an aqueduct from the Owens Valley, the Company quietly exercised its option to purchase Porter's land.
On July 29, 1905, the city announced its plans to bring water south from the Owens Valley—water that would only be made available to city residents. Construction began in 1908 and water from the Los Angeles Aqueduct reached the San Fernando Valley in November, 1913.
Real estate development once again boomed. In the "biggest land transaction ever recorded in Los Angeles County", a syndicate led by Harry Chandler, business manager of the Los Angeles Times, with Hobart Johnstone Whitley, Isaac Van Nuys, and James Boon Lankershim acquired "Tract 1000", the remaining 47,500 acres (192 km2) of the southern half of the former Mission lands—everything west of the Lankershim town limits and south of the old furrow excepting the Rancho Encino. As the Los Angeles Suburban Homes company, they laid out plans for the towns of Van Nuys, Marion (now Reseda) and Owensmouth (now Canoga Park, West Hills, and Winnetka), a system of highways, and eventual incorporation into the city of Los Angeles. In the "Sale of the Century" in November 1910 they sold the remaining livestock and non-land assets of the Lankershim Farming and Milling Company at auction. The Los Angeles Times called the auction "the beginning of a new empire and a new era in the Southland".
Van Nuys after the arrival of the Pacific Electric Railway 1911
The City of Burbank was incorporated in 1911, and the Pacific Electric Railway reached Van Nuys on December 16, 1911, Owensmouth on December 7, 1912, and San Fernando on March 22, 1913. In 1912, Carl Laemmle broke ground on a permanent movie-making facility on the Providencia (Oak Crest Ranch) in the hills east of the mouth of the Cahuenga Pass that would become the first location of Universal City. Universal City moved to a new location, the Taylor Ranch in 1914. In 1914, Carl Laemmle broke ground on Taylor ranch for the New Universal City in the hills east of the mouth of the Cahuenga Pass that would become the second location of Universal City in the San Fernando Valley, Universal City.
Annexation
Valley farmers offered to buy the surplus aqueduct water, but the federal legislation that enabled the construction of the aqueduct prohibited Los Angeles from selling the water outside of the city limits. For the Valley communities, the choice was consent to annexation or do without. On March 29, 1915, by a vote of 681 to 25, residents of 108,732 acres (440 km2) of the San Fernando Valley (excluding Rancho El Escorpión and the communities of Owensmouth, Lankershim, Burbank and San Fernando) voted to be annexed by the City of Los Angeles. Owensmouth was annexed in 1917, West Lankershim in 1919, Chatsworth in 1920, and Lankershim in 1923. Small remote portions of the north and west Valley were annexed piecemeal even later: most of Rancho El Escorpión in 1958 and the remainder of Ben Porter's ranch as late as 1965. Burbank and San Fernando remain independent cities to this day.
References: San Fernando Valley Movie Making 1912 to 1915
San Fernando Valley
History of the San Fernando Valley to 1915
Rancho Providencia First Movie Town 1912
Providencia Ranch Oak Crest - Universal/Bison 101 Movies
Nestor Studios valley ranch
Universal City the two valley ranch locations
Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills) Movie location
Other references'
"San Fernando Valley" By Marc Wanamaker (2011) Page 97, 103, and 106
"Oak Crest, a film city by itself" The New York Dramatic Mirror - January 15, 1913 page 49.
"Universal City Visit" Rotarian February 1914
"Early Universal City"; by Robert S. Birchard
"A Motion Picture City ..." Daily Advocate, October 2, 1914, Page 6
"Scrap it" the Old Universal - 1915 Universal Tour Brochure
The Cowboys, Indians and zoo 1914 first assets to be moved to the new Universal City.
"The Theatre of Science; a volume of progress and achievement in the motion picture industry" by Robert Grau : Page 287 - 1914 Broadway Pub. Co. New York
The Life & Adventures of Carl Laemmle; by John Drinkwater (Carl Laemmle views Nestor ranch and names the area Universal City))
"Quiet on the Set" - Iverson Movie Ranch History 1984
Universal History 1912 to 1915– "Frickr Universal Image collection" by Dennis Dickens.
See also
Los Angeles portal
Ranchos of California
History of Los Angeles
List of Los Angeles Historic-Cultural Monuments in the San Fernando Valley
California Water Wars
Rail transport in California
References
^ Gumprecht 1999, p. 134
^ Gumprecht 1999, pp. 11–15, 135–136
^ a b Gumprecht 199, p. 31
^ Johnson, John R. "Ethnohistoric Overview for the Santa Susana Pass State Historic Park Cultural Resources Inventory Project" (PDF). Retrieved 19 July 2020.
^ Roderick 2001, p. 20
^ Jorgenson 1982, pp. 34–35
^ "Mural at Pakoinga (Pacoima)". Retrieved 2020-07-19.
^ Roderick 2001, p. 25
^ Jorgenson 1982, p. 33
^ a b c SSPSHP ethnohistory Archived 2010-03-14 at the Wayback Machine
^ a b c d Roderick 2001, pp. 20–4
^ Quoted in Jorgensen 1982, p. 20
^ Bearchell and Fried 1988, p. 93
^ Link 1991, p. 17
^ Bearchell and Fried 1988, pp. 28, 68-69, 93-95
^ Jorgenson 1982, p. 32
^ Cleland 1941, p. 24
^ Roderick 2001, p. 24
^ Yenne, pp. 18-19
^ Brief History of Vicente de la Ossa and Family
^ Roderick 2001, pp. 25–26
^ Link 1991, p. 19
^ Roderick 2001, p.26
^ Roderick p. 26
^ Roderick 2001, pp. 26–27
^ a b c Bearchell and Fried 1988, p. 94-96
^ Kielbasa, Historic Adobes of Los Angeles County, p. 34.
^ a b Roderick p. 29
^ a b Link 1991, p. 23
^ Ripley 1947, p. 43
^ a b Link 1991, p. 25
^ a b c Bevill, Arthur D. (2007). Santa Susana Pass State Historic Park Cultural Resource Survey Historic Overview (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-10-27.
^ "Old Stagecoach Trail at www.trails.com". Archived from the original on 2013-01-04. Retrieved 2010-03-11.
^ Link, Tom: Universal City - North Hollywood, a Centenniel Portrait, Windsor Publications, 1991, ISBN 0-89781-393-6, p. 25
^ Cleland 1941, p. 108–109
^ a b Kielbasa, p. 35
^ a b c Bevill 2007
^ Cleland 1941, p. 128
^ "Santa Clarita Valley History In Pictures". Santa Clarita Valley Historical Society. Retrieved 2009-05-15.
^ a b c d Cleland 1941, pp. 131-37.
^ "Dr. David Burbank, 1850 :: San Fernando Valley History". digital-library.csun.edu. Retrieved 2 April 2018.
^ a b Link 1991, p.27
^ Roderick 2001, pp. 32–34, 44–45
^ a b c Dumke 1944, p. 100
^ a b c Jorgensen 1982, p. 82
^ a b Link 1991, p.28
^ "A Brief History of Burbank". burbankca.gov. Retrieved 2017-12-16.
^ Link 1991, p. 31
^ Link 1991, pp. 31, 33
^ Dumke 1944, p. 102
^ Link 1991, pp. 34-35
^ Roderick 2001. p. 46
^ Mullaly and Petty 2002, pp. 36, 44, 170–72
^ a b Link 1991, pp. 36–38
^ Hoffman 1981, p. 126
^ Roderick 2001, p.57
^ Jorgensen 1988 p. 121
^ a b Roderick 2001, p. 48
^ Link 1991, p. 40
^ Roderick 2001, p. 63
^ "Pacific Electric San Fernando Valley Line, the Electric Railway Historical Association of Southern California". Retrieved 16 May 2009.
^ Motion Picture World August 29, 1914, page 1250
^ Link 1991, p. 45–46.
^ Bearchell and Fried 1988, p. 121
^ Roderick 2001, p. 62–63
^ "City of Los Angeles Annexation and Detachment Map" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2009.
^ Daily Advocate, October 2, 1914 Page 6
^ "Universal Film Manufacturing Company". Flickr. Retrieved 2 April 2018.
Sources
Bearchell, Charles, and Larry D. Fried, The San Fernando Valley Then and Now, Windsor Publications, 1988, ISBN 0-89781-285-9
Beck, Warren A. and Ynez D. Haase, Historical Atlas of California, University of Oklahoma Press, 1974 (first edition), ISBN 0-8061-1212-3
Bevill, Arthur D. (2007). Santa Susana Pass State Historic Park Cultural Resource Survey - Historic Overview (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-10-27.
Cleland, Robert Glass, The Cattle on a Thousand Hills: Southern California, 1850-1880, Huntington Library, 1941; University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-87328-097-6; online at
Coscia, David, Pacific Electric and the Growth of the San Fernando Valley, Shade Tree Books, 2011, ISBN 1-57864-735-5
Dumke, Glenn S. The Boom of the Eighties in Southern California, Huntington Library, 1944 (reprinted 1991), ISBN 0-87328-003-2
Gumprecht, Blake. The Los Angeles River: Its Life, Death, and Possible Rebirth, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999, ISBN 0-8018-6642-1
Hoffman, Abraham, Vision or Villainy: Origins of the Owens Valley–Los Angeles Water Controversy, Texas A&M University Press, 1981, ISBN 0-89096-509-9
Jorgensen, Lawrence C., The San Fernando Valley Past and Present, Pacific Rim Research, 1982, ISBN 0-941014-00-2
Kielbasa, John R. (1998). Historic Adobes of Los Angeles County. Pittsburg: Dorrance Publishing Co. ISBN 0-8059-4172-X..
Link, Tom: Universal City - North Hollywood, a Centenniel Portrait, Windsor Publications, 1991, ISBN 0-89781-393-6
Mulholland, Catherine, William Mulholland and the rise of Los Angeles, Berkeley : University of California Press, 2000, ISBN 0-52021-724-1
Mullaly, Larry, and Bruce Petty, The Southern Pacific in Los Angeles 1873–1996, Golden West Books/Los Angeles Railroad Heritage Foundation, 2002, ISBN 0-87095-118-1
Ripley, Vernette Snyder, The San Fernando (Newhall) Pass. Part I. In The Quarterly of the Historical Society of Southern California, March 1947
Roderick, Kevin, The San Fernando Valley: America's Suburb, Los Angeles Times Books, 2001, ISBN 1-883792-55-X
Young, S., and Levick, M., The Missions of California, Chronicle Books LLC, San Francisco, 1988, ISBN 0-8118-3694-0
External links
Busch Gardens Van Nuys Historical Marker
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Portola expedition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portola_expedition"},{"link_name":"San Fernando Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Fernando_Valley"}],"text":"The history of the San Fernando Valley from its exploration by the 1769 Portola expedition to the annexation of much of it by the City of Los Angeles in 1915 is a story of booms and busts, as cattle ranching, sheep ranching, large-scale wheat farming, and fruit orchards flourished and faded. Throughout its history, settlement in the San Fernando Valley (usually called simply \"The Valley\") was shaped by availability of reliable water supplies and by proximity to the major transportation routes through the surrounding mountains.","title":"History of the San Fernando Valley"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chaguayanga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaguayanga"}],"text":"See also: Chaguayanga","title":"Native peoples and the coming of the Spaniards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"flood control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flood_control"},{"link_name":"floods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flood"},{"link_name":"San Gabriel Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Gabriel_Mountains"},{"link_name":"washes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tujunga_Wash"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wash-1"},{"link_name":"reservoir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reservoir"},{"link_name":"Santa Monica Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Monica_Mountains"},{"link_name":"tule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tule"},{"link_name":"marshes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marsh"},{"link_name":"sloughs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slough_(hydrology)"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_River"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LAR1-2"},{"link_name":"Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico"},{"link_name":"Alta California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alta_California"},{"link_name":"indigenous peoples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_North_America"},{"link_name":"Native Americans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LAR2-3"},{"link_name":"Tongva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongva_people"},{"link_name":"Tongva language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongva_language"},{"link_name":"Uto-Aztecan or Shoshonean language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uto-Aztecan_languages"},{"link_name":"Calabasas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calabasas,_California"},{"link_name":"Encino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encino,_Los_Angeles,_California"},{"link_name":"Fernandeño","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongva_language"},{"link_name":"Tujunga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tujunga,_Los_Angeles,_California"},{"link_name":"Topanga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topanga,_California"},{"link_name":"Ventureño","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chumash_language"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Tataviam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tataviam_people"},{"link_name":"Pacoima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacoima,_Los_Angeles,_California"},{"link_name":"Tataviam-Fernandeño","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tataviam_people"},{"link_name":"Tataviam language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tataviam_language"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LAR2-3"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Hokan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hokan_languages"},{"link_name":"Chumash people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chumash_people"},{"link_name":"Malibu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malibu,_California"},{"link_name":"Santa Monica Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Monica_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Simi Hills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simi_Hills"},{"link_name":"Bell Creek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Creek_(Southern_California)"},{"link_name":"pictographs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pictogram"},{"link_name":"Tongva-Fernandeño","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongva_people"},{"link_name":"Chumash-Venturaño","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chumash_(tribe)"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SSPSHP_ethnohistory-10"},{"link_name":"Simi Hills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simi_Hills"},{"link_name":"Burro Flats Painted Cave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burro_Flats_Painted_Cave"},{"link_name":"Santa Susana Field Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Susana_Field_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"Tataviam-Fernandeño","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tataviam_people"},{"link_name":"Santa Susana Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Susana_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Santa Clara River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Clara_River_(California)"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SSPSHP_ethnohistory-10"},{"link_name":"Tongva-Fernandeño","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongva_people"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_River"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SSPSHP_ethnohistory-10"}],"sub_title":"Topography and early settlement","text":"Before the flood control measures of the 20th century, the location of human settlements in the San Fernando Valley was constrained by two forces: the necessity of avoiding winter floods and need for year-round water sources to sustain communities through the dry summer and fall months. In winter, torrential downpours over the western-draining watershed of the San Gabriel Mountains entered the northeast Valley through Big Tujunga Canyon, Little Tujunga Canyon, and Pacoima Canyon. These waters spread over the Valley floor in a series of braided washes that was seven miles wide as late as the 1890s,[1] periodically cutting new channels and reusing old ones, before sinking into the gravelly subterranean reservoir below the eastern Valley and continuing their southward journey underground. Only when the waters encountered the rocky roots of the Santa Monica Mountains were they pushed to the surface where they fed a series of tule marshes, sloughs, and the sluggish stream that is now the Los Angeles River.[2]By the time the Spanish conquest of Mexico reached Alta California in 1769, successive groups of indigenous peoples, or Native Americans, had inhabited the area for at least 7,000 years.[3] These peoples tended to settle on well-watered and wooded areas at the Valley's margins. The Tongva, who spoke the Tongva language, a Uto-Aztecan or Shoshonean language, had a series of villages in the southern Valley along or near the river, including Totongna (near modern-day Calabasas), Siutcanga (near Encino; means \"place of the oak\" in Fernandeño) and Kawengna (which the Spanish would write as Cahuenga; it means \"place of the mountain\"). In the north-central Valley was an apparently permanent village called Pasakngna (Fernandeño: Paséknga, of unclear etymology), in the lower foothills of the mountains near natural springs and a tule marsh. Other characteristic place-names of Tongva origin in the Valley include Tujunga (Fernandeño: tuxunga, which means \"place of the old woman\") and Topanga (in Tongva, Topaa’nga, and in Fernandeño, Tupá’nga, with a root topaa’-/tupá’- that likely comes from Ventureño).[4] The Tataviam were established in the valleys to the north; Pacoima (Fernandeño: pakoinga or pakɨynga) is believed to be of Tataviam-Fernandeño people's Tataviam language origin and means the entrance in the Fernandeño dialect.[3][5][6][7]The Hokan-speaking Chumash people inhabited Malibu, the Santa Monica Mountains, and the Simi Hills in the western area of the Valley, and much of the coastal areas to the northwest. At Bell Creek below the rocky outcropping called Escorpión Peak (Castle Peak), Chumash pictographs and other artifacts have been identified by archeologists at a site, Hu'wam, which is thought to have been a meeting place and trading center for the Tongva-Fernandeño and Chumash-Venturaño.[8][9][10] In the Simi Hills the Burro Flats Painted Cave pictographs are located on Rocketdyne's Santa Susana Field Laboratory property, inaccessible but well protected. The Tataviam-Fernandeño people inhabited the foothills of the Santa Susana Mountains in the Valley (and north in the Santa Clara River area).[10] The Tongva-Fernandeño inhabited the Valley, along the tributaries to the Los Angeles River.[10]","title":"Native peoples and the coming of the Spaniards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"expedition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portola_expedition"},{"link_name":"Gaspar de Portolà","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaspar_de_Portol%C3%A0"},{"link_name":"Baja California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baja_California"},{"link_name":"Franciscan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franciscan_Order"},{"link_name":"Junípero Serra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jun%C3%ADpero_Serra"},{"link_name":"Juan Crespí","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Cresp%C3%AD"},{"link_name":"missions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_missions_of_California"},{"link_name":"royal highway (El Camino Real)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Camino_Real_(California)"},{"link_name":"Pueblo de Los Angeles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pueblo_de_Los_Angeles"},{"link_name":"Sepulveda Pass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sepulveda_Pass"},{"link_name":"Santa Monica Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Monica_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Saint Catherine of Bologna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Catherine_of_Bologna"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rod1-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Coast Live Oaks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coast_Live_Oak"},{"link_name":"Santa Clarita Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Clarita_Valley"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_River"},{"link_name":"Charles III of Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_III_of_Spain"},{"link_name":"pueblo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pueblo"},{"link_name":"San José de Guadalupe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_San_Jose,_California"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"sub_title":"Exploration","text":"In 1769, the expedition led by explorer Gaspar de Portolà reached the Los Angeles area of California overland from Baja California. Accompanying him were two Franciscan Padres, Junípero Serra and Juan Crespí, who recorded the expedition and identified locations for a proposed network of missions, along which the royal highway (El Camino Real) was eventually built.After camping at and naming the location that would become the Pueblo de Los Angeles, the expedition proceeded westward before turning north through the Sepulveda Pass over the Santa Monica Mountains on the feast day of Saint Catherine of Bologna.[11]We saw a very pleasant and spacious valley. We descended to it and stopped close to a watering place, which is a large pool. Near it we found a village of heathen, very friendly and docile. We gave to this plain the name of Santa Catalina de Bononia de Los Encinos. It has on its hills and its valleys many live oak and walnuts.— Father Juan Crespi, August, 1769[12]The watering place was a pool fed by a perennial spring at what is now Encino, near the village of Siutangna. The name El Valle de Santa Catalina de Bononia de los Encinos[13] refers to the encinos or evergreen Coast Live Oaks that studded the area. The expedition proceeded northward, camping at a site in the northern Valley before crossing over the mountains into the Santa Clarita Valley.Father Crespí had identified a location along the Los Angeles River that would be perfect for a settlement, possibly a mission, but in 1781, King Charles III of Spain ordered that a pueblo be built on the site, which would be the second town in Alta California after San José de Guadalupe, founded in 1777. By royal edict, all of the waters of the river and its tributaries were reserved for the Pueblo de Los Angeles, a condition which would have a profound impact on development of the Valley.[14]","title":"Native peoples and the coming of the Spaniards"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mission_San_Fernando_Postcard,_circa_1900.jpg"},{"link_name":"grazing concessions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranchos_of_California"},{"link_name":"Rancho San Rafael","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rancho_San_Rafael"},{"link_name":"Francisco Reyes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Francisco_Reyes_(soldier)"},{"link_name":"alcalde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcalde"},{"link_name":"Mission Hills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mission_Hills,_Los_Angeles,_California"},{"link_name":"artesian wells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artesian_well"},{"link_name":"San Gabriel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mission_San_Gabriel"},{"link_name":"San Buenaventura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mission_San_Buenaventura"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rod1-11"},{"link_name":"Rancho Encino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rancho_Los_Encinos"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Mission San Fernando Rey de España","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mission_San_Fernando_Rey_de_Espa%C3%B1a"},{"link_name":"Fermín Lasuén","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferm%C3%ADn_Lasu%C3%A9n"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rod1-11"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"pomegranates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomegranate"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rod1-11"}],"sub_title":"Mission San Fernando","text":"Mission San Fernando c. 1900By the end of the century, Spain had issued two grazing concessions north of the pueblo that included the southeastern corner of the Valley, Rancho San Rafael and Rancho Portesuelo. Francisco Reyes, alcalde or mayor of Los Angeles from 1793 to 1795, had set up a grazing operation which he called Rancho Encino located in what is now Mission Hills near the village of Pasakngna. Reyes's property had a substantial water supply from artesian wells and limestone for building, and was situated a day's walk from the existing missions San Gabriel and San Buenaventura.[11] In or shortly before 1797 he was persuaded to cede this land to the Franciscans to be the site of a new mission, receiving in exchange a square league (4,460 acres (18 km2)) of land in the southern valley by the perennial spring where the Portola Expedition had first entered the Valley. This property he also called Rancho Encino (also recorded as El Encino and Los Encinos).[15]Mission San Fernando Rey de España was founded at Reyes's original rancho site on September 8, 1797, by Father Fermín Lasuén. The mission's grazing lands extended over the flatlands of the valley, and it also claimed jurisdiction over several smaller valleys to the north and west. From this time, the valley began to be called after the mission.[11]The fathers were charged with \"civilizing\" the native peoples, which they named according to the mission which had jurisdiction over them. The native peoples associated with Mission San Fernando were called Fernandeños regardless of tribal affiliation or language,[16] as those associated with Mission San Gabriel were called Gabrielinos. As the 19th century dawned, 541 Indians did the heavy work of the Mission San Fernando, tending the livestock and working the farmlands watered by irrigation from the mission's wells. The mission was famed for its red wine, and also grew pomegranates, figs and olives. By 1826, 56,000 longhorn cattle and 1,500 horses grazed on the mission lands of the valley floor.[11]","title":"Native peoples and the coming of the Spaniards"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Mexican rule"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scott_Tract_Burbank.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Eulogio_de_Celis.jpg"},{"link_name":"Californio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Californio"},{"link_name":"Eulogio F. de Celis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eulogio_F._de_Celis"},{"link_name":"independence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexican_War_of_Independence"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Mexican Governors of Alta California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_pre-statehood_governors_of_California#Mexican_Governors_of_Alta_California,_1822-1847"},{"link_name":"Californios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Californio"},{"link_name":"Manuel Victoria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuel_Victoria"},{"link_name":"Cahuenga Pass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cahuenga_Pass"},{"link_name":"Battle of Cahuenga Pass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Cahuenga_Pass"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-yenne18-19-19"},{"link_name":"Rancho Providencia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rancho_Providencia"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Battle of Providencia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Providencia"},{"link_name":"Manuel Micheltorena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuel_Micheltorena"},{"link_name":"Pío Pico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%ADo_Pico"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"sub_title":"Ranchos","text":"Sketch map or diseño of the Scott Tract of Rancho Rafael in modern Burbank, 1870s.Californio ranchero Eulogio F. de Celis owned most of the San Fernando Valley.In 1821, Mexico achieved its independence from Spain, and California came under control of the Mexican government. The 1824 Mexican Colony Law established rules for petitioning for land grants to individuals in California. Regulations enacted in 1828 attempted to break the monopoly of the missions and also made land grants easier to obtain. The procedure included a diseño - a hand drawn sketch map.[17] The Mexican Governors of Alta California gained the power to grant state lands, and many of the earlier Spanish grazing concessions were subsequently patented under Mexican law.Many Californios in the Los Angeles area wanted the mission's rich grazing lands to be made available to private citizens, while those in the north, including Mexican governor General Manuel Victoria, preferred to keep the mission system intact. Late in 1831, the Californios rose in armed rebellion against the governor, who led a party of soldiers to the Valley to put down the rebellion. The southern ranchers rode into the Valley via the Cahuenga Pass and the two armies faced off in a skirmish (Battle of Cahuenga Pass) that left one man dead on either side. Although the rebels retreated to the pueblo, they were victorious in defeat; the wounded governor resigned and returned to Mexico. Popular pressure increased on the government to disestablish the missions, and laws were passed to secularize the missions on August 17, 1833.[18][19]In 1843, Don Vicente de la Osa (or del la Ossa) was granted one league of land along the Los Angeles River at the southeast corner of the Valley which he named Rancho Providencia.[20] The nearby Battle of Providencia of February 20, 1845, was another face-off between Californios and an unpopular Mexican governor, Manuel Micheltorena, who proposed to return the mission lands to the control of the church. The only reported fatalities in the day-long cannon battle along the river were two horses and a mule, but Governor Micheltorena was captured and summarily shipped back to Mexico. He was replaced by Pío Pico, a native Californio, who would become the last Mexican governor of California.[21][22]","title":"Mexican rule"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Andres_Pico.jpg"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Chumash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chumash_people"},{"link_name":"Rancho El Escorpión","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rancho_El_Escorpi%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"Andrés Pico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_Pico"},{"link_name":"war on Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Rancho Ex-Mission San Fernando","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rancho_Ex-Mission_San_Fernando"},{"link_name":"Yankees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yankee"},{"link_name":"Bear Flag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bear_Flag"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"presidios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidio"},{"link_name":"Monterey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monterey,_California"},{"link_name":"San Francisco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco,_California"},{"link_name":"John C. Frémont","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_C._Fr%C3%A9mont"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Cahuenga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Cahuenga"},{"link_name":"hostilities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hostilities"},{"link_name":"Campo de Cahuenga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campo_de_Cahuenga"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Guadalupe_Hidalgo"}],"sub_title":"Mexican–American War","text":"Don Andrés PicoCalifornia was \"land rich but poor in every other way, lacking cash, gunpowder, and support from Mexico.\"[23] Governor Pico prepared for the inevitable war with the United States, and in 1845 began dispersing the vast mission lands. A square of land at the west end of the Valley near the historic Chumash village Hu'wam was granted to three of the mission Indians under the name Rancho El Escorpión. The majority of the mission's grazing lands and mission buildings were leased to the governor's brother Andrés Pico. After the United States declared war on Mexico on May 13, 1846, Pico sold the mission property outright to Eulogio de Celis for much-needed cash; Celis graciously extended the terms of his friend Andrés Pico's lease.[24] From this time the property was known as Rancho Ex-Mission San Fernando.On June 18, 1846, a small group of Yankees raised the California Bear Flag and declared independence from Mexico. United States troops quickly took control of the presidios at Monterey and San Francisco and proclaimed the Conquest complete. In Southern California, the Mexicans, for a time, resisted American troops, but when defeat became inevitable, Pío Pico fled to Mexico. Don Andrés Pico arranged the peaceful surrender of Los Angeles to American forces under Lieutenant-Colonel John C. Frémont. The Treaty of Cahuenga ending the hostilities in California was signed at an adobe owned by the Verdugo Family at Campo de Cahuenga near the mouth of the Cahuenga Pass, at the southeast corner of the Valley, on January 13, 1847.[25]The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed on February 2, 1848, ended the war and ceded California to the United States, paving the way for California statehood in 1850.","title":"Mexican rule"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Gold Rush and statehood"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"California Gold Rush","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Gold_Rush"},{"link_name":"David W. Alexander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_W._Alexander"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BF94-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rod2-28"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rod2-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Link_1991,_p._23-29"}],"sub_title":"Cattle boom","text":"The California Gold Rush of 1849 created a near-insatiable demand for beef, which was raised on the ranchos of southern California, including those in the San Fernando Valley, and driven on the hoof to northern markets serving the gold fields. In the southern Valley, de la Osa sold Rancho La Providencia to David W. Alexander and acquired the Rancho Encino, successfully raising cattle on the property.[26] De la Osa took formal title to the Rancho under California law in 1851.[27]\nAndrés Pico returned to his rancho in the Valley and made the former mission into \"one of the most celebrated homes in the new California.\"[28] After California became a state on September 9, 1850, Pico served as a state assemblyman and senator, and became a brigadier general in the state militia.[28] In 1854, Andrés Pico's nine-year lease on the Rancho Ex-Mission San Fernando expired, and he purchased a half-interest in the property.[29]","title":"Gold Rush and statehood"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lopez_Station_San_Fernando_Valley_1860s.png"},{"link_name":"El Camino Real","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Camino_Real_(California)"},{"link_name":"Santa Barbara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Barbara,_California"},{"link_name":"El Camino Viejo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Camino_Viejo"},{"link_name":"San Fernando Pass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newhall_Pass"},{"link_name":"Old Tejon Pass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tejon_Pass_(Kern_County)"},{"link_name":"Central Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Valley_(California)"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Link_1991,_p._23-29"},{"link_name":"Fort Tejon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Tejon"},{"link_name":"Grapevine Canyon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grapevine,_California"},{"link_name":"Fort Tejon Pass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tejon_Pass"},{"link_name":"stagecoach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stagecoach"},{"link_name":"Phineas Banning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phineas_Banning"},{"link_name":"staging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staging_(stagecoaches)"},{"link_name":"shipping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shipping"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Pacific Railroad Surveys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Railroad_Surveys"},{"link_name":"Stockton - Los Angeles Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockton_-_Los_Angeles_Road"},{"link_name":"Kern River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kern_River"},{"link_name":"San Joaquin Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Joaquin_Valley"},{"link_name":"Stockton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockton,_California"},{"link_name":"Butterfield Overland Mail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfield_Overland_Mail"},{"link_name":"St. Louis, Missouri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Louis,_Missouri"},{"link_name":"San Francisco, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco,_California"},{"link_name":"Fort Yuma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Yuma"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Link_1991,_p._25-31"},{"link_name":"Cahuenga Pass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cahuenga_Pass"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Link_1991,_p._25-31"},{"link_name":"Santa Susana Pass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Susana_Pass"},{"link_name":"Old Santa Susana Stage Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Santa_Susana_Stage_Road"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SSP-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WTC-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Link,_Tom_1991,_p._25-34"},{"link_name":"Simi Hills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simi_Hills"},{"link_name":"Chatsworth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chatsworth,_Los_Angeles,_California"},{"link_name":"Simi Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simi_Valley"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SSP-32"},{"link_name":"Midwest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midwest"},{"link_name":"Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas"},{"link_name":"drought","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drought"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kielbasa,_p._35-36"},{"link_name":"Civil War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_War"},{"link_name":"Santa Susana wagon road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Santa_Susana_Stage_Road"},{"link_name":"Santa Susana Pass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Susana_Pass"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bevill_2007-37"}],"sub_title":"Stage stops and the overland mail","text":"Lopez Station in the 1860s.In 1851 the Los Angeles Court of Sessions recognized two rights of way through the Cahuenga Pass that connected Los Angeles with the Valley. One followed the old El Camino Real to Santa Barbara via Rancho Encino. The other, Tulare Road, joined El Camino Viejo (\"the old road\") north via Mission San Fernando, over the San Fernando Pass (now the Newhall Pass) to the Santa Clarita Valley, and through the Old Tejon Pass to the Central Valley and the gold fields beyond.[29] In 1854, the Army established Fort Tejon in the Grapevine Canyon (La Cañada de las Uvas) near Fort Tejon Pass. The Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors authorized funds to construct a 30-foot (9.1 m) deep cut to make the steep route north over the San Fernando Pass easier for stagecoach traffic, and a group of businessmen raised funds by subscription to complete the work. Young entrepreneur Phineas Banning's staging and shipping partnership with County Supervisor David W. Alexander acquired the contract to supply Fort Tejon, and Banning drove the first stage run over the new cut in December 1854.[30] Also the U. S. Army Pacific Railroad Surveys found the Fort Tejon Pass a much easier route for wagons than the old Tejon Pass, and this route became the Stockton - Los Angeles Road, the new wagon route to the southern goldfields on the Kern River and northward on the east side of the San Joaquin Valley to Stockton.The Butterfield Overland Mail stagecoach route between St. Louis, Missouri and San Francisco, California via Fort Yuma and Los Angeles made its first run in the fall of 1858.[31] The original route entered the Valley through Cahuenga Pass and traveled northwest to the San Fernando Pass with a stage stop at Lopez Station north of the mission.[31]In 1859, the California Legislature appropriated $15,000 (with additional funding provided by Los Angeles and Santa Barbara Counties) towards improving the old Santa Susana Pass wagon road into a new stagecoach road, now known as the Old Santa Susana Stage Road.[32][33][34] The road ran over the Simi Hills between Santa Susana (now Chatsworth) and the Simi Valley. The precipitous portion of the route down from the summit on the San Fernando Valley side was called the Devil's Slide; horses were usually blindfolded and chains were used to augment brakes on the steep descent. Passengers debarked and walked.[32]Southern California's boom market in beef had begun to decline as early as 1855 as it became profitable to drive cattle and sheep to California from the Midwest and Texas, and a drought in 1856 increased the pressure on the ranchos.[35] By 1859, with the cattle market in collapse and besieged by mounting debts, De la Osa converted his house at Rancho Encino into a roadside inn and began to charge patrons for his legendary Californio hospitality.[36]The outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 disrupted mail service to California from the east via the old southerly \"oxbow route\". That year, Butterfield obtained a new contract to deliver mail between Los Angeles and San Francisco via a route diverging from the old road at the southeast corner of the Valley and traveling via the former El Camino Real as far as Rancho Encino before striking northwest across the valley floor for Santa Barbara via the recently improved Santa Susana wagon road over the Santa Susana Pass. This road became the main passenger route between Los Angeles and San Francisco,[37] although traffic over the San Fernando Pass to the Central Valley continued.","title":"Gold Rush and statehood"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Beale%27s_Cut_1872.jpg"},{"link_name":"Beale's Cut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newhall_Pass"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Edward Fitzgerald Beale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Fitzgerald_Beale"},{"link_name":"Beale's Cut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newhall_Pass"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-C131-40"},{"link_name":"droughts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drought"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-C131-40"},{"link_name":"smallpox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smallpox"},{"link_name":"epidemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemic"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-C131-40"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-C131-40"}],"sub_title":"Civil War years","text":"Beale's Cut through the San Fernando Pass, c.1872The devastation that ravaged the old rancho way of life between 1861 and 1865 had little to do with the Civil War raging to the east. The rains that started shortly before Christmas, 1861, continued for most of the following month. The flooding that followed drowned thousands of cattle and washed away fruit trees and vineyards. The Los Angeles Star reported thatThe road from Tejon, we hear, has been almost washed away. The San Fernando mountain cannot be crossed except by the old trail ... over the top of the mountain. The plain has been cut up into gulches and arroyos, and streams are rushing down every declivity.[38]No mail was received at Los Angeles for five weeks. After the floods abated, grazing lands were turned into lush meadows and cattle flourished on the abundant grass. Surveyor General Edward Fitzgerald Beale had the damaged cut in the San Fernando Pass deepened to 90 feet (27.4 m) and named the slot-like roadway Beale's Cut.[39] But the reprieve was only brief.[40]The flood of 1861–62 was followed by severe droughts in 1863 and 1864.[40] Cattle perished, or were slaughtered and sold for the salvage value of their hides and horn, and land values plummeted. Ravenous locusts and a major smallpox epidemic completed the devastation.[40] The rancho economy of the Dons and the Californio way of life fell to a wave of overwhelming debt and unpaid taxes, never to rise again.[40]","title":"Gold Rush and statehood"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"After the Dons"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"David Burbank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Burbank"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BF94-26"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Rancho San Rafael","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rancho_San_Rafael"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kielbasa,_p._35-36"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BF94-26"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Isaac_Newton_Van_Nuys_home.jpg"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-L27-42"},{"link_name":"Isaac Lankershim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Lankershim"},{"link_name":"Levi Strauss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levi_Strauss"},{"link_name":"James Boon Lankershim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Boon_Lankershim"},{"link_name":"Isaac Newton Van Nuys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton_Van_Nuys"},{"link_name":"dryland farming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dryland_farming"},{"link_name":"Great Plains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Plains"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-L27-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"}],"sub_title":"New names on the land","text":"In the decade after the Civil War, the majority of the old ranchos in the Valley changed hands. In 1867, David Burbank, a dentist and entrepreneur from Los Angeles, purchased Rancho Providencia[26][41] and 4,607 acres (19 km2) of the adjacent Rancho San Rafael. Burbank combined his properties into a nearly 9,000-acre (36 km2) sheep ranch.That same year, De La Osa's widow sold Rancho Encino to James Thompson,[36] who raised sheep on the rancho for two years. Thompson in turn sold the property to the Garnier brothers in 1869. The Garniers also raised sheep on the property, and were known for the fine quality of their fleece, but they in turn became overextended and lost the property to foreclosure in 1878.[26]Home of Isaac Van Nuys, 1882Eulogio de Celis had tried to sell his vast holdings in the Valley, but found no buyers. Squeezed by debt after the flood years, Andrés Pico had sold his half-interest in the Rancho ex-Mission San Fernando to his brother Pío Pico in 1862,[42] retaining 2,000 acres (8 km2) called the Pico Reserve around the old Mission. When De Celis died in 1869, Pío Pico, desperately in need of cash, sold his half-share to a group of investors assembled as the San Fernando Farm Homestead Association. The leading investor was Isaac Lankershim, a Northern California stockman and grain farmer, who was impressed by the Valley's wild oats and proposed to raise sheep on the property. Other investors included Levi Strauss. To complete the sale, the Valley was split lengthwise, with the Association purchasing the southern half and the northern half devolving to De Celis's heirs. The line of demarcation was a ploughed furrow across the Valley floor near the route of today's Roscoe Boulevard. In 1873, Isaac Lankershim's son and future son-in-law, James Boon Lankershim and Isaac Newton Van Nuys, moved to the Valley and took over management of the property. Van Nuys built the first wood-frame house in the Valley. Initially, the two men raised sheep, changing the name of the company to the San Fernando Sheep Company. Van Nuys, however, thought the property could profitably grow wheat using the dryland farming technique developed on the Great Plains, and leased land from the Association to test his theories. After a drought destroyed the majority of the sheep in 1875, the remainder of the property was given over to raising wheat and barley. In time, the Lankershim property, under its third name, the Los Angeles Farming and Milling Company, would become the world's largest wheat-growing empire.[42][43]","title":"After the Dons"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:San_Fernando_Valley_all_Hall_Map_1880.png"},{"link_name":"Charles Maclay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Maclay"},{"link_name":"Santa Clara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Clara,_California"},{"link_name":"Porter Ranch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porter_Ranch,_Los_Angeles,_California"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-D100-44"},{"link_name":"San Gabriel Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Gabriel_Mountains"},{"link_name":"platted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plat"},{"link_name":"San Fernando","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Fernando,_California"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-D100-44"},{"link_name":"Leland Stanford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leland_Stanford"},{"link_name":"Southern Pacific Railroad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Pacific_Transportation_Company"},{"link_name":"Wilmington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilmington,_Los_Angeles,_California"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-J82-45"},{"link_name":"tunnel through the pass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newhall_Pass"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bevill_2007-37"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-D100-44"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-L28-46"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lankershim_Ranch_Land_and_Water_Company_1887.png"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-J82-45"},{"link_name":"Santa Fe Railroad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Fe_Railroad"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-L28-46"},{"link_name":"Burbank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burbank,_California"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Burbank-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-L31-48"},{"link_name":"Toluca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Hollywood,_Los_Angeles,_California"},{"link_name":"water table","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_table"},{"link_name":"Tujunga Wash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tujunga_Wash"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-J82-45"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"Chatsworth Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chatsworth,_Los_Angeles,_California"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SSP-32"},{"link_name":"Santa Barbara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Barbara,_California"},{"link_name":"San Francisco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco"},{"link_name":"Conejo Grade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conejo_Grade"},{"link_name":"Ventura County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventura_County"},{"link_name":"Conejo Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conejo_Valley"},{"link_name":"Oxnard Plain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxnard_Plain"},{"link_name":"\"Camino Real Viejo\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Camino_Real_(California)"},{"link_name":"U.S. Route 101","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_101"},{"link_name":"Ventura County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventura_County"},{"link_name":"Santa Susana Tunnels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Susana_Tunnel"},{"link_name":"coast route","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coast_Line_(UP)"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bevill_2007-37"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-L36-54"}],"sub_title":"Railroads and boom towns","text":"Map of the San Fernando Valley in 1880 by William Hammond Hall.A 56,000-acre (227 km2) parcel of De Celis's property north of the great furrow was purchased in 1874 by state senator Charles Maclay of Santa Clara and his partner, George K. Porter of San Francisco. Porter's cousin Benjamin F. Porter subsequently purchased portions of Porter and Maclay's interests. Most of the land except the parcel northeast of the mission was used for wheat farming. Ben Porter's portion to the west (now Porter Ranch) remained one of the last parts of the Valley to be developed.[44]In the eastern section nearest the San Gabriel Mountains, Maclay platted the Valley's first town, San Fernando, on September 15, 1874.[44] The town plan included land for a station for Leland Stanford's Southern Pacific Railroad from Los Angeles, which became the depot for the north Valley farmers to ship their wheat crops south to the port at Wilmington.[45] In 1876, Southern Pacific opened a tunnel through the pass at San Fernando and ran the first through train from the transcontinental railroad's western terminus in San Francisco to Los Angeles. From this time, rail travel superseded long-distance travel by stagecoach in California.[37][44][46]Map of the Lankershim Ranch properties, 1887The world wheat market remained strong through the 1870s and early 1880s, but then supply began to exceed demand, and prices began to fall.[45] When the rival Santa Fe Railroad reached Los Angeles in 1885, fare wars between the two transportation giants brought ever more settlers to Southern California, and pressure rose to subdivide the great ranches of the Valley.[46] In 1886, David Burbank sold his ranch to Los Angeles land speculators who formed the Providencia Land, Water and Development Company, with Burbank as one of the directors. The land was surveyed and a business district was laid out, surrounded by residential lots. The outlying area was divided into small farms. They named the town Burbank and opened the tract for sale on May 1, 1887.[47]In October 1887, J. B. Lankershim and eight other developers organized the Lankershim Ranch Land and Water Company, purchasing 12,000 acres (49 km2) north of the Caheunga Pass from the Lankershim Farming and Milling Company.[48] Lankershim established a townsite which the residents named Toluca (later Lankershim, and now North Hollywood) along the old Tulare Road from Cahuenga Pass to San Fernando. On April 1, 1888, they offered ready-made small farms for sale, already planted with deep-rooted deciduous fruit and nut trees—mostly peaches, pears, and walnuts—that could survive the rainless summers of the Valley by relying on the high water table along the Pacoima River (now the central or main branch of the Tujunga Wash) rather than surface irrigation.[45][49]In 1888, Ben Porter sold a portion of his property near the base of Santa Susana Pass to the Porter Land and Water Company, which platted it as the community of Chatsworth Park.[50]The land boom of the 1880s went bust by the 1890s, but despite another brutal drought cycle in the late 1890s, the fruit and nut farmers remained solvent for a time. The Toluca Fruit Growers Association was formed in 1894. The next year the Southern Pacific opened a branch line slanting northwest across the Valley to Chatsworth Park, which made one freight stop a day at Toluca, though the depot bore the new name of Lankershim. In 1896, under pressure from J. B. Lankershim, the post office at Toluca was renamed \"Lankershim\" after his father, although the new name of the town would not be officially recognized until 1905.[51][52]A new Santa Susana Pass wagon route bypassing the deteriorating Devil's Slide was opened in 1895 to the north. Initially called El Camino Nuevo (the New Road), it was later named the Chatsworth Grade Road, which continued in use until Santa Susana Pass Road (now Old Santa Susana Pass Road) was built in 1917.[32] This was the first automobile route between the San Fernando and Simi Valleys. It also was the main northbound 'coast road' to Santa Barbara and San Francisco, until the Conejo Grade in Ventura County between Conejo Valley and the Oxnard Plain on \"Camino Real Viejo\" (the Old Royal Road, now U.S. Route 101), was improved. Rail traffic through Toluca and Chatsworth Park to Ventura County and points north was made possible by the opening of the Santa Susana Tunnels in 1904, and the new coast route soon superseded the old rail route to San Francisco via the San Fernando Pass for passenger travel, as that route had superseded the stagecoach route via Santa Susana Pass in the 1870s.[37][53]Late in the decade the City of Los Angeles sued all the ranchers of the Valley, claiming the rights not only to the surface water of the Los Angeles River and its tributaries, but to the groundwater as well. In 1899, the California Supreme Court sided with the city. Without a reliable water supply, it became impossible to sell farm sites in the Valley.[54]","title":"After the Dons"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"The 20th century"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Glendale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glendale,_California"},{"link_name":"Henry E. Huntington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_E._Huntington"},{"link_name":"E.H. Harriman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E.H._Harriman"},{"link_name":"Edwin T. Earl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_T._Earl"},{"link_name":"Joseph F. Sartori","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Francis_Sartori"},{"link_name":"Harrison Gray Otis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harrison_Gray_Otis_(publisher)"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"Moses Sherman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moses_Sherman"},{"link_name":"aqueduct","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqueduct_(water_supply)"},{"link_name":"Owens Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Owens_Valley"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-L36-54"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles Aqueduct","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Aqueduct"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_County"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rod48-58"},{"link_name":"Harry Chandler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Chandler"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times"},{"link_name":"Hobart Johnstone Whitley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobart_Johnstone_Whitley"},{"link_name":"Isaac Van Nuys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton_Van_Nuys"},{"link_name":"Van Nuys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Nuys,_Los_Angeles,_California"},{"link_name":"Marion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reseda,_Los_Angeles,_California"},{"link_name":"Owensmouth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Owensmouth"},{"link_name":"Canoga Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canoga_Park,_Los_Angeles,_California"},{"link_name":"West Hills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Hills,_Los_Angeles,_California"},{"link_name":"Winnetka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winnetka,_Los_Angeles,_California"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rod48-58"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Van_Nuys,_Calif.,_after_1911_(LAVC40).jpg"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"Pacific Electric Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Electric_Railway"},{"link_name":"Owensmouth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Owensmouth"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"Carl Laemmle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Laemmle"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"Carl Laemmle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Laemmle"},{"link_name":"Universal City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_City,_California"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"}],"sub_title":"Development in the new century","text":"In October 1903, George K. Porter sold an option to purchase his last 16,200 acres (66 km2) of land in the north Valley to a syndicate led by Leslie C. Brand of Glendale. In 1904, Brand's syndicate incorporated as the San Fernando Mission Land Company, whose major shareholders included Los Angeles businessmen Henry E. Huntington, E.H. Harriman, Edwin T. Earl, Joseph F. Sartori, and Harrison Gray Otis.[55] One day after the city water commission, on which Moses Sherman sat, approved a proposal to build an aqueduct from the Owens Valley, the Company quietly exercised its option to purchase Porter's land.[56]On July 29, 1905, the city announced its plans to bring water south from the Owens Valley—water that would only be made available to city residents.[54] Construction began in 1908 and water from the Los Angeles Aqueduct reached the San Fernando Valley in November, 1913.[57]Real estate development once again boomed. In the \"biggest land transaction ever recorded in Los Angeles County\",[58] a syndicate led by Harry Chandler, business manager of the Los Angeles Times, with Hobart Johnstone Whitley, Isaac Van Nuys, and James Boon Lankershim acquired \"Tract 1000\", the remaining 47,500 acres (192 km2) of the southern half of the former Mission lands—everything west of the Lankershim town limits and south of the old furrow excepting the Rancho Encino. As the Los Angeles Suburban Homes company, they laid out plans for the towns of Van Nuys, Marion (now Reseda) and Owensmouth (now Canoga Park, West Hills, and Winnetka), a system of highways, and eventual incorporation into the city of Los Angeles. In the \"Sale of the Century\" in November 1910 they sold the remaining livestock and non-land assets of the Lankershim Farming and Milling Company at auction. The Los Angeles Times called the auction \"the beginning of a new empire and a new era in the Southland\".[58][59]Van Nuys after the arrival of the Pacific Electric Railway 1911The City of Burbank was incorporated in 1911,[60] and the Pacific Electric Railway reached Van Nuys on December 16, 1911, Owensmouth on December 7, 1912, and San Fernando on March 22, 1913.[61] In 1912, Carl Laemmle broke ground on a permanent movie-making facility on the Providencia (Oak Crest Ranch) in the hills east of the mouth of the Cahuenga Pass that would become the first location of Universal City. Universal City moved to a new location, the Taylor Ranch in 1914.[62] In 1914, Carl Laemmle broke ground on Taylor ranch for the New Universal City in the hills east of the mouth of the Cahuenga Pass that would become the second location of Universal City in the San Fernando Valley, Universal City.[63]","title":"The 20th century"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"}],"sub_title":"Annexation","text":"Valley farmers offered to buy the surplus aqueduct water, but the federal legislation that enabled the construction of the aqueduct prohibited Los Angeles from selling the water outside of the city limits.[64] For the Valley communities, the choice was consent to annexation or do without. On March 29, 1915, by a vote of 681 to 25, residents of 108,732 acres (440 km2) of the San Fernando Valley (excluding Rancho El Escorpión and the communities of Owensmouth, Lankershim, Burbank and San Fernando) voted to be annexed by the City of Los Angeles. Owensmouth was annexed in 1917, West Lankershim in 1919, Chatsworth in 1920, and Lankershim in 1923. Small remote portions of the north and west Valley were annexed piecemeal even later: most of Rancho El Escorpión in 1958 and the remainder of Ben Porter's ranch as late as 1965. Burbank and San Fernando remain independent cities to this day.[65][66]","title":"The 20th century"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"San Fernando Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Fernando_Valley"},{"link_name":"Rancho Providencia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rancho_Providencia"},{"link_name":"Providencia Ranch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Providencia_Ranch"},{"link_name":"Nestor Studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nestor_Studios"},{"link_name":"Universal City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_City,_California"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forest_Lawn_Memorial_Park_(Hollywood_Hills)"},{"link_name":"Iverson Movie Ranch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iverson_Movie_Ranch"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"}],"text":"San Fernando Valley\nHistory of the San Fernando Valley to 1915\nRancho Providencia First Movie Town 1912\nProvidencia Ranch Oak Crest - Universal/Bison 101 Movies\nNestor Studios valley ranch\nUniversal City the two valley ranch locations [67]\nForest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills) Movie locationOther references'\"San Fernando Valley\" By Marc Wanamaker (2011) Page 97, 103, and 106\n\"Oak Crest, a film city by itself\" The New York Dramatic Mirror - January 15, 1913 page 49.\n\"Universal City Visit\" Rotarian February 1914\n\"Early Universal City\"; by Robert S. Birchard\n\"A Motion Picture City ...\" Daily Advocate, October 2, 1914, Page 6\n\"Scrap it\" the Old Universal - 1915 Universal Tour Brochure\nThe Cowboys, Indians and zoo 1914 first assets to be moved to the new Universal City. [Motion Picture World]\n\"The Theatre of Science; a volume of progress and achievement in the motion picture industry\" by Robert Grau : Page 287 - 1914 Broadway Pub. Co. New York\nThe Life & Adventures of Carl Laemmle; by John Drinkwater (Carl Laemmle views Nestor ranch and names the area Universal City))\n\"Quiet on the Set\" - Iverson Movie Ranch History 1984Universal History 1912 to 1915– \"Frickr Universal Image collection\" by Dennis Dickens.[68]","title":"References: San Fernando Valley Movie Making 1912 to 1915"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-89781-285-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89781-285-9"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-8061-1212-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8061-1212-3"},{"link_name":"Santa Susana Pass State Historic Park Cultural Resource Survey - Historic Overview","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20081027094208/http://www.parks.ca.gov/pages/980/files/sspshp%20historic%20resources.pdf"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.parks.ca.gov/pages/980/files/sspshp%20historic%20resources.pdf"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-87328-097-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87328-097-6"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=91642263#"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-57864-735-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57864-735-5"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-87328-003-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87328-003-2"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-8018-6642-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8018-6642-1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-89096-509-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89096-509-9"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-941014-00-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-941014-00-2"},{"link_name":"Historic Adobes of Los Angeles County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.laokay.com/halac/"},{"link_name":"Pittsburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburgh,_Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"Dorrance Publishing Co.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorrance_Publishing_Co."},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-8059-4172-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8059-4172-X"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-89781-393-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89781-393-6"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-52021-724-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-52021-724-1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-87095-118-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87095-118-1"},{"link_name":"The San Fernando (Newhall) Pass. Part I.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.scvhistory.com/scvhistory/ripley1pdf.htm"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-883792-55-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-883792-55-X"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-8118-3694-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8118-3694-0"}],"text":"Bearchell, Charles, and Larry D. Fried, The San Fernando Valley Then and Now, Windsor Publications, 1988, ISBN 0-89781-285-9\nBeck, Warren A. and Ynez D. Haase, Historical Atlas of California, University of Oklahoma Press, 1974 (first edition), ISBN 0-8061-1212-3\nBevill, Arthur D. (2007). Santa Susana Pass State Historic Park Cultural Resource Survey - Historic Overview (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-10-27.\nCleland, Robert Glass, The Cattle on a Thousand Hills: Southern California, 1850-1880, Huntington Library, 1941; University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-87328-097-6; online at [1]\nCoscia, David, Pacific Electric and the Growth of the San Fernando Valley, Shade Tree Books, 2011, ISBN 1-57864-735-5\nDumke, Glenn S. The Boom of the Eighties in Southern California, Huntington Library, 1944 (reprinted 1991), ISBN 0-87328-003-2\nGumprecht, Blake. The Los Angeles River: Its Life, Death, and Possible Rebirth, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999, ISBN 0-8018-6642-1\nHoffman, Abraham, Vision or Villainy: Origins of the Owens Valley–Los Angeles Water Controversy, Texas A&M University Press, 1981, ISBN 0-89096-509-9\nJorgensen, Lawrence C., The San Fernando Valley Past and Present, Pacific Rim Research, 1982, ISBN 0-941014-00-2\nKielbasa, John R. (1998). Historic Adobes of Los Angeles County. Pittsburg: Dorrance Publishing Co. ISBN 0-8059-4172-X..\nLink, Tom: Universal City - North Hollywood, a Centenniel Portrait, Windsor Publications, 1991, ISBN 0-89781-393-6\nMulholland, Catherine, William Mulholland and the rise of Los Angeles, Berkeley : University of California Press, 2000, ISBN 0-52021-724-1\nMullaly, Larry, and Bruce Petty, The Southern Pacific in Los Angeles 1873–1996, Golden West Books/Los Angeles Railroad Heritage Foundation, 2002, ISBN 0-87095-118-1\nRipley, Vernette Snyder, The San Fernando (Newhall) Pass. Part I. In The Quarterly of the Historical Society of Southern California, March 1947\nRoderick, Kevin, The San Fernando Valley: America's Suburb, Los Angeles Times Books, 2001, ISBN 1-883792-55-X\nYoung, S., and Levick, M., The Missions of California, Chronicle Books LLC, San Francisco, 1988, ISBN 0-8118-3694-0","title":"Sources"}]
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[{"image_text":"Mission San Fernando c. 1900","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Mission_San_Fernando_Postcard%2C_circa_1900.jpg/200px-Mission_San_Fernando_Postcard%2C_circa_1900.jpg"},{"image_text":"Sketch map or diseño of the Scott Tract of Rancho Rafael in modern Burbank, 1870s.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Scott_Tract_Burbank.png/200px-Scott_Tract_Burbank.png"},{"image_text":"Californio ranchero Eulogio F. de Celis owned most of the San Fernando Valley.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Eulogio_de_Celis.jpg/170px-Eulogio_de_Celis.jpg"},{"image_text":"Don Andrés Pico","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Andres_Pico.jpg/150px-Andres_Pico.jpg"},{"image_text":"Lopez Station in the 1860s.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Lopez_Station_San_Fernando_Valley_1860s.png/200px-Lopez_Station_San_Fernando_Valley_1860s.png"},{"image_text":"Beale's Cut through the San Fernando Pass, c.1872","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Beale%27s_Cut_1872.jpg/150px-Beale%27s_Cut_1872.jpg"},{"image_text":"Home of Isaac Van Nuys, 1882","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Isaac_Newton_Van_Nuys_home.jpg/200px-Isaac_Newton_Van_Nuys_home.jpg"},{"image_text":"Map of the San Fernando Valley in 1880 by William Hammond Hall.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/San_Fernando_Valley_all_Hall_Map_1880.png/200px-San_Fernando_Valley_all_Hall_Map_1880.png"},{"image_text":"Map of the Lankershim Ranch properties, 1887","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Lankershim_Ranch_Land_and_Water_Company_1887.png/150px-Lankershim_Ranch_Land_and_Water_Company_1887.png"},{"image_text":"Van Nuys after the arrival of the Pacific Electric Railway 1911","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Van_Nuys%2C_Calif.%2C_after_1911_%28LAVC40%29.jpg/220px-Van_Nuys%2C_Calif.%2C_after_1911_%28LAVC40%29.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Los Angeles portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Los_Angeles"},{"title":"Ranchos of California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranchos_of_California"},{"title":"History of Los Angeles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Los_Angeles"},{"title":"List of Los Angeles Historic-Cultural Monuments in the San Fernando Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Los_Angeles_Historic-Cultural_Monuments_in_the_San_Fernando_Valley"},{"title":"California Water Wars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Water_Wars"},{"title":"Rail transport in California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_transport_in_California"}]
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[{"reference":"Johnson, John R. \"Ethnohistoric Overview for the Santa Susana Pass State Historic Park Cultural Resources Inventory Project\" (PDF). Retrieved 19 July 2020.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.parks.ca.gov/pages/21299/files/sspshp%20ethnohistory-complete.pdf","url_text":"\"Ethnohistoric Overview for the Santa Susana Pass State Historic Park Cultural Resources Inventory Project\""}]},{"reference":"\"Mural at Pakoinga (Pacoima)\". Retrieved 2020-07-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tataviam-nsn.us/mural-at-pakoinga-pacoima/","url_text":"\"Mural at Pakoinga (Pacoima)\""}]},{"reference":"Bevill, Arthur D. (2007). Santa Susana Pass State Historic Park Cultural Resource Survey Historic Overview (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-10-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20081027094208/http://www.parks.ca.gov/pages/980/files/sspshp%20historic%20resources.pdf","url_text":"Santa Susana Pass State Historic Park Cultural Resource Survey Historic Overview"},{"url":"http://www.parks.ca.gov/pages/980/files/sspshp%20historic%20resources.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Old Stagecoach Trail at www.trails.com\". Archived from the original on 2013-01-04. Retrieved 2010-03-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20130104232004/http://www.trails.com/tcatalog_trail.asp?trailid=HGS360-280","url_text":"\"Old Stagecoach Trail at www.trails.com\""},{"url":"http://www.trails.com/tcatalog_trail.asp?trailid=HGS360-280","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Santa Clarita Valley History In Pictures\". Santa Clarita Valley Historical Society. Retrieved 2009-05-15.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.scvhistory.com/scvhistory/bealescut.htm","url_text":"\"Santa Clarita Valley History In Pictures\""}]},{"reference":"\"Dr. David Burbank, 1850 :: San Fernando Valley History\". digital-library.csun.edu. Retrieved 2 April 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://digital-library.csun.edu/cdm4/item_viewer.php?CISOROOT=/SFVH&CISOPTR=4100&CISOBOX=1&REC=9","url_text":"\"Dr. David Burbank, 1850 :: San Fernando Valley History\""}]},{"reference":"\"A Brief History of Burbank\". burbankca.gov. Retrieved 2017-12-16.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.burbankca.gov/about-us/burbank-history","url_text":"\"A Brief History of Burbank\""}]},{"reference":"\"Pacific Electric San Fernando Valley Line, the Electric Railway Historical Association of Southern California\". Retrieved 16 May 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://erha.org/pewsfv.htm","url_text":"\"Pacific Electric San Fernando Valley Line, the Electric Railway Historical Association of Southern California\""}]},{"reference":"\"City of Los Angeles Annexation and Detachment Map\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170301193923/http://navigatela.lacity.org/common/mapgallery/pdf/annex34x44.pdf","url_text":"\"City of Los Angeles Annexation and Detachment Map\""},{"url":"http://navigatela.lacity.org/common/mapgallery/pdf/annex34x44.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Universal Film Manufacturing Company\". Flickr. Retrieved 2 April 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.flickr.com/photos/universalstonecutter/collections/72157627237874198/","url_text":"\"Universal Film Manufacturing Company\""}]},{"reference":"Bevill, Arthur D. (2007). Santa Susana Pass State Historic Park Cultural Resource Survey - Historic Overview (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-10-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20081027094208/http://www.parks.ca.gov/pages/980/files/sspshp%20historic%20resources.pdf","url_text":"Santa Susana Pass State Historic Park Cultural Resource Survey - Historic Overview"},{"url":"http://www.parks.ca.gov/pages/980/files/sspshp%20historic%20resources.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Kielbasa, John R. (1998). Historic Adobes of Los Angeles County. Pittsburg: Dorrance Publishing Co. ISBN 0-8059-4172-X.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.laokay.com/halac/","url_text":"Historic Adobes of Los Angeles County"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburgh,_Pennsylvania","url_text":"Pittsburg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorrance_Publishing_Co.","url_text":"Dorrance Publishing Co."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8059-4172-X","url_text":"0-8059-4172-X"}]}]
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_U.S._metropolitan_areas_with_large_African-American_populations
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List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populations
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["1 By 2020 Census population","2 See also","3 References"]
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List of American metropolitan areas with significant Black populations
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The following is a list of the 100 largest metropolitan areas in the United States with large African American populations. As a result of slavery, more than half of African Americans live in the South. The data is sourced from the 2010 and 2020 United States Censuses.
By 2020 Census population
Rank
City
Metropolitan Area Population 2020 United States Census
African-American Population Size, 100,000 or more (2020 United States Census)
African-American Population Size (2010 Census)
% Change (2010-2020)
Percentage African-American (2020)
1
New York, New York (NY-NJ-PA) MSA
20,140,470
3,237,789
3,352,616
−3.42%
16.1
2
Atlanta, Georgia MSA
6,089,815
2,084,212
1,707,913
+22.03%
34.2
3
Chicago, Illinois (IL-IN-WI) MSA
9,618,502
1,576,952
1,645,993
−4.19%
16.4
4
Washington, District of Columbia (DC-MD-VA-WV) MSA
6,385,162
1,562,340
1,438,436
+8.61%
24.5
5
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (PA-NJ-DE-MD) MSA
6,245,051
1,273,120
1,241,780
+2.52%
20.4
6
Houston, Texas MSA
7,122,240
1,267,934
1,023,065
+23.93%
18
7
Dallas-Fort Worth, Texas MSA
7,637,387
1,220,934
961,800
+26.94%
16.0
8
Miami, Florida MSA
6,138,333
1,194,334
1,206,470
−1.01%
19.5
9
Detroit, Michigan MSA
4,392,041
961,076
980,451
−1.98%
21.9
10
Los Angeles, California MSA
13,200,998
848,206
907,618
−6.55%
6.4
11
Baltimore, Maryland MSA
2,844,510
811,018
778,879
+4.13%
28.5
12
Memphis, Tennessee (TN-AR-MS) MSA
1,337,779
612,104
601,043
+1.84%
45.8
13
Charlotte, North Carolina (NC-SC) MSA
2,660,329
581,927
421,105
+38.19%
21.9
14
Norfolk-Virginia Beach-Newport News, Virginia (VA-NC) MSA
1,799,674
544,740
522,409
+4.27%
30.3
15
St. Louis, Missouri (MO-IL) MSA
2,820,253
506,762
516,446
−1.88%
18.0
16
New Orleans, Louisiana MSA
1,271,845
423,909
397,095
+6.75%
33.3
17
Orlando, Florida MSA
2,673,376
410,855
344,820
+19.15%
15.4
18
Cleveland-Lorain-Elyria, Ohio MSA
2,088,251
410,206
416,528
−1.52%
19.6
19
Tampa-St. Petersburg-Clearwater, Florida MSA
3,175,275
375,855
329,334
+14.13%
11.8
20
Richmond-Petersburg, Virginia MSA
1,314,434
364,714
375,427
−2.85%
27.7
21
Boston, Massachusetts (MA-NH) NECMA
4,941,632
364,054
331,292
+9.89%
7.4
22
San Juan-Caguas-Guaynabo, Puerto Rico MSA
2,081,265
N/A
344,956
N/A
16.6
23
Jacksonville, Florida MSA
1,605,848
341,206
292,881
+16.50%
21.2
24
Riverside-San Bernardino, California MSA
4,599,839
341,035
322,405
+5.78%
7.4
25
Minneapolis-Saint Paul MSA
3,690,261
337,652
243,414
+38.72%
9.1
26
San Francisco-Oakland, California MSA
4,749,008
335,135
363,905
−7.91%
7.1
27
Columbus, Ohio MSA
2,138,926
334,842
273,560
+22.40%
15.7
28
Birmingham, Alabama MSA
1,115,289
328,242
318,373
+3.10%
29.4
29
Indianapolis, Indiana MSA
2,111,040
317,192
263,376
+20.43%
15.0
30
Baton Rouge, Louisiana MSA
870,569
302,477
285,911
+5.79%
34.7
31
Las Vegas, Nevada MSA
2,265,461
286,684
204,379
+40.27%
12.7
32
Nashville-Murfreesboro-Franklin, Tennessee MSA
1,989,519
284,784
242,264
+17.55%
14.3
33
Jackson, Mississippi MSA
591,978
282,692
257,021
+9.99%
47.8
34
Phoenix-Mesa-Glendale, Arizona MSA
4,845,832
282,437
207,734
+35.96%
5.8
35
Cincinnati, Ohio (OH-KY-IN) MSA
2,256,884
273,322
255,905
+6.81%
12.1
36
Columbia, South Carolina MSA
829,470
269,093
255,104
+5.48%
32.4
37
Kansas City, Missouri (MO-KS) MSA
2,192,035
262,220
254,509
+3.03%
12.0
38
Raleigh-Cary, North Carolina MSA
1,413,982
258,213
228,268
+13.12%
18.3
39
Milwaukee-Waukesha, Wisconsin MSA
1,574,731
255,992
261,010
−1.92%
16.3
40
Seattle, Washington MSA
4,018,762
246,767
191,967
+28.55%
6.1
41
Augusta, Georgia (GA-SC) MSA
611,000
212,570
196,695
+8.07%
34.8
42
Greensboro-High Point, North Carolina MSA
776,566
207,385
184,730
+12.26%
26.7
43
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania MSA
2,370,930
199,469
196,755
+1.38%
8.4
44
Louisville, Kentucky MSA (KY-IN) MSA
1,285,439
189,663
176,107
+7.70%
14.8
45
Charleston-North Charleston, South Carolina MSA
799,636
183,724
184,019
−0.16%
23.0
46
San Antonio-New Braunfels, Texas MSA
2,558,143
181,016
141,468
+27.96%
7.1
47
Little Rock, Arkansas MSA
748,031
173,297
155,081
+11.75%
23.2
48
Fayetteville, North Carolina MSA
520,378
171,793
132,833
+29.33%
34.3
49
Sacramento, California MSA
2,397,382
167,386
158,426
+5.66%
7.0
50
Montgomery, Alabama MSA
386,047
167,315
159,330
+5.01%
43.3
51
Denver-Aurora, Colorado MSA
2,963,821
166,100
143,128
+16.05%
5.6
52
Durham-Chapel Hill, North Carolina MSA
649,903
162,744
136,543
+19.19%
25.0
53
Austin-Round Rock-San Marcos, Texas MSA
2,283,371
160,079
127,397
+25.65%
7.0
54
San Diego-Carlsbad-San Marcos, California MSA
3,298,634
155,813
158,213
−1.52%
4.7
55
Shreveport, Louisiana MSA
393,406
155,018
155,174
−0.10%
39.4
56
Buffalo-Niagara Falls-Cheektowaga, New York MSA
1,166,902
151,535
138,782
+9.19%
13.0
57
Mobile, Alabama MSA
430,197
149,572
142,992
+4.60%
34.8
58
Oklahoma City, Oklahoma MSA
1,425,695
146,494
130,597
+12.17%
10.3
59
Greenville-Anderson, South Carolina MSA
928,195
143,173
106,284
+34.71%
15.4
60
Hartford, Connecticut MSA
1,213,531
141,209
131,929
+7.03%
11.6
61
Columbus, Georgia (GA-AL) MSA
328,883
136,849
119,023
+14.98%
41.6
62
Dayton-Kettering, Ohio MSA
814,049
127,807
125,815
+1.58%
15.7
63
Rochester, New York MSA
1,090,135
127,406
122,611
+3.91%
11.7
64
Savannah, Georgia MSA
404,798
124,644
117,726
+5.88%
30.8
65
Tallahassee, Florida MSA
384,298
121,168
119,320
+1.55%
31.5
66
New Haven-Milford, Connecticut MSA
864,835
118,933
109,850
+8.27%
13.8
67
Lafayette, Louisiana MSA
478,384
117,267
73,112
+60.39%
24.5
68
Winston-Salem, North Carolina MSA
675,966
116,597
96,928
+20.29%
17.2
69
Bridgeport-Stamford-Norwalk, Connecticut MSA
957,419
106,756
99,317
+7.49%
11.2
70
Lakeland-Winter Haven, Florida MSA
725,046
105,533
88,833
+18.80%
14.6
71
Huntsville, Alabama MSA
491,723
105,373
90,805
+16.04%
21.4
72
Macon, Georgia MSA
233,802
104,157
100,934
+3.19%
44.5
See also
United States portal
African American neighborhoods
List of African American neighborhoods
List of U.S. cities with large African-American populations
List of U.S. states by African-American population
List of West Indian communities in the United States
References
^ Greenwood, Shannon (2021-03-25). "The Growing Diversity of Black America". Pew Research Center’s Social & Demographic Trends Project. Retrieved 2023-03-11.
^ "2020 Population and Housing State Data". United States Census Bureau, Population Division. August 12, 2021. Retrieved August 14, 2021.
^ "County Population by Characteristics: 2020". United States Census Bureau, Population Division. August 2021. Retrieved August 26, 2021.
^ U.S. Census Bureau (August 2020). "U.S. Census website". United States Census Bureau.
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"metropolitan areas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_area"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"African American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_Americans"},{"link_name":"the South","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_United_States"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"2010","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_United_States_census"},{"link_name":"2020 United States Censuses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_United_States_census"}],"text":"The following is a list of the 100 largest metropolitan areas in the United States with large African American populations. As a result of slavery, more than half of African Americans live in the South.[1] The data is sourced from the 2010 and 2020 United States Censuses.","title":"List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populations"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"By 2020 Census population"}]
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[{"title":"United States portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:United_States"},{"title":"African American neighborhoods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American_neighborhood"},{"title":"List of African American neighborhoods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_African_American_neighborhoods"},{"title":"List of U.S. cities with large African-American populations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_U.S._cities_with_large_African-American_populations"},{"title":"List of U.S. states by African-American population","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_by_African-American_population"},{"title":"List of West Indian communities in the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_West_Indian_communities_in_the_United_States"}]
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[{"reference":"Greenwood, Shannon (2021-03-25). \"The Growing Diversity of Black America\". Pew Research Center’s Social & Demographic Trends Project. Retrieved 2023-03-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2021/03/25/the-growing-diversity-of-black-america/","url_text":"\"The Growing Diversity of Black America\""}]},{"reference":"\"2020 Population and Housing State Data\". United States Census Bureau, Population Division. August 12, 2021. Retrieved August 14, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.census.gov/library/visualizations/interactive/2020-population-and-housing-state-data.html","url_text":"\"2020 Population and Housing State Data\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau","url_text":"United States Census Bureau"}]},{"reference":"\"County Population by Characteristics: 2020\". United States Census Bureau, Population Division. August 2021. Retrieved August 26, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.census.gov/library/visualizations/interactive/race-and-ethnicity-in-the-united-state-2010-and-2020-census.html","url_text":"\"County Population by Characteristics: 2020\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau","url_text":"United States Census Bureau"}]},{"reference":"U.S. Census Bureau (August 2020). \"U.S. Census website\". United States Census Bureau.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.census.gov/","url_text":"\"U.S. Census website\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau","url_text":"United States Census Bureau"}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22List+of+U.S.+metropolitan+areas+with+large+African-American+populations%22","external_links_name":"\"List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populations\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22List+of+U.S.+metropolitan+areas+with+large+African-American+populations%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22List+of+U.S.+metropolitan+areas+with+large+African-American+populations%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22List+of+U.S.+metropolitan+areas+with+large+African-American+populations%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22List+of+U.S.+metropolitan+areas+with+large+African-American+populations%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22List+of+U.S.+metropolitan+areas+with+large+African-American+populations%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2021/03/25/the-growing-diversity-of-black-america/","external_links_name":"\"The Growing Diversity of Black America\""},{"Link":"https://www.census.gov/library/visualizations/interactive/2020-population-and-housing-state-data.html","external_links_name":"\"2020 Population and Housing State Data\""},{"Link":"https://www.census.gov/library/visualizations/interactive/race-and-ethnicity-in-the-united-state-2010-and-2020-census.html","external_links_name":"\"County Population by Characteristics: 2020\""},{"Link":"https://www.census.gov/","external_links_name":"\"U.S. Census website\""}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Ritzos
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Andreas Ritzos
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["1 Biography","2 Gallery","2.1 Italian Style","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]
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Greek icon painter
Andreas RitzosThe Mother of God of PassionBorn1421Iraklio CreteDied1492CreteNationalityGreekMovementCretan SchoolSpouses
Maria,
Nicola Gritti
ChildrenNikolaos Ritzos
Andreas Ritzos (Greek: Ανδρέας Ρίτζος 1421—1492) also known as (Andreas Rico, Ricio or Rizo) was a Greek icon painter from Crete. Ritzos is considered one of the founding fathers of the Cretan School. He was affiliated with Angelos Akotantos. Most of his work stylistically follows the traditional maniera greca. His children, grandchildren, and great-grandchildren were also painters. He was one of the most influential painters of the Cretan School along with Andreas Pavias and Angelos Akotantos. He influenced the works of Georgios Klontzas, Nikolaos Tzafouris, Theophanes the Cretan, Michael Damaskinos and El Greco. According to the Institute for Neohellenic Research, sixty of his paintings have survived.
Biography
Andreas Ritzos was born in Iraklio. His father Nicholas Ritzo was a seaman and jeweler, and his mother was lady Ergina. Andreas married Maria and had two sons. His son Nicholas was a painter. His other son Thomas was a jeweler and painter. His grandson was painter Maneas Ritzos.
Andreas is listed as a painter for the first time on July 27, 1451 as Andreas Ritzos pinctor. Records indicate that in 1454 his co-worker Maneas Theologitis vouched for him. Documents indicate he was active as a painter between 1460 and 1492. He was also associated with other painters namely George Pelergi and Ioanni Kappadoka. In one document he testifies to the delivery of items from John Akatanos and in another, he received a loan from Andreas Pavias. His wife Maria died around 1482. He split the inheritance with his son Nicholas. His second marriage was with Nicola Gritti of Agnese. He signed his paintings three different ways; five of his icons were signed in Greek χείρ Ανδρέα Ρέτζου, three were signed Andreas Rico de Candia pinxit, and finally one was signed Andreas Ricio de Candia.
Virgin and Child Andreas RitzosMadonna and Child enthroned Ioannis Permeniates
A significant amount of Madonna and Child paintings by Andreas Ritzos survived. Many painters chose the subject matter but Duccio, Cimabue, Fra Angelico, and Giotto di Bondone employed a similar mannerism exemplifying the maniera greca. Most artists of the Cretan School began to employ some attributes of the Venetian school. One greek artist of Venice Ioannis Permeniates completely adopted a new style of painting which was in line with the Venetian school.
Ritzos popularity shows that both Italian and Greek patrons continued to value the maniera greca and preferred the traditional style. Many paintings were attributed to the school of Ritzos because they were not signed and resemble the artist's painting style. There were countless Madonna and Child paintings for comparison. Angelos Akotantos influenced Andreas Pavias and Andreas Ritzos. Andreas Pavias and Ritzos influenced each other both employ the traditional rich gold background but Pavias began to employ the Venetian school.
The Virgin and Child with Crucifixion Narrative and the Ascension of Christ in the gallery are precursors to Georgios Klontzas and Theodore Poulakis All Creation rejoices in Thee. Andreas Pavias Crucifixion of Jesus is another popular work that influenced Georgios Klontzas and Theodore Poulakis All Creation rejoices in Thee. Ritzos Ascension of Christ separates the scenes into different compartments while Andreas Pavias Crucifixion of Jesus utilizes countless figures. Georgios Klontzas Transfiguration and Monastic Scenes 1603, is similar to Ritzos Acension of Christ.
Gallery
The Dormition of the Virgin
Mother and Child
The Mother of God Enthroned
The Mother of God Enthroned
The Virgin and Child with Crucifixion Narrative
The Dormition of the Virgin
Triptych Left to Right, Saint Nicholas with Saints, Virgin and Child, Saint Nicholas with Saints
Crucifixion and Resurrection Scenes within a Christogram
Ascension of Christ
Saint John the Theologian
Scene from the Life of St John the Divine
Italian Style
Dormition of Mary with Francis and Dominic
Madonna with Saints
See also
Jesus Hominum Salvator (Ritzos)
The Virgin Pantanassa (Ritzos)
References
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Andreas Ritzos.
^ Jesus Hominum Salvator Byzantine and Christian Virtual Museum. Retrieved 7 April 2016.
^ Art of Byzantium from Greek Collections National Gallery of Art. 1 May 2013. Retrieved 7 April 2016.
^ Stathi, Maria G. (2007). The Painters of Crete School of the 15th century Andreas and Nikolaos Ritzos (PDF). Thessaloniki: Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. p. 18.
^ Speake, Graham (2021). Renaissance, Veneto-Cretan Encyclopedia of Greece and the Hellenic Tradition. London And New York: Rutledge Taylor & Francis Group. p. 1442. ISBN 9781135942069.
^ Eugenia Drakopoulou (August 17, 2021). "Ritzos (Rico, Ricio, Rizo) Andreas". Institute for Neohellenic Research. Retrieved August 17, 2021.
^ Hatzidakis, Manolis & Drakopoulou, Eugenia (1997). Greek painters after the fall (1450-1830) Volume B. Athens, GR: Center for Modern Greek Studies E.I.E. pp. 324–332.
^ Stathi, 2007, p. 18-21
^ Stathi, 2007, p. 18-21
External links
Byzantium: faith and power (1261-1557), an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Ritzos
vteCretan RenaissancePrincipal proponents
El Greco
Georgios Klontzas
Michael Damaskinos
Andreas Pavias
Angelos Akotantos
Andreas Ritzos
Nikolaos Tzafouris
Michael Fokas
Other artists
Thomas Bathas
Markos Bathas
Theophanes the Cretan
Frangos Katelanos
Ioannis Permeniates
Angelos Pitzamanos
Nikolaos Lampoudis
Antonios Papadopoulos
Ioannis Apakas
Euphrosynos
Nikolaos Ritzos
Nikolaos Philanthropinos
Major works
The Virgin Eleousa (1425–1457)
Saint Anne with the Virgin (1425–1457)
Christ the Vine (1425–1457)
The Virgin Pantanassa (1436–1492)
Jesus Hominum Salvator (1436–1492)
The Crucifixion (Pavias) (c. 1440–1512)
Christ Bearing the Cross (1487–1501)
Madre della Consolazione (1490)
Nursing Madonna and Child (Permeniates) (1520–1530)
Madonna of Constantinople (1530)
Adoration of the Magi (El Greco) (1565–1567)
Dormition of the Virgin (El Greco) (1565–1566)
Modena Triptych (1568)
In Thee Rejoiceth (Klontzas) (1560–1608)
Adoration of the Kings (Damaskinos) (c. 1587–1591)
The Last Supper (Damaskinos) (1587–1591)
The Last Judgement Triptych (Klontzas) 1560–1608
Beheading of John the Baptist (Damaskinos) (1590)
Virgin Nikopoios (1594)
Stoning of Stephen (Damaskinos) (1591)
Vision of the Apocalypse (Bathas) (1596)
Portrait of Gabriel Severus (1577–1599)
Related
Hellenic Institute Venice
Manolis Hatzidakis
Institute of Neohellenic Research
Authority control databases International
VIAF
WorldCat
National
Germany
Artists
ULAN
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks"},{"link_name":"icon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icon"},{"link_name":"Crete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crete"},{"link_name":"Cretan School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretan_School"},{"link_name":"Angelos Akotantos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angelos_Akotantos"},{"link_name":"maniera greca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italo-Byzantine"},{"link_name":"Cretan School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretan_School"},{"link_name":"Andreas Pavias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Pavias"},{"link_name":"Angelos Akotantos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angelos_Akotantos"},{"link_name":"Georgios Klontzas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgios_Klontzas"},{"link_name":"Nikolaos Tzafouris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolaos_Tzafouris"},{"link_name":"Theophanes the Cretan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophanes_the_Cretan"},{"link_name":"Michael Damaskinos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Damaskinos"},{"link_name":"El Greco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Greco"},{"link_name":"Institute for Neohellenic Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Hellenic_Research_Foundation"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-core-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-times-6"}],"text":"Andreas Ritzos (Greek: Ανδρέας Ρίτζος 1421—1492) also known as (Andreas Rico, Ricio or Rizo) was a Greek icon painter from Crete. Ritzos is considered one of the founding fathers of the Cretan School. He was affiliated with Angelos Akotantos. Most of his work stylistically follows the traditional maniera greca. His children, grandchildren, and great-grandchildren were also painters. He was one of the most influential painters of the Cretan School along with Andreas Pavias and Angelos Akotantos. He influenced the works of Georgios Klontzas, Nikolaos Tzafouris, Theophanes the Cretan, Michael Damaskinos and El Greco. According to the Institute for Neohellenic Research, sixty of his paintings have survived.[1][2][3][4][5][6]","title":"Andreas Ritzos"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Iraklio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heraklion"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"John Akatanos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_Akatanos&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Andreas Pavias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Pavias"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Andreas_Ritzos_-_The_Mother_of_God_of_Passion_-_WGA19511.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Giovanni_Permeniate_-_La_Madonna_tra_San_Giovanni_Battista_e_Sant%27Agostino.jpg"},{"link_name":"Duccio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duccio"},{"link_name":"Cimabue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cimabue"},{"link_name":"Fra Angelico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fra_Angelico"},{"link_name":"Giotto di Bondone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giotto_di_Bondone"},{"link_name":"maniera greca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italo-Byzantine"},{"link_name":"Cretan School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretan_School"},{"link_name":"Venetian school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venetian_painting"},{"link_name":"Ioannis Permeniates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ioannis_Permeniates"},{"link_name":"Venetian school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venetian_painting"},{"link_name":"maniera greca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italo-Byzantine"},{"link_name":"Angelos Akotantos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angelos_Akotantos"},{"link_name":"Andreas Pavias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Pavias"},{"link_name":"Andreas Pavias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Pavias"},{"link_name":"Venetian school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venetian_painting"},{"link_name":"Georgios Klontzas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgios_Klontzas"},{"link_name":"Theodore Poulakis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Poulakis"},{"link_name":"Andreas Pavias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Pavias"},{"link_name":"Georgios Klontzas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgios_Klontzas"},{"link_name":"Theodore Poulakis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Poulakis"},{"link_name":"Andreas Pavias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Pavias"},{"link_name":"Georgios Klontzas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgios_Klontzas"}],"text":"Andreas Ritzos was born in Iraklio. His father Nicholas Ritzo was a seaman and jeweler, and his mother was lady Ergina. Andreas married Maria and had two sons. His son Nicholas was a painter. His other son Thomas was a jeweler and painter. His grandson was painter Maneas Ritzos.Andreas is listed as a painter for the first time on July 27, 1451 as Andreas Ritzos pinctor. Records indicate that in 1454 his co-worker Maneas Theologitis vouched for him.[7] Documents indicate he was active as a painter between 1460 and 1492. He was also associated with other painters namely George Pelergi and Ioanni Kappadoka. In one document he testifies to the delivery of items from John Akatanos and in another, he received a loan from Andreas Pavias. His wife Maria died around 1482. He split the inheritance with his son Nicholas. His second marriage was with Nicola Gritti of Agnese. He signed his paintings three different ways; five of his icons were signed in Greek χείρ Ανδρέα Ρέτζου, three were signed Andreas Rico de Candia pinxit, and finally one was signed Andreas Ricio de Candia.[8]Virgin and Child Andreas RitzosMadonna and Child enthroned Ioannis PermeniatesA significant amount of Madonna and Child paintings by Andreas Ritzos survived. Many painters chose the subject matter but Duccio, Cimabue, Fra Angelico, and Giotto di Bondone employed a similar mannerism exemplifying the maniera greca. Most artists of the Cretan School began to employ some attributes of the Venetian school. One greek artist of Venice Ioannis Permeniates completely adopted a new style of painting which was in line with the Venetian school.Ritzos popularity shows that both Italian and Greek patrons continued to value the maniera greca and preferred the traditional style. Many paintings were attributed to the school of Ritzos because they were not signed and resemble the artist's painting style. There were countless Madonna and Child paintings for comparison. Angelos Akotantos influenced Andreas Pavias and Andreas Ritzos. Andreas Pavias and Ritzos influenced each other both employ the traditional rich gold background but Pavias began to employ the Venetian school.The Virgin and Child with Crucifixion Narrative and the Ascension of Christ in the gallery are precursors to Georgios Klontzas and Theodore Poulakis All Creation rejoices in Thee. Andreas Pavias Crucifixion of Jesus is another popular work that influenced Georgios Klontzas and Theodore Poulakis All Creation rejoices in Thee. Ritzos Ascension of Christ separates the scenes into different compartments while Andreas Pavias Crucifixion of Jesus utilizes countless figures. Georgios Klontzas Transfiguration and Monastic Scenes 1603, is similar to Ritzos Acension of Christ.","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dormition_of_Theotokos_Andreas_Ritzos.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Virgin_of_the_Passion,_by_Andrea_Rico_di_Candia,_Cretan,_1451-1492,_tempera_on_wood_panel_-_Princeton_University_Art_Museum_-_DSC06640.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Andreas_Ritzos_-_The_Mother_of_God_Enthroned_-_WGA19509.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Andreas_Ritzos_-_Mother_of_God_Enthroned_-_WGA19510.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ritzos_Andreas_-_The_Virgin_and_Child_enthroned_-_Google_Art_Project_(721008).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Andreas_Ritzos_-_The_Dormition_of_the_Virgin_-_WGA19508.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ritzos_Andreas_-_The_Virgin_and_Child_enthroned_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jesus_Hominum_Salvator_by_Andreas_Ritzos_(Byzantine_museum).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Andreas_Ritzos_-_Icon-_Ascension_of_Christ_with_the_Hetoimasia_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:St._John_the_Theologian_(3443916347).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ritzos_Andreas_-_Two_scenes_from_the_life_of_St_John_the_Divine_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"}],"text":"The Dormition of the Virgin\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tMother and Child\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe Mother of God Enthroned\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe Mother of God Enthroned\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe Virgin and Child with Crucifixion Narrative\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe Dormition of the Virgin\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTriptych Left to Right, Saint Nicholas with Saints, Virgin and Child, Saint Nicholas with Saints\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tCrucifixion and Resurrection Scenes within a Christogram\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tAscension of Christ\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSaint John the Theologian\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tScene from the Life of St John the Divine","title":"Gallery"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dormition_of_Mary_with_Francis_and_Dominic_(School_of_Andreas_Ritzos,_15_c.)_01.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Madonna_con_Bambino_in_trono_by_Andreos_Ritzos_-_Hermitage.jpg"}],"sub_title":"Italian Style","text":"Dormition of Mary with Francis and Dominic\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tMadonna with Saints","title":"Gallery"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"Jesus Hominum Salvator (Ritzos)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesus_Hominum_Salvator_(Ritzos)"},{"title":"The Virgin Pantanassa (Ritzos)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Virgin_Pantanassa_(Ritzos)"}]
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[{"reference":"Stathi, Maria G. (2007). The Painters of Crete School of the 15th century Andreas and Nikolaos Ritzos (PDF). Thessaloniki: Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. p. 18.","urls":[{"url":"http://ikee.lib.auth.gr/record/107409/files/gri-2008-1681.pdf","url_text":"The Painters of Crete School of the 15th century Andreas and Nikolaos Ritzos"}]},{"reference":"Speake, Graham (2021). Renaissance, Veneto-Cretan Encyclopedia of Greece and the Hellenic Tradition. London And New York: Rutledge Taylor & Francis Group. p. 1442. ISBN 9781135942069.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=3ockEAAAQBAJ&dq=Andreas+Ritzos+constantinople&pg=PA1442","url_text":"Renaissance, Veneto-Cretan Encyclopedia of Greece and the Hellenic Tradition"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781135942069","url_text":"9781135942069"}]},{"reference":"Eugenia Drakopoulou (August 17, 2021). \"Ritzos (Rico, Ricio, Rizo) Andreas\". Institute for Neohellenic Research. Retrieved August 17, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://pandektis.ekt.gr/pandektis/handle/10442/164010","url_text":"\"Ritzos (Rico, Ricio, Rizo) Andreas\""}]},{"reference":"Hatzidakis, Manolis & Drakopoulou, Eugenia (1997). Greek painters after the fall (1450-1830) Volume B. Athens, GR: Center for Modern Greek Studies E.I.E. pp. 324–332.","urls":[]}]
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[{"Link":"http://www.ebyzantinemuseum.gr/?i=bxm.en.exhibit&id=54","external_links_name":"Jesus Hominum Salvator"},{"Link":"http://www.nga.gov/content/ngaweb/press/exh/3514.html","external_links_name":"Art of Byzantium from Greek Collections"},{"Link":"http://ikee.lib.auth.gr/record/107409/files/gri-2008-1681.pdf","external_links_name":"The Painters of Crete School of the 15th century Andreas and Nikolaos Ritzos"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=3ockEAAAQBAJ&dq=Andreas+Ritzos+constantinople&pg=PA1442","external_links_name":"Renaissance, Veneto-Cretan Encyclopedia of Greece and the Hellenic Tradition"},{"Link":"http://pandektis.ekt.gr/pandektis/handle/10442/164010","external_links_name":"\"Ritzos (Rico, Ricio, Rizo) Andreas\""},{"Link":"http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/58371/rec/3","external_links_name":"Byzantium: faith and power (1261-1557)"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/20853733","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJptVTmgfXRbxf7gwmmcfq","external_links_name":"WorldCat"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/132740648","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"https://www.getty.edu/vow/ULANFullDisplay?find=&role=&nation=&subjectid=500014106","external_links_name":"ULAN"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharismanes
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Pharismanes
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["1 Notes"]
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Pharismanes received the satrapies of Parthia and Hyrcania under the Macedonian Empire.
Pharismanes was a Parthian, son of Phrataphernes, who was appointed Hellenistic satrap of the Parthians and Hyrcanii after his father, circa 320 BCE.
After Alexander had crossed the Gedrosian desert in 325 BCE, losing a large part of his army, he was met by Craterus in Carmania in December, who was bringing supplies to relieve the troops. Craterus was also accompanied by several Hellenistic satraps, among them Stasanor, satrap of Aria and Zarangia, and Pharismes, as satrap of Parthia and Hyrcania. They brought with them herds of horses and camels, having anticipated that Alexander would have lost most of his livestock in the Gedrosian journey.
Notes
^ Roisman, Joseph (2002). Brill's Companion to Alexander the Great. BRILL. p. 189. ISBN 9789004217553.
^ a b Yenne, Bill (2010). Alexander the Great: Lessons from History's Undefeated General. St. Martin's Press. p. 176. ISBN 9780230106406.
^ "Eodem etiam Stasanor Ariorum et Zarangorum (sive Drangarum) satrapes venit, et cum his Pharismanes Phrataphernis Parthorum et Hyrcanorum satrapæ filius." Arrian, Liv. VI
vteHellenistic satrapsSatraps under Alexander the Great(334-323 BC)
Ada (Queen of Caria)
Asander, Menander (Lydia)
Calas, Demarchus (Hellespontine Phrygia)
Antigonus (Greater Phrygia)
Balakros, Menes (Cilicia)
Abistamenes (Cappadocia)
Abdalonymus (Sidon)
Mithrenes (Armenia)
Mazaeus, Stamenes (Babylon)
Mazakes (Mesopotamia)
Abulites (Susiana)
Oxydates, Atropates (Media)
Phrasaortes, Oxines, Peucestas (Persis)
Cleomenes of Naucratis (Egypt)
Satibarzanes (Aria)
Sibyrtius (Carmania)
Autophradates (Tapuri, Mardi)
Andragoras (Parthia)
Amminapes, Phrataphernes, Pharismanes (Hyrcania and Parthia)
Artabazos, Cleitus the Black, Amyntas (Bactria)
Oxyartes (Paropamisia)
Philip, Eudemus (India)
Peithon, son of Agenor (Gandhara)
Taxiles (Punjab)
Porus (Indus)
Satraps at thePartition of Babylon(323 BC)
Antipater (Macedon and Greece)
Philo (Illyria)
Lysimachus (Thrace)
Leonnatus (Hellespontine Phrygia)
Antigonus (Phrygia)
Asander (Caria)
Nearchus (Lycia and Pamphylia)
Menander (Lydia)
Philotas (Cilicia)
Eumenes (Cappadocia and Paphlagonia)
Ptolemy (Egypt)
Laomedon of Mytilene (Syria)
Neoptolemus (Armenia)
Peucestas (Persis)
Arcesilaus (Mesopotamia)
Peithon (Greater Media)
Atropates (Lesser Media)
Scynus (Susiana)
Tlepolemus (Persia)
Nicanor (Parthia)
Phrataphernes (Armenia, Parthia)
Antigenes (Susiana)
Archon (Pelasgia)
Philip (Hyrcania)
Stasanor (Aria and Drangiana)
Sibyrtius (Arachosia and Gedrosia)
Amyntas (Bactria)
Scythaeus (Sogdiana)
Oxyartes (Paropamisia)
Taxiles (Punjab)
Peithon, son of Agenor (Gandhara)
Porus (Indus)
Satraps at the Partition of Triparadisus(321 BC)
Antipater (Macedon and Greece)
Lysimachus (Thrace)
Arrhidaeus (Hellespontine Phrygia)
Antigonus (Phrygia, Lycia and Pamphylia)
Cassander (Caria)
Cleitus the White (Lydia)
Philoxenus (Cilicia)
Nicanor (Cappadocia and Paphlagonia)
Ptolemy (Egypt)
Laomedon of Mytilene (Syria)
Peucestas (Persis)
Amphimachus (Mesopotamia)
Peithon (Media)
Tlepolemus (Carmania)
Philip (Parthia)
Antigenes (Susiana)
Seleucus (Babylonia)
Stasanor (Bactria and Sogdiana)
Stasander (Aria and Drangiana)
Sibyrtius (Arachosia and Gedrosia)
Oxyartes (Paropamisia)
Taxiles (Punjab)
Peithon, son of Agenor (Gandhara)
Porus (Indus)
Later Satraps
Peithon, son of Agenor (Babylon)
Sibyrtius (Arachosia, Drangiana)
Eudemus (Indus)
Bagadates, Ardakhshir I, Wahbarz, Vadfradad I, Vadfradad II, Alexander c. 220 BC (Persis)
Andragoras (Parthia)
Demodamas (Bactria, Sogdiana)
Diodotus (Bactria)
Alexander (Lydia)
Molon c. 220 BC, Timarchus, c. 175 BC (Media)
Apollodorus (Susiana)
Ptolemaeus (Commagene)
Noumenios, Hyspaosines c. 150 BC (Characene)
Hellenistic satraps were preceded by Achaemenid rulers, and followed or ruled by Hellenistic rulers
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Mytilene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laomedon_of_Mytilene"},{"link_name":"Syria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria"},{"link_name":"Peucestas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peucestas"},{"link_name":"Persis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persis"},{"link_name":"Mesopotamia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia"},{"link_name":"Peithon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peithon"},{"link_name":"Media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medes"},{"link_name":"Tlepolemus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tlepolemus_(general)"},{"link_name":"Carmania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerman_Province"},{"link_name":"Philip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_(satrap)"},{"link_name":"Parthia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthia"},{"link_name":"Antigenes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigenes_(general)"},{"link_name":"Susiana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susiana"},{"link_name":"Seleucus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seleucus_I_Nicator"},{"link_name":"Babylonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylonia"},{"link_name":"Stasanor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stasanor"},{"link_name":"Bactria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bactria"},{"link_name":"Sogdiana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sogdiana"},{"link_name":"Stasander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stasander"},{"link_name":"Aria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aria_(satrapy)"},{"link_name":"Drangiana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drangiana"},{"link_name":"Sibyrtius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sibyrtius"},{"link_name":"Arachosia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arachosia"},{"link_name":"Gedrosia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gedrosia"},{"link_name":"Oxyartes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxyartes"},{"link_name":"Paropamisia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paropamisadae"},{"link_name":"Taxiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxiles"},{"link_name":"Punjab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjab_region"},{"link_name":"Peithon, son of Agenor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peithon_(son_of_Agenor)"},{"link_name":"Gandhara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gandhara"},{"link_name":"Porus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porus_the_Elder"},{"link_name":"Indus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus"},{"link_name":"Peithon, son of Agenor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peithon_(son_of_Agenor)"},{"link_name":"Babylon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylon"},{"link_name":"Sibyrtius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sibyrtius"},{"link_name":"Arachosia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arachosia"},{"link_name":"Drangiana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drangiana"},{"link_name":"Eudemus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eudemus_(general)"},{"link_name":"Indus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus"},{"link_name":"Bagadates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bagadates_I"},{"link_name":"Ardakhshir I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ardakhshir_I"},{"link_name":"Wahbarz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahbarz"},{"link_name":"Vadfradad I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vadfradad_I"},{"link_name":"Alexander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_(satrap)"},{"link_name":"Persis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persis"},{"link_name":"Andragoras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andragoras_(Seleucid_satrap)"},{"link_name":"Parthia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthia"},{"link_name":"Demodamas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demodamas"},{"link_name":"Bactria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bactria"},{"link_name":"Sogdiana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sogdiana"},{"link_name":"Diodotus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diodotus_I"},{"link_name":"Bactria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bactria"},{"link_name":"Alexander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_(grandson_of_Seleucus_I_Nicator)"},{"link_name":"Lydia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lydia"},{"link_name":"Molon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molon"},{"link_name":"Timarchus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timarchus"},{"link_name":"Media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_(region)"},{"link_name":"Apollodorus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollodorus_of_Susiana"},{"link_name":"Susiana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susiana"},{"link_name":"Ptolemaeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemaeus_of_Commagene"},{"link_name":"Commagene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commagene"},{"link_name":"Noumenios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noumenios"},{"link_name":"Hyspaosines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyspaosines"},{"link_name":"Characene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Characene"},{"link_name":"Achaemenid rulers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Achaemenid_rulers"},{"link_name":"Hellenistic rulers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Hellenistic_rulers"}],"text":"^ Roisman, Joseph (2002). Brill's Companion to Alexander the Great. BRILL. p. 189. ISBN 9789004217553.\n\n^ a b Yenne, Bill (2010). Alexander the Great: Lessons from History's Undefeated General. St. Martin's Press. p. 176. ISBN 9780230106406.\n\n^ \"Eodem etiam Stasanor Ariorum et Zarangorum (sive Drangarum) satrapes venit, et cum his Pharismanes Phrataphernis Parthorum et Hyrcanorum satrapæ filius.\" Arrian, Liv. VIvteHellenistic satrapsSatraps under Alexander the Great(334-323 BC)\nAda (Queen of Caria)\nAsander, Menander (Lydia)\nCalas, Demarchus (Hellespontine Phrygia)\nAntigonus (Greater Phrygia)\nBalakros, Menes (Cilicia)\nAbistamenes (Cappadocia)\nAbdalonymus (Sidon)\nMithrenes (Armenia)\nMazaeus, Stamenes (Babylon)\nMazakes (Mesopotamia)\nAbulites (Susiana)\nOxydates, Atropates (Media)\nPhrasaortes, Oxines, Peucestas (Persis)\nCleomenes of Naucratis (Egypt)\nSatibarzanes (Aria)\nSibyrtius (Carmania)\nAutophradates (Tapuri, Mardi)\nAndragoras (Parthia)\nAmminapes, Phrataphernes, Pharismanes (Hyrcania and Parthia)\nArtabazos, Cleitus the Black, Amyntas (Bactria)\nOxyartes (Paropamisia)\nPhilip, Eudemus (India)\nPeithon, son of Agenor (Gandhara)\nTaxiles (Punjab)\nPorus (Indus)\nSatraps at thePartition of Babylon(323 BC)\nAntipater (Macedon and Greece)\nPhilo (Illyria)\nLysimachus (Thrace)\nLeonnatus (Hellespontine Phrygia)\nAntigonus (Phrygia)\nAsander (Caria)\nNearchus (Lycia and Pamphylia)\nMenander (Lydia)\nPhilotas (Cilicia)\nEumenes (Cappadocia and Paphlagonia)\nPtolemy (Egypt)\nLaomedon of Mytilene (Syria)\nNeoptolemus (Armenia)\nPeucestas (Persis)\nArcesilaus (Mesopotamia)\nPeithon (Greater Media)\nAtropates (Lesser Media)\nScynus (Susiana)\nTlepolemus (Persia)\nNicanor (Parthia)\nPhrataphernes (Armenia, Parthia)\nAntigenes (Susiana)\nArchon (Pelasgia)\nPhilip (Hyrcania)\nStasanor (Aria and Drangiana)\nSibyrtius (Arachosia and Gedrosia)\nAmyntas (Bactria)\nScythaeus (Sogdiana)\nOxyartes (Paropamisia)\nTaxiles (Punjab)\nPeithon, son of Agenor (Gandhara)\nPorus (Indus)\nSatraps at the Partition of Triparadisus(321 BC)\nAntipater (Macedon and Greece)\nLysimachus (Thrace)\nArrhidaeus (Hellespontine Phrygia)\nAntigonus (Phrygia, Lycia and Pamphylia)\nCassander (Caria)\nCleitus the White (Lydia)\nPhiloxenus (Cilicia)\nNicanor (Cappadocia and Paphlagonia)\nPtolemy (Egypt)\nLaomedon of Mytilene (Syria)\nPeucestas (Persis)\nAmphimachus (Mesopotamia)\nPeithon (Media)\nTlepolemus (Carmania)\nPhilip (Parthia)\nAntigenes (Susiana)\nSeleucus (Babylonia)\nStasanor (Bactria and Sogdiana)\nStasander (Aria and Drangiana)\nSibyrtius (Arachosia and Gedrosia)\nOxyartes (Paropamisia)\nTaxiles (Punjab)\nPeithon, son of Agenor (Gandhara)\nPorus (Indus)\nLater Satraps\nPeithon, son of Agenor (Babylon)\nSibyrtius (Arachosia, Drangiana)\nEudemus (Indus)\nBagadates, Ardakhshir I, Wahbarz, Vadfradad I, Vadfradad II, Alexander c. 220 BC (Persis)\nAndragoras (Parthia)\nDemodamas (Bactria, Sogdiana)\nDiodotus (Bactria)\nAlexander (Lydia)\nMolon c. 220 BC, Timarchus, c. 175 BC (Media)\nApollodorus (Susiana)\nPtolemaeus (Commagene)\nNoumenios, Hyspaosines c. 150 BC (Characene)\nHellenistic satraps were preceded by Achaemenid rulers, and followed or ruled by Hellenistic rulers","title":"Notes"}]
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[{"image_text":"Pharismanes received the satrapies of Parthia and Hyrcania under the Macedonian Empire.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/The_Empire_and_Expeditions_of_Alexander_the_Great.png/330px-The_Empire_and_Expeditions_of_Alexander_the_Great.png"}]
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[{"reference":"Roisman, Joseph (2002). Brill's Companion to Alexander the Great. BRILL. p. 189. ISBN 9789004217553.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=qn8tDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA189","url_text":"Brill's Companion to Alexander the Great"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004217553","url_text":"9789004217553"}]},{"reference":"Yenne, Bill (2010). Alexander the Great: Lessons from History's Undefeated General. St. Martin's Press. p. 176. ISBN 9780230106406.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=kngnd0GlUc4C&pg=PA176","url_text":"Alexander the Great: Lessons from History's Undefeated General"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780230106406","url_text":"9780230106406"}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=qn8tDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA189","external_links_name":"Brill's Companion to Alexander the Great"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=kngnd0GlUc4C&pg=PA176","external_links_name":"Alexander the Great: Lessons from History's Undefeated General"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicole_Wong
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Nicole Wong
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["1 Early life and education","2 Career","3 Works and publication","4 References"]
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Public policy lawyer
Nicole WongNicole Wong in 2010Deputy Chief Technology Officer of the United StatesIn officeMay 2013 – August 16, 2014PresidentBarack Obama
Personal detailsBornNicole A. WongResidenceBerkeley, CaliforniaAlma materGeorgetown UniversityUC Berkeley School of LawBerkeley Graduate School of JournalismOccupationLawyer
Nicole A. Wong is an American attorney, specializing in Internet, media and intellectual property law. In May 2013, she was selected by the Barack Obama administration to be the White House deputy chief technology officer (CTO) of the United States. She earned the nickname "the Decider" while she was vice president and deputy general counsel at Google, where she was responsible for arbitrating issues of censorship for Google. Wong stepped down as Deputy US CTO on August 16, 2014, to return with her family to California. She currently serves as a Senior Advisor to Albright Stonebridge Group, a global business strategy firm, and is a member of the Mozilla Foundation's Board of Directors.
Early life and education
Nicole Wong, a fourth-generation Chinese American, was born in the United States. Her great-grandfather was a Chinese immigrant who entered the United States through Canada and harvested potatoes in Idaho, worked at a laundry in Michigan and became a cook in Livermore, California. Her maternal grandmother was from Southern China. Until the 1950s, her grandparents were unable to own property in California. They helped found one of the first Chinese community banks in the country, and her grandfather became its vice president.
Wong grew up in Del Mar, California, and initially wanted to be a journalist because her aunt was a reporter at the Los Angeles Times. She attended Georgetown University where she worked as a news editor at the campus paper and radio station. She graduated magna cum laude with a B.A. degree in American Studies and a minor in English in 1990. She has a fellowship in poetry and later received her J.D. degree from the University of California, Berkeley School of Law, and a master's degree in journalism from the University of California, Berkeley Graduate School of Journalism in 1995. At Berkeley, she co-founded the Asian Law Journal and became its first editor-in-chief.
Career
After graduation, Wong worked as an associate and practiced First Amendment law at Steinhart & Falconer LLP in San Francisco; her clients included Bay Area newspapers and radio stations. When the Internet boom hit, she began advising Yahoo!, Evite, and PayPal. She was an associate at Perkins Coie LLP in 1997 and was named a partner in 2000. Wong represented media clients including the Los Angeles Times, The Walt Disney Company, Microsoft, and Amazon.com before joining Google as senior compliance counsel. She eventually got promoted to Vice President and Deputy General Counsel in 2004. Wong was responsible for Google's product and regulatory matters.
In November 2012, Wong left Google and became the legal director of products at Twitter. In June 2013, she joined the Obama administration as deputy U.S. chief technology officer, working with U.S. Chief Technology Officer Todd Park. She is currently a Senior Advisor at Albright Stonebridge Group.
Wong has served on the governing committee of the ABA Communications Law Forum since 2001, and on the board of directors of the First Amendment Coalition since 2007. She is on the advisory board at University of California, Berkeley Graduate School of Journalism. She previously served on the Board of Governors of the National Asian Pacific American Bar Association from 1996 to 1998, and as a co-chair of the Practising Law Institute's Internet Law Institute from 2001 to 2004. From 1997 to 1998, she was a member of the San Francisco Sunshine Task Force.
Wong had testified four times before the U.S. Congress regarding Internet policy. At one hearing she stated, "First and foremost, the U.S. Government should promote Internet openness as a major plank for our foreign policy." She is a co-editor of Electronic Media and Privacy Law Handbook (2003). She also has taught media and Internet law courses as an adjunct professor at the University of California at Berkeley, Stanford University, and University of San Francisco School of Law in 1997 and 1999.
In November 2020, Wong was named a member of the Joe Biden presidential transition Agency Review Team to support transition efforts related to the National Security Council and the Office of Science and Technology Policy.
Works and publication
Wong, Nicole A.; Brelsford, James F. (April 8, 1999). "Conducting Web Site Legal Audits: A U.S. Perspective". Perkins Coie. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
Wong, Nicole; Silvers, Rachel; Opsahl, Kurt, eds. (2003). Electronic Media and Privacy Law Handbook. Perkins Coie LLP. ISBN 978-1879650114.
References
^ a b Tsukayama, Hayley (August 15, 2014). "U.S. Deputy CTO Nicole Wong is leaving the White House". The Washington Post. Retrieved October 3, 2014.
^ McCullagh, Declan (May 7, 2013). "White House picks Twitter lawyer as chief privacy officer". CNET. Retrieved May 7, 2013.
^ Rosen, Jeffrey (November 28, 2008). "Google's Gatekeepers". New York Times. Retrieved December 1, 2008.
^ Rosen, Jeffrey (April 29, 2013). "The Delete Squad: Google, Facebook, Twitter, and the New Global Battle over the Future of Free Speech". The New Republic.
^ "Google Management". Retrieved March 2, 2010.
^ "Mozilla Foundation - Leadership". Mozilla Foundation - Leadership. Retrieved 23 June 2019.
^ a b c d e BerkeleySchool (May 21, 2014). Graduation 2014 Keynote: Nicole Wong. YouTube. Retrieved October 3, 2014.
^ a b c d e Ackerman, Elise (June 17, 2007). "Google deputy general counsel addresses privacy fears". San Jose Mercury News. Retrieved October 3, 2014.
^ a b c d e "Perkins Coie Elects Nicole Wong New Partner". PRNewswire. August 25, 2000. Retrieved October 3, 2014.
^ "Graduation 2014 Keynote - Nicole wong". Readable. Retrieved October 3, 2014.
^ "Two New Law Journals Plan To Focus on Asian Americans". The New York Times. January 29, 1993. Retrieved October 3, 2014.
^ Sundar, Sindhu (May 7, 2013). "Twitter Legal Director Tapped As White House Tech Adviser". Law 360. Retrieved October 3, 2014.
^ Olanoff, Drew (November 12, 2014). "Twitter Hires Former Google VP and Deputy General Counsel Of Seven Years, Nicole Wong". TechCrunch. Retrieved October 3, 2014.
^ a b "Keeping Policy on Pace with the Internet" (PDF). UC Berkeley Law Transcript. Spring 2011. Retrieved October 3, 2014.
^ Tsukayama, Hayley (June 20, 2013). "Twitter's Nicole Wong joins White House as deputy chief technology officer". The Washington Post. Retrieved October 3, 2014.
^ "About Us | Albright Stonebridge Group".
^ "Google lawyer Nicole Wong is newest member of CFAC Board". First Amendment Coalition. June 2, 2009. Retrieved October 3, 2014.
^ "Nicole A. Wong". Practicing Law Institute. Archived from the original on October 6, 2014. Retrieved October 3, 2014.
^ "COMMITTEE ON FOREIGN AFFAIRS, HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, ONE HUNDRED ELEVENTH CONGRESS, SECOND SESSION, MARCH 10, 2010". Serial No. 111-85. U.S. Government Printing Office. Retrieved June 29, 2013.
^ "Agency Review Teams". President-Elect Joe Biden. Retrieved 10 November 2020.
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In May 2013, she was selected by the Barack Obama administration to be the White House deputy chief technology officer (CTO) of the United States.[2] She earned the nickname \"the Decider\" while she was vice president and deputy general counsel at Google, where she was responsible for arbitrating issues of censorship for Google.[3][4][5] Wong stepped down as Deputy US CTO on August 16, 2014, to return with her family to California.[1] She currently serves as a Senior Advisor to Albright Stonebridge Group, a global business strategy firm, and is a member of the Mozilla Foundation's Board of Directors.[6]","title":"Nicole Wong"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chinese American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_American"},{"link_name":"Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada"},{"link_name":"Idaho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idaho"},{"link_name":"Michigan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michigan"},{"link_name":"Livermore, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livermore,_California"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-berkeleyyoutube-7"},{"link_name":"Southern China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_China"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-berkeleyyoutube-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-berkeleyyoutube-7"},{"link_name":"Del Mar, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Del_Mar,_California"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mercurynews2007-8"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times"},{"link_name":"Georgetown University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgetown_University"},{"link_name":"B.A.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-berkeleyyoutube-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mercurynews2007-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-prnewswire-9"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-berkeleyyoutube-7"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"J.D.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juris_Doctor"},{"link_name":"University of California, Berkeley School of Law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley_School_of_Law"},{"link_name":"University of California, Berkeley Graduate School of Journalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley_Graduate_School_of_Journalism"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mercurynews2007-8"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"Nicole Wong, a fourth-generation Chinese American, was born in the United States. Her great-grandfather was a Chinese immigrant who entered the United States through Canada and harvested potatoes in Idaho, worked at a laundry in Michigan and became a cook in Livermore, California.[7] Her maternal grandmother was from Southern China.[7] Until the 1950s, her grandparents were unable to own property in California. They helped found one of the first Chinese community banks in the country, and her grandfather became its vice president.[7]Wong grew up in Del Mar, California, and initially wanted to be a journalist[8] because her aunt was a reporter at the Los Angeles Times. She attended Georgetown University where she worked as a news editor at the campus paper and radio station. She graduated magna cum laude with a B.A. degree in American Studies and a minor in English[7] in 1990.[8][9] She has a fellowship in poetry[7][10] and later received her J.D. degree from the University of California, Berkeley School of Law, and a master's degree in journalism from the University of California, Berkeley Graduate School of Journalism in 1995. At Berkeley, she co-founded the Asian Law Journal and became its first editor-in-chief.[8][11]","title":"Early life and education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"San Francisco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco"},{"link_name":"Yahoo!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahoo!"},{"link_name":"Evite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evite"},{"link_name":"PayPal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PayPal"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mercurynews2007-8"},{"link_name":"Perkins Coie LLP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perkins_Coie"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-prnewswire-9"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times"},{"link_name":"The Walt Disney Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Walt_Disney_Company"},{"link_name":"Microsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft"},{"link_name":"Amazon.com","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon.com"},{"link_name":"Google","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-berkeley2011-14"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mercurynews2007-8"},{"link_name":"Google","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google"},{"link_name":"Twitter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twitter"},{"link_name":"Todd Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Todd_Park"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Albright Stonebridge Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albright_Stonebridge_Group"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"First Amendment Coalition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Amendment_Coalition"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"University of California, Berkeley Graduate School of Journalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley_Graduate_School_of_Journalism"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-berkeley2011-14"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-prnewswire-9"},{"link_name":"Practising Law Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Practising_Law_Institute"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-prnewswire-9"},{"link_name":"U.S. Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Congress"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Stanford University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_University"},{"link_name":"University of San Francisco School of Law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_San_Francisco_School_of_Law"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-prnewswire-9"},{"link_name":"Joe Biden presidential transition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_Joe_Biden"},{"link_name":"National Security Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_National_Security_Council"},{"link_name":"Office of Science and Technology Policy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_Science_and_Technology_Policy"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"text":"After graduation, Wong worked as an associate and practiced First Amendment law at Steinhart & Falconer LLP[12] in San Francisco; her clients included Bay Area newspapers and radio stations. When the Internet boom hit, she began advising Yahoo!, Evite, and PayPal.[8] She was an associate at Perkins Coie LLP in 1997 and was named a partner in 2000.[9][13] Wong represented media clients including the Los Angeles Times, The Walt Disney Company, Microsoft, and Amazon.com before joining Google as senior compliance counsel.[14] She eventually got promoted to Vice President and Deputy General Counsel in 2004.[8] Wong was responsible for Google's product and regulatory matters.In November 2012, Wong left Google and became the legal director of products at Twitter. In June 2013, she joined the Obama administration as deputy U.S. chief technology officer, working with U.S. Chief Technology Officer Todd Park.[15] She is currently a Senior Advisor at Albright Stonebridge Group.[16]Wong has served on the governing committee of the ABA Communications Law Forum since 2001, and on the board of directors of the First Amendment Coalition since 2007.[17] She is on the advisory board at University of California, Berkeley Graduate School of Journalism.[14] She previously served on the Board of Governors of the National Asian Pacific American Bar Association from 1996 to 1998,[9] and as a co-chair of the Practising Law Institute's Internet Law Institute from 2001 to 2004.[9] From 1997 to 1998, she was a member of the San Francisco Sunshine Task Force.Wong had testified four times before the U.S. Congress regarding Internet policy.[18] At one hearing she stated, \"First and foremost, the U.S. Government should promote Internet openness as a major plank for our foreign policy.\"[19] She is a co-editor of Electronic Media and Privacy Law Handbook (2003). She also has taught media and Internet law courses as an adjunct professor at the University of California at Berkeley, Stanford University, and University of San Francisco School of Law in 1997 and 1999.[9]In November 2020, Wong was named a member of the Joe Biden presidential transition Agency Review Team to support transition efforts related to the National Security Council and the Office of Science and Technology Policy.[20]","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cite journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_journal"},{"link_name":"help","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical"},{"link_name":"Electronic Media and Privacy Law Handbook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/electronicmediap00nico"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1879650114","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1879650114"}],"text":"Wong, Nicole A.; Brelsford, James F. (April 8, 1999). \"Conducting Web Site Legal Audits: A U.S. Perspective\". Perkins Coie. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)\nWong, Nicole; Silvers, Rachel; Opsahl, Kurt, eds. (2003). Electronic Media and Privacy Law Handbook. Perkins Coie LLP. ISBN 978-1879650114.","title":"Works and publication"}]
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[]
| null |
[{"reference":"Wong, Nicole A.; Brelsford, James F. (April 8, 1999). \"Conducting Web Site Legal Audits: A U.S. Perspective\". Perkins Coie.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Wong, Nicole; Silvers, Rachel; Opsahl, Kurt, eds. (2003). Electronic Media and Privacy Law Handbook. Perkins Coie LLP. ISBN 978-1879650114.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/electronicmediap00nico","url_text":"Electronic Media and Privacy Law Handbook"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1879650114","url_text":"978-1879650114"}]},{"reference":"Tsukayama, Hayley (August 15, 2014). \"U.S. Deputy CTO Nicole Wong is leaving the White House\". The Washington Post. Retrieved October 3, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/the-switch/wp/2014/08/15/u-s-deputy-cto-nicole-wong-is-leaving-the-white-house/","url_text":"\"U.S. Deputy CTO Nicole Wong is leaving the White House\""}]},{"reference":"McCullagh, Declan (May 7, 2013). \"White House picks Twitter lawyer as chief privacy officer\". CNET. Retrieved May 7, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://news.cnet.com/8301-13578_3-57583249-38/white-house-picks-twitter-lawyer-as-internet-privacy-officer/","url_text":"\"White House picks Twitter lawyer as chief privacy officer\""}]},{"reference":"Rosen, Jeffrey (November 28, 2008). \"Google's Gatekeepers\". New York Times. Retrieved December 1, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/30/magazine/30google-t.html?_r=1&partner=rss&emc=rss&pagewanted=all","url_text":"\"Google's Gatekeepers\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Times","url_text":"New York Times"}]},{"reference":"Rosen, Jeffrey (April 29, 2013). \"The Delete Squad: Google, Facebook, Twitter, and the New Global Battle over the Future of Free Speech\". The New Republic.","urls":[{"url":"https://newrepublic.com/article/113045/free-speech-internet-silicon-valley-making-rules","url_text":"\"The Delete Squad: Google, Facebook, Twitter, and the New Global Battle over the Future of Free Speech\""}]},{"reference":"\"Google Management\". Retrieved March 2, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.google.com/corporate/execs.html#nicolewong","url_text":"\"Google Management\""}]},{"reference":"\"Mozilla Foundation - Leadership\". Mozilla Foundation - Leadership. Retrieved 23 June 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://foundation.mozilla.org/en/about/leadership/","url_text":"\"Mozilla Foundation - Leadership\""}]},{"reference":"BerkeleySchool (May 21, 2014). Graduation 2014 Keynote: Nicole Wong. YouTube. Retrieved October 3, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Y6OM2vvo4Q","url_text":"Graduation 2014 Keynote: Nicole Wong"}]},{"reference":"Ackerman, Elise (June 17, 2007). \"Google deputy general counsel addresses privacy fears\". San Jose Mercury News. Retrieved October 3, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.mercurynews.com/businessheadlines/ci_6162894?nclick_check=1","url_text":"\"Google deputy general counsel addresses privacy fears\""}]},{"reference":"\"Perkins Coie Elects Nicole Wong New Partner\". PRNewswire. August 25, 2000. Retrieved October 3, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/perkins-coie-elects-nicole-wong-new-partner-73025432.html","url_text":"\"Perkins Coie Elects Nicole Wong New Partner\""}]},{"reference":"\"Graduation 2014 Keynote - Nicole wong\". Readable. Retrieved October 3, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.allreadable.com/04cdEfuL","url_text":"\"Graduation 2014 Keynote - Nicole wong\""}]},{"reference":"\"Two New Law Journals Plan To Focus on Asian Americans\". The New York Times. January 29, 1993. Retrieved October 3, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1993/01/29/news/two-new-law-journals-plan-to-focus-on-asian-americans.html","url_text":"\"Two New Law Journals Plan To Focus on Asian Americans\""}]},{"reference":"Sundar, Sindhu (May 7, 2013). \"Twitter Legal Director Tapped As White House Tech Adviser\". Law 360. Retrieved October 3, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.law360.com/articles/439476/twitter-legal-director-tapped-as-white-house-tech-adviser","url_text":"\"Twitter Legal Director Tapped As White House Tech Adviser\""}]},{"reference":"Olanoff, Drew (November 12, 2014). \"Twitter Hires Former Google VP and Deputy General Counsel Of Seven Years, Nicole Wong\". TechCrunch. Retrieved October 3, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://techcrunch.com/2012/11/12/twitter-hires-former-google-vp-and-deputy-general-counsel-of-seven-years-nicole-wong/","url_text":"\"Twitter Hires Former Google VP and Deputy General Counsel Of Seven Years, Nicole Wong\""}]},{"reference":"\"Keeping Policy on Pace with the Internet\" (PDF). UC Berkeley Law Transcript. Spring 2011. Retrieved October 3, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.law.berkeley.edu/files/Transcript_Spring_2011_v2.pdf","url_text":"\"Keeping Policy on Pace with the Internet\""}]},{"reference":"Tsukayama, Hayley (June 20, 2013). \"Twitter's Nicole Wong joins White House as deputy chief technology officer\". The Washington Post. Retrieved October 3, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/technology/twitters-nicole-wong-joins-white-house-as-deputy-chief-technology-officer/2013/06/20/41878b3c-d911-11e2-a016-92547bf094cc_story.html","url_text":"\"Twitter's Nicole Wong joins White House as deputy chief technology officer\""}]},{"reference":"\"About Us | Albright Stonebridge Group\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.albrightstonebridge.com/team/nicole-wong","url_text":"\"About Us | Albright Stonebridge Group\""}]},{"reference":"\"Google lawyer Nicole Wong is newest member of CFAC Board\". First Amendment Coalition. June 2, 2009. Retrieved October 3, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://firstamendmentcoalition.org/2009/06/google_lawyer_nicole_wong_is_newest_member_of_cfac_board/","url_text":"\"Google lawyer Nicole Wong is newest member of CFAC Board\""}]},{"reference":"\"Nicole A. Wong\". Practicing Law Institute. Archived from the original on October 6, 2014. Retrieved October 3, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141006121419/http://www.pli.edu/Content/_/N-1z13fz3Z4o","url_text":"\"Nicole A. Wong\""},{"url":"http://www.pli.edu/Content/_/N-1z13fz3Z4o","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"COMMITTEE ON FOREIGN AFFAIRS, HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, ONE HUNDRED ELEVENTH CONGRESS, SECOND SESSION, MARCH 10, 2010\". Serial No. 111-85. U.S. Government Printing Office. Retrieved June 29, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CHRG-111hhrg55395/html/CHRG-111hhrg55395.htm","url_text":"\"COMMITTEE ON FOREIGN AFFAIRS, HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, ONE HUNDRED ELEVENTH CONGRESS, SECOND SESSION, MARCH 10, 2010\""}]},{"reference":"\"Agency Review Teams\". President-Elect Joe Biden. Retrieved 10 November 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://buildbackbetter.com/the-transition/agency-review-teams/","url_text":"\"Agency Review Teams\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Thornton_(explorer)
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Thornton expedition
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["1 See also","2 References","3 Bibliography"]
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1608 Italian expedition in South America
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Part of a series onEuropean colonizationof the Americas
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Ferdinando I ordered an expedition in order to create a Tuscan settlement on the territory of modern French Guiana
The Thornton expedition was a 1608 Tuscan expedition under Captain Robert Thornton, an Englishman, sent by Ferdinando I of Tuscany to explore northern Brazil and the Amazon River and prepare for the establishment of a settlement in northern coastal South America, which would serve as a base to export Brazilian wood to Renaissance Italy. The area that Thornton considered as a possible site of a Tuscan colony now lies in modern French Guiana, near Cayenne, which would be colonised by France in 1630. The expedition was the only attempt by an Italian state to colonise the Americas.
The Amazon region had been previously visited by numerous European explorers and traders over the course of the preceding century. Robert Harcourt sailed for Guiana in 1608, establishing an English base on the Oyapock River which lasted a few years. William Davies, a surgeon on the Thornton expedition noted that they expected to find the Amazon by sailing south from the West Indies until "...you shall see the Sea change to a ruddie colour, the water shall grow fresh, by these signes you may run boldly your course ."
Sailing from Livorno in September 1608, Thornton returned to the same port in the end of June 1609, reportedly completing the voyage without losing a man. He brought back with him to Tuscany five or six natives, most of whom died of smallpox. Only one lived on at the Medici court for several years, and learned to speak Tuscan. The natives often talked about the richness and fertility of their native land, speaking of a country rich in silver and gold. Thornton himself corroborated these reports, and asserted that the country was rich in rosewood, wild sugar canes, white pepper, balsam, cotton and many other kinds of merchandise which would form an abundant commerce for the Tuscans.
However, once back in Tuscany, Thornton found that Ferdinando I had died, and that his successor Cosimo II was uninterested in the establishment of a colony. Thornton was ready to sail back to the area between the Orinoco and Amazon rivers in the summer of 1609 with Italian settlers from Livorno and Lucca, but the project was scrapped.
In the first years of the 17th century Ferdinando I of Tuscany evaluated the possibility of a colony in Brasil Ferdinando gave captain Thornton a caravelle and a tartane Thornton sailed for one year: he reached Guyana and Brasil, exploring the Amazon and Orinoco rivers. In July 1609 he was back in Livorno, but in February of that year the Grand Duke died and in Florence nobody was still thinking about establishing an overseas colony.— Matteo Sanfilippo
See also
Italy and the colonization of the Americas
References
^ Ridolfi, R. Pensieri medicei di colonizzare il Brasile p. 14
^ Ridolfi, R. Pensieri medicei di colonizzare il Brasile, in «Il Veltro», Roma, luglio-agosto 1962, pp. 1-18
^ Hakluytus posthumus or Purchas His Pilgrimes, Samuel Purchas, volume xvi, 1625, reprinted 1906
^ Amazon Sweet Sea, Nigel J. H. Smith, University of Texas Press, 2002
^ a b c d John Temple Leader, Life of Sir Robert Dudley, Earl of Warwick and Duke of Northumberland : Illustrated with letters and documents from original sources, collected by the author, and hitherto inedited (1895)
^ Ridolfi, R. Pensieri medicei di colonizzare il Brasile, in «Il Veltro», Roma, luglio-agosto 1962, p. 12
^ Matteo Sanfilippo (2008-06-23). "Gli italiani in Brasile" (in Italian). Archivio Storico dell'Emigrazione Italiana. Retrieved 28 March 2010. Nei primi anni del Seicento Ferdinando I di Toscana ...valuta la possibilità di una colonia brasiliana...Ferdinando fa armare una caravella e una tartana nel porto di Livorno e le affida al capitano Thornton...Thornton naviga per quasi un anno: approda in Guyana e in Brasile, esplora il Rio delle Amazzoni e l'Orinoco, rientra facendo tappa alla Caienna e a Trinidad. Il 12 luglio 1609 è di nuovo a Livorno, ma...il 7 febbraio di quell'anno il granduca è morto e a Firenze non si pensa più alla possibilità di fondare una colonia...oltreoceano.
Bibliography
Franzina, Emilio. Storia dell'emigrazione italiana. Donzelli Editore. Roma, 2002 ISBN 88-7989-719-5
Ridolfi, R. Pensieri medicei di colonizzare il Brasile, in «Il Veltro» (luglio-agosto 1962). Roma, 1962
Sanfilippo, Matteo. Gli Italiani in Brasile. Edizioni Sette Citta'. Viterbo, 2008
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The area that Thornton considered as a possible site of a Tuscan colony now lies in modern French Guiana, near Cayenne,[1] which would be colonised by France in 1630. The expedition was the only attempt by an Italian state to colonise the Americas.[2]The Amazon region had been previously visited by numerous European explorers and traders over the course of the preceding century. Robert Harcourt sailed for Guiana in 1608, establishing an English base on the Oyapock River which lasted a few years.[3] William Davies, a surgeon on the Thornton expedition noted that they expected to find the Amazon by sailing south from the West Indies until \"...you shall see the Sea change to a ruddie colour, the water shall grow fresh, by these signes you may run boldly your course [sic].\"[4]Sailing from Livorno in September 1608, Thornton returned to the same port in the end of June 1609, reportedly completing the voyage without losing a man.[5] He brought back with him to Tuscany five or six natives, most of whom died of smallpox. Only one lived on at the Medici court for several years, and learned to speak Tuscan.[5] The natives often talked about the richness and fertility of their native land, speaking of a country rich in silver and gold.[5] Thornton himself corroborated these reports, and asserted that the country was rich in rosewood, wild sugar canes, white pepper, balsam, cotton and many other kinds of merchandise which would form an abundant commerce for the Tuscans.[5]However, once back in Tuscany, Thornton found that Ferdinando I had died, and that his successor Cosimo II was uninterested in the establishment of a colony. Thornton was ready to sail back to the area between the Orinoco and Amazon rivers in the summer of 1609 with Italian settlers from Livorno and Lucca, but the project was scrapped.[6]In the first years of the 17th century Ferdinando I of Tuscany evaluated the possibility of a colony in Brasil […] Ferdinando gave captain Thornton a caravelle and a tartane [for an expedition in 1608] […] Thornton sailed for one year: he reached Guyana and Brasil, exploring the Amazon and Orinoco rivers. […] In July 1609 he was back in Livorno, but in February of that year the Grand Duke died and in Florence nobody [after him] was still thinking about establishing an overseas colony.— Matteo Sanfilippo[7]","title":"Thornton expedition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"88-7989-719-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/88-7989-719-5"}],"text":"Franzina, Emilio. Storia dell'emigrazione italiana. Donzelli Editore. Roma, 2002 ISBN 88-7989-719-5\nRidolfi, R. Pensieri medicei di colonizzare il Brasile, in «Il Veltro» (luglio-agosto 1962). Roma, 1962\nSanfilippo, Matteo. Gli Italiani in Brasile. Edizioni Sette Citta'. Viterbo, 2008","title":"Bibliography"}]
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[{"image_text":"Ferdinando I ordered an expedition in order to create a Tuscan settlement on the territory of modern French Guiana","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/French_Guiana_in_its_region.svg/250px-French_Guiana_in_its_region.svg.png"}]
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[{"title":"Italy and the colonization of the Americas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy_and_the_colonization_of_the_Americas"}]
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[{"reference":"Matteo Sanfilippo (2008-06-23). \"Gli italiani in Brasile\" (in Italian). Archivio Storico dell'Emigrazione Italiana. Retrieved 28 March 2010. Nei primi anni del Seicento Ferdinando I di Toscana ...valuta la possibilità di una colonia brasiliana...Ferdinando fa armare una caravella e una tartana nel porto di Livorno e le affida al capitano Thornton...Thornton naviga per quasi un anno: approda in Guyana e in Brasile, esplora il Rio delle Amazzoni e l'Orinoco, rientra facendo tappa alla Caienna e a Trinidad. Il 12 luglio 1609 è di nuovo a Livorno, ma...il 7 febbraio di quell'anno il granduca è morto e a Firenze non si pensa più alla possibilità di fondare una colonia...oltreoceano.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.asei.eu/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=180:gli-italiani-in-brasile-id-parte&catid=65:articoli&Itemid=250","url_text":"\"Gli italiani in Brasile\""}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://translate.google.com/translate?&u=https%3A%2F%2Fit.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FSpedizione_Thornton&sl=it&tl=en&prev=_t&hl=en","external_links_name":"View"},{"Link":"https://deepl.com/","external_links_name":"DeepL"},{"Link":"https://translate.google.com/","external_links_name":"Google Translate"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=jgsWAAAAYAAJ&dq=robert+harcourt+1608&pg=PA358","external_links_name":"Hakluytus posthumus or Purchas His Pilgrimes"},{"Link":"http://www.utexas.edu/utpress/excerpts/exsmiama.html","external_links_name":"Amazon Sweet Sea"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/stream/lifeofsirrobertd00leaduoft/lifeofsirrobertd00leaduoft_djvu.txt","external_links_name":"Life of Sir Robert Dudley, Earl of Warwick and Duke of Northumberland : Illustrated with letters and documents from original sources, collected by the author, and hitherto inedited (1895)"},{"Link":"http://www.asei.eu/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=180:gli-italiani-in-brasile-id-parte&catid=65:articoli&Itemid=250","external_links_name":"\"Gli italiani in Brasile\""}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pro-Europeanism
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Pro-Europeanism
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["1 Political position","2 Pro-EU political parties","2.1 Pan-European level","2.2 Within the EU","2.3 Outside the EU","3 Pro-EU newspapers and magazines","4 Multinational European partnerships","5 See also","6 References"]
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Favouring European integration
Pro-European participants attending the Pulse of Europe rally in Cologne, Germany (2017)
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vte
Pro-Europeanism, sometimes called European Unionism, is a political position that favours European integration and membership of the European Union (EU).
Political position
Pro-Europeans are mostly classified as centrist (Renew Europe) in the context of European politics, including centre-right liberal conservatives (EPP Group) and centre-left social democrats (S&D and Greens/EFA). Pro-Europeanism is ideologically closely related to the European and Global liberal movement.
Pro-EU political parties
Main article: List of pro-European political parties
Pan-European level
EU: Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party, European Free Alliance, European Green Party, European People's Party, Party of European Socialists, Volt Europa
Within the EU
Austria: Austrian People's Party, Social Democratic Party of Austria, The Greens – The Green Alternative, NEOS – The New Austria, Volt Austria
Belgium: Reformist Mouvement, Open Flemish Liberals and Democrats, Socialist Party, Vooruit, Christian Democratic and Flemish, Les Engagés, Ecolo, Green, Democratic Federalist Independent, Volt Belgium
Bulgaria: We Continue the Change, Yes, Bulgaria!, Union of Democratic Forces, Citizens for European Development of Bulgaria, Democrats for a Strong Bulgaria, Bulgarian Socialist Party (factions), Volt Bulgaria, Republicans for Bulgaria, Stand Up.BG, United People's Party, Bulgaria for Citizens Movement, Movement 21, There Is Such a People
Croatia: Croatian Democratic Union, Social Democratic Party of Croatia, Croatian Peasant Party, Croatian People's Party – Liberal Democrats, Civic Liberal Alliance, Istrian Democratic Assembly, People's Party – Reformists, Croatian Social Liberal Party, Centre
Cyprus: Democratic Rally, Democratic Party, Movement for Social Democracy, Democratic Alignment, New Wave – The Other Cyprus, Volt Cyprus
Czech Republic: TOP 09, Mayors and Independents, KDU-ČSL, Czech Pirate Party, Social Democracy, Green Party, Volt Czech Republic
Denmark: Danish Social Liberal Party, Social Democrats, Venstre, Conservative People's Party, Moderates, Volt Denmark
Estonia: Estonian Reform Party, Estonia 200, Estonian Social Democratic Party, Estonian Greens, Isamaa
Finland: Centre Party, National Coalition Party, Social Democratic Party of Finland, Green League, Swedish People's Party of Finland
France: Renaissance, Democratic Movement, The Republicans, Socialist Party, Public Place, Radical Party of the Left, Europe Ecology – The Greens, The New Democrats, Génération.s, Radical Party, Union of Democrats and Independents, New Deal, Agir, En Commun, Horizons, Territories of Progress, Progressive Federation, Centrist Alliance, The Centrists, Ecologist Party, Democratic European Force, Volt France
Germany: Christian Democratic Union, Social Democratic Party of Germany, Alliance 90/The Greens, Free Democratic Party, Christian Social Union in Bavaria, Die PARTEI, Volt Germany
Greece: New Democracy, Syriza, PASOK – Movement for Change, Union of Centrists, Movement of Democratic Socialists, Volt Greece
Hungary: Democratic Coalition, Jobbik, Hungarian Socialist Party, Momentum Movement, Dialogue – The Greens' Party, LMP – Hungary's Green Party, Hungarian Liberal Party, New Start
Ireland: Fine Gael, Fianna Fáil, Labour Party, Social Democrats, Green Party, Volt Ireland
Italy: Democratic Party, Forza Italia, Italia Viva, Italian Left, More Europe, Volt Italy, Civic Commitment, Action, Italian Socialist Party, Social Democrats, Italian Republican Party, Solidary Democracy, Green Europe, Italian Radicals, Possible, Us of the Centre, Europeanists, Centrists for Europe, Moderates, Article One, European Republicans Movement, Forza Europa, Liberal Democratic Alliance for Italy, Alliance of the Centre (Italy), èViva, Sicilian Socialist Party, Team K
Latvia: Unity, For Latvia's Development, Movement For!, The Conservatives, The Progressives
Lithuania: Homeland Union, Liberals' Movement, Lithuanian Farmers and Greens Union, Social Democratic Party of Lithuania, Freedom Party, Labour Party, Lithuanian Green Party
Luxembourg: Christian Social People's Party, Luxembourg Socialist Workers' Party, Democratic Party, The Greens, Volt Luxembourg
Malta: Nationalist Party, Labour Party (factions), AD+PD, Volt Malta
Netherlands: Democrats 66, People's Party for Freedom and Democracy, Labour Party, Christian Democratic Appeal, GroenLinks, Volt Netherlands
Poland: Civic Platform, Poland 2050, .Modern, Polish People's Party, New Left, Left Together, Your Movement, The Greens, Polish Initiative, Union of European Democrats, Polish Socialist Party
Portugal: Social Democratic Party, Socialist Party, People–Animals–Nature Party, LIVRE, Liberal Initiative, Volt Portugal
Romania: Save Romania Union, National Liberal Party, People's Movement Party, Renewing Romania's European Project, PRO Romania, Green Party, NOW Party, Volt Romania
Slovakia: Progressive Slovakia, Christian Democratic Movement, Slovakia, Democrats, For the People, Voice – Social Democracy, Hungarian Alliance, Volt Slovakia
Slovenia: Freedom Movement, Social Democrats, New Slovenia, Democratic Party of Pensioners of Slovenia, Slovenian People's Party
Spain: People's Party, Spanish Socialist Workers' Party, Citizens, Volt Spain
Sweden: Swedish Social Democratic Party, Moderate Party, Centre Party, Liberals, Christian Democrats, Volt Sweden
Outside the EU
Albania: Democratic Party of Albania, Socialist Party of Albania, Freedom Party of Albania, Libra Party, Social Democratic Party of Albania, Republican Party of Albania, Unity for Human Rights Party, Alliance for Equality and European Justice, Volt Albania
Armenia: Armenian Democratic Liberal Party, Armenian National Movement Party, Bright Armenia, Christian-Democratic Rebirth Party, Civil Contract, Conservative Party, European Party of Armenia, For The Republic Party, Free Democrats, Heritage, Liberal Democratic Union of Armenia, National Progress Party of Armenia, People's Party of Armenia, Union for National Self-Determination, Republic Party, Rule of Law, Sasna Tsrer Pan-Armenian Party, Social Democrat Hunchakian Party, Sovereign Armenia Party
Belarus: Belarusian Christian Democracy, BPF Party, United Democratic Forces of Belarus, Party of Freedom and Progress, United Civic Party of Belarus, Belarusian Social Democratic Party (Assembly), Belarusian Social Democratic Assembly
Bosnia and Herzegovina: Party of Democratic Action, Croatian Democratic Union of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Social Democratic Party of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Democratic Front, People and Justice, Party of Democratic Progress, Our Party, People's European Union, For New Generations, Union for a Better Future, Independent Bloc
Georgia: Georgian Dream, United National Movement, For Georgia, Lelo, European Georgia, Girchi - More Freedom, Girchi, Strategy Aghmashenebeli, Republican Party of Georgia, Georgian Labour Party, For the People, European Socialists, Free Democrats, Solidarity Alliance of Georgia
Iceland: Social Democratic Alliance, Reform Party
Kosovo: Alliance for the Future of Kosovo, Democratic League of Kosovo, Partia e Fortë
Moldova: Party of Action and Solidarity, National Alternative Movement, Liberal Party, European Social Democratic Party, Liberal Democratic Party, European People's Party, Pro Moldova, People's Party of the Republic of Moldova
Montenegro: Europe Now!, Democratic Party of Socialists of Montenegro, Social Democratic Party of Montenegro, DEMOS, United Reform Action, Democratic Montenegro, Socialist People's Party, Liberal Party, Social Democrats, Bosniak Party, Civis, We won't give up Montenegro
North Macedonia: Social Democratic Union, BESA, New Social Democratic Party, Democratic Union for Integration, Alliance for Albanians, Liberal Democratic Party, VMRO-NP
Norway: Conservative Party, Labour Party (factions), Liberal Party
Russia: Yabloko, People's Freedom Party, Green Alternative, Russia of the Future, Democratic Party of Russia
San Marino: Civic 10, Euro-Populars for San Marino, Future Republic, Party of Democrats, Party of Socialists and Democrats, Sammarineses for Freedom, Socialist Party, Union for the Republic
Serbia: Democratic Party, Social Democratic Party, Liberal Democratic Party, Movement of Free Citizens, People's Party, New Party, Serbian Progressive Party, Social Democratic Party of Serbia, Party of Freedom and Justice, Together for Serbia, Serbia 21, Civic Democratic Forum, Party of Modern Serbia, Movement for Reversal
Switzerland: Social Democratic Party of Switzerland (factions), Green Party of Switzerland (factions), Green Liberal Party of Switzerland, Volt Switzerland
Turkey: Democracy and Progress Party, Democratic Left Party, Democrat Party, Future Party, Good Party, Homeland Party, Liberal Democratic Party, Peoples' Democratic Party, Peoples' Equality and Democracy Party, Republican People's Party
Ukraine: Servant of the People, Fatherland, European Solidarity, Voice, Self Reliance, Ukrainian People's Party, Our Ukraine, European Party of Ukraine, People's Front, Ukrainian Democratic Alliance for Reform, Volt Ukraine
United Kingdom: Liberal Democrats, Green Party of England and Wales, Scottish National Party (SNP), Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP), Scottish Greens, Women's Equality Party, Alliance Party of Northern Ireland, Green Party Northern Ireland, Mebyon Kernow, Alliance EPP: European People's Party UK, Volt UK, Animal Welfare Party
Pro-EU newspapers and magazines
Note: Media outside of Europe may also be included.
Denmark: Dagbladet Børsen, Politiken
France: Le Figaro, Le Monde, Le Parisien
Germany: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, Der Spiegel, Süddeutsche Zeitung, Der Tagesspiegel
Hungary: Blikk
Ireland: The Irish Times
Japan: Chunichi Shimbun, Mainichi Shimbun
South Korea: The Hankyoreh
Spain: El Confidencial, El País, El Mundo
United Kingdom: Financial Times, The Independent, The New European, The Guardian
Multinational European partnerships
Main article: European integration
Council of Europe: an international organisation whose stated aim is to uphold human rights, democracy, rule of law in Europe and to promote European culture. It has 46 member states.
Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe: the world's largest security-oriented intergovernmental organization, with 57 participating states mostly in Europe and the Northern Hemisphere.
Paneuropean Union: the oldest European unification movement.
See also
Eastern Partnership
Euromyth
European Federalist Party
European Union as an emerging superpower
Europeanism
Euroscepticism
Eurosphere
Eurovoc
Euronest Parliamentary Assembly
Federal Europe
Federalisation of the European Union
Liberalism in Europe
List of European federalist political parties
Pan-European identity
Pan-Europeanism
Politics of Europe
Potential enlargement of the European Union
Pulse of Europe Initiative
United States of Europe
Volt Europa
WhyEurope
Portals: European Union Europe Politics
References
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^ "Romania – Europe Elects".
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^ "About". Nova Slovenija. Archived from the original on 9 October 2017. Retrieved 8 October 2017.
^ "Temeljna načela SLS". Slovenian People's Party. Retrieved 8 October 2017.
^ "Kosovo: early elections to be held June 8 - Politics". ANSAMed. 8 May 2014.
^ Krekling, David Vojislav (27 September 2020). "Venstre går inn for at Norge skal bli medlem i EU". NRK.
^ Rtv, San Marino (19 September 2013). "Congresso Psd: si cerca la mediazione su un nome che rappresenti le diverse anime". San Marino Rtv.
^ Rtv, San Marino (10 September 2013). "Referendum Europa: il Ps è per il sì". San Marino Rtv.
^ Rtv, San Marino (6 September 2013). "Referendum Ue: sì convinto dall'Upr". San Marino Rtv.
^ "Protect Britain's place in Europe". Retrieved 29 September 2017.
^ Stone, Jon (25 June 2016). "Liberal Democrats pledge to keep Britain in the EU after next election". The Independent. Retrieved 29 September 2017.
^ Mason, Rowena (14 March 2016). "Green party 'loud and proud' about backing Britain in Europe". The Guardian. Retrieved 29 September 2017.
^ Carrell, Severin (3 March 2016). "Scotland to campaign officially to remain in the EU". The Guardian. Retrieved 29 September 2017.
^ McDonnell, Alasdair (10 June 2016). "McDonnell Brexit Address". Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP). Retrieved 29 September 2017.
^ Greer, Ross (22 February 2016). "Now is the time to fight to stay in Europe ... and to reform it from the left, not the right as Cameron plans". Green Party of Scotland. Retrieved 29 September 2017.
^ Walker, Sophie (26 July 2018). "Overconfident men brought us Brexit. It's not too late for women to fix it". The Guardian. Opinion. Retrieved 24 August 2018.
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^ "Vision". Animal Welfare Party. 16 April 2010. Retrieved 25 November 2020.
^ Manuela Caiani, Simona Guerra, ed. (2014). Euroscepticism, Democracy and the Media: Communicating Europe, Contesting Europe. Springer. p. 113.
^ John Lloyd, Cristina Marconi, ed. (2014). Reporting the EU: News, Media and the European Institutions. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 68. ISBN 9780857724595. In France, the big newspapers remain pro-European, notwithstanding the large success in the polls of the anti-EU movement led by Marine Le Pen – though the main paper of the centre right, Le Figaro, is now more critical.
^ Élisabeth Le, ed. (2021). Degrees of European Belonging: The fuzzy areas between us and them. John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 37. ISBN 9789027260192. In these circumstances, it is particularly interesting to investigate how the pro-European Le Monde constructs the concept of "Europe" (i.e. who belongs and who does not) ...
^ a b Manuela Caiani, Simona Guerra, ed. (2014). Euroscepticism, Democracy and the Media: Communicating Europe, Contesting Europe. Springer. p. 206.
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^ " 유럽을 위기로 몰아넣는 영국의 선택" Britain's choice drove Europe into crisis.] (in Korean). The Hankyoreh. 24 June 2016. Retrieved 26 December 2021. 결국 영국은 편협한 안목으로 탈퇴를 선택함으로써 자국을 고립의 길로 이끌고 전 세계에 걱정거리를 안기고 말았다.
^ Peter J. Anderson, Tony Weymouth, ed. (2014). Insulting the Public?: The British Press and the European Union. Routledge. p. 103. ISBN 9781317882831. The Financial Times Having looked at two of the leading pro-European broadsheets, it is time to examine the discourse of the third, and in many ways the most pro-European, that of the Financial Times.
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Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre_Party_(Finland)"},{"link_name":"National Coalition Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Coalition_Party"},{"link_name":"Social Democratic Party of Finland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Finland"},{"link_name":"Green League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_League"},{"link_name":"Swedish People's Party of Finland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_People%27s_Party_of_Finland"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"},{"link_name":"Renaissance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_(French_political_party)"},{"link_name":"Democratic Movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Movement_(France)"},{"link_name":"The Republicans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Republicans_(France)"},{"link_name":"Socialist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_Party_(France)"},{"link_name":"Public Place","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Place_Publique"},{"link_name":"Radical Party of the Left","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_Party_of_the_Left"},{"link_name":"Europe Ecology – The Greens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe_Ecology_%E2%80%93_The_Greens"},{"link_name":"The New Democrats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_Democrats"},{"link_name":"Génération.s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9n%C3%A9ration.s"},{"link_name":"Radical Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_Party_(France)"},{"link_name":"Union of Democrats and Independents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_of_Democrats_and_Independents"},{"link_name":"New Deal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Deal_(France)"},{"link_name":"Agir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agir_(France)"},{"link_name":"En Commun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/En_Commun"},{"link_name":"Horizons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horizons_(political_party)"},{"link_name":"Territories of Progress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Territories_of_Progress"},{"link_name":"Progressive Federation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Progressive_Federation_(France)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Centrist Alliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centrist_Alliance"},{"link_name":"The Centrists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Centrists"},{"link_name":"Ecologist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecologist_Party"},{"link_name":"Democratic European Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_European_Force"},{"link_name":"Volt France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt_France"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"Christian Democratic Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Union_(Germany)"},{"link_name":"Social Democratic Party of Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany"},{"link_name":"Alliance 90/The Greens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alliance_90/The_Greens"},{"link_name":"Free Democratic Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Democratic_Party_(Germany)"},{"link_name":"Christian Social Union in Bavaria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Social_Union_in_Bavaria"},{"link_name":"Die PARTEI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_PARTEI"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Volt Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt_Germany"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece"},{"link_name":"New Democracy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Democracy_(Greece)"},{"link_name":"Syriza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syriza"},{"link_name":"PASOK – Movement for Change","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PASOK_%E2%80%93_Movement_for_Change"},{"link_name":"Union of Centrists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_of_Centrists"},{"link_name":"Movement of Democratic Socialists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movement_of_Democratic_Socialists"},{"link_name":"Volt Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt_Greece"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungary"},{"link_name":"Democratic Coalition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Coalition_(Hungary)"},{"link_name":"Jobbik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jobbik"},{"link_name":"Hungarian Socialist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_Socialist_Party"},{"link_name":"Momentum Movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Momentum_Movement"},{"link_name":"Dialogue – The Greens' Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_%E2%80%93_The_Greens%27_Party"},{"link_name":"LMP – Hungary's Green Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LMP_%E2%80%93_Hungary%27s_Green_Party"},{"link_name":"Hungarian Liberal Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_Liberal_Party"},{"link_name":"New Start","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Start_(Hungary)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland"},{"link_name":"Fine Gael","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fine_Gael"},{"link_name":"Fianna Fáil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fianna_F%C3%A1il"},{"link_name":"Labour Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_Party_(Ireland)"},{"link_name":"Social Democrats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Democrats_(Ireland)"},{"link_name":"Green Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Party_(Ireland)"},{"link_name":"Volt Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt_Europa#Ireland"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"Democratic Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Party_(Italy)"},{"link_name":"Forza Italia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forza_Italia_(2013)"},{"link_name":"Italia Viva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italia_Viva"},{"link_name":"Italian Left","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Left"},{"link_name":"More Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/More_Europe"},{"link_name":"Volt Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt_Italy"},{"link_name":"Civic Commitment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civic_Commitment"},{"link_name":"Action","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_(Italian_political_party)"},{"link_name":"Italian Socialist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Socialist_Party_(2007)"},{"link_name":"Social Democrats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Democrats_(Italy)"},{"link_name":"Italian Republican Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Republican_Party"},{"link_name":"Solidary Democracy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solidary_Democracy"},{"link_name":"Green Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Europe"},{"link_name":"Italian Radicals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Radicals"},{"link_name":"Possible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Possible_(political_party)"},{"link_name":"Us of the Centre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Us_of_the_Centre"},{"link_name":"Europeanists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europeanists"},{"link_name":"Centrists for Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centrists_for_Europe"},{"link_name":"Moderates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderates_(Italy)"},{"link_name":"Article One","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Article_One_(political_party)"},{"link_name":"European Republicans Movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Republicans_Movement"},{"link_name":"Forza Europa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forza_Europa_(2017)"},{"link_name":"Liberal Democratic Alliance for Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Democratic_Alliance_for_Italy"},{"link_name":"Alliance of the Centre (Italy)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alliance_of_the_Centre_(Italy)"},{"link_name":"èViva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88Viva"},{"link_name":"Sicilian Socialist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sicilian_Socialist_Party"},{"link_name":"Team K","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Team_K"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latvia"},{"link_name":"Unity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unity_(Latvian_political_party)"},{"link_name":"For Latvia's Development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/For_Latvia%27s_Development"},{"link_name":"Movement For!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movement_For!"},{"link_name":"The Conservatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Conservatives_(Latvia)"},{"link_name":"The Progressives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Progressives_(Latvia)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuania"},{"link_name":"Homeland Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeland_Union"},{"link_name":"Liberals' Movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberals%27_Movement_(Lithuania)"},{"link_name":"Lithuanian Farmers and Greens Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuanian_Farmers_and_Greens_Union"},{"link_name":"Social Democratic Party of Lithuania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Lithuania"},{"link_name":"Freedom Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_Party_(Lithuania)"},{"link_name":"Labour Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_Party_(Lithuania)"},{"link_name":"Lithuanian Green Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuanian_Green_Party"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luxembourg"},{"link_name":"Christian Social People's Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Social_People%27s_Party"},{"link_name":"Luxembourg Socialist Workers' Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luxembourg_Socialist_Workers%27_Party"},{"link_name":"Democratic Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Party_(Luxembourg)"},{"link_name":"The Greens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Greens_(Luxembourg)"},{"link_name":"Volt Luxembourg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt_Luxembourg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malta"},{"link_name":"Nationalist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalist_Party_(Malta)"},{"link_name":"Labour Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_Party_(Malta)"},{"link_name":"AD+PD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AD%2BPD"},{"link_name":"Volt Malta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt_Malta"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands"},{"link_name":"Democrats 66","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democrats_66"},{"link_name":"People's Party for Freedom and Democracy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Party_for_Freedom_and_Democracy"},{"link_name":"Labour Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_Party_(Netherlands)"},{"link_name":"Christian Democratic Appeal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Appeal"},{"link_name":"GroenLinks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GroenLinks"},{"link_name":"Volt Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt_Netherlands"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland"},{"link_name":"Civic Platform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civic_Platform"},{"link_name":"Poland 2050","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland_2050"},{"link_name":".Modern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.Modern"},{"link_name":"Polish People's Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Party"},{"link_name":"New Left","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Left_(Poland)"},{"link_name":"Left Together","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Left_Together"},{"link_name":"Your Movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Your_Movement"},{"link_name":"The Greens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Greens_(Poland)"},{"link_name":"Polish Initiative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_Initiative"},{"link_name":"Union of European Democrats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_of_European_Democrats"},{"link_name":"Polish Socialist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_Socialist_Party"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugal"},{"link_name":"Social Democratic Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_(Portugal)"},{"link_name":"Socialist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_Party_(Portugal)"},{"link_name":"People–Animals–Nature Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%E2%80%93Animals%E2%80%93Nature"},{"link_name":"LIVRE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LIVRE"},{"link_name":"Liberal Initiative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Initiative_(Portugal)"},{"link_name":"Volt Portugal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt_Portugal"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romania"},{"link_name":"Save Romania Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Save_Romania_Union"},{"link_name":"National Liberal Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Liberal_Party_(Romania)"},{"link_name":"People's Movement Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Movement_Party"},{"link_name":"Renewing Romania's European Project","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewing_Romania%27s_European_Project"},{"link_name":"PRO Romania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PRO_Romania"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Green Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Party_(Romania)"},{"link_name":"NOW Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Partidul_ACUM&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Volt Romania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt_Romania"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovakia"},{"link_name":"Progressive Slovakia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_Slovakia"},{"link_name":"Christian Democratic Movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Movement"},{"link_name":"Slovakia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovakia_(political_party)"},{"link_name":"Democrats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democrats_(Slovakia)"},{"link_name":"For the People","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/For_the_People_(Slovakia)"},{"link_name":"Voice – Social Democracy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_%E2%80%93_Social_Democracy"},{"link_name":"Hungarian Alliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_Alliance_(Slovak_political_party)"},{"link_name":"Volt Slovakia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt_Slovakia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovenia"},{"link_name":"Freedom Movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_Movement_(Slovenia)"},{"link_name":"Social Democrats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Democrats_(Slovenia)"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"New Slovenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Slovenia"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"Democratic Party of Pensioners of Slovenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_Pensioners_of_Slovenia"},{"link_name":"Slovenian People's Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovenian_People%27s_Party"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain"},{"link_name":"People's Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Party_(Spain)"},{"link_name":"Spanish Socialist Workers' Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Socialist_Workers%27_Party"},{"link_name":"Citizens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizens_(Spanish_political_party)"},{"link_name":"Volt Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt_Spain"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden"},{"link_name":"Swedish Social Democratic Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_Social_Democratic_Party"},{"link_name":"Moderate Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderate_Party_(Sweden)"},{"link_name":"Centre Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre_Party_(Sweden)"},{"link_name":"Liberals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberals_(Sweden)"},{"link_name":"Christian Democrats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Democrats_(Sweden)"},{"link_name":"Volt Sweden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt_Sweden"}],"sub_title":"Within the EU","text":"Austria: Austrian People's Party,[12] Social Democratic Party of Austria,[13] The Greens – The Green Alternative, NEOS – The New Austria,[14] Volt Austria\n Belgium: Reformist Mouvement, Open Flemish Liberals and Democrats,[15] Socialist Party, Vooruit, Christian Democratic and Flemish, Les Engagés, Ecolo, Green, Democratic Federalist Independent, Volt Belgium\n Bulgaria: We Continue the Change, Yes, Bulgaria!, Union of Democratic Forces,[16][17][18] Citizens for European Development of Bulgaria,[18] Democrats for a Strong Bulgaria,[18] Bulgarian Socialist Party (factions),[19][20] Volt Bulgaria, Republicans for Bulgaria,[21] Stand Up.BG, United People's Party, Bulgaria for Citizens Movement, Movement 21, There Is Such a People\n Croatia: Croatian Democratic Union,[22] Social Democratic Party of Croatia, Croatian Peasant Party, Croatian People's Party – Liberal Democrats, Civic Liberal Alliance, Istrian Democratic Assembly, People's Party – Reformists, Croatian Social Liberal Party, Centre\n Cyprus: Democratic Rally, Democratic Party, Movement for Social Democracy, Democratic Alignment, New Wave – The Other Cyprus, Volt Cyprus\n Czech Republic: TOP 09,[23] Mayors and Independents, KDU-ČSL,[24] Czech Pirate Party,[25] Social Democracy,[26] Green Party,[27] Volt Czech Republic\n Denmark: Danish Social Liberal Party,[28] Social Democrats,[29] Venstre,[30] Conservative People's Party,[31] Moderates, Volt Denmark\n Estonia: Estonian Reform Party, Estonia 200, Estonian Social Democratic Party,[32] Estonian Greens, Isamaa\n Finland: Centre Party, National Coalition Party, Social Democratic Party of Finland, Green League, Swedish People's Party of Finland\n France: Renaissance, Democratic Movement, The Republicans, Socialist Party, Public Place, Radical Party of the Left, Europe Ecology – The Greens, The New Democrats, Génération.s, Radical Party, Union of Democrats and Independents, New Deal, Agir, En Commun, Horizons, Territories of Progress, Progressive Federation, Centrist Alliance, The Centrists, Ecologist Party, Democratic European Force, Volt France\n Germany: Christian Democratic Union, Social Democratic Party of Germany, Alliance 90/The Greens, Free Democratic Party, Christian Social Union in Bavaria, Die PARTEI,[33] Volt Germany\n Greece: New Democracy, Syriza, PASOK – Movement for Change, Union of Centrists, Movement of Democratic Socialists, Volt Greece\n Hungary: Democratic Coalition, Jobbik, Hungarian Socialist Party, Momentum Movement, Dialogue – The Greens' Party, LMP – Hungary's Green Party, Hungarian Liberal Party, New Start\n Ireland: Fine Gael, Fianna Fáil, Labour Party, Social Democrats, Green Party, Volt Ireland\n Italy: Democratic Party, Forza Italia, Italia Viva, Italian Left, More Europe, Volt Italy, Civic Commitment, Action, Italian Socialist Party, Social Democrats, Italian Republican Party, Solidary Democracy, Green Europe, Italian Radicals, Possible, Us of the Centre, Europeanists, Centrists for Europe, Moderates, Article One, European Republicans Movement, Forza Europa, Liberal Democratic Alliance for Italy, Alliance of the Centre (Italy), èViva, Sicilian Socialist Party, Team K\n Latvia: Unity, For Latvia's Development, Movement For!, The Conservatives, The Progressives\n Lithuania: Homeland Union, Liberals' Movement, Lithuanian Farmers and Greens Union, Social Democratic Party of Lithuania, Freedom Party, Labour Party, Lithuanian Green Party\n Luxembourg: Christian Social People's Party, Luxembourg Socialist Workers' Party, Democratic Party, The Greens, Volt Luxembourg\n Malta: Nationalist Party, Labour Party (factions), AD+PD, Volt Malta\n Netherlands: Democrats 66, People's Party for Freedom and Democracy, Labour Party, Christian Democratic Appeal, GroenLinks, Volt Netherlands\n Poland: Civic Platform, Poland 2050, .Modern, Polish People's Party, New Left, Left Together, Your Movement, The Greens, Polish Initiative, Union of European Democrats, Polish Socialist Party[34]\n Portugal: Social Democratic Party, Socialist Party, People–Animals–Nature Party, LIVRE, Liberal Initiative, Volt Portugal\n Romania: Save Romania Union, National Liberal Party, People's Movement Party, Renewing Romania's European Project, PRO Romania,[35] Green Party, NOW Party, Volt Romania\n Slovakia: Progressive Slovakia, Christian Democratic Movement, Slovakia, Democrats, For the People, Voice – Social Democracy, Hungarian Alliance, Volt Slovakia\n Slovenia: Freedom Movement, Social Democrats,[36] New Slovenia,[37] Democratic Party of Pensioners of Slovenia, Slovenian People's Party[38]\n Spain: People's Party, Spanish Socialist Workers' Party, Citizens, Volt Spain\n Sweden: Swedish Social Democratic Party, Moderate Party, Centre Party, Liberals, Christian Democrats, Volt Sweden","title":"Pro-EU political parties"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albania"},{"link_name":"Democratic Party of Albania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_Albania"},{"link_name":"Socialist Party of Albania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_Party_of_Albania"},{"link_name":"Freedom Party of Albania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_Party_of_Albania"},{"link_name":"Libra Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libra_Party"},{"link_name":"Social Democratic Party of Albania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Albania"},{"link_name":"Republican Party of Albania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republican_Party_of_Albania"},{"link_name":"Unity for Human Rights Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unity_for_Human_Rights_Party"},{"link_name":"Alliance for Equality and European Justice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alliance_for_Equality_and_European_Justice"},{"link_name":"Volt Albania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt_Albania"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenia"},{"link_name":"Armenian Democratic Liberal Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_Democratic_Liberal_Party"},{"link_name":"Armenian National Movement Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_National_Movement_Party"},{"link_name":"Bright Armenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bright_Armenia"},{"link_name":"Christian-Democratic Rebirth Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian-Democratic_Rebirth_Party"},{"link_name":"Civil Contract","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_Contract_(Armenia)"},{"link_name":"Conservative Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_Party_(Armenia)"},{"link_name":"European Party of Armenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Party_of_Armenia"},{"link_name":"For The Republic Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/For_The_Republic_Party"},{"link_name":"Free Democrats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Democrats_(Armenia)"},{"link_name":"Heritage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritage_(Armenia)"},{"link_name":"Liberal Democratic Union of Armenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Democratic_Union_of_Armenia"},{"link_name":"National Progress Party of Armenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Progress_Party_of_Armenia"},{"link_name":"People's Party of Armenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Party_of_Armenia"},{"link_name":"Union for National Self-Determination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_for_National_Self-Determination"},{"link_name":"Republic Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanrapetutyun_Party"},{"link_name":"Rule of Law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orinats_Yerkir"},{"link_name":"Sasna Tsrer Pan-Armenian Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasna_Tsrer_Pan-Armenian_Party"},{"link_name":"Social Democrat Hunchakian Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Democrat_Hunchakian_Party"},{"link_name":"Sovereign Armenia Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereign_Armenia_Party"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarus"},{"link_name":"Belarusian Christian Democracy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarusian_Christian_Democracy"},{"link_name":"BPF Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BPF_Party"},{"link_name":"United Democratic Forces of Belarus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Democratic_Forces_of_Belarus"},{"link_name":"Party of Freedom and Progress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Party_of_Freedom_and_Progress"},{"link_name":"United Civic Party of Belarus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Civic_Party_of_Belarus"},{"link_name":"Belarusian Social Democratic Party (Assembly)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarusian_Social_Democratic_Party_(Assembly)"},{"link_name":"Belarusian Social Democratic Assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarusian_Social_Democratic_Assembly"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina"},{"link_name":"Party of Democratic Action","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Party_of_Democratic_Action"},{"link_name":"Croatian Democratic Union of Bosnia and Herzegovina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croatian_Democratic_Union_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina"},{"link_name":"Social Democratic Party of Bosnia and Herzegovina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_(Bosnia_and_Herzegovina)"},{"link_name":"Democratic Front","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Front_(Bosnia_and_Herzegovina)"},{"link_name":"People and Justice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People_and_Justice"},{"link_name":"Party of Democratic Progress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Party_of_Democratic_Progress"},{"link_name":"Our Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Our_Party_(Bosnia_and_Herzegovina)"},{"link_name":"People's European Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_European_Union_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina"},{"link_name":"For New Generations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/For_New_Generations"},{"link_name":"Union for a Better Future","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_for_a_Better_Future_of_BiH"},{"link_name":"Independent Bloc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_Bloc_(Bosnia_and_Herzegovina)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_(country)"},{"link_name":"Georgian Dream","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgian_Dream"},{"link_name":"United National Movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_National_Movement_(Georgia)"},{"link_name":"For Georgia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/For_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Lelo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lelo_for_Georgia"},{"link_name":"European Georgia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Girchi - More Freedom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girchi_-_More_Freedom"},{"link_name":"Girchi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girchi"},{"link_name":"Strategy Aghmashenebeli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategy_Aghmashenebeli"},{"link_name":"Republican Party of Georgia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republican_Party_of_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Georgian Labour Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgian_Labour_Party"},{"link_name":"For the People","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/For_the_People_(Georgia)"},{"link_name":"European Socialists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Socialists_(Georgia)"},{"link_name":"Free Democrats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Democrats_(Georgia)"},{"link_name":"Solidarity Alliance of Georgia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solidarity_Alliance_of_Georgia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iceland"},{"link_name":"Social Democratic Alliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Democratic_Alliance"},{"link_name":"Reform Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reform_Party_(Iceland)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosovo"},{"link_name":"Alliance for the Future of Kosovo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alliance_for_the_Future_of_Kosovo"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Democratic League of Kosovo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_League_of_Kosovo"},{"link_name":"Partia e Fortë","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partia_e_Fort%C3%AB"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldova"},{"link_name":"Party of Action and Solidarity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Party_of_Action_and_Solidarity"},{"link_name":"National Alternative Movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Alternative_Movement"},{"link_name":"Liberal Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Party_(Moldova)"},{"link_name":"European Social Democratic Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Social_Democratic_Party"},{"link_name":"Liberal Democratic Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Democratic_Party_of_Moldova"},{"link_name":"European People's Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_People%27s_Party_of_Moldova"},{"link_name":"Pro Moldova","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pro_Moldova"},{"link_name":"People's Party of the Republic of Moldova","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Party_of_the_Republic_of_Moldova"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montenegro"},{"link_name":"Europe Now!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe_Now!"},{"link_name":"Democratic Party of Socialists of Montenegro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_Socialists_of_Montenegro"},{"link_name":"Social Democratic Party of Montenegro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Montenegro"},{"link_name":"DEMOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DEMOS_(Montenegro)"},{"link_name":"United Reform Action","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Reform_Action"},{"link_name":"Democratic Montenegro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Montenegro"},{"link_name":"Socialist People's Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_People%27s_Party_of_Montenegro"},{"link_name":"Liberal Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Party_of_Montenegro"},{"link_name":"Social Democrats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Democrats_of_Montenegro"},{"link_name":"Bosniak Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosniak_Party"},{"link_name":"Civis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civis_(Montenegro)"},{"link_name":"We won't give up Montenegro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ne_damo_Crnu_Goru"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Macedonia"},{"link_name":"Social Democratic Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Democratic_Union_of_Macedonia"},{"link_name":"BESA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Besa_Movement"},{"link_name":"New Social Democratic Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Social_Democratic_Party"},{"link_name":"Democratic Union for Integration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Union_for_Integration"},{"link_name":"Alliance for Albanians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alliance_for_Albanians"},{"link_name":"Liberal Democratic Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Democratic_Party_(North_Macedonia)"},{"link_name":"VMRO-NP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VMRO-NP"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norway"},{"link_name":"Conservative Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_Party_(Norway)"},{"link_name":"Labour Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_Party_(Norway)"},{"link_name":"Liberal Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Party_(Norway)"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia"},{"link_name":"Yabloko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yabloko"},{"link_name":"People's Freedom Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Freedom_Party_(Russia)"},{"link_name":"Green Alternative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Alternative_(Russia)"},{"link_name":"Russia of the Future","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia_of_the_Future"},{"link_name":"Democratic Party of Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_Russia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Marino"},{"link_name":"Civic 10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civic_10"},{"link_name":"Euro-Populars for San Marino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euro-Populars_for_San_Marino"},{"link_name":"Future Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_Republic"},{"link_name":"Party of Democrats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Party_of_Democrats"},{"link_name":"Party of Socialists and Democrats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Party_of_Socialists_and_Democrats"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Sammarineses for Freedom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sammarineses_for_Freedom"},{"link_name":"Socialist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_Party_(San_Marino)"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"Union for the Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_for_the_Republic_(San_Marino)"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbia"},{"link_name":"Democratic Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Party_(Serbia)"},{"link_name":"Social Democratic Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_(Serbia)"},{"link_name":"Liberal Democratic Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Democratic_Party_(Serbia)"},{"link_name":"Movement of Free Citizens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movement_of_Free_Citizens_(Serbia)"},{"link_name":"People's Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Party_(Serbia,_2017)"},{"link_name":"New Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Party_(Serbia)"},{"link_name":"Serbian Progressive Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbian_Progressive_Party"},{"link_name":"Social Democratic Party of Serbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Serbia"},{"link_name":"Party of Freedom and Justice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Party_of_Freedom_and_Justice"},{"link_name":"Together for Serbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Together_for_Serbia"},{"link_name":"Serbia 21","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbia_21"},{"link_name":"Civic Democratic Forum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civic_Democratic_Forum"},{"link_name":"Party of Modern Serbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Party_of_Modern_Serbia"},{"link_name":"Movement for Reversal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movement_for_Reversal"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland"},{"link_name":"Social Democratic Party of Switzerland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Switzerland"},{"link_name":"Green Party of Switzerland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Party_of_Switzerland"},{"link_name":"Green Liberal Party of Switzerland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Liberal_Party_of_Switzerland"},{"link_name":"Volt Switzerland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt_Europa#Switzerland"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey"},{"link_name":"Democracy and Progress Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy_and_Progress_Party"},{"link_name":"Democratic Left Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Left_Party_(Turkey)"},{"link_name":"Democrat Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democrat_Party_(Turkey,_current)"},{"link_name":"Future Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_Party_(Turkey)"},{"link_name":"Good Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_Party"},{"link_name":"Homeland Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeland_Party_(Turkey,_2021)"},{"link_name":"Liberal Democratic Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Democratic_Party_(Turkey)"},{"link_name":"Peoples' Democratic Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peoples%27_Democratic_Party_(Turkey)"},{"link_name":"Peoples' Equality and Democracy Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peoples%27_Equality_and_Democracy_Party"},{"link_name":"Republican People's Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republican_People%27s_Party"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukraine"},{"link_name":"Servant of the People","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Servant_of_the_People_(political_party)"},{"link_name":"Fatherland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All-Ukrainian_Union_%22Fatherland%22"},{"link_name":"European Solidarity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Solidarity"},{"link_name":"Voice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_(Ukrainian_political_party)"},{"link_name":"Self Reliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self_Reliance_(political_party)"},{"link_name":"Ukrainian People's Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainian_People%27s_Party"},{"link_name":"Our Ukraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Our_Ukraine_(political_party)"},{"link_name":"European Party of Ukraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Party_of_Ukraine"},{"link_name":"People's Front","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Front_(Ukraine)"},{"link_name":"Ukrainian Democratic Alliance for Reform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainian_Democratic_Alliance_for_Reform"},{"link_name":"Volt Ukraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt_Ukraine"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Liberal Democrats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Democrats_(UK)"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"Green Party of England and Wales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Party_of_England_and_Wales"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"Scottish National Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_National_Party"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"Social Democratic and Labour Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Democratic_and_Labour_Party"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"Scottish Greens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Greens"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"Women's Equality Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%27s_Equality_Party"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"Alliance Party of Northern Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alliance_Party_of_Northern_Ireland"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"Green Party Northern Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Party_Northern_Ireland"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"Mebyon Kernow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mebyon_Kernow"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"Alliance EPP: European People's Party UK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alliance_EPP:_European_People%27s_Party_UK"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"Volt UK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt_UK"},{"link_name":"Animal Welfare Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_Welfare_Party"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"}],"sub_title":"Outside the EU","text":"Albania: Democratic Party of Albania, Socialist Party of Albania, Freedom Party of Albania, Libra Party, Social Democratic Party of Albania, Republican Party of Albania, Unity for Human Rights Party, Alliance for Equality and European Justice, Volt Albania\n Armenia: Armenian Democratic Liberal Party, Armenian National Movement Party, Bright Armenia, Christian-Democratic Rebirth Party, Civil Contract, Conservative Party, European Party of Armenia, For The Republic Party, Free Democrats, Heritage, Liberal Democratic Union of Armenia, National Progress Party of Armenia, People's Party of Armenia, Union for National Self-Determination, Republic Party, Rule of Law, Sasna Tsrer Pan-Armenian Party, Social Democrat Hunchakian Party, Sovereign Armenia Party\n Belarus: Belarusian Christian Democracy, BPF Party, United Democratic Forces of Belarus, Party of Freedom and Progress, United Civic Party of Belarus, Belarusian Social Democratic Party (Assembly), Belarusian Social Democratic Assembly\n Bosnia and Herzegovina: Party of Democratic Action, Croatian Democratic Union of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Social Democratic Party of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Democratic Front, People and Justice, Party of Democratic Progress, Our Party, People's European Union, For New Generations, Union for a Better Future, Independent Bloc\n Georgia: Georgian Dream, United National Movement, For Georgia, Lelo, European Georgia, Girchi - More Freedom, Girchi, Strategy Aghmashenebeli, Republican Party of Georgia, Georgian Labour Party, For the People, European Socialists, Free Democrats, Solidarity Alliance of Georgia\n Iceland: Social Democratic Alliance, Reform Party\n Kosovo: Alliance for the Future of Kosovo,[39] Democratic League of Kosovo, Partia e Fortë\n Moldova: Party of Action and Solidarity, National Alternative Movement, Liberal Party, European Social Democratic Party, Liberal Democratic Party, European People's Party, Pro Moldova, People's Party of the Republic of Moldova\n Montenegro: Europe Now!, Democratic Party of Socialists of Montenegro, Social Democratic Party of Montenegro, DEMOS, United Reform Action, Democratic Montenegro, Socialist People's Party, Liberal Party, Social Democrats, Bosniak Party, Civis, We won't give up Montenegro\n North Macedonia: Social Democratic Union, BESA, New Social Democratic Party, Democratic Union for Integration, Alliance for Albanians, Liberal Democratic Party, VMRO-NP\n Norway: Conservative Party, Labour Party (factions), Liberal Party[40]\n Russia: Yabloko, People's Freedom Party, Green Alternative, Russia of the Future, Democratic Party of Russia\n San Marino: Civic 10, Euro-Populars for San Marino, Future Republic, Party of Democrats, Party of Socialists and Democrats,[41] Sammarineses for Freedom, Socialist Party,[42] Union for the Republic[43]\n Serbia: Democratic Party, Social Democratic Party, Liberal Democratic Party, Movement of Free Citizens, People's Party, New Party, Serbian Progressive Party, Social Democratic Party of Serbia, Party of Freedom and Justice, Together for Serbia, Serbia 21, Civic Democratic Forum, Party of Modern Serbia, Movement for Reversal\n Switzerland: Social Democratic Party of Switzerland (factions), Green Party of Switzerland (factions), Green Liberal Party of Switzerland, Volt Switzerland\n Turkey: Democracy and Progress Party, Democratic Left Party, Democrat Party, Future Party, Good Party, Homeland Party, Liberal Democratic Party, Peoples' Democratic Party, Peoples' Equality and Democracy Party, Republican People's Party\n Ukraine: Servant of the People, Fatherland, European Solidarity, Voice, Self Reliance, Ukrainian People's Party, Our Ukraine, European Party of Ukraine, People's Front, Ukrainian Democratic Alliance for Reform, Volt Ukraine\n United Kingdom: Liberal Democrats,[44][45] Green Party of England and Wales,[46] Scottish National Party (SNP),[47] Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP),[48] Scottish Greens,[49] Women's Equality Party,[50] Alliance Party of Northern Ireland,[51] Green Party Northern Ireland,[52] Mebyon Kernow,[53] Alliance EPP: European People's Party UK,[54] Volt UK, Animal Welfare Party[55]","title":"Pro-EU political parties"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark"},{"link_name":"Dagbladet Børsen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dagbladet_B%C3%B8rsen"},{"link_name":"Politiken","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politiken"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"},{"link_name":"Le Figaro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Figaro"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Euroscepticism1-56"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"Le Monde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Monde"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"Le Parisien","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Parisien"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankfurter_Allgemeine_Zeitung"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Euroscepticism2-59"},{"link_name":"Der Spiegel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der_Spiegel"},{"link_name":"Süddeutsche Zeitung","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BCddeutsche_Zeitung"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Euroscepticism2-59"},{"link_name":"Der Tagesspiegel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der_Tagesspiegel"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungary"},{"link_name":"Blikk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blikk"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland"},{"link_name":"The Irish Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Irish_Times"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"Chunichi Shimbun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chunichi_Shimbun"},{"link_name":"Mainichi Shimbun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainichi_Shimbun"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Korea"},{"link_name":"The Hankyoreh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hankyoreh"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-%ED%95%9C%EA%B2%A8%EB%A0%88-61"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain"},{"link_name":"El Confidencial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Confidencial"},{"link_name":"El País","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Pa%C3%ADs"},{"link_name":"El Mundo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Mundo_(Spain)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Financial Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Times"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"The Independent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Independent"},{"link_name":"The New European","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_European"},{"link_name":"The Guardian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian"}],"text":"Note: Media outside of Europe may also be included.Denmark: Dagbladet Børsen, Politiken\n France: Le Figaro,[56][57] Le Monde,[58] Le Parisien\n Germany: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung,[59] Der Spiegel, Süddeutsche Zeitung,[59] Der Tagesspiegel\n Hungary: Blikk\n Ireland: The Irish Times[60]\n Japan: Chunichi Shimbun, Mainichi Shimbun\n South Korea: The Hankyoreh[61]\n Spain: El Confidencial, El País, El Mundo\n United Kingdom: Financial Times,[62] The Independent, The New European, The Guardian","title":"Pro-EU newspapers and magazines"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Council of Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Europe"},{"link_name":"Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe"},{"link_name":"Paneuropean Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paneuropean_Union"}],"text":"Council of Europe: an international organisation whose stated aim is to uphold human rights, democracy, rule of law in Europe and to promote European culture. It has 46 member states.\nOrganization for Security and Co-operation in Europe: the world's largest security-oriented intergovernmental organization, with 57 participating states mostly in Europe and the Northern Hemisphere.\nPaneuropean Union: the oldest European unification movement.","title":"Multinational European partnerships"}]
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[{"image_text":"Pro-European participants attending the Pulse of Europe rally in Cologne, Germany (2017)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/2017-04-02_Pulse_of_Europe_Cologne_-1597.jpg/230px-2017-04-02_Pulse_of_Europe_Cologne_-1597.jpg"},{"image_text":"Euratom since 1 January 2021","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Euratom.svg/200px-Euratom.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Eurozone since 2015","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Eurozone.svg/200px-Eurozone.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Schengen Area from January 2023","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Map_of_the_Schengen_Area.svg/200px-Map_of_the_Schengen_Area.svg.png"},{"image_text":"European Economic Area","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/EEA.svg/200px-EEA.svg.png"}]
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[{"title":"Eastern Partnership","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Partnership"},{"title":"Euromyth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euromyth"},{"title":"European Federalist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Federalist_Party"},{"title":"European Union as an emerging superpower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_as_an_emerging_superpower"},{"title":"Europeanism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europeanism"},{"title":"Euroscepticism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euroscepticism"},{"title":"Eurosphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurosphere"},{"title":"Eurovoc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurovoc"},{"title":"Euronest Parliamentary Assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euronest_Parliamentary_Assembly"},{"title":"Federal Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Europe"},{"title":"Federalisation of the European Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federalisation_of_the_European_Union"},{"title":"Liberalism in Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalism_in_Europe"},{"title":"List of European federalist political parties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_European_federalist_political_parties"},{"title":"Pan-European identity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-European_identity"},{"title":"Pan-Europeanism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Europeanism"},{"title":"Politics of Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Europe"},{"title":"Potential enlargement of the European Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_enlargement_of_the_European_Union"},{"title":"Pulse of Europe Initiative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulse_of_Europe_Initiative"},{"title":"United States of Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Federation"},{"title":"Volt Europa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt_Europa"},{"title":"WhyEurope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WhyEurope"},{"title":"Portals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals"},{"title":"European Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:European_Union"},{"title":"Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Europe"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg"},{"title":"Politics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Politics"}]
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[{"reference":"Almeida, Dimitri (27 April 2012). The Impact of European Integration on Political Parties. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203123621. ISBN 978-0-203-12362-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203123621","url_text":"The Impact of European Integration on Political Parties"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780203123621","url_text":"10.4324/9780203123621"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-12362-1","url_text":"978-0-203-12362-1"}]},{"reference":"\"Emmanuel Macron a Berlin pour se donner une stature européenne\". Le Monde. 10 January 2017. 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In France, the big newspapers remain pro-European, notwithstanding the large success in the polls of the anti-EU movement led by Marine Le Pen – though the main paper of the centre right, Le Figaro, is now more critical.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=jhGMDwAAQBAJ&dq=Pro-EU+Le+Figaro&pg=PA68","url_text":"Reporting the EU: News, Media and the European Institutions"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780857724595","url_text":"9780857724595"}]},{"reference":"Élisabeth Le, ed. (2021). Degrees of European Belonging: The fuzzy areas between us and them. John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 37. ISBN 9789027260192. In these circumstances, it is particularly interesting to investigate how the pro-European Le Monde constructs the concept of \"Europe\" (i.e. who belongs and who does not) ...","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=5BceEAAAQBAJ&dq=Pro-European+Le+Monde&pg=PA37","url_text":"Degrees of European Belonging: The fuzzy areas between us and them"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789027260192","url_text":"9789027260192"}]},{"reference":"Manuela Caiani, Simona Guerra, ed. (2014). Euroscepticism, Democracy and the Media: Communicating Europe, Contesting Europe. Springer. p. 206.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Oireachtas, Houses of the (22 June 2016). \"EU-UK Relations: Statements – Seanad Éireann (25th Seanad) – Wednesday, 22 Jun 2016 – Houses of the Oireachtas\". www.oireachtas.ie.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.oireachtas.ie/en/debates/debate/seanad/2016-06-22/10","url_text":"\"EU-UK Relations: Statements – Seanad Éireann (25th Seanad) – Wednesday, 22 Jun 2016 – Houses of the Oireachtas\""}]},{"reference":"\"[사설] 유럽을 위기로 몰아넣는 영국의 선택\" [[editorial] Britain's choice drove Europe into crisis.] (in Korean). The Hankyoreh. 24 June 2016. Retrieved 26 December 2021. 결국 영국은 편협한 안목으로 탈퇴를 선택함으로써 자국을 고립의 길로 이끌고 전 세계에 걱정거리를 안기고 말았다. [Eventually, Britain chose to go out with a narrow perspective, leading its country to isolation and causing only inconvenience to the world.]","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hani.co.kr/arti/opinion/editorial/749604.html","url_text":"\"[사설] 유럽을 위기로 몰아넣는 영국의 선택\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hankyoreh","url_text":"The Hankyoreh"}]},{"reference":"Peter J. Anderson, Tony Weymouth, ed. (2014). Insulting the Public?: The British Press and the European Union. Routledge. p. 103. ISBN 9781317882831. The Financial Times Having looked at two of the leading pro-European broadsheets, it is time to examine the discourse of the third, and in many ways the most pro-European, that of the Financial Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Ck2gBAAAQBAJ&dq=Pro-European+Financial+Times&pg=PA103","url_text":"Insulting the Public?: The British Press and the European Union"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge","url_text":"Routledge"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317882831","url_text":"9781317882831"}]}]
|
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are\""},{"Link":"https://europeangreens.eu/news/european-green-party-joins-pro-europe-network%E2%80%99s-ranks","external_links_name":"\"European Green Party Joins Pro-Europe Network's Ranks\""},{"Link":"https://www.volteuropa.org/about","external_links_name":"\"Volt Europa – About us\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170706215744/http://www.demsoc.org/2014/02/03/austrian-peoples-party-ovp/","external_links_name":"\"Austrian People's Party (ÖVP)\""},{"Link":"http://www.demsoc.org/2014/02/03/austrian-peoples-party-ovp/","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=NKQB3czNk1oC&pg=PA203","external_links_name":"Social Democracy and Monetary Union"},{"Link":"https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-eu-27572494","external_links_name":"\"Austria's Freedom Party sees vote rise\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=EJyo2IcMf50C&q=Pro-EU+UDF+Bulgaria&pg=PA56","external_links_name":"The JCMS Annual Review of the European Union in 2008"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=1CAvWTseDDkC&q=Pro-EU+Union+of+Democratic+Forces+%28Bulgaria%29&pg=PA147","external_links_name":"Postcommunism and the Theory of Democracy"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=7stgCgAAQBAJ&q=Pro-EU+bulgarian+party&pg=PA639","external_links_name":"Routledge Handbook of European Elections"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20181218102159/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2017/04/25/bulgarias-government-will-include-nationalist-parties-on-the-far-right-heres-why-and-what-this-means/?noredirect=on","external_links_name":"\"Bulgaria's government will include far-right nationalist parties for the first time – The Washington Post\""},{"Link":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2017/04/25/bulgarias-government-will-include-nationalist-parties-on-the-far-right-heres-why-and-what-this-means/?noredirect=on","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.reuters.com/article/us-bulgaria-election-socialists/socialists-say-bulgaria-pays-high-price-for-eus-russia-sanctions-idUSKBN16O1AA?il=0","external_links_name":"\"Socialists say Bulgaria pays high price for EU's Russia sanctions\""},{"Link":"https://bnr.bg/post/101347014","external_links_name":"\"Цветан Цветанов оглави \"Републиканци за България\", заместник е Павел Вълнев\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171215044038/http://www.hdz.hr/sites/default/files/statut_hrvatske_demokratske_zajednice_0.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Statut\""},{"Link":"http://hdz.hr/sites/default/files/statut_hrvatske_demokratske_zajednice_0.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.top09.cz/proc-nas-volit/volebni-program/volebni-program-2017/","external_links_name":"\"VOLEBNÍ PROGRAM 2017\""},{"Link":"http://www.kdu.cz/aktualne/archiv/2015/evropa-je-prostorem-spolecnych-hodnot","external_links_name":"\"Evropa je prostorem společných hodnot\""},{"Link":"https://www.novinky.cz/domaci/451459-predseda-piratu-bartos-nejsme-vitaci-migrantu-a-jit-do-vlady-se-nebojime.html","external_links_name":"Předseda Pirátů Bartoš: Nejsme vítači migrantů a jít do vlády se nebojíme"},{"Link":"https://www.cssd.cz/aktualne/aktuality/cesko-by-bez-pomoci-eu-mohlo-byt-popelnici-evropy-mini-chmelar/","external_links_name":"\"Česko by bez pomoci EU mohlo být popelnicí Evropy, míní Chmelař\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171002022230/https://www.zeleni.cz/web/zeleni-evropa-musi-zahajit-jednani-o-sve-federalizaci/","external_links_name":"\"Zelení: Evropa musí zahájit jednání o své federalizaci – Strana zelených\""},{"Link":"https://www.zeleni.cz/web/zeleni-evropa-musi-zahajit-jednani-o-sve-federalizaci/","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=DqyYBgAAQBAJ&q=Pro-EU+Danish+Social+Liberal+Party&pg=PA286","external_links_name":"The Palgrave Handbook of National Parliaments and the European Union"},{"Link":"http://www.socialdemokratiet.dk/da/politik/eu/","external_links_name":"\"EU\""},{"Link":"http://www.venstre.dk/politik/principprogram/europaeisk-samarbejde","external_links_name":"\"Europæisk Samarbejde\""},{"Link":"http://konservative.dk/politik/alle-emner/eu-politik/","external_links_name":"\"EU-Politik – Det Konservative Folkeparti\""},{"Link":"http://www.sotsid.ee/erakond/programm-2015-aasta-riigikogu-valimistel/","external_links_name":"\"Riigikogu 2015 programm\""},{"Link":"https://www.deutschlandfunkkultur.de/sonneborn-in-der-volksbuehne-eu-aufklaerung-im-satire.1013.de.html?dram%3Aarticle_id=447097","external_links_name":"\"EU-Aufklärung im Satire-Kostüm\""},{"Link":"http://www.naszpps.ppspl.eu/index.php/dokumenty-statutowe/8-deklaracja-ideowa-pps","external_links_name":"\"PPS – Deklaracja ideowa PPS\""},{"Link":"https://europeelects.eu/european-union/romania/","external_links_name":"\"Romania – Europe Elects\""},{"Link":"http://www.socialnidemokrati.si/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Manifest.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Program Socialne demokracije\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171009042222/http://english.nsi.si/about/","external_links_name":"\"About\""},{"Link":"http://english.nsi.si/about/","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.sls.si/o-stranki/o-stranki/","external_links_name":"\"Temeljna načela SLS\""},{"Link":"http://www.ansamed.info/ansamed/en/news/sections/politics/2014/05/08/kosovo-early-elections-to-be-held-june-8_6f29de92-6c37-4258-ad82-9b08d9c856f7.html","external_links_name":"\"Kosovo: early elections to be held June 8 - Politics\""},{"Link":"https://www.nrk.no/norge/venstre-gar-inn-for-at-norge-skal-bli-medlem-i-eu-1.15177141","external_links_name":"\"Venstre går inn for at Norge skal bli medlem i EU\""},{"Link":"https://www.sanmarinortv.sm/news/politica-c2/congresso-psd-si-cerca-mediazione-nome-rappresenti-diverse-anime-a9559","external_links_name":"\"Congresso Psd: si cerca la mediazione su un nome che rappresenti le diverse anime\""},{"Link":"https://www.sanmarinortv.sm/news/politica-c2/referendum-europa-ps-si-a9613","external_links_name":"\"Referendum Europa: il Ps è per il sì\""},{"Link":"https://www.sanmarinortv.sm/news/politica-c2/referendum-ue-si-convinto-dall-upr-a9632","external_links_name":"\"Referendum Ue: sì convinto dall'Upr\""},{"Link":"https://www.libdems.org.uk/europe","external_links_name":"\"Protect Britain's place in Europe\""},{"Link":"https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/brexit-eu-referendum-result-lib-dems-remain-liberal-democrats-live-policy-stay-leave-a7103186.html","external_links_name":"\"Liberal Democrats pledge to keep Britain in the EU after next election\""},{"Link":"https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/mar/14/green-party-loud-proud-backing-britain-europe-brexit-lucas","external_links_name":"\"Green party 'loud and proud' about backing Britain in Europe\""},{"Link":"https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/mar/03/pro-eu-vote-would-harm-scottish-independence-ex-snp-deputy-jim-sillars","external_links_name":"\"Scotland to campaign officially to remain in the EU\""},{"Link":"http://sdlp.ie/news/2016/mcdonnell-brexit-address/","external_links_name":"\"McDonnell Brexit Address\""},{"Link":"https://greens.scot/blog/now-is-the-time-to-fight-to-stay-in-europe-and-to-reform-it-from-the-left-not-the-right-as","external_links_name":"\"Now is the time to fight to stay in Europe ... and to reform it from the left, not the right as Cameron plans\""},{"Link":"https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/jul/26/brexit-womens-equality-party-eu","external_links_name":"\"Overconfident men brought us Brexit. It's not too late for women to fix it\""},{"Link":"http://www.irishnews.com/news/2016/02/22/news/eu-referendum-where-northern-ireland-parties-stand-425039/","external_links_name":"\"EU referendum: Where Northern Ireland parties stand\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180827055650/http://www.greenpartyni.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/GPNI-Manifesto-2017.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Green Party Manifesto (2017, Westminster)\""},{"Link":"http://www.greenpartyni.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/GPNI-Manifesto-2017.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.mebyonkernow.org/policies/policy.php?id=36","external_links_name":"\"A reformed Europe – Policies and Manifesto\""},{"Link":"http://www.4freedomsparty.eu/what-we-believe.html","external_links_name":"\"What we believe\""},{"Link":"https://www.animalwelfareparty.org/vision/","external_links_name":"\"Vision\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=jhGMDwAAQBAJ&dq=Pro-EU+Le+Figaro&pg=PA68","external_links_name":"Reporting the EU: News, Media and the European Institutions"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=5BceEAAAQBAJ&dq=Pro-European+Le+Monde&pg=PA37","external_links_name":"Degrees of European Belonging: The fuzzy areas between us and them"},{"Link":"https://www.oireachtas.ie/en/debates/debate/seanad/2016-06-22/10","external_links_name":"\"EU-UK Relations: Statements – Seanad Éireann (25th Seanad) – Wednesday, 22 Jun 2016 – Houses of the Oireachtas\""},{"Link":"https://www.hani.co.kr/arti/opinion/editorial/749604.html","external_links_name":"\"[사설] 유럽을 위기로 몰아넣는 영국의 선택\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Ck2gBAAAQBAJ&dq=Pro-European+Financial+Times&pg=PA103","external_links_name":"Insulting the Public?: The British Press and the European Union"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilcoxon_signed-rank_test
|
Wilcoxon signed-rank test
|
["1 History","2 Test procedure","3 Null and alternative hypotheses","3.1 One-sample test","3.2 Paired data test","4 Zeros and ties","4.1 Zeros","4.2 Ties","5 Computing the null distribution","6 Alternative statistics","7 Example","8 Effect size","9 Software implementations","10 See also","11 References","12 External links"]
|
Statistical hypothesis test
Not to be confused with Wilcoxon rank-sum test.
The Wilcoxon signed-rank test is a non-parametric rank test for statistical hypothesis testing used either to test the location of a population based on a sample of data, or to compare the locations of two populations using two matched samples. The one-sample version serves a purpose similar to that of the one-sample Student's t-test. For two matched samples, it is a paired difference test like the paired Student's t-test (also known as the "t-test for matched pairs" or "t-test for dependent samples"). The Wilcoxon test can be a good alternative to the t-test when population means are not of interest; for example, when one wishes to test whether a population's median is nonzero, or whether there is a better than 50% chance that a sample from one population is greater than a sample from another population.
History
The test is named after Frank Wilcoxon (1892–1965) who, in a single paper, proposed both it and the rank-sum test for two independent samples. The test was popularized by Sidney Siegel (1956) in his influential textbook on non-parametric statistics. Siegel used the symbol T for the test statistic, and consequently, the test is sometimes referred to as the Wilcoxon T-test.
Test procedure
There are two variants of the signed-rank test. From a theoretical point of view, the one-sample test is more fundamental because the paired sample test is performed by converting the data to the situation of the one-sample test. However, most practical applications of the signed-rank test arise from paired data.
For a paired sample test, the data consists of samples
(
X
1
,
Y
1
)
,
…
,
(
X
n
,
Y
n
)
{\displaystyle (X_{1},Y_{1}),\dots ,(X_{n},Y_{n})}
. Each sample is a pair of measurements. In the simplest case, the measurements are on an interval scale. Then they may be converted to real numbers, and the paired sample test is converted to a one-sample test by replacing each pair of numbers
(
X
i
,
Y
i
)
{\displaystyle (X_{i},Y_{i})}
by its difference
X
i
−
Y
i
{\displaystyle X_{i}-Y_{i}}
. In general, it must be possible to rank the differences between the pairs. This requires that the data be on an ordered metric scale, a type of scale that carries more information than an ordinal scale but may have less than an interval scale.
The data for a one-sample test is a set of real number samples
X
1
,
…
,
X
n
{\displaystyle X_{1},\dots ,X_{n}}
. Assume for simplicity that the samples have distinct absolute values and that no sample equals zero. (Zeros and ties introduce several complications; see below.) The test is performed as follows:
Compute
|
X
1
|
,
…
,
|
X
n
|
{\displaystyle |X_{1}|,\dots ,|X_{n}|}
.
Sort
|
X
1
|
,
…
,
|
X
n
|
{\displaystyle |X_{1}|,\dots ,|X_{n}|}
, and use this sorted list to assign ranks
R
1
,
…
,
R
n
{\displaystyle R_{1},\dots ,R_{n}}
: The rank of the smallest observation is one, the rank of the next smallest is two, and so on.
Let
sgn
{\displaystyle \operatorname {sgn} }
denote the sign function:
sgn
(
x
)
=
1
{\displaystyle \operatorname {sgn}(x)=1}
if
x
>
0
{\displaystyle x>0}
and
sgn
(
x
)
=
−
1
{\displaystyle \operatorname {sgn}(x)=-1}
if
x
<
0
{\displaystyle x<0}
. The test statistic is the signed-rank sum
T
{\displaystyle T}
:
T
=
∑
i
=
1
N
sgn
(
X
i
)
R
i
.
{\displaystyle T=\sum _{i=1}^{N}\operatorname {sgn}(X_{i})R_{i}.}
Produce a
p
{\displaystyle p}
-value by comparing
T
{\displaystyle T}
to its distribution under the null hypothesis.
The ranks are defined so that
R
i
{\displaystyle R_{i}}
is the number of
j
{\displaystyle j}
for which
|
X
j
|
≤
|
X
i
|
{\displaystyle |X_{j}|\leq |X_{i}|}
. Additionally, if
σ
:
{
1
,
…
,
n
}
→
{
1
,
…
,
n
}
{\displaystyle \sigma \colon \{1,\dots ,n\}\to \{1,\dots ,n\}}
is such that
|
X
σ
(
1
)
|
<
⋯
<
|
X
σ
(
n
)
|
{\displaystyle |X_{\sigma (1)}|<\dots <|X_{\sigma (n)}|}
, then
R
σ
(
i
)
=
i
{\displaystyle R_{\sigma (i)}=i}
for all
i
{\displaystyle i}
.
The signed-rank sum
T
{\displaystyle T}
is closely related to two other test statistics. The positive-rank sum
T
+
{\displaystyle T^{+}}
and the negative-rank sum
T
−
{\displaystyle T^{-}}
are defined by
T
+
=
∑
1
≤
i
≤
n
,
X
i
>
0
R
i
,
T
−
=
∑
1
≤
i
≤
n
,
X
i
<
0
R
i
.
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}T^{+}&=\sum _{1\leq i\leq n,\ X_{i}>0}R_{i},\\T^{-}&=\sum _{1\leq i\leq n,\ X_{i}<0}R_{i}.\end{aligned}}}
Because
T
+
+
T
−
{\displaystyle T^{+}+T^{-}}
equals the sum of all the ranks, which is
1
+
2
+
⋯
+
n
=
n
(
n
+
1
)
/
2
{\displaystyle 1+2+\dots +n=n(n+1)/2}
, these three statistics are related by:
T
+
=
n
(
n
+
1
)
2
−
T
−
=
n
(
n
+
1
)
4
+
T
2
,
T
−
=
n
(
n
+
1
)
2
−
T
+
=
n
(
n
+
1
)
4
−
T
2
,
T
=
T
+
−
T
−
=
2
T
+
−
n
(
n
+
1
)
2
=
n
(
n
+
1
)
2
−
2
T
−
.
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}T^{+}&={\frac {n(n+1)}{2}}-T^{-}={\frac {n(n+1)}{4}}+{\frac {T}{2}},\\T^{-}&={\frac {n(n+1)}{2}}-T^{+}={\frac {n(n+1)}{4}}-{\frac {T}{2}},\\T&=T^{+}-T^{-}=2T^{+}-{\frac {n(n+1)}{2}}={\frac {n(n+1)}{2}}-2T^{-}.\end{aligned}}}
Because
T
{\displaystyle T}
,
T
+
{\displaystyle T^{+}}
, and
T
−
{\displaystyle T^{-}}
carry the same information, any of them may be used as the test statistic.
The positive-rank sum and negative-rank sum have alternative interpretations that are useful for the theory behind the test. Define the Walsh average
W
i
j
{\displaystyle W_{ij}}
to be
1
2
(
X
i
+
X
j
)
{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}(X_{i}+X_{j})}
. Then:
T
+
=
#
{
W
i
j
>
0
:
1
≤
i
≤
j
≤
n
}
,
T
−
=
#
{
W
i
j
<
0
:
1
≤
i
≤
j
≤
n
}
.
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}T^{+}=\#\{W_{ij}>0\colon 1\leq i\leq j\leq n\},\\T^{-}=\#\{W_{ij}<0\colon 1\leq i\leq j\leq n\}.\end{aligned}}}
Null and alternative hypotheses
One-sample test
The one-sample Wilcoxon signed-rank test can be used to test whether data comes from a symmetric population with a specified median. If the population median is known, then it can be used to test whether data is symmetric about its center.
To explain the null and alternative hypotheses formally, assume that the data consists of independent and identically distributed samples from a distribution
F
{\displaystyle F}
. If
X
1
{\displaystyle X_{1}}
and
X
2
{\displaystyle X_{2}}
are IID
F
{\displaystyle F}
-distributed random variables, define
F
(
2
)
{\displaystyle F^{(2)}}
to be the cumulative distribution function of
1
2
(
X
1
+
X
2
)
{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}(X_{1}+X_{2})}
. Set
p
2
=
Pr
(
1
2
(
X
1
+
X
2
)
>
0
)
=
1
−
F
(
2
)
(
0
)
.
{\displaystyle p_{2}=\Pr({\tfrac {1}{2}}(X_{1}+X_{2})>0)=1-F^{(2)}(0).}
Assume that
F
{\displaystyle F}
is continuous. The one-sample Wilcoxon signed-rank sum test is a test for the following null hypothesis against one of the following alternative hypotheses:
Null hypothesis H0
p
2
=
1
2
{\displaystyle p_{2}={\tfrac {1}{2}}}
One-sided alternative hypothesis H1
p
2
>
1
2
{\displaystyle p_{2}>{\tfrac {1}{2}}}
.
One-sided alternative hypothesis H2
p
2
<
1
2
{\displaystyle p_{2}<{\tfrac {1}{2}}}
.
Two-sided alternative hypothesis H3
p
2
≠
1
2
{\displaystyle p_{2}\neq {\tfrac {1}{2}}}
.
The alternative hypothesis being tested depends on whether the test statistic is used to compute a one-sided or two-sided p-value (and if one-sided, which side). If
μ
{\displaystyle \mu }
is a fixed, predetermined quantity, then the test can also be used as a test for the value of
Pr
(
1
2
(
X
1
+
X
2
)
>
μ
)
{\displaystyle \Pr({\tfrac {1}{2}}(X_{1}+X_{2})>\mu )}
by subtracting
μ
{\displaystyle \mu }
from every data point.
The above null and alternative hypotheses are derived from the fact that
2
T
+
/
n
2
{\displaystyle 2T^{+}/n^{2}}
is a consistent estimator of
p
2
{\displaystyle p_{2}}
. It can also be derived from the description of
T
+
{\displaystyle T^{+}}
and
T
−
{\displaystyle T^{-}}
in terms of Walsh averages, since that description shows that the Wilcoxon test is the same as the sign test applied to the set of Walsh averages.
Restricting the distributions of interest can lead to more interpretable null and alternative hypotheses. One mildly restrictive assumption is that
F
(
2
)
{\displaystyle F^{(2)}}
has a unique median. This median is called the pseudomedian of
F
{\displaystyle F}
; in general it is different from the mean and the median, even when all three exist. If the existence of a unique pseudomedian can be assumed true under both the null and alternative hypotheses, then these hypotheses can be restated as:
Null hypothesis H0
The pseudomedian of
F
{\displaystyle F}
is located at zero.
One-sided alternative hypothesis H1
The pseudomedian of
F
{\displaystyle F}
is located at
μ
<
0
{\displaystyle \mu <0}
.
One-sided alternative hypothesis H2
The pseudomedian of
F
{\displaystyle F}
is located at
μ
>
0
{\displaystyle \mu >0}
.
Two-sided alternative hypothesis H3
The pseudomedian of
F
{\displaystyle F}
is located at
μ
≠
0
{\displaystyle \mu \neq 0}
.
Most often, the null and alternative hypotheses are stated under the assumption of symmetry. Fix a real number
μ
{\displaystyle \mu }
. Define
F
{\displaystyle F}
to be symmetric about
μ
{\displaystyle \mu }
if a random variable
X
{\displaystyle X}
with distribution
F
{\displaystyle F}
satisfies
Pr
(
X
≤
μ
−
x
)
=
Pr
(
X
≥
μ
+
x
)
{\displaystyle \Pr(X\leq \mu -x)=\Pr(X\geq \mu +x)}
for all
x
{\displaystyle x}
. If
F
{\displaystyle F}
has a density function
f
{\displaystyle f}
, then
F
{\displaystyle F}
is symmetric about
μ
{\displaystyle \mu }
if and only if
f
(
μ
+
x
)
=
f
(
μ
−
x
)
{\displaystyle f(\mu +x)=f(\mu -x)}
for every
x
{\displaystyle x}
.
If the null and alternative distributions of
F
{\displaystyle F}
can be assumed symmetric, then the null and alternative hypotheses simplify to the following:
Null hypothesis H0
F
{\displaystyle F}
is symmetric about
μ
=
0
{\displaystyle \mu =0}
.
One-sided alternative hypothesis H1
F
{\displaystyle F}
is symmetric about
μ
<
0
{\displaystyle \mu <0}
.
One-sided alternative hypothesis H2
F
{\displaystyle F}
is symmetric about
μ
>
0
{\displaystyle \mu >0}
.
Two-sided alternative hypothesis H3
F
{\displaystyle F}
is symmetric about
μ
≠
0
{\displaystyle \mu \neq 0}
.
If in addition
Pr
(
X
=
μ
)
=
0
{\displaystyle \Pr(X=\mu )=0}
, then
μ
{\displaystyle \mu }
is a median of
F
{\displaystyle F}
. If this median is unique, then the Wilcoxon signed-rank sum test becomes a test for the location of the median. When the mean of
F
{\displaystyle F}
is defined, then the mean is
μ
{\displaystyle \mu }
, and the test is also a test for the location of the mean.
The restriction that the alternative distribution is symmetric is highly restrictive, but for one-sided tests it can be weakened. Say that
F
{\displaystyle F}
is stochastically smaller than a distribution symmetric about zero if an
F
{\displaystyle F}
-distributed random variable
X
{\displaystyle X}
satisfies
Pr
(
X
<
−
x
)
≥
Pr
(
X
>
x
)
{\displaystyle \Pr(X<-x)\geq \Pr(X>x)}
for all
x
≥
0
{\displaystyle x\geq 0}
. Similarly,
F
{\displaystyle F}
is stochastically larger than a distribution symmetric about zero if
Pr
(
X
<
−
x
)
≤
Pr
(
X
>
x
)
{\displaystyle \Pr(X<-x)\leq \Pr(X>x)}
for all
x
≥
0
{\displaystyle x\geq 0}
. Then the Wilcoxon signed-rank sum test can also be used for the following null and alternative hypotheses:
Null hypothesis H0
F
{\displaystyle F}
is symmetric about
μ
=
0
{\displaystyle \mu =0}
.
One-sided alternative hypothesis H1
F
{\displaystyle F}
is stochastically smaller than a distribution symmetric about zero.
One-sided alternative hypothesis H2
F
{\displaystyle F}
is stochastically larger than a distribution symmetric about zero.
The hypothesis that the data are IID can be weakened. Each data point may be taken from a different distribution, as long as all the distributions are assumed to be continuous and symmetric about a common point
μ
0
{\displaystyle \mu _{0}}
. The data points are not required to be independent as long as the conditional distribution of each observation given the others is symmetric about
μ
0
{\displaystyle \mu _{0}}
.
Paired data test
Because the paired data test arises from taking paired differences, its null and alternative hypotheses can be derived from those of the one-sample test. In each case, they become assertions about the behavior of the differences
X
i
−
Y
i
{\displaystyle X_{i}-Y_{i}}
.
Let
F
(
x
,
y
)
{\displaystyle F(x,y)}
be the joint cumulative distribution of the pairs
(
X
i
,
Y
i
)
{\displaystyle (X_{i},Y_{i})}
. If
F
{\displaystyle F}
is continuous, then the most general null and alternative hypotheses are expressed in terms of
p
2
=
Pr
(
1
2
(
X
i
−
Y
i
+
X
j
−
Y
j
)
>
0
)
{\displaystyle p_{2}=\Pr({\tfrac {1}{2}}(X_{i}-Y_{i}+X_{j}-Y_{j})>0)}
and are identical to the one-sample case:
Null hypothesis H0
p
2
=
1
2
{\displaystyle p_{2}={\tfrac {1}{2}}}
One-sided alternative hypothesis H1
p
2
>
1
2
{\displaystyle p_{2}>{\tfrac {1}{2}}}
.
One-sided alternative hypothesis H2
p
2
<
1
2
{\displaystyle p_{2}<{\tfrac {1}{2}}}
.
Two-sided alternative hypothesis H3
p
2
≠
1
2
{\displaystyle p_{2}\neq {\tfrac {1}{2}}}
.
Like the one-sample case, under some restrictions the test can be interpreted as a test for whether the pseudomedian of the differences is located at zero.
A common restriction is to symmetric distributions of differences. In this case, the null and alternative hypotheses are:
Null hypothesis H0
The observations
X
i
−
Y
i
{\displaystyle X_{i}-Y_{i}}
are symmetric about
μ
=
0
{\displaystyle \mu =0}
.
One-sided alternative hypothesis H1
The observations
X
i
−
Y
i
{\displaystyle X_{i}-Y_{i}}
are symmetric about
μ
<
0
{\displaystyle \mu <0}
.
One-sided alternative hypothesis H2
The observations
X
i
−
Y
i
{\displaystyle X_{i}-Y_{i}}
are symmetric about
μ
>
0
{\displaystyle \mu >0}
.
Two-sided alternative hypothesis H3
The observations
X
i
−
Y
i
{\displaystyle X_{i}-Y_{i}}
are symmetric about
μ
≠
0
{\displaystyle \mu \neq 0}
.
These can also be expressed more directly in terms of the original pairs:
Null hypothesis H0
The observations
(
X
i
,
Y
i
)
{\displaystyle (X_{i},Y_{i})}
are exchangeable, meaning that
(
X
i
,
Y
i
)
{\displaystyle (X_{i},Y_{i})}
and
(
Y
i
,
X
i
)
{\displaystyle (Y_{i},X_{i})}
have the same distribution. Equivalently,
F
(
x
,
y
)
=
F
(
y
,
x
)
{\displaystyle F(x,y)=F(y,x)}
.
One-sided alternative hypothesis H1
For some
μ
<
0
{\displaystyle \mu <0}
, the pairs
(
X
i
,
Y
i
)
{\displaystyle (X_{i},Y_{i})}
and
(
Y
i
+
μ
,
X
i
−
μ
)
{\displaystyle (Y_{i}+\mu ,X_{i}-\mu )}
have the same distribution.
One-sided alternative hypothesis H2
For some
μ
>
0
{\displaystyle \mu >0}
, the pairs
(
X
i
,
Y
i
)
{\displaystyle (X_{i},Y_{i})}
and
(
Y
i
+
μ
,
X
i
−
μ
)
{\displaystyle (Y_{i}+\mu ,X_{i}-\mu )}
have the same distribution.
Two-sided alternative hypothesis H3
For some
μ
≠
0
{\displaystyle \mu \neq 0}
, the pairs
(
X
i
,
Y
i
)
{\displaystyle (X_{i},Y_{i})}
and
(
Y
i
+
μ
,
X
i
−
μ
)
{\displaystyle (Y_{i}+\mu ,X_{i}-\mu )}
have the same distribution.
The null hypothesis of exchangeability can arise from a matched pair experiment with a treatment group and a control group. Randomizing the treatment and control within each pair makes the observations exchangeable. For an exchangeable distribution,
X
i
−
Y
i
{\displaystyle X_{i}-Y_{i}}
has the same distribution as
Y
i
−
X
i
{\displaystyle Y_{i}-X_{i}}
, and therefore, under the null hypothesis, the distribution is symmetric about zero.
Because the one-sample test can be used as a one-sided test for stochastic dominance, the paired difference Wilcoxon test can be used to compare the following hypotheses:
Null hypothesis H0
The observations
(
X
i
,
Y
i
)
{\displaystyle (X_{i},Y_{i})}
are exchangeable.
One-sided alternative hypothesis H1
The differences
X
i
−
Y
i
{\displaystyle X_{i}-Y_{i}}
are stochastically smaller than a distribution symmetric about zero, that is, for every
x
≥
0
{\displaystyle x\geq 0}
,
P
r
(
X
i
<
Y
i
−
x
)
≥
Pr
(
X
i
>
Y
i
+
x
)
{\displaystyle Pr(X_{i}<Y_{i}-x)\geq \Pr(X_{i}>Y_{i}+x)}
.
One-sided alternative hypothesis H2
The differences
X
i
−
Y
i
{\displaystyle X_{i}-Y_{i}}
are stochastically larger than a distribution symmetric about zero, that is, for every
x
≥
0
{\displaystyle x\geq 0}
,
P
r
(
X
i
<
Y
i
−
x
)
≤
Pr
(
X
i
>
Y
i
+
x
)
{\displaystyle Pr(X_{i}<Y_{i}-x)\leq \Pr(X_{i}>Y_{i}+x)}
.
Zeros and ties
In real data, it sometimes happens that there is a sample
X
i
{\displaystyle X_{i}}
which equals zero or a pair
(
X
i
,
Y
i
)
{\displaystyle (X_{i},Y_{i})}
with
X
i
=
Y
i
{\displaystyle X_{i}=Y_{i}}
. It can also happen that there are tied samples. This means that for some
i
≠
j
{\displaystyle i\neq j}
, we have
X
i
=
X
j
{\displaystyle X_{i}=X_{j}}
(in the one-sample case) or
X
i
−
Y
i
=
X
j
−
Y
j
{\displaystyle X_{i}-Y_{i}=X_{j}-Y_{j}}
(in the paired sample case). This is particularly common for discrete data. When this happens, the test procedure defined above is usually undefined because there is no way to uniquely rank the data. (The sole exception is if there is a single sample
X
i
{\displaystyle X_{i}}
which is zero and no other zeros or ties.) Because of this, the test statistic needs to be modified.
Zeros
Wilcoxon's original paper did not address the question of observations (or, in the paired sample case, differences) that equal zero. However, in later surveys, he recommended removing zeros from the sample. Then the standard signed-rank test could be applied to the resulting data, as long as there were no ties. This is now called the reduced sample procedure.
Pratt observed that the reduced sample procedure can lead to paradoxical behavior. He gives the following example. Suppose that we are in the one-sample situation and have the following thirteen observations:
0, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 14, 15, 17, −18.
The reduced sample procedure removes the zero. To the remaining data, it assigns the signed ranks:
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, −12.
This has a one-sided p-value of
55
/
2
12
{\displaystyle 55/2^{12}}
, and therefore the sample is not significantly positive at any significance level
α
<
55
/
2
12
≈
0.0134
{\displaystyle \alpha <55/2^{12}\approx 0.0134}
. Pratt argues that one would expect that decreasing the observations should certainly not make the data appear more positive. However, if the zero observation is decreased by an amount less than 2, or if all observations are decreased by an amount less than 1, then the signed ranks become:
−1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, −13.
This has a one-sided p-value of
109
/
2
13
{\displaystyle 109/2^{13}}
. Therefore the sample would be judged significantly positive at any significance level
α
>
109
/
2
13
≈
0.0133
{\displaystyle \alpha >109/2^{13}\approx 0.0133}
. The paradox is that, if
α
{\displaystyle \alpha }
is between
109
/
2
13
{\displaystyle 109/2^{13}}
and
55
/
2
12
{\displaystyle 55/2^{12}}
, then decreasing an insignificant sample causes it to appear significantly positive.
Pratt therefore proposed the signed-rank zero procedure. This procedure includes the zeros when ranking the samples. However, it excludes them from the test statistic, or equivalently it defines
sgn
(
0
)
=
0
{\displaystyle \operatorname {sgn}(0)=0}
. Pratt proved that the signed-rank zero procedure has several desirable behaviors not shared by the reduced sample procedure:
Increasing the observed values does not make a significantly positive sample insignificant, and it does not make an insignificant sample significantly negative.
If the distribution of the observations is symmetric, then the values of
μ
{\displaystyle \mu }
which the test does not reject form an interval.
A sample is significantly positive, not significant, or significantly negative, if and only if it is so when the zeros are assigned arbitrary non-zero signs, if and only if it is so when the zeros are replaced with non-zero values which are smaller in absolute value than any non-zero observation.
For a fixed significance threshold
α
{\displaystyle \alpha }
, and for a test which is randomized to have level exactly
α
{\displaystyle \alpha }
, the probability of calling a set of observations significantly positive (respectively, significantly negative) is a non-decreasing (respectively, non-increasing) function of the observations.
Pratt remarks that, when the signed-rank zero procedure is combined with the average rank procedure for resolving ties, the resulting test is a consistent test against the alternative hypothesis that, for all
i
≠
j
{\displaystyle i\neq j}
,
Pr
(
X
i
+
X
j
>
0
)
{\displaystyle \Pr(X_{i}+X_{j}>0)}
and
Pr
(
X
i
+
X
j
<
0
)
{\displaystyle \Pr(X_{i}+X_{j}<0)}
differ by at least a fixed constant that is independent of
i
{\displaystyle i}
and
j
{\displaystyle j}
.
The signed-rank zero procedure has the disadvantage that, when zeros occur, the null distribution of the test statistic changes, so tables of p-values can no longer be used.
When the data is on a Likert scale with equally spaced categories, the signed-rank zero procedure is more likely to maintain the Type I error rate than the reduced sample procedure.
From the viewpoint of statistical efficiency, there is no perfect rule for handling zeros. Conover found examples of null and alternative hypotheses that show that neither Wilcoxon's and Pratt's methods are uniformly better than the other. When comparing a discrete uniform distribution to a distribution where probabilities linearly increase from left to right, Pratt's method outperforms Wilcoxon's. When testing a binomial distribution centered at zero to see whether the parameter of each Bernoulli trial is
1
2
{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}}
, Wilcoxon's method outperforms Pratt's.
Ties
When the data does not have ties, the ranks
R
i
{\displaystyle R_{i}}
are used to calculate the test statistic. In the presence of ties, the ranks are not defined. There are two main approaches to resolving this.
The most common procedure for handling ties, and the one originally recommended by Wilcoxon, is called the average rank or midrank procedure. This procedure assigns numbers between 1 and n to the observations, with two observations getting the same number if and only if they have the same absolute value. These numbers are conventionally called ranks even though the set of these numbers is not equal to
{
1
,
…
,
n
}
{\displaystyle \{1,\dots ,n\}}
(except when there are no ties). The rank assigned to an observation is the average of the possible ranks it would have if the ties were broken in all possible ways. Once the ranks are assigned, the test statistic is computed in the same way as usual.
For example, suppose that the observations satisfy
|
X
3
|
<
|
X
2
|
=
|
X
5
|
<
|
X
6
|
<
|
X
1
|
=
|
X
4
|
=
|
X
7
|
.
{\displaystyle |X_{3}|<|X_{2}|=|X_{5}|<|X_{6}|<|X_{1}|=|X_{4}|=|X_{7}|.}
In this case,
X
3
{\displaystyle X_{3}}
is assigned rank 1,
X
2
{\displaystyle X_{2}}
and
X
5
{\displaystyle X_{5}}
are assigned rank
(
2
+
3
)
/
2
=
2.5
{\displaystyle (2+3)/2=2.5}
,
X
6
{\displaystyle X_{6}}
is assigned rank 4, and
X
1
{\displaystyle X_{1}}
,
X
4
{\displaystyle X_{4}}
, and
X
7
{\displaystyle X_{7}}
are assigned rank
(
5
+
6
+
7
)
/
3
=
6
{\displaystyle (5+6+7)/3=6}
. Formally, suppose that there is a set of observations all having the same absolute value
v
{\displaystyle v}
, that
k
−
1
{\displaystyle k-1}
observations have absolute value less than
v
{\displaystyle v}
, and that
ℓ
{\displaystyle \ell }
observations have absolute value less than or equal to
v
{\displaystyle v}
. If the ties among the observations with absolute value
v
{\displaystyle v}
were broken, then these observations would occupy ranks
k
{\displaystyle k}
through
ℓ
{\displaystyle \ell }
. The average rank procedure therefore assigns them the rank
(
k
+
ℓ
)
/
2
{\displaystyle (k+\ell )/2}
.
Under the average rank procedure, the null distribution is different in the presence of ties. The average rank procedure also has some disadvantages that are similar to those of the reduced sample procedure for zeros. It is possible that a sample can be judged significantly positive by the average rank procedure; but increasing some of the values so as to break the ties, or breaking the ties in any way whatsoever, results in a sample that the test judges to be not significant. However, increasing all the observed values by the same amount cannot turn a significantly positive result into an insignificant one, nor an insignificant one into a significantly negative one. Furthermore, if the observations are distributed symmetrically, then the values of
μ
{\displaystyle \mu }
which the test does not reject form an interval.
The other common option for handling ties is a tiebreaking procedure. In a tiebreaking procedure, the observations are assigned distinct ranks in the set
{
1
,
…
,
n
}
{\displaystyle \{1,\dots ,n\}}
. The rank assigned to an observation depends on its absolute value and the tiebreaking rule. Observations with smaller absolute values are always given smaller ranks, just as in the standard rank-sum test. The tiebreaking rule is used to assign ranks to observations with the same absolute value. One advantage of tiebreaking rules is that they allow the use of standard tables for computing p-values.
Random tiebreaking breaks the ties at random. Under random tiebreaking, the null distribution is the same as when there are no ties, but the result of the test depends not only on the data but on additional random choices. Averaging the ranks over the possible random choices results in the average rank procedure. One could also report the probability of rejection over all random choices. Random tiebreaking has the advantage that the probability that a sample is judged significantly positive does not decrease when some observations are increased. Conservative tiebreaking breaks the ties in favor of the null hypothesis. When performing a one-sided test in which negative values of
T
{\displaystyle T}
tend to be more significant, ties are broken by assigning lower ranks to negative observations and higher ranks to positive ones. When the test makes positive values of
T
{\displaystyle T}
significant, ties are broken the other way, and when large absolute values of
T
{\displaystyle T}
are significant, ties are broken so as to make
|
T
|
{\displaystyle |T|}
as small as possible. Pratt observes that when ties are likely, the conservative tiebreaking procedure "presumably has low power, since it amounts to breaking all ties in favor of the null hypothesis."
The average rank procedure can disagree with tiebreaking procedures. Pratt gives the following example. Suppose that the observations are:
1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 3, −4.
The average rank procedure assigns these the signed ranks
2.5, 2.5, 2.5, 2.5, 5, 6, −7.
This sample is significantly positive at the one-sided level
α
=
14
/
2
7
{\displaystyle \alpha =14/2^{7}}
. On the other hand, any tiebreaking rule will assign the ranks
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, −7.
At the same one-sided level
α
=
14
/
2
7
{\displaystyle \alpha =14/2^{7}}
, this is not significant.
Two other options for handling ties are based around averaging the results of tiebreaking. In the average statistic method, the test statistic
T
{\displaystyle T}
is computed for every possible way of breaking ties, and the final statistic is the mean of the tie-broken statistics. In the average probability method, the p-value is computed for every possible way of breaking ties, and the final p-value is the mean of the tie-broken p-values.
Computing the null distribution
Computing p-values requires knowing the distribution of
T
{\displaystyle T}
under the null hypothesis. There is no closed formula for this distribution. However, for small values of
n
{\displaystyle n}
, the distribution may be computed exactly. Under the null hypothesis that the data is symmetric about zero, each
X
i
{\displaystyle X_{i}}
is exactly as likely to be positive as it is negative. Therefore the probability that
T
=
t
{\displaystyle T=t}
under the null hypothesis is equal to the number of sign combinations that yield
T
=
t
{\displaystyle T=t}
divided by the number of possible sign combinations
2
n
{\displaystyle 2^{n}}
. This can be used to compute the exact distribution of
T
{\displaystyle T}
under the null hypothesis.
Computing the distribution of
T
{\displaystyle T}
by considering all possibilities requires computing
2
n
{\displaystyle 2^{n}}
sums, which is intractable for all but the smallest
n
{\displaystyle n}
. However, there is an efficient recursion for the distribution of
T
+
{\displaystyle T^{+}}
. Define
u
n
(
t
+
)
{\displaystyle u_{n}(t^{+})}
to be the number of sign combinations for which
T
+
=
t
+
{\displaystyle T^{+}=t^{+}}
. This is equal to the number of subsets of
{
1
,
…
,
n
}
{\displaystyle \{1,\dots ,n\}}
which sum to
t
+
{\displaystyle t^{+}}
. The base cases of the recursion are
u
0
(
0
)
=
1
{\displaystyle u_{0}(0)=1}
,
u
0
(
t
+
)
=
0
{\displaystyle u_{0}(t^{+})=0}
for all
t
+
≠
0
{\displaystyle t^{+}\neq 0}
, and
u
n
(
t
+
)
=
0
{\displaystyle u_{n}(t^{+})=0}
for all
t
<
0
{\displaystyle t<0}
or
t
>
n
(
n
+
1
)
/
2
{\displaystyle t>n(n+1)/2}
. The recursive formula is
u
n
(
t
+
)
=
u
n
−
1
(
t
+
)
+
u
n
−
1
(
t
+
−
n
)
.
{\displaystyle u_{n}(t^{+})=u_{n-1}(t^{+})+u_{n-1}(t^{+}-n).}
The formula is true because every subset of
{
1
,
…
,
n
}
{\displaystyle \{1,\dots ,n\}}
which sums to
t
+
{\displaystyle t^{+}}
either does not contain
n
{\displaystyle n}
, in which case it is also a subset of
{
1
,
…
,
n
−
1
}
{\displaystyle \{1,\dots ,n-1\}}
, or it does contain
n
{\displaystyle n}
, in which case removing
n
{\displaystyle n}
from the subset produces a subset of
{
1
,
…
,
n
−
1
}
{\displaystyle \{1,\dots ,n-1\}}
which sums to
t
+
−
n
{\displaystyle t^{+}-n}
. Under the null hypothesis, the probability mass function of
T
+
{\displaystyle T^{+}}
satisfies
Pr
(
T
+
=
t
+
)
=
u
n
(
t
+
)
/
2
n
{\displaystyle \Pr(T^{+}=t^{+})=u_{n}(t^{+})/2^{n}}
. The function
u
n
{\displaystyle u_{n}}
is closely related to the integer partition function.
If
p
n
(
t
+
)
{\displaystyle p_{n}(t^{+})}
is the probability that
T
+
=
t
+
{\displaystyle T^{+}=t^{+}}
under the null hypothesis when there are
n
{\displaystyle n}
samples, then
p
n
(
t
+
)
{\displaystyle p_{n}(t^{+})}
satisfies a similar recursion:
2
p
n
(
t
+
)
=
p
n
−
1
(
t
+
)
+
p
n
−
1
(
t
+
−
n
)
{\displaystyle 2p_{n}(t^{+})=p_{n-1}(t^{+})+p_{n-1}(t^{+}-n)}
with similar boundary conditions. There is also a recursive formula for the cumulative distribution function
Pr
(
T
+
≤
t
+
)
{\displaystyle \Pr(T^{+}\leq t^{+})}
.
For very large
n
{\displaystyle n}
, even the above recursion is too slow. In this case, the null distribution can be approximated. The null distributions of
T
{\displaystyle T}
,
T
+
{\displaystyle T^{+}}
, and
T
−
{\displaystyle T^{-}}
are asymptotically normal with means and variances:
E
[
T
+
]
=
E
[
T
−
]
=
n
(
n
+
1
)
4
,
E
[
T
]
=
0
,
Var
(
T
+
)
=
Var
(
T
−
)
=
n
(
n
+
1
)
(
2
n
+
1
)
24
,
Var
(
T
)
=
n
(
n
+
1
)
(
2
n
+
1
)
6
.
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mathbf {E} &=\mathbf {E} ={\frac {n(n+1)}{4}},\\\mathbf {E} &=0,\\\operatorname {Var} (T^{+})&=\operatorname {Var} (T^{-})={\frac {n(n+1)(2n+1)}{24}},\\\operatorname {Var} (T)&={\frac {n(n+1)(2n+1)}{6}}.\end{aligned}}}
Better approximations can be produced using Edgeworth expansions. Using a fourth-order Edgeworth expansion shows that:
Pr
(
T
+
≤
k
)
≈
Φ
(
t
)
+
ϕ
(
t
)
(
3
n
2
+
3
n
−
1
10
n
(
n
+
1
)
(
2
n
+
1
)
)
(
t
3
−
3
t
)
,
{\displaystyle \Pr(T^{+}\leq k)\approx \Phi (t)+\phi (t){\Big (}{\frac {3n^{2}+3n-1}{10n(n+1)(2n+1)}}{\Big )}(t^{3}-3t),}
where
t
=
k
+
1
2
−
n
(
n
+
1
)
4
n
(
n
+
1
)
(
2
n
+
1
)
24
.
{\displaystyle t={\frac {k+{\tfrac {1}{2}}-{\frac {n(n+1)}{4}}}{\sqrt {\frac {n(n+1)(2n+1)}{24}}}}.}
The technical underpinnings of these expansions are rather involved, because conventional Edgeworth expansions apply to sums of IID continuous random variables, while
T
+
{\displaystyle T^{+}}
is a sum of non-identically distributed discrete random variables. The final result, however, is that the above expansion has an error of
O
(
n
−
3
/
2
)
{\displaystyle O(n^{-3/2})}
, just like a conventional fourth-order Edgeworth expansion.
The moment generating function of
T
{\displaystyle T}
has the exact formula:
M
(
t
)
=
1
2
n
∏
j
=
1
n
(
1
+
e
j
t
)
.
{\displaystyle M(t)={\frac {1}{2^{n}}}\prod _{j=1}^{n}(1+e^{jt}).}
When zeros are present and the signed-rank zero procedure is used, or when ties are present and the average rank procedure is used, the null distribution of
T
{\displaystyle T}
changes. Cureton derived a normal approximation for this situation. Suppose that the original number of observations was
n
{\displaystyle n}
and the number of zeros was
z
{\displaystyle z}
. The tie correction is
c
=
∑
t
3
−
t
,
{\displaystyle c=\sum t^{3}-t,}
where the sum is over all the sizes
t
{\displaystyle t}
of each group of tied observations. The expectation of
T
{\displaystyle T}
is still zero, while the expectation of
T
+
{\displaystyle T^{+}}
is
E
[
T
+
]
=
n
(
n
+
1
)
4
−
z
(
z
+
1
)
4
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {E} ={\frac {n(n+1)}{4}}-{\frac {z(z+1)}{4}}.}
If
σ
2
=
n
(
n
+
1
)
(
2
n
+
1
)
−
z
(
z
+
1
)
(
2
z
+
1
)
−
c
/
2
6
,
{\displaystyle \sigma ^{2}={\frac {n(n+1)(2n+1)-z(z+1)(2z+1)-c/2}{6}},}
then
Var
(
T
)
=
σ
2
,
Var
(
T
+
)
=
σ
2
/
4.
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\operatorname {Var} (T)&=\sigma ^{2},\\\operatorname {Var} (T^{+})&=\sigma ^{2}/4.\end{aligned}}}
Alternative statistics
Wilcoxon originally defined the Wilcoxon rank-sum statistic to be
min
(
T
+
,
T
−
)
{\displaystyle \min(T^{+},T^{-})}
. Early authors such as Siegel followed Wilcoxon. This is appropriate for two-sided hypothesis tests, but it cannot be used for one-sided tests.
Instead of assigning ranks between 1 and n, it is also possible to assign ranks between 0 and
n
−
1
{\displaystyle n-1}
. These are called modified ranks. The modified signed-rank sum
T
0
{\displaystyle T_{0}}
, the modified positive-rank sum
T
0
+
{\displaystyle T_{0}^{+}}
, and the modified negative-rank sum
T
0
−
{\displaystyle T_{0}^{-}}
are defined analogously to
T
{\displaystyle T}
,
T
+
{\displaystyle T^{+}}
, and
T
−
{\displaystyle T^{-}}
but with the modified ranks in place of the ordinary ranks. The probability that the sum of two independent
F
{\displaystyle F}
-distributed random variables is positive can be estimated as
2
T
0
+
/
(
n
(
n
−
1
)
)
{\displaystyle 2T_{0}^{+}/(n(n-1))}
. When consideration is restricted to continuous distributions, this is a minimum variance unbiased estimator of
p
2
{\displaystyle p_{2}}
.
Example
i
{\displaystyle i}
x
2
,
i
{\displaystyle x_{2,i}}
x
1
,
i
{\displaystyle x_{1,i}}
x
2
,
i
−
x
1
,
i
{\displaystyle x_{2,i}-x_{1,i}}
sgn
{\displaystyle \operatorname {sgn} }
abs
{\displaystyle {\text{abs}}}
1
125
110
1
15
2
115
122
–1
7
3
130
125
1
5
4
140
120
1
20
5
140
140
0
6
115
124
–1
9
7
140
123
1
17
8
125
137
–1
12
9
140
135
1
5
10
135
145
–1
10
order by absolute difference
i
{\displaystyle i}
x
2
,
i
{\displaystyle x_{2,i}}
x
1
,
i
{\displaystyle x_{1,i}}
x
2
,
i
−
x
1
,
i
{\displaystyle x_{2,i}-x_{1,i}}
sgn
{\displaystyle \operatorname {sgn} }
abs
{\displaystyle {\text{abs}}}
R
i
{\displaystyle R_{i}}
sgn
⋅
R
i
{\displaystyle \operatorname {sgn} \cdot R_{i}}
5
140
140
0
3
130
125
1
5
1.5
1.5
9
140
135
1
5
1.5
1.5
2
115
122
–1
7
3
–3
6
115
124
–1
9
4
–4
10
135
145
–1
10
5
–5
8
125
137
–1
12
6
–6
1
125
110
1
15
7
7
7
140
123
1
17
8
8
4
140
120
1
20
9
9
sgn
{\displaystyle \operatorname {sgn} }
is the sign function,
abs
{\displaystyle {\text{abs}}}
is the absolute value, and
R
i
{\displaystyle R_{i}}
is the rank. Notice that pairs 3 and 9 are tied in absolute value. They would be ranked 1 and 2, so each gets the average of those ranks, 1.5.
W
=
1.5
+
1.5
−
3
−
4
−
5
−
6
+
7
+
8
+
9
=
9
{\displaystyle W=1.5+1.5-3-4-5-6+7+8+9=9}
|
W
|
<
W
crit
(
α
=
0.05
,
9
, two-sided
)
=
15
{\displaystyle |W|<W_{\operatorname {crit} (\alpha =0.05,\ 9{\text{, two-sided}})}=15}
∴
failed to reject
H
0
{\displaystyle \therefore {\text{failed to reject }}H_{0}}
that the median of pairwise differences is different from zero.
The
p
{\displaystyle p}
-value for this result is
0.6113
{\displaystyle 0.6113}
Effect size
Main article: Mann–Whitney_U_test § Rank-biserial_correlation
To compute an effect size for the signed-rank test, one can use the rank-biserial correlation.
If the test statistic T is reported, the rank correlation r is equal to the test statistic T divided by the total rank sum S, or r = T/S.
Using the above example, the test statistic is T = 9. The sample size of 9 has a total rank sum of S = (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9) = 45. Hence, the rank correlation is 9/45, so r = 0.20.
If the test statistic T is reported, an equivalent way to compute the rank correlation is with the difference in proportion between the two rank sums, which is the Kerby (2014) simple difference formula. To continue with the current example, the sample size is 9, so the total rank sum is 45. T is the smaller of the two rank sums, so T is 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 = 18. From this information alone, the remaining rank sum can be computed, because it is the total sum S minus T, or in this case 45 − 18 = 27. Next, the two rank-sum proportions are 27/45 = 60% and 18/45 = 40%. Finally, the rank correlation is the difference between the two proportions (.60 minus .40), hence r = .20.
Software implementations
R includes an implementation of the test as wilcox.test(x,y, paired=TRUE), where x and y are vectors of equal length.
ALGLIB includes implementation of the Wilcoxon signed-rank test in C++, C#, Delphi, Visual Basic, etc.
GNU Octave implements various one-tailed and two-tailed versions of the test in the wilcoxon_test function.
SciPy includes an implementation of the Wilcoxon signed-rank test in Python.
Accord.NET includes an implementation of the Wilcoxon signed-rank test in C# for .NET applications.
MATLAB implements this test using "Wilcoxon rank sum test" as = signrank(x,y) also returns a logical value indicating the test decision. The result h = 1 indicates a rejection of the null hypothesis, and h = 0 indicates a failure to reject the null hypothesis at the 5% significance level.
Julia HypothesisTests package includes the Wilcoxon signed-rank test as "value(SignedRankTest(x, y))".
SAS PROC UNIVARIATE includes the Wilcoxon-Signed Rank Test in the frame titles "Tests for Location" as "Signed Rank". Even though this procedure calculates an S-Statistic rather than a W-Statistic, the resulting p-value can still be used for this test.
See also
Mann–Whitney–Wilcoxon test
Sign test
References
^ Conover, W. J. (1999). Practical nonparametric statistics (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 0-471-16068-7., p. 350
^ "Wilcoxon signed-rank test - Handbook of Biological Statistics". www.biostathandbook.com. Retrieved 2021-09-02.
^ Wilcoxon, Frank (Dec 1945). "Individual comparisons by ranking methods" (PDF). Biometrics Bulletin. 1 (6): 80–83. doi:10.2307/3001968. hdl:10338.dmlcz/135688. JSTOR 3001968.
^ Siegel, Sidney (1956). Non-parametric statistics for the behavioral sciences. New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 75–83. ISBN 9780070573482.
^ Conover, p. 352
^ Siegel, p. 76
^ Conover, p. 353
^ Pratt, John W.; Gibbons, Jean D. (1981). Concepts of Nonparametric Theory. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-1-4612-5933-6., p. 148
^ Pratt and Gibbons, p. 148
^ Pratt and Gibbons, p. 148
^ Pratt and Gibbons, p. 150
^ Conover, pp. 352–357
^ Hettmansperger, Thomas P. (1984). Statistical Inference Based on Ranks. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-88474-X., pp. 32, 50
^ Pratt and Gibbons, p. 153
^ Pratt and Gibbons, pp. 153–154
^ Hettmansperger, pp. 38–39
^ Pratt and Gibbons, pp. 146–147
^ Pratt and Gibbons, pp. 146–147
^ Hettmansperger, pp. 30–31
^ Conover, p. 353
^ Pratt and Gibbons, pp. 155–156
^ Hettmansperger, pp. 49–50
^ Pratt and Gibbons, p. 155
^ Conover, p. 354
^ Hollander, Myles; Wolfe, Douglas A.; Chicken, Eric (2014). Nonparametric Statistical Methods (Third ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 978-0-470-38737-5., pp. 39–41
^ Pratt and Gibbons, p. 147
^ Pratt and Gibbons, p. 147
^ Hettmansperger, pp. 49–50
^ Wilcoxon, Frank (1949). Some Rapid Approximate Statistical Procedures. American Cynamic Co.
^ Pratt, J. (1959). "Remarks on zeros and ties in the Wilcoxon signed rank procedures". Journal of the American Statistical Association. 54 (287): 655–667. doi:10.1080/01621459.1959.10501526.
^ Pratt, p. 659
^ Pratt, p. 663
^ Derrick, B; White, P (2017). "Comparing Two Samples from an Individual Likert Question". International Journal of Mathematics and Statistics. 18 (3): 1–13.
^ Conover, William Jay (1973). "On Methods of Handling Ties in the Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test". Journal of the American Statistical Association. 68 (344): 985–988. doi:10.1080/01621459.1973.10481460.
^ Pratt and Gibbons, p. 162
^ Conover, pp. 352–353
^ Pratt and Gibbons, p. 164
^ Conover, pp. 358–359
^ Pratt, p. 660
^ Pratt and Gibbons, pp. 168–169
^ Pratt, pp. 661–662
^ Pratt and Gibbons, p. 170
^ Pratt and Gibbons, pp. 163, 166
^ Pratt, p. 660
^ Pratt and Gibbons, p. 166
^ Pratt and Gibbons, p. 171
^ Pratt, p. 661
^ Pratt, p. 660
^ Gibbons, Jean D.; Chakraborti, Subhabrata (2011). Nonparametric Statistical Inference (Fifth ed.). Chapman & Hall/CRC. ISBN 978-1-4200-7762-9., p. 194
^ Hettmansperger, p. 34
^ Pratt and Gibbons, pp. 148–149
^ Pratt and Gibbons, pp. 148–149, pp. 186–187
^ Hettmansperger, p. 171
^ Pratt and Gibbons, p. 187
^ Pratt and Gibbons, p. 187
^ Pratt and Gibbons, p. 187
^ Pratt and Gibbons, p. 149
^ a b Kolassa, John E. (1995). "Edgeworth approximations for rank sum test statistics". Statistics and Probability Letters. 24 (2): 169–171. doi:10.1016/0167-7152(95)00164-H.
^ Hettmansperger, p. 37
^ Hettmansperger, p. 35
^ Cureton, Edward E. (1967). "The normal approximation to the signed-rank sampling distribution when zero differences are present". Journal of the American Statistical Association. 62 (319): 1068–1069. doi:10.1080/01621459.1967.10500917.
^ Pratt and Gibbons, p. 193
^ Wilcoxon, p. 82
^ Siegel, p. 76
^ Pratt and Gibbons, p. 158
^ Pratt and Gibbons, p. 159
^ Pratt and Gibbons, p. 191
^ a b Kerby, Dave S. (2014), "The simple difference formula: An approach to teaching nonparametric correlation.", Comprehensive Psychology, 3: 11.IT.3.1, doi:10.2466/11.IT.3.1
^ Dalgaard, Peter (2008). Introductory Statistics with R. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 99–100. ISBN 978-0-387-79053-4.
^ "Wilcox signed-rank test: SAS instruction". www.stat.purdue.edu. Retrieved 2023-08-24.
External links
Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test in R
Example of using the Wilcoxon signed-rank test
An online version of the test
A table of critical values for the Wilcoxon signed-rank test
Brief guide by experimental psychologist Karl L. Weunsch - Nonparametric effect size estimators (Copyright 2015 by Karl L. Weunsch)
Kerby, D. S. (2014). The simple difference formula: An approach to teaching nonparametric correlation. Comprehensive Psychology, volume 3, article 1. doi:10.2466/11.IT.3.1. link to article
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Wilcoxon rank-sum test","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilcoxon_rank-sum_test"},{"link_name":"non-parametric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-parametric_statistics"},{"link_name":"rank test","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rank_test"},{"link_name":"statistical hypothesis testing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_hypothesis_testing"},{"link_name":"location","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Location_parameter"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Conover-1"},{"link_name":"Student's t-test","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Student%27s_t-test"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"paired difference test","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paired_difference_test"}],"text":"Not to be confused with Wilcoxon rank-sum test.The Wilcoxon signed-rank test is a non-parametric rank test for statistical hypothesis testing used either to test the location of a population based on a sample of data, or to compare the locations of two populations using two matched samples.[1] The one-sample version serves a purpose similar to that of the one-sample Student's t-test.[2] For two matched samples, it is a paired difference test like the paired Student's t-test (also known as the \"t-test for matched pairs\" or \"t-test for dependent samples\"). The Wilcoxon test can be a good alternative to the t-test when population means are not of interest; for example, when one wishes to test whether a population's median is nonzero, or whether there is a better than 50% chance that a sample from one population is greater than a sample from another population.","title":"Wilcoxon signed-rank test"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Frank Wilcoxon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Wilcoxon"},{"link_name":"rank-sum test","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mann-Whitney-Wilcoxon_test"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wilcoxon-3"},{"link_name":"Sidney Siegel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidney_Siegel"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Siegel-4"}],"text":"The test is named after Frank Wilcoxon (1892–1965) who, in a single paper, proposed both it and the rank-sum test for two independent samples.[3] The test was popularized by Sidney Siegel (1956) in his influential textbook on non-parametric statistics.[4] Siegel used the symbol T for the test statistic, and consequently, the test is sometimes referred to as the Wilcoxon T-test.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"interval scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interval_scale"},{"link_name":"real numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_number"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"sign function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_function"},{"link_name":"test statistic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test_statistic"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"There are two variants of the signed-rank test. From a theoretical point of view, the one-sample test is more fundamental because the paired sample test is performed by converting the data to the situation of the one-sample test. However, most practical applications of the signed-rank test arise from paired data.For a paired sample test, the data consists of samples \n \n \n \n (\n \n X\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n \n Y\n \n 1\n \n \n )\n ,\n …\n ,\n (\n \n X\n \n n\n \n \n ,\n \n Y\n \n n\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (X_{1},Y_{1}),\\dots ,(X_{n},Y_{n})}\n \n. Each sample is a pair of measurements. In the simplest case, the measurements are on an interval scale. Then they may be converted to real numbers, and the paired sample test is converted to a one-sample test by replacing each pair of numbers \n \n \n \n (\n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n ,\n \n Y\n \n i\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (X_{i},Y_{i})}\n \n by its difference \n \n \n \n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n −\n \n Y\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle X_{i}-Y_{i}}\n \n.[5] In general, it must be possible to rank the differences between the pairs. This requires that the data be on an ordered metric scale, a type of scale that carries more information than an ordinal scale but may have less than an interval scale.[6]The data for a one-sample test is a set of real number samples \n \n \n \n \n X\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n …\n ,\n \n X\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle X_{1},\\dots ,X_{n}}\n \n. Assume for simplicity that the samples have distinct absolute values and that no sample equals zero. (Zeros and ties introduce several complications; see below.) The test is performed as follows:[7][8]Compute \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n X\n \n 1\n \n \n \n |\n \n ,\n …\n ,\n \n |\n \n \n X\n \n n\n \n \n \n |\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle |X_{1}|,\\dots ,|X_{n}|}\n \n.\nSort \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n X\n \n 1\n \n \n \n |\n \n ,\n …\n ,\n \n |\n \n \n X\n \n n\n \n \n \n |\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle |X_{1}|,\\dots ,|X_{n}|}\n \n, and use this sorted list to assign ranks \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n …\n ,\n \n R\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle R_{1},\\dots ,R_{n}}\n \n: The rank of the smallest observation is one, the rank of the next smallest is two, and so on.\nLet \n \n \n \n sgn\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {sgn} }\n \n denote the sign function: \n \n \n \n sgn\n \n (\n x\n )\n =\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {sgn}(x)=1}\n \n if \n \n \n \n x\n >\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x>0}\n \n and \n \n \n \n sgn\n \n (\n x\n )\n =\n −\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {sgn}(x)=-1}\n \n if \n \n \n \n x\n <\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x<0}\n \n. The test statistic is the signed-rank sum \n \n \n \n T\n \n \n {\\displaystyle T}\n \n: \n \n \n \n T\n =\n \n ∑\n \n i\n =\n 1\n \n \n N\n \n \n sgn\n \n (\n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n )\n \n R\n \n i\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle T=\\sum _{i=1}^{N}\\operatorname {sgn}(X_{i})R_{i}.}\n \n\nProduce a \n \n \n \n p\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p}\n \n-value by comparing \n \n \n \n T\n \n \n {\\displaystyle T}\n \n to its distribution under the null hypothesis.The ranks are defined so that \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle R_{i}}\n \n is the number of \n \n \n \n j\n \n \n {\\displaystyle j}\n \n for which \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n X\n \n j\n \n \n \n |\n \n ≤\n \n |\n \n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n \n |\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle |X_{j}|\\leq |X_{i}|}\n \n. Additionally, if \n \n \n \n σ\n :\n {\n 1\n ,\n …\n ,\n n\n }\n →\n {\n 1\n ,\n …\n ,\n n\n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma \\colon \\{1,\\dots ,n\\}\\to \\{1,\\dots ,n\\}}\n \n is such that \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n X\n \n σ\n (\n 1\n )\n \n \n \n |\n \n <\n ⋯\n <\n \n |\n \n \n X\n \n σ\n (\n n\n )\n \n \n \n |\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle |X_{\\sigma (1)}|<\\dots <|X_{\\sigma (n)}|}\n \n, then \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n σ\n (\n i\n )\n \n \n =\n i\n \n \n {\\displaystyle R_{\\sigma (i)}=i}\n \n for all \n \n \n \n i\n \n \n {\\displaystyle i}\n \n.The signed-rank sum \n \n \n \n T\n \n \n {\\displaystyle T}\n \n is closely related to two other test statistics. The positive-rank sum \n \n \n \n \n T\n \n +\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle T^{+}}\n \n and the negative-rank sum \n \n \n \n \n T\n \n −\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle T^{-}}\n \n are defined by[9]T\n \n +\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n ∑\n \n 1\n ≤\n i\n ≤\n n\n ,\n \n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n >\n 0\n \n \n \n R\n \n i\n \n \n ,\n \n \n \n \n \n T\n \n −\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n ∑\n \n 1\n ≤\n i\n ≤\n n\n ,\n \n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n <\n 0\n \n \n \n R\n \n i\n \n \n .\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}T^{+}&=\\sum _{1\\leq i\\leq n,\\ X_{i}>0}R_{i},\\\\T^{-}&=\\sum _{1\\leq i\\leq n,\\ X_{i}<0}R_{i}.\\end{aligned}}}T\n \n +\n \n \n +\n \n T\n \n −\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle T^{+}+T^{-}}1\n +\n 2\n +\n ⋯\n +\n n\n =\n n\n (\n n\n +\n 1\n )\n \n /\n \n 2\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 1+2+\\dots +n=n(n+1)/2}[10]T\n \n +\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n n\n (\n n\n +\n 1\n )\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n \n T\n \n −\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n n\n (\n n\n +\n 1\n )\n \n 4\n \n \n +\n \n \n T\n 2\n \n \n ,\n \n \n \n \n \n T\n \n −\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n n\n (\n n\n +\n 1\n )\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n \n T\n \n +\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n n\n (\n n\n +\n 1\n )\n \n 4\n \n \n −\n \n \n T\n 2\n \n \n ,\n \n \n \n \n T\n \n \n \n =\n \n T\n \n +\n \n \n −\n \n T\n \n −\n \n \n =\n 2\n \n T\n \n +\n \n \n −\n \n \n \n n\n (\n n\n +\n 1\n )\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n n\n (\n n\n +\n 1\n )\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n 2\n \n T\n \n −\n \n \n .\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}T^{+}&={\\frac {n(n+1)}{2}}-T^{-}={\\frac {n(n+1)}{4}}+{\\frac {T}{2}},\\\\T^{-}&={\\frac {n(n+1)}{2}}-T^{+}={\\frac {n(n+1)}{4}}-{\\frac {T}{2}},\\\\T&=T^{+}-T^{-}=2T^{+}-{\\frac {n(n+1)}{2}}={\\frac {n(n+1)}{2}}-2T^{-}.\\end{aligned}}}T\n \n \n {\\displaystyle T}T\n \n +\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle T^{+}}T\n \n −\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle T^{-}}The positive-rank sum and negative-rank sum have alternative interpretations that are useful for the theory behind the test. Define the Walsh average \n \n \n \n \n W\n \n i\n j\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle W_{ij}}\n \n to be \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n (\n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n +\n \n X\n \n j\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\tfrac {1}{2}}(X_{i}+X_{j})}\n \n. Then:[11]T\n \n +\n \n \n =\n #\n {\n \n W\n \n i\n j\n \n \n >\n 0\n :\n 1\n ≤\n i\n ≤\n j\n ≤\n n\n }\n ,\n \n \n \n \n \n T\n \n −\n \n \n =\n #\n {\n \n W\n \n i\n j\n \n \n <\n 0\n :\n 1\n ≤\n i\n ≤\n j\n ≤\n n\n }\n .\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}T^{+}=\\#\\{W_{ij}>0\\colon 1\\leq i\\leq j\\leq n\\},\\\\T^{-}=\\#\\{W_{ij}<0\\colon 1\\leq i\\leq j\\leq n\\}.\\end{aligned}}}","title":"Test procedure"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Null and alternative hypotheses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hettmansperger-13"},{"link_name":"independent and identically distributed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_and_identically_distributed_random_variables"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"pseudomedian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudomedian"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"sub_title":"One-sample test","text":"The one-sample Wilcoxon signed-rank test can be used to test whether data comes from a symmetric population with a specified median.[12] If the population median is known, then it can be used to test whether data is symmetric about its center.[13]To explain the null and alternative hypotheses formally, assume that the data consists of independent and identically distributed samples from a distribution \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F}\n \n. If \n \n \n \n \n X\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle X_{1}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n X\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle X_{2}}\n \n are IID \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F}\n \n-distributed random variables, define \n \n \n \n \n F\n \n (\n 2\n )\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle F^{(2)}}\n \n to be the cumulative distribution function of \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n (\n \n X\n \n 1\n \n \n +\n \n X\n \n 2\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\tfrac {1}{2}}(X_{1}+X_{2})}\n \n. Setp\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n Pr\n (\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n (\n \n X\n \n 1\n \n \n +\n \n X\n \n 2\n \n \n )\n >\n 0\n )\n =\n 1\n −\n \n F\n \n (\n 2\n )\n \n \n (\n 0\n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p_{2}=\\Pr({\\tfrac {1}{2}}(X_{1}+X_{2})>0)=1-F^{(2)}(0).}F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F}[14]Null hypothesis H0\n\n \n \n \n \n p\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle p_{2}={\\tfrac {1}{2}}}\n \n\nOne-sided alternative hypothesis H1\n\n \n \n \n \n p\n \n 2\n \n \n >\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle p_{2}>{\\tfrac {1}{2}}}\n \n.\nOne-sided alternative hypothesis H2\n\n \n \n \n \n p\n \n 2\n \n \n <\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle p_{2}<{\\tfrac {1}{2}}}\n \n.\nTwo-sided alternative hypothesis H3\n\n \n \n \n \n p\n \n 2\n \n \n ≠\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle p_{2}\\neq {\\tfrac {1}{2}}}\n \n.The alternative hypothesis being tested depends on whether the test statistic is used to compute a one-sided or two-sided p-value (and if one-sided, which side). If \n \n \n \n μ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mu }\n \n is a fixed, predetermined quantity, then the test can also be used as a test for the value of \n \n \n \n Pr\n (\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n (\n \n X\n \n 1\n \n \n +\n \n X\n \n 2\n \n \n )\n >\n μ\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Pr({\\tfrac {1}{2}}(X_{1}+X_{2})>\\mu )}\n \n by subtracting \n \n \n \n μ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mu }\n \n from every data point.The above null and alternative hypotheses are derived from the fact that \n \n \n \n 2\n \n T\n \n +\n \n \n \n /\n \n \n n\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2T^{+}/n^{2}}\n \n is a consistent estimator of \n \n \n \n \n p\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle p_{2}}\n \n.[15] It can also be derived from the description of \n \n \n \n \n T\n \n +\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle T^{+}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n T\n \n −\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle T^{-}}\n \n in terms of Walsh averages, since that description shows that the Wilcoxon test is the same as the sign test applied to the set of Walsh averages.[16]Restricting the distributions of interest can lead to more interpretable null and alternative hypotheses. One mildly restrictive assumption is that \n \n \n \n \n F\n \n (\n 2\n )\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle F^{(2)}}\n \n has a unique median. This median is called the pseudomedian of \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F}\n \n; in general it is different from the mean and the median, even when all three exist. If the existence of a unique pseudomedian can be assumed true under both the null and alternative hypotheses, then these hypotheses can be restated as:Null hypothesis H0\nThe pseudomedian of \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F}\n \n is located at zero.\nOne-sided alternative hypothesis H1\nThe pseudomedian of \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F}\n \n is located at \n \n \n \n μ\n <\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mu <0}\n \n.\nOne-sided alternative hypothesis H2\nThe pseudomedian of \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F}\n \n is located at \n \n \n \n μ\n >\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mu >0}\n \n.\nTwo-sided alternative hypothesis H3\nThe pseudomedian of \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F}\n \n is located at \n \n \n \n μ\n ≠\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mu \\neq 0}\n \n.Most often, the null and alternative hypotheses are stated under the assumption of symmetry. Fix a real number \n \n \n \n μ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mu }\n \n. Define \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F}\n \n to be symmetric about \n \n \n \n μ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mu }\n \n if a random variable \n \n \n \n X\n \n \n {\\displaystyle X}\n \n with distribution \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F}\n \n satisfies \n \n \n \n Pr\n (\n X\n ≤\n μ\n −\n x\n )\n =\n Pr\n (\n X\n ≥\n μ\n +\n x\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Pr(X\\leq \\mu -x)=\\Pr(X\\geq \\mu +x)}\n \n for all \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x}\n \n. If \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F}\n \n has a density function \n \n \n \n f\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f}\n \n, then \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F}\n \n is symmetric about \n \n \n \n μ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mu }\n \n if and only if \n \n \n \n f\n (\n μ\n +\n x\n )\n =\n f\n (\n μ\n −\n x\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(\\mu +x)=f(\\mu -x)}\n \n for every \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x}\n \n.[17]If the null and alternative distributions of \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F}\n \n can be assumed symmetric, then the null and alternative hypotheses simplify to the following:[18]Null hypothesis H0\n\n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F}\n \n is symmetric about \n \n \n \n μ\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mu =0}\n \n.\nOne-sided alternative hypothesis H1\n\n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F}\n \n is symmetric about \n \n \n \n μ\n <\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mu <0}\n \n.\nOne-sided alternative hypothesis H2\n\n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F}\n \n is symmetric about \n \n \n \n μ\n >\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mu >0}\n \n.\nTwo-sided alternative hypothesis H3\n\n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F}\n \n is symmetric about \n \n \n \n μ\n ≠\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mu \\neq 0}\n \n.If in addition \n \n \n \n Pr\n (\n X\n =\n μ\n )\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Pr(X=\\mu )=0}\n \n, then \n \n \n \n μ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mu }\n \n is a median of \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F}\n \n. If this median is unique, then the Wilcoxon signed-rank sum test becomes a test for the location of the median.[19] When the mean of \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F}\n \n is defined, then the mean is \n \n \n \n μ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mu }\n \n, and the test is also a test for the location of the mean.[20]The restriction that the alternative distribution is symmetric is highly restrictive, but for one-sided tests it can be weakened. Say that \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F}\n \n is stochastically smaller than a distribution symmetric about zero if an \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F}\n \n-distributed random variable \n \n \n \n X\n \n \n {\\displaystyle X}\n \n satisfies \n \n \n \n Pr\n (\n X\n <\n −\n x\n )\n ≥\n Pr\n (\n X\n >\n x\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Pr(X<-x)\\geq \\Pr(X>x)}\n \n for all \n \n \n \n x\n ≥\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x\\geq 0}\n \n. Similarly, \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F}\n \n is stochastically larger than a distribution symmetric about zero if \n \n \n \n Pr\n (\n X\n <\n −\n x\n )\n ≤\n Pr\n (\n X\n >\n x\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Pr(X<-x)\\leq \\Pr(X>x)}\n \n for all \n \n \n \n x\n ≥\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x\\geq 0}\n \n. Then the Wilcoxon signed-rank sum test can also be used for the following null and alternative hypotheses:[21][22]Null hypothesis H0\n\n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F}\n \n is symmetric about \n \n \n \n μ\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mu =0}\n \n.\nOne-sided alternative hypothesis H1\n\n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F}\n \n is stochastically smaller than a distribution symmetric about zero.\nOne-sided alternative hypothesis H2\n\n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F}\n \n is stochastically larger than a distribution symmetric about zero.The hypothesis that the data are IID can be weakened. Each data point may be taken from a different distribution, as long as all the distributions are assumed to be continuous and symmetric about a common point \n \n \n \n \n μ\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mu _{0}}\n \n. The data points are not required to be independent as long as the conditional distribution of each observation given the others is symmetric about \n \n \n \n \n μ\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mu _{0}}\n \n.[23]","title":"Null and alternative hypotheses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hollander-Wolfe-Chicken-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"sub_title":"Paired data test","text":"Because the paired data test arises from taking paired differences, its null and alternative hypotheses can be derived from those of the one-sample test. In each case, they become assertions about the behavior of the differences \n \n \n \n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n −\n \n Y\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle X_{i}-Y_{i}}\n \n.Let \n \n \n \n F\n (\n x\n ,\n y\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F(x,y)}\n \n be the joint cumulative distribution of the pairs \n \n \n \n (\n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n ,\n \n Y\n \n i\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (X_{i},Y_{i})}\n \n. If \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F}\n \n is continuous, then the most general null and alternative hypotheses are expressed in terms ofp\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n Pr\n (\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n (\n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n −\n \n Y\n \n i\n \n \n +\n \n X\n \n j\n \n \n −\n \n Y\n \n j\n \n \n )\n >\n 0\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p_{2}=\\Pr({\\tfrac {1}{2}}(X_{i}-Y_{i}+X_{j}-Y_{j})>0)}Null hypothesis H0\n\n \n \n \n \n p\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle p_{2}={\\tfrac {1}{2}}}\n \n\nOne-sided alternative hypothesis H1\n\n \n \n \n \n p\n \n 2\n \n \n >\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle p_{2}>{\\tfrac {1}{2}}}\n \n.\nOne-sided alternative hypothesis H2\n\n \n \n \n \n p\n \n 2\n \n \n <\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle p_{2}<{\\tfrac {1}{2}}}\n \n.\nTwo-sided alternative hypothesis H3\n\n \n \n \n \n p\n \n 2\n \n \n ≠\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle p_{2}\\neq {\\tfrac {1}{2}}}\n \n.Like the one-sample case, under some restrictions the test can be interpreted as a test for whether the pseudomedian of the differences is located at zero.A common restriction is to symmetric distributions of differences. In this case, the null and alternative hypotheses are:[24][25]Null hypothesis H0\nThe observations \n \n \n \n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n −\n \n Y\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle X_{i}-Y_{i}}\n \n are symmetric about \n \n \n \n μ\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mu =0}\n \n.\nOne-sided alternative hypothesis H1\nThe observations \n \n \n \n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n −\n \n Y\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle X_{i}-Y_{i}}\n \n are symmetric about \n \n \n \n μ\n <\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mu <0}\n \n.\nOne-sided alternative hypothesis H2\nThe observations \n \n \n \n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n −\n \n Y\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle X_{i}-Y_{i}}\n \n are symmetric about \n \n \n \n μ\n >\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mu >0}\n \n.\nTwo-sided alternative hypothesis H3\nThe observations \n \n \n \n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n −\n \n Y\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle X_{i}-Y_{i}}\n \n are symmetric about \n \n \n \n μ\n ≠\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mu \\neq 0}\n \n.These can also be expressed more directly in terms of the original pairs:[26]Null hypothesis H0\nThe observations \n \n \n \n (\n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n ,\n \n Y\n \n i\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (X_{i},Y_{i})}\n \n are exchangeable, meaning that \n \n \n \n (\n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n ,\n \n Y\n \n i\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (X_{i},Y_{i})}\n \n and \n \n \n \n (\n \n Y\n \n i\n \n \n ,\n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (Y_{i},X_{i})}\n \n have the same distribution. Equivalently, \n \n \n \n F\n (\n x\n ,\n y\n )\n =\n F\n (\n y\n ,\n x\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F(x,y)=F(y,x)}\n \n.\nOne-sided alternative hypothesis H1\nFor some \n \n \n \n μ\n <\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mu <0}\n \n, the pairs \n \n \n \n (\n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n ,\n \n Y\n \n i\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (X_{i},Y_{i})}\n \n and \n \n \n \n (\n \n Y\n \n i\n \n \n +\n μ\n ,\n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n −\n μ\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (Y_{i}+\\mu ,X_{i}-\\mu )}\n \n have the same distribution.\nOne-sided alternative hypothesis H2\nFor some \n \n \n \n μ\n >\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mu >0}\n \n, the pairs \n \n \n \n (\n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n ,\n \n Y\n \n i\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (X_{i},Y_{i})}\n \n and \n \n \n \n (\n \n Y\n \n i\n \n \n +\n μ\n ,\n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n −\n μ\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (Y_{i}+\\mu ,X_{i}-\\mu )}\n \n have the same distribution.\nTwo-sided alternative hypothesis H3\nFor some \n \n \n \n μ\n ≠\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mu \\neq 0}\n \n, the pairs \n \n \n \n (\n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n ,\n \n Y\n \n i\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (X_{i},Y_{i})}\n \n and \n \n \n \n (\n \n Y\n \n i\n \n \n +\n μ\n ,\n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n −\n μ\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (Y_{i}+\\mu ,X_{i}-\\mu )}\n \n have the same distribution.The null hypothesis of exchangeability can arise from a matched pair experiment with a treatment group and a control group. Randomizing the treatment and control within each pair makes the observations exchangeable. For an exchangeable distribution, \n \n \n \n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n −\n \n Y\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle X_{i}-Y_{i}}\n \n has the same distribution as \n \n \n \n \n Y\n \n i\n \n \n −\n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle Y_{i}-X_{i}}\n \n, and therefore, under the null hypothesis, the distribution is symmetric about zero.[27]Because the one-sample test can be used as a one-sided test for stochastic dominance, the paired difference Wilcoxon test can be used to compare the following hypotheses:[28]Null hypothesis H0\nThe observations \n \n \n \n (\n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n ,\n \n Y\n \n i\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (X_{i},Y_{i})}\n \n are exchangeable.\nOne-sided alternative hypothesis H1\nThe differences \n \n \n \n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n −\n \n Y\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle X_{i}-Y_{i}}\n \n are stochastically smaller than a distribution symmetric about zero, that is, for every \n \n \n \n x\n ≥\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x\\geq 0}\n \n, \n \n \n \n P\n r\n (\n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n <\n \n Y\n \n i\n \n \n −\n x\n )\n ≥\n Pr\n (\n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n >\n \n Y\n \n i\n \n \n +\n x\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle Pr(X_{i}<Y_{i}-x)\\geq \\Pr(X_{i}>Y_{i}+x)}\n \n.\nOne-sided alternative hypothesis H2\nThe differences \n \n \n \n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n −\n \n Y\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle X_{i}-Y_{i}}\n \n are stochastically larger than a distribution symmetric about zero, that is, for every \n \n \n \n x\n ≥\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x\\geq 0}\n \n, \n \n \n \n P\n r\n (\n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n <\n \n Y\n \n i\n \n \n −\n x\n )\n ≤\n Pr\n (\n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n >\n \n Y\n \n i\n \n \n +\n x\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle Pr(X_{i}<Y_{i}-x)\\leq \\Pr(X_{i}>Y_{i}+x)}\n \n.","title":"Null and alternative hypotheses"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"In real data, it sometimes happens that there is a sample \n \n \n \n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle X_{i}}\n \n which equals zero or a pair \n \n \n \n (\n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n ,\n \n Y\n \n i\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (X_{i},Y_{i})}\n \n with \n \n \n \n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n =\n \n Y\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle X_{i}=Y_{i}}\n \n. It can also happen that there are tied samples. This means that for some \n \n \n \n i\n ≠\n j\n \n \n {\\displaystyle i\\neq j}\n \n, we have \n \n \n \n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n =\n \n X\n \n j\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle X_{i}=X_{j}}\n \n (in the one-sample case) or \n \n \n \n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n −\n \n Y\n \n i\n \n \n =\n \n X\n \n j\n \n \n −\n \n Y\n \n j\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle X_{i}-Y_{i}=X_{j}-Y_{j}}\n \n (in the paired sample case). This is particularly common for discrete data. When this happens, the test procedure defined above is usually undefined because there is no way to uniquely rank the data. (The sole exception is if there is a single sample \n \n \n \n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle X_{i}}\n \n which is zero and no other zeros or ties.) Because of this, the test statistic needs to be modified.","title":"Zeros and ties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pratt-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Likert scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Likert_scale"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IndivLikert-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"}],"sub_title":"Zeros","text":"Wilcoxon's original paper did not address the question of observations (or, in the paired sample case, differences) that equal zero. However, in later surveys, he recommended removing zeros from the sample.[29] Then the standard signed-rank test could be applied to the resulting data, as long as there were no ties. This is now called the reduced sample procedure.Pratt[30] observed that the reduced sample procedure can lead to paradoxical behavior. He gives the following example. Suppose that we are in the one-sample situation and have the following thirteen observations:0, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 14, 15, 17, −18.The reduced sample procedure removes the zero. To the remaining data, it assigns the signed ranks:1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, −12.This has a one-sided p-value of \n \n \n \n 55\n \n /\n \n \n 2\n \n 12\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 55/2^{12}}\n \n, and therefore the sample is not significantly positive at any significance level \n \n \n \n α\n <\n 55\n \n /\n \n \n 2\n \n 12\n \n \n ≈\n 0.0134\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\alpha <55/2^{12}\\approx 0.0134}\n \n. Pratt argues that one would expect that decreasing the observations should certainly not make the data appear more positive. However, if the zero observation is decreased by an amount less than 2, or if all observations are decreased by an amount less than 1, then the signed ranks become:−1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, −13.This has a one-sided p-value of \n \n \n \n 109\n \n /\n \n \n 2\n \n 13\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 109/2^{13}}\n \n. Therefore the sample would be judged significantly positive at any significance level \n \n \n \n α\n >\n 109\n \n /\n \n \n 2\n \n 13\n \n \n ≈\n 0.0133\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\alpha >109/2^{13}\\approx 0.0133}\n \n. The paradox is that, if \n \n \n \n α\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\alpha }\n \n is between \n \n \n \n 109\n \n /\n \n \n 2\n \n 13\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 109/2^{13}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n 55\n \n /\n \n \n 2\n \n 12\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 55/2^{12}}\n \n, then decreasing an insignificant sample causes it to appear significantly positive.Pratt therefore proposed the signed-rank zero procedure. This procedure includes the zeros when ranking the samples. However, it excludes them from the test statistic, or equivalently it defines \n \n \n \n sgn\n \n (\n 0\n )\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {sgn}(0)=0}\n \n. Pratt proved that the signed-rank zero procedure has several desirable behaviors not shared by the reduced sample procedure:[31]Increasing the observed values does not make a significantly positive sample insignificant, and it does not make an insignificant sample significantly negative.\nIf the distribution of the observations is symmetric, then the values of \n \n \n \n μ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mu }\n \n which the test does not reject form an interval.\nA sample is significantly positive, not significant, or significantly negative, if and only if it is so when the zeros are assigned arbitrary non-zero signs, if and only if it is so when the zeros are replaced with non-zero values which are smaller in absolute value than any non-zero observation.\nFor a fixed significance threshold \n \n \n \n α\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\alpha }\n \n, and for a test which is randomized to have level exactly \n \n \n \n α\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\alpha }\n \n, the probability of calling a set of observations significantly positive (respectively, significantly negative) is a non-decreasing (respectively, non-increasing) function of the observations.Pratt remarks that, when the signed-rank zero procedure is combined with the average rank procedure for resolving ties, the resulting test is a consistent test against the alternative hypothesis that, for all \n \n \n \n i\n ≠\n j\n \n \n {\\displaystyle i\\neq j}\n \n, \n \n \n \n Pr\n (\n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n +\n \n X\n \n j\n \n \n >\n 0\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Pr(X_{i}+X_{j}>0)}\n \n and \n \n \n \n Pr\n (\n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n +\n \n X\n \n j\n \n \n <\n 0\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Pr(X_{i}+X_{j}<0)}\n \n differ by at least a fixed constant that is independent of \n \n \n \n i\n \n \n {\\displaystyle i}\n \n and \n \n \n \n j\n \n \n {\\displaystyle j}\n \n.[32]The signed-rank zero procedure has the disadvantage that, when zeros occur, the null distribution of the test statistic changes, so tables of p-values can no longer be used.When the data is on a Likert scale with equally spaced categories, the signed-rank zero procedure is more likely to maintain the Type I error rate than the reduced sample procedure.[33]From the viewpoint of statistical efficiency, there is no perfect rule for handling zeros. Conover found examples of null and alternative hypotheses that show that neither Wilcoxon's and Pratt's methods are uniformly better than the other. When comparing a discrete uniform distribution to a distribution where probabilities linearly increase from left to right, Pratt's method outperforms Wilcoxon's. When testing a binomial distribution centered at zero to see whether the parameter of each Bernoulli trial is \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\tfrac {1}{2}}}\n \n, Wilcoxon's method outperforms Pratt's.[34]","title":"Zeros and ties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"}],"sub_title":"Ties","text":"When the data does not have ties, the ranks \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle R_{i}}\n \n are used to calculate the test statistic. In the presence of ties, the ranks are not defined. There are two main approaches to resolving this.The most common procedure for handling ties, and the one originally recommended by Wilcoxon, is called the average rank or midrank procedure. This procedure assigns numbers between 1 and n to the observations, with two observations getting the same number if and only if they have the same absolute value. These numbers are conventionally called ranks even though the set of these numbers is not equal to \n \n \n \n {\n 1\n ,\n …\n ,\n n\n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\{1,\\dots ,n\\}}\n \n (except when there are no ties). The rank assigned to an observation is the average of the possible ranks it would have if the ties were broken in all possible ways. Once the ranks are assigned, the test statistic is computed in the same way as usual.[35][36]For example, suppose that the observations satisfy|\n \n \n X\n \n 3\n \n \n \n |\n \n <\n \n |\n \n \n X\n \n 2\n \n \n \n |\n \n =\n \n |\n \n \n X\n \n 5\n \n \n \n |\n \n <\n \n |\n \n \n X\n \n 6\n \n \n \n |\n \n <\n \n |\n \n \n X\n \n 1\n \n \n \n |\n \n =\n \n |\n \n \n X\n \n 4\n \n \n \n |\n \n =\n \n |\n \n \n X\n \n 7\n \n \n \n |\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle |X_{3}|<|X_{2}|=|X_{5}|<|X_{6}|<|X_{1}|=|X_{4}|=|X_{7}|.}X\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle X_{3}}X\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle X_{2}}X\n \n 5\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle X_{5}}(\n 2\n +\n 3\n )\n \n /\n \n 2\n =\n 2.5\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (2+3)/2=2.5}X\n \n 6\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle X_{6}}X\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle X_{1}}X\n \n 4\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle X_{4}}X\n \n 7\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle X_{7}}(\n 5\n +\n 6\n +\n 7\n )\n \n /\n \n 3\n =\n 6\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (5+6+7)/3=6}v\n \n \n {\\displaystyle v}k\n −\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k-1}v\n \n \n {\\displaystyle v}ℓ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\ell }v\n \n \n {\\displaystyle v}v\n \n \n {\\displaystyle v}k\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k}ℓ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\ell }(\n k\n +\n ℓ\n )\n \n /\n \n 2\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (k+\\ell )/2}Under the average rank procedure, the null distribution is different in the presence of ties.[37][38] The average rank procedure also has some disadvantages that are similar to those of the reduced sample procedure for zeros. It is possible that a sample can be judged significantly positive by the average rank procedure; but increasing some of the values so as to break the ties, or breaking the ties in any way whatsoever, results in a sample that the test judges to be not significant.[39][40] However, increasing all the observed values by the same amount cannot turn a significantly positive result into an insignificant one, nor an insignificant one into a significantly negative one. Furthermore, if the observations are distributed symmetrically, then the values of \n \n \n \n μ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mu }\n \n which the test does not reject form an interval.[41][42]The other common option for handling ties is a tiebreaking procedure. In a tiebreaking procedure, the observations are assigned distinct ranks in the set \n \n \n \n {\n 1\n ,\n …\n ,\n n\n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\{1,\\dots ,n\\}}\n \n. The rank assigned to an observation depends on its absolute value and the tiebreaking rule. Observations with smaller absolute values are always given smaller ranks, just as in the standard rank-sum test. The tiebreaking rule is used to assign ranks to observations with the same absolute value. One advantage of tiebreaking rules is that they allow the use of standard tables for computing p-values.[43]Random tiebreaking breaks the ties at random. Under random tiebreaking, the null distribution is the same as when there are no ties, but the result of the test depends not only on the data but on additional random choices. Averaging the ranks over the possible random choices results in the average rank procedure.[44] One could also report the probability of rejection over all random choices.[45] Random tiebreaking has the advantage that the probability that a sample is judged significantly positive does not decrease when some observations are increased.[46] Conservative tiebreaking breaks the ties in favor of the null hypothesis. When performing a one-sided test in which negative values of \n \n \n \n T\n \n \n {\\displaystyle T}\n \n tend to be more significant, ties are broken by assigning lower ranks to negative observations and higher ranks to positive ones. When the test makes positive values of \n \n \n \n T\n \n \n {\\displaystyle T}\n \n significant, ties are broken the other way, and when large absolute values of \n \n \n \n T\n \n \n {\\displaystyle T}\n \n are significant, ties are broken so as to make \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n T\n \n |\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle |T|}\n \n as small as possible. Pratt observes that when ties are likely, the conservative tiebreaking procedure \"presumably has low power, since it amounts to breaking all ties in favor of the null hypothesis.\"[47]The average rank procedure can disagree with tiebreaking procedures. Pratt gives the following example.[48] Suppose that the observations are:1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 3, −4.The average rank procedure assigns these the signed ranks2.5, 2.5, 2.5, 2.5, 5, 6, −7.This sample is significantly positive at the one-sided level \n \n \n \n α\n =\n 14\n \n /\n \n \n 2\n \n 7\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\alpha =14/2^{7}}\n \n. On the other hand, any tiebreaking rule will assign the ranks1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, −7.At the same one-sided level \n \n \n \n α\n =\n 14\n \n /\n \n \n 2\n \n 7\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\alpha =14/2^{7}}\n \n, this is not significant.Two other options for handling ties are based around averaging the results of tiebreaking. In the average statistic method, the test statistic \n \n \n \n T\n \n \n {\\displaystyle T}\n \n is computed for every possible way of breaking ties, and the final statistic is the mean of the tie-broken statistics. In the average probability method, the p-value is computed for every possible way of breaking ties, and the final p-value is the mean of the tie-broken p-values.[49]","title":"Zeros and ties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kolassa-58"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kolassa-58"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cureton-61"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"}],"text":"Computing p-values requires knowing the distribution of \n \n \n \n T\n \n \n {\\displaystyle T}\n \n under the null hypothesis. There is no closed formula for this distribution.[50] However, for small values of \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n, the distribution may be computed exactly. Under the null hypothesis that the data is symmetric about zero, each \n \n \n \n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle X_{i}}\n \n is exactly as likely to be positive as it is negative. Therefore the probability that \n \n \n \n T\n =\n t\n \n \n {\\displaystyle T=t}\n \n under the null hypothesis is equal to the number of sign combinations that yield \n \n \n \n T\n =\n t\n \n \n {\\displaystyle T=t}\n \n divided by the number of possible sign combinations \n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2^{n}}\n \n. This can be used to compute the exact distribution of \n \n \n \n T\n \n \n {\\displaystyle T}\n \n under the null hypothesis.[51]Computing the distribution of \n \n \n \n T\n \n \n {\\displaystyle T}\n \n by considering all possibilities requires computing \n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2^{n}}\n \n sums, which is intractable for all but the smallest \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n. However, there is an efficient recursion for the distribution of \n \n \n \n \n T\n \n +\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle T^{+}}\n \n.[52][53] Define \n \n \n \n \n u\n \n n\n \n \n (\n \n t\n \n +\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle u_{n}(t^{+})}\n \n to be the number of sign combinations for which \n \n \n \n \n T\n \n +\n \n \n =\n \n t\n \n +\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle T^{+}=t^{+}}\n \n. This is equal to the number of subsets of \n \n \n \n {\n 1\n ,\n …\n ,\n n\n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\{1,\\dots ,n\\}}\n \n which sum to \n \n \n \n \n t\n \n +\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle t^{+}}\n \n. The base cases of the recursion are \n \n \n \n \n u\n \n 0\n \n \n (\n 0\n )\n =\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle u_{0}(0)=1}\n \n, \n \n \n \n \n u\n \n 0\n \n \n (\n \n t\n \n +\n \n \n )\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle u_{0}(t^{+})=0}\n \n for all \n \n \n \n \n t\n \n +\n \n \n ≠\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle t^{+}\\neq 0}\n \n, and \n \n \n \n \n u\n \n n\n \n \n (\n \n t\n \n +\n \n \n )\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle u_{n}(t^{+})=0}\n \n for all \n \n \n \n t\n <\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle t<0}\n \n or \n \n \n \n t\n >\n n\n (\n n\n +\n 1\n )\n \n /\n \n 2\n \n \n {\\displaystyle t>n(n+1)/2}\n \n. The recursive formula isu\n \n n\n \n \n (\n \n t\n \n +\n \n \n )\n =\n \n u\n \n n\n −\n 1\n \n \n (\n \n t\n \n +\n \n \n )\n +\n \n u\n \n n\n −\n 1\n \n \n (\n \n t\n \n +\n \n \n −\n n\n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle u_{n}(t^{+})=u_{n-1}(t^{+})+u_{n-1}(t^{+}-n).}{\n 1\n ,\n …\n ,\n n\n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\{1,\\dots ,n\\}}t\n \n +\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle t^{+}}n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}{\n 1\n ,\n …\n ,\n n\n −\n 1\n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\{1,\\dots ,n-1\\}}n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}{\n 1\n ,\n …\n ,\n n\n −\n 1\n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\{1,\\dots ,n-1\\}}t\n \n +\n \n \n −\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle t^{+}-n}T\n \n +\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle T^{+}}Pr\n (\n \n T\n \n +\n \n \n =\n \n t\n \n +\n \n \n )\n =\n \n u\n \n n\n \n \n (\n \n t\n \n +\n \n \n )\n \n /\n \n \n 2\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Pr(T^{+}=t^{+})=u_{n}(t^{+})/2^{n}}u\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle u_{n}}partition function[54]If \n \n \n \n \n p\n \n n\n \n \n (\n \n t\n \n +\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p_{n}(t^{+})}\n \n is the probability that \n \n \n \n \n T\n \n +\n \n \n =\n \n t\n \n +\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle T^{+}=t^{+}}\n \n under the null hypothesis when there are \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n samples, then \n \n \n \n \n p\n \n n\n \n \n (\n \n t\n \n +\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p_{n}(t^{+})}\n \n satisfies a similar recursion:[55]2\n \n p\n \n n\n \n \n (\n \n t\n \n +\n \n \n )\n =\n \n p\n \n n\n −\n 1\n \n \n (\n \n t\n \n +\n \n \n )\n +\n \n p\n \n n\n −\n 1\n \n \n (\n \n t\n \n +\n \n \n −\n n\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2p_{n}(t^{+})=p_{n-1}(t^{+})+p_{n-1}(t^{+}-n)}Pr\n (\n \n T\n \n +\n \n \n ≤\n \n t\n \n +\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Pr(T^{+}\\leq t^{+})}[56]For very large \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n, even the above recursion is too slow. In this case, the null distribution can be approximated. The null distributions of \n \n \n \n T\n \n \n {\\displaystyle T}\n \n, \n \n \n \n \n T\n \n +\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle T^{+}}\n \n, and \n \n \n \n \n T\n \n −\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle T^{-}}\n \n are asymptotically normal with means and variances:[57]E\n \n [\n \n T\n \n +\n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n =\n \n E\n \n [\n \n T\n \n −\n \n \n ]\n =\n \n \n \n n\n (\n n\n +\n 1\n )\n \n 4\n \n \n ,\n \n \n \n \n \n E\n \n [\n T\n ]\n \n \n \n =\n 0\n ,\n \n \n \n \n Var\n \n (\n \n T\n \n +\n \n \n )\n \n \n \n =\n Var\n \n (\n \n T\n \n −\n \n \n )\n =\n \n \n \n n\n (\n n\n +\n 1\n )\n (\n 2\n n\n +\n 1\n )\n \n 24\n \n \n ,\n \n \n \n \n Var\n \n (\n T\n )\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n n\n (\n n\n +\n 1\n )\n (\n 2\n n\n +\n 1\n )\n \n 6\n \n \n .\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}\\mathbf {E} [T^{+}]&=\\mathbf {E} [T^{-}]={\\frac {n(n+1)}{4}},\\\\\\mathbf {E} [T]&=0,\\\\\\operatorname {Var} (T^{+})&=\\operatorname {Var} (T^{-})={\\frac {n(n+1)(2n+1)}{24}},\\\\\\operatorname {Var} (T)&={\\frac {n(n+1)(2n+1)}{6}}.\\end{aligned}}}Better approximations can be produced using Edgeworth expansions. Using a fourth-order Edgeworth expansion shows that:[58][59]Pr\n (\n \n T\n \n +\n \n \n ≤\n k\n )\n ≈\n Φ\n (\n t\n )\n +\n ϕ\n (\n t\n )\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n \n \n 3\n \n n\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n 3\n n\n −\n 1\n \n \n 10\n n\n (\n n\n +\n 1\n )\n (\n 2\n n\n +\n 1\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n )\n \n \n (\n \n t\n \n 3\n \n \n −\n 3\n t\n )\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Pr(T^{+}\\leq k)\\approx \\Phi (t)+\\phi (t){\\Big (}{\\frac {3n^{2}+3n-1}{10n(n+1)(2n+1)}}{\\Big )}(t^{3}-3t),}t\n =\n \n \n \n k\n +\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n −\n \n \n \n n\n (\n n\n +\n 1\n )\n \n 4\n \n \n \n \n \n \n n\n (\n n\n +\n 1\n )\n (\n 2\n n\n +\n 1\n )\n \n 24\n \n \n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle t={\\frac {k+{\\tfrac {1}{2}}-{\\frac {n(n+1)}{4}}}{\\sqrt {\\frac {n(n+1)(2n+1)}{24}}}}.}T\n \n +\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle T^{+}}O\n (\n \n n\n \n −\n 3\n \n /\n \n 2\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle O(n^{-3/2})}[58]The moment generating function of \n \n \n \n T\n \n \n {\\displaystyle T}\n \n has the exact formula:[60]M\n (\n t\n )\n =\n \n \n 1\n \n 2\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n \n ∏\n \n j\n =\n 1\n \n \n n\n \n \n (\n 1\n +\n \n e\n \n j\n t\n \n \n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle M(t)={\\frac {1}{2^{n}}}\\prod _{j=1}^{n}(1+e^{jt}).}When zeros are present and the signed-rank zero procedure is used, or when ties are present and the average rank procedure is used, the null distribution of \n \n \n \n T\n \n \n {\\displaystyle T}\n \n changes. Cureton derived a normal approximation for this situation.[61][62] Suppose that the original number of observations was \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n and the number of zeros was \n \n \n \n z\n \n \n {\\displaystyle z}\n \n. The tie correction isc\n =\n ∑\n \n t\n \n 3\n \n \n −\n t\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle c=\\sum t^{3}-t,}t\n \n \n {\\displaystyle t}T\n \n \n {\\displaystyle T}T\n \n +\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle T^{+}}E\n \n [\n \n T\n \n +\n \n \n ]\n =\n \n \n \n n\n (\n n\n +\n 1\n )\n \n 4\n \n \n −\n \n \n \n z\n (\n z\n +\n 1\n )\n \n 4\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {E} [T^{+}]={\\frac {n(n+1)}{4}}-{\\frac {z(z+1)}{4}}.}σ\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n n\n (\n n\n +\n 1\n )\n (\n 2\n n\n +\n 1\n )\n −\n z\n (\n z\n +\n 1\n )\n (\n 2\n z\n +\n 1\n )\n −\n c\n \n /\n \n 2\n \n 6\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma ^{2}={\\frac {n(n+1)(2n+1)-z(z+1)(2z+1)-c/2}{6}},}Var\n \n (\n T\n )\n \n \n \n =\n \n σ\n \n 2\n \n \n ,\n \n \n \n \n Var\n \n (\n \n T\n \n +\n \n \n )\n \n \n \n =\n \n σ\n \n 2\n \n \n \n /\n \n 4.\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}\\operatorname {Var} (T)&=\\sigma ^{2},\\\\\\operatorname {Var} (T^{+})&=\\sigma ^{2}/4.\\end{aligned}}}","title":"Computing the null distribution"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"}],"text":"Wilcoxon[63] originally defined the Wilcoxon rank-sum statistic to be \n \n \n \n min\n (\n \n T\n \n +\n \n \n ,\n \n T\n \n −\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\min(T^{+},T^{-})}\n \n. Early authors such as Siegel[64] followed Wilcoxon. This is appropriate for two-sided hypothesis tests, but it cannot be used for one-sided tests.Instead of assigning ranks between 1 and n, it is also possible to assign ranks between 0 and \n \n \n \n n\n −\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n-1}\n \n. These are called modified ranks.[65] The modified signed-rank sum \n \n \n \n \n T\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle T_{0}}\n \n, the modified positive-rank sum \n \n \n \n \n T\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle T_{0}^{+}}\n \n, and the modified negative-rank sum \n \n \n \n \n T\n \n 0\n \n \n −\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle T_{0}^{-}}\n \n are defined analogously to \n \n \n \n T\n \n \n {\\displaystyle T}\n \n, \n \n \n \n \n T\n \n +\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle T^{+}}\n \n, and \n \n \n \n \n T\n \n −\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle T^{-}}\n \n but with the modified ranks in place of the ordinary ranks. The probability that the sum of two independent \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F}\n \n-distributed random variables is positive can be estimated as \n \n \n \n 2\n \n T\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n \n \n \n /\n \n (\n n\n (\n n\n −\n 1\n )\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2T_{0}^{+}/(n(n-1))}\n \n.[66] When consideration is restricted to continuous distributions, this is a minimum variance unbiased estimator of \n \n \n \n \n p\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle p_{2}}\n \n.[67]","title":"Alternative statistics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"sign function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_function"},{"link_name":"absolute value","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_value"},{"link_name":"rank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranking"}],"text":"sgn\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {sgn} }\n \n is the sign function, \n \n \n \n \n abs\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\text{abs}}}\n \n is the absolute value, and \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle R_{i}}\n \n is the rank. Notice that pairs 3 and 9 are tied in absolute value. They would be ranked 1 and 2, so each gets the average of those ranks, 1.5.W\n =\n 1.5\n +\n 1.5\n −\n 3\n −\n 4\n −\n 5\n −\n 6\n +\n 7\n +\n 8\n +\n 9\n =\n 9\n \n \n {\\displaystyle W=1.5+1.5-3-4-5-6+7+8+9=9}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n |\n \n W\n \n |\n \n <\n \n W\n \n crit\n \n (\n α\n =\n 0.05\n ,\n \n 9\n \n , two-sided\n \n )\n \n \n =\n 15\n \n \n {\\displaystyle |W|<W_{\\operatorname {crit} (\\alpha =0.05,\\ 9{\\text{, two-sided}})}=15}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n ∴\n \n failed to reject \n \n \n H\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\therefore {\\text{failed to reject }}H_{0}}\n \n that the median of pairwise differences is different from zero.\nThe \n \n \n \n p\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p}\n \n-value for this result is \n \n \n \n 0.6113\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 0.6113}","title":"Example"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"effect size","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effect_size"},{"link_name":"rank-biserial correlation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mann%E2%80%93Whitney_U_test#Rank-biserial_correlation"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kerby2014-68"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kerby2014-68"}],"text":"To compute an effect size for the signed-rank test, one can use the rank-biserial correlation.If the test statistic T is reported, the rank correlation r is equal to the test statistic T divided by the total rank sum S, or r = T/S.\n[68] Using the above example, the test statistic is T = 9. The sample size of 9 has a total rank sum of S = (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9) = 45. Hence, the rank correlation is 9/45, so r = 0.20.If the test statistic T is reported, an equivalent way to compute the rank correlation is with the difference in proportion between the two rank sums, which is the Kerby (2014) simple difference formula.[68] To continue with the current example, the sample size is 9, so the total rank sum is 45. T is the smaller of the two rank sums, so T is 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 = 18. From this information alone, the remaining rank sum can be computed, because it is the total sum S minus T, or in this case 45 − 18 = 27. Next, the two rank-sum proportions are 27/45 = 60% and 18/45 = 40%. Finally, the rank correlation is the difference between the two proportions (.60 minus .40), hence r = .20.","title":"Effect size"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"R","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"ALGLIB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.alglib.net/statistics/hypothesistesting/wilcoxonsignedrank.php"},{"link_name":"GNU Octave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_Octave"},{"link_name":"SciPy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//docs.scipy.org/doc/scipy/reference/generated/scipy.stats.wilcoxon.html"},{"link_name":"Accord.NET","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//accord-framework.net/docs/html/T_Accord_Statistics_Testing_WilcoxonSignedRankTest.htm"},{"link_name":"MATLAB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.mathworks.com/help/stats/signrank.html"},{"link_name":"Julia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//github.com/JuliaStats/HypothesisTests.jl"},{"link_name":"SAS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAS_(software)"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"}],"text":"R includes an implementation of the test as wilcox.test(x,y, paired=TRUE), where x and y are vectors of equal length.[69]\nALGLIB includes implementation of the Wilcoxon signed-rank test in C++, C#, Delphi, Visual Basic, etc.\nGNU Octave implements various one-tailed and two-tailed versions of the test in the wilcoxon_test function.\nSciPy includes an implementation of the Wilcoxon signed-rank test in Python.\nAccord.NET includes an implementation of the Wilcoxon signed-rank test in C# for .NET applications.\nMATLAB implements this test using \"Wilcoxon rank sum test\" as [p,h] = signrank(x,y) also returns a logical value indicating the test decision. The result h = 1 indicates a rejection of the null hypothesis, and h = 0 indicates a failure to reject the null hypothesis at the 5% significance level.\nJulia HypothesisTests package includes the Wilcoxon signed-rank test as \"value(SignedRankTest(x, y))\".\nSAS PROC UNIVARIATE includes the Wilcoxon-Signed Rank Test in the frame titles \"Tests for Location\" as \"Signed Rank\". Even though this procedure calculates an S-Statistic rather than a W-Statistic, the resulting p-value can still be used for this test.[70]","title":"Software implementations"}]
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[{"title":"Mann–Whitney–Wilcoxon test","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mann%E2%80%93Whitney_U_test"},{"title":"Sign test","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_test"}]
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[{"reference":"Conover, W. J. (1999). Practical nonparametric statistics (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 0-471-16068-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-16068-7","url_text":"0-471-16068-7"}]},{"reference":"\"Wilcoxon signed-rank test - Handbook of Biological Statistics\". www.biostathandbook.com. Retrieved 2021-09-02.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.biostathandbook.com/wilcoxonsignedrank.html","url_text":"\"Wilcoxon signed-rank test - Handbook of Biological Statistics\""}]},{"reference":"Wilcoxon, Frank (Dec 1945). \"Individual comparisons by ranking methods\" (PDF). Biometrics Bulletin. 1 (6): 80–83. doi:10.2307/3001968. hdl:10338.dmlcz/135688. JSTOR 3001968.","urls":[{"url":"http://sci2s.ugr.es/keel/pdf/algorithm/articulo/wilcoxon1945.pdf","url_text":"\"Individual comparisons by ranking methods\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3001968","url_text":"10.2307/3001968"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)","url_text":"hdl"},{"url":"https://hdl.handle.net/10338.dmlcz%2F135688","url_text":"10338.dmlcz/135688"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/3001968","url_text":"3001968"}]},{"reference":"Siegel, Sidney (1956). Non-parametric statistics for the behavioral sciences. New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 75–83. ISBN 9780070573482.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ebfRAAAAMAAJ&q=Wilcoxon","url_text":"Non-parametric statistics for the behavioral sciences"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780070573482","url_text":"9780070573482"}]},{"reference":"Pratt, John W.; Gibbons, Jean D. (1981). Concepts of Nonparametric Theory. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-1-4612-5933-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4612-5933-6","url_text":"978-1-4612-5933-6"}]},{"reference":"Hettmansperger, Thomas P. (1984). Statistical Inference Based on Ranks. John Wiley & Sons. 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Chapman & Hall/CRC. ISBN 978-1-4200-7762-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4200-7762-9","url_text":"978-1-4200-7762-9"}]},{"reference":"Kolassa, John E. (1995). \"Edgeworth approximations for rank sum test statistics\". Statistics and Probability Letters. 24 (2): 169–171. doi:10.1016/0167-7152(95)00164-H.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0167-7152%2895%2900164-H","url_text":"\"Edgeworth approximations for rank sum test statistics\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0167-7152%2895%2900164-H","url_text":"10.1016/0167-7152(95)00164-H"}]},{"reference":"Cureton, Edward E. (1967). \"The normal approximation to the signed-rank sampling distribution when zero differences are present\". Journal of the American Statistical Association. 62 (319): 1068–1069. doi:10.1080/01621459.1967.10500917.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01621459.1967.10500917","url_text":"10.1080/01621459.1967.10500917"}]},{"reference":"Kerby, Dave S. (2014), \"The simple difference formula: An approach to teaching nonparametric correlation.\", Comprehensive Psychology, 3: 11.IT.3.1, doi:10.2466/11.IT.3.1","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2466%2F11.IT.3.1","url_text":"10.2466/11.IT.3.1"}]},{"reference":"Dalgaard, Peter (2008). Introductory Statistics with R. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 99–100. ISBN 978-0-387-79053-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=YI0kT8cuiVUC&pg=PA99","url_text":"Introductory Statistics with R"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-79053-4","url_text":"978-0-387-79053-4"}]},{"reference":"\"Wilcox signed-rank test: SAS instruction\". www.stat.purdue.edu. Retrieved 2023-08-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.stat.purdue.edu/~tqin/system101/method/method_wilcoxon_signed_rank_sas.htm","url_text":"\"Wilcox signed-rank test: SAS instruction\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monumental_sculpture
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Monumental sculpture
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["1 Meaning in different contexts","2 In art history","2.1 Appearance of monumental sculpture in a culture","2.2 Disappearance of monumental sculpture","3 Contemporary work","4 Gallery","5 See also","6 Notes","7 References"]
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Romanesque portal of Moissac Abbey; a classic example of what is meant by "monumental sculpture" in ancient and medieval art history.
Medieval and Renaissance wall tombs in Santi Giovanni e Paolo, Venice. In discussing the Early Modern period, the term may mean specifically sculptures that are memorials.
The term monumental sculpture is often used in art history and criticism, but not always consistently. It combines two concepts, one of function, and one of size, and may include an element of a third more subjective concept. It is often used for all sculptures that are large. Human figures that are perhaps half life-size or above would usually be considered monumental in this sense by art historians, although in contemporary art a rather larger overall scale is implied. Monumental sculpture is therefore distinguished from small portable figurines, small metal or ivory reliefs, diptychs and the like.
The term is also used to describe sculpture that is architectural in function, especially if used to create or form part of a monument of some sort, and therefore capitals and reliefs attached to buildings will be included, even if small in size. Typical functions of monuments are as grave markers, tomb monuments or memorials, and expressions of the power of a ruler or community, to which churches and so religious statues are added by convention, although in some contexts monumental sculpture may specifically mean just funerary sculpture for church monuments.
The third concept that may be involved when the term is used is not specific to sculpture, as the other two essentially are. The entry for "Monumental" in A Dictionary of Art and Artists by Peter and Linda Murray describes it as:
The most overworked word in current art history and criticism. It is intended to convey the idea that a particular work of art, or part of such a work, is grand, noble, elevated in idea, simple in conception and execution, without any excess of virtuousity, and having something of the enduring, stable, and timeless nature of great architecture. ... It is not a synonym for 'large'.
However, this does not constitute an accurate or adequate description of the use of the term for sculpture, though many uses of the term that essentially mean either large or "used in a memorial" may involve this concept also, in ways that are hard to separate. For example, when Meyer Schapiro, after a chapter analysing the carved capitals at Moissac, says: "in the tympanum of the south portal the sculpture of Moissac becomes truly monumental. It is placed above the level of the eye, and is so large as to dominate the entire entrance. It is a gigantic semi-circular relief ...", size is certainly the dominant part of what he means by the word, and Schapiro's further comments suggest that a lack of "excess of virtuousity" does not form part of what he intends to convey. Nonetheless, parts of the Murray's concept ("grand, noble, elevated in idea") are included in his meaning, although "simple in conception and execution" hardly seems to apply.
Meaning in different contexts
It is only in wealthy societies that the possibility of creating sculptures that are large but merely decorative really exists (at least in long-lived materials such as stone), so for most of art history the different senses of the term cause no difficulties. The term may be used differently for different periods, with breaks occurring around the Renaissance and the early 20th century: for ancient and medieval sculpture size is normally the criterion, though smaller architectural sculptures are usually covered by the term, but in the Early Modern period a specific funerary function may be meant, before the typical meaning once again comes to refer to size alone for contemporary sculpture. The relevant chapters in Parts 2-4 of The Oxford History of Western Art are titled as follows: "Monumental Sculpture to c.1300", "Monumental Sculpture 1300–1600", "Free-standing Sculpture c.1600–c.1700", "Forms in Space c.1700–1770", "Sculptures and Publics" (1770–1914).
In art history
Appearance of monumental sculpture in a culture
In archeology and art history the appearance, and sometimes disappearance, of monumental sculpture (using the size criterion) in a culture, is regarded as of great significance, though tracing the emergence is often complicated by the presumed existence of sculpture in wood and other perishable materials of which no record remains; the totem pole is an example of a tradition of monumental sculpture in wood that would leave no traces for archaeology. The ability to summon the resources to create monumental sculpture, by transporting usually very heavy materials and arranging for the payment of what are usually regarded as full-time sculptors, is considered a mark of a relatively advanced culture in terms of social organization.
Maya stela
In Ancient Egypt, the Great Sphinx of Giza probably dates to the 3rd millennium BC, and may be older than the Pyramids of Egypt. The discovery in 1986 of an ancient Chinese Bronze Age 8.5 foot tall bronze statue at Sanxingdui disturbed many ideas held about early Chinese civilization, since only much smaller bronzes were previously known. Some undoubtedly advanced cultures, such as the Indus Valley civilization, appear to have had no monumental sculpture at all, though producing very sophisticated figurines and seals. The Mississippian culture seems to have progressing towards its use, with small stone figures, when it collapsed. Other cultures, such as Ancient Egypt and the Easter Island culture, seem to have devoted enormous resources to very large-scale monumental sculpture from a very early stage.
Disappearance of monumental sculpture
When a culture ceases to produce monumental sculpture, there may be a number of reasons. The most common is societal collapse, as in Europe during the so-called Dark Ages or the Classic Maya collapse in Mesoamerica. Another may be aniconism, usually religiously motivated, as followed the Muslim conquests. Both the rise of Christianity (initially) and later the Protestant Reformation brought a halt to religious monumental sculpture in the regions concerned, and greatly reduced production of any monumental sculpture for several centuries. Byzantine art, which had largely avoided the societal collapse in the Western Roman Empire, never resumed the use of monumental figurative sculpture, whether in religious or secular contexts, and was to ban even two-dimensional religious art for a period in the Byzantine iconoclasm.
Contemporary work
"Monumental sculpture" is still used within the stoneworking and funeral trades to cover all forms of grave headstones and other funerary art, regardless of size. In contemporary art, however, the term is used to refer to all large sculptures regardless of purpose, and also carries a sense of permanent, solid, objects, rather than the temporary or fragile assemblages used in much contemporary sculpture. Sculptures covered by the term in modern art are likely to be over two metres in at least one dimension, and sufficiently large not to need a high plinth, though they may have one. Many are still commissioned as public art, often for placing at outdoor sites.
Gallery
Elogio del Horizonte (Eulogy to the Horizon), concrete (1989), a contemporary monumental sculpture, by Eduardo Chillida, at Gijon, Spain
Płomienne ptaki (Fire Birds) (1977) by Władysław Hasior in Koszalin, Poland
Ahu Tongariki on Easter Island, a 15-moai ahu excavated and restored in the 1990s
Laura Facey's Redemption Song (2003). Jamaica's national monument to the Emancipation from Slavery
See also
Architectural sculpture
Notes
^ For example, none of the figures in sculptures at the Santo Domingo de Silos Abbey are larger than this, and they are described by Meyer Schapiro as "one of the largest groups of monumental carving in Spanish Romanesque art". Schapiro, 29
^ Peter and Linda Murray (1968). "Monumental". A Dictionary of Art and Artists (Revised ed.). Penguin.
^ Schapiro, 201
^ The Getty Art & Architecture Thesaurus Online definition only refers to "Very large, comparable to a typical monument in massiveness", but the notes below on the many reference works consulted give a range of different emphases on size and function.
^ For examples, concerned with funerary sculpture only are: The Silent Rhetoric of the Body A History of Monumental Sculpture and Commemorative Art in England, 1720–1770, by Matthew Craske, Yale UP, ISBN 0-300-13541-6, ISBN 978-0-300-13541-1 , and several of the titles covered on the bibliography page of the website of the Church Monuments Society. For contemporary sculpture, see The New York Times of August 30, 1981, "Arts role in government architecture is explore" by Helen Harrison. All accessed April 29, 2009
^ OUP Catalogue
^ See for example Martin Robertson, A shorter history of Greek art, p. 9, Cambridge University Press, 1981, ISBN 0-521-28084-2, ISBN 978-0-521-28084-6 Google books
^ NGA, Washington
^ See for example, several uses of the term in "Monumentally Virtual, Ephemerally Physical: Directions in new sculpture and new media", blogpost by Joseph Taylor McRae, Lecturer in Computer Games Arts and editor of Art/Games Journal, published on May 25th, 2016, by the Cass Sculpture Foundation
References
Schapiro, Meyer, Selected Papers, volume 2, Romanesque Art, 1977, Chatto & Windus, London, ISBN 0-7011-2239-0
Contemporary monumental sculptures
Authority control databases National
Germany
Other
Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine
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Other cultures, such as Ancient Egypt and the Easter Island culture, seem to have devoted enormous resources to very large-scale monumental sculpture from a very early stage.","title":"In art history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"societal collapse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Societal_collapse"},{"link_name":"Dark Ages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)"},{"link_name":"Classic Maya collapse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classic_Maya_collapse"},{"link_name":"Mesoamerica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesoamerica"},{"link_name":"aniconism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aniconism"},{"link_name":"Muslim conquests","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests"},{"link_name":"Protestant Reformation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant_Reformation"},{"link_name":"Byzantine art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_art"},{"link_name":"Western Roman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Byzantine iconoclasm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_iconoclasm"}],"sub_title":"Disappearance of monumental sculpture","text":"When a culture ceases to produce monumental sculpture, there may be a number of reasons. The most common is societal collapse, as in Europe during the so-called Dark Ages or the Classic Maya collapse in Mesoamerica. Another may be aniconism, usually religiously motivated, as followed the Muslim conquests. Both the rise of Christianity (initially) and later the Protestant Reformation brought a halt to religious monumental sculpture in the regions concerned, and greatly reduced production of any monumental sculpture for several centuries. Byzantine art, which had largely avoided the societal collapse in the Western Roman Empire, never resumed the use of monumental figurative sculpture, whether in religious or secular contexts, and was to ban even two-dimensional religious art for a period in the Byzantine iconoclasm.","title":"In art history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"plinth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinth"},{"link_name":"public art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_art"},{"link_name":"outdoor sites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Vrana"}],"text":"\"Monumental sculpture\" is still used within the stoneworking and funeral trades to cover all forms of grave headstones and other funerary art, regardless of size. In contemporary art, however, the term is used to refer to all large sculptures regardless of purpose, and also carries a sense of permanent, solid, objects, rather than the temporary or fragile assemblages used in much contemporary sculpture.[9] Sculptures covered by the term in modern art are likely to be over two metres in at least one dimension, and sufficiently large not to need a high plinth, though they may have one. Many are still commissioned as public art, often for placing at outdoor sites.","title":"Contemporary work"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Elogio_del_horizonte_2.jpg"},{"link_name":"Eduardo Chillida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduardo_Chillida"},{"link_name":"Gijon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gijon"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Plomienne-ptaki-hasior-koszalin-7333d.jpg"},{"link_name":"Władysław Hasior","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Hasior"},{"link_name":"Koszalin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koszalin"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:AhuTongariki.JPG"},{"link_name":"Ahu Tongariki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahu_Tongariki"},{"link_name":"Easter Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easter_Island"},{"link_name":"moai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moai"},{"link_name":"ahu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easter_Island#Ahu"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Laura_Facey_-_Redemption_song_003.jpg"},{"link_name":"Laura Facey's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laura_Facey"},{"link_name":"Slavery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery_in_the_British_and_French_Caribbean"}],"text":"Elogio del Horizonte (Eulogy to the Horizon), concrete (1989), a contemporary monumental sculpture, by Eduardo Chillida, at Gijon, Spain\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tPłomienne ptaki (Fire Birds) (1977) by Władysław Hasior in Koszalin, Poland\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tAhu Tongariki on Easter Island, a 15-moai ahu excavated and restored in the 1990s\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tLaura Facey's Redemption Song (2003). Jamaica's national monument to the Emancipation from Slavery","title":"Gallery"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"Santo Domingo de Silos Abbey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santo_Domingo_de_Silos_Abbey"},{"link_name":"Meyer Schapiro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meyer_Schapiro"},{"link_name":"Romanesque art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanesque_art"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"A Dictionary of Art and Artists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/dictionaryofarta00murr"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"Art & Architecture Thesaurus Online","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.getty.edu/vow/AATFullDisplay?find=monumental&logic=AND¬e=&english=N&prev_page=1&subjectid=300073760"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-300-13541-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-13541-6"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-300-13541-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-13541-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.yalebooks.co.uk/yale/display.asp?K=9780300135411&bic=AFKB&sort=SORT_DATE/d&ds=Sculpture&m=9&dc=44"},{"link_name":"bibliography page","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.churchmonumentssociety.org/newfile30.htm"},{"link_name":"The New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"\"Arts role in government architecture is explore\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.nytimes.com/1981/08/30/nyregion/art-art-s-role-in-government-architecture-is-explore.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"OUP Catalogue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.oup.com/uk/catalogue/?ci=9780192804150"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-521-28084-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-28084-2"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-521-28084-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-28084-6"},{"link_name":"Google books","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=BoUsvD1_VNQC&pg=PA9&dq=%22monumental+sculpture%22&ei=iiL3SbqpFZS6M8Hm0eQD"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"NGA, Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20060219062518/http://www.nga.gov/education/chinatp_san.shtm"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"\"Monumentally Virtual, Ephemerally Physical: Directions in new sculpture and new media\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.sculpture.org.uk/blog/monumentally-virtual-ephemerally-physical-directions-in-new-sculpture-and-new-media"},{"link_name":"Cass Sculpture Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cass_Sculpture_Foundation"}],"text":"^ For example, none of the figures in sculptures at the Santo Domingo de Silos Abbey are larger than this, and they are described by Meyer Schapiro as \"one of the largest groups of monumental carving in Spanish Romanesque art\". Schapiro, 29\n\n^ Peter and Linda Murray (1968). \"Monumental\". A Dictionary of Art and Artists (Revised ed.). Penguin.\n\n^ Schapiro, 201\n\n^ The Getty Art & Architecture Thesaurus Online definition only refers to \"Very large, comparable to a typical monument in massiveness\", but the notes below on the many reference works consulted give a range of different emphases on size and function.\n\n^ For examples, concerned with funerary sculpture only are: The Silent Rhetoric of the Body A History of Monumental Sculpture and Commemorative Art in England, 1720–1770, by Matthew Craske, Yale UP, ISBN 0-300-13541-6, ISBN 978-0-300-13541-1 [1], and several of the titles covered on the bibliography page of the website of the Church Monuments Society. For contemporary sculpture, see The New York Times of August 30, 1981, \"Arts role in government architecture is explore\" by Helen Harrison. All accessed April 29, 2009\n\n^ OUP Catalogue\n\n^ See for example Martin Robertson, A shorter history of Greek art, p. 9, Cambridge University Press, 1981, ISBN 0-521-28084-2, ISBN 978-0-521-28084-6 Google books\n\n^ NGA, Washington\n\n^ See for example, several uses of the term in \"Monumentally Virtual, Ephemerally Physical: Directions in new sculpture and new media\", blogpost by Joseph Taylor McRae, Lecturer in Computer Games Arts and editor of Art/Games Journal, published on May 25th, 2016, by the Cass Sculpture Foundation","title":"Notes"}]
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[{"image_text":"Romanesque portal of Moissac Abbey; a classic example of what is meant by \"monumental sculpture\" in ancient and medieval art history.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Moissac_Abbaye_portail_sud.jpg/220px-Moissac_Abbaye_portail_sud.jpg"},{"image_text":"Medieval and Renaissance wall tombs in Santi Giovanni e Paolo, Venice. In discussing the Early Modern period, the term may mean specifically sculptures that are memorials.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Venezia_-_Chiesa_dei_SS._Giovanni_e_Paolo_%28S._Zanipolo%29_-_Foto_G._Dall%27Orto_2_lug_2006_-_08.jpg/220px-Venezia_-_Chiesa_dei_SS._Giovanni_e_Paolo_%28S._Zanipolo%29_-_Foto_G._Dall%27Orto_2_lug_2006_-_08.jpg"},{"image_text":"Maya stela","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Nim_Li_Punit_stela.jpg/170px-Nim_Li_Punit_stela.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Architectural sculpture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architectural_sculpture"}]
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[{"reference":"Peter and Linda Murray (1968). \"Monumental\". A Dictionary of Art and Artists (Revised ed.). Penguin.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofarta00murr","url_text":"A Dictionary of Art and Artists"}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofarta00murr","external_links_name":"A Dictionary of Art and Artists"},{"Link":"http://www.getty.edu/vow/AATFullDisplay?find=monumental&logic=AND¬e=&english=N&prev_page=1&subjectid=300073760","external_links_name":"Art & Architecture Thesaurus Online"},{"Link":"http://www.yalebooks.co.uk/yale/display.asp?K=9780300135411&bic=AFKB&sort=SORT_DATE/d&ds=Sculpture&m=9&dc=44","external_links_name":"[1]"},{"Link":"http://www.churchmonumentssociety.org/newfile30.htm","external_links_name":"bibliography page"},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/1981/08/30/nyregion/art-art-s-role-in-government-architecture-is-explore.html","external_links_name":"\"Arts role in government architecture is explore\""},{"Link":"http://www.oup.com/uk/catalogue/?ci=9780192804150","external_links_name":"OUP Catalogue"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=BoUsvD1_VNQC&pg=PA9&dq=%22monumental+sculpture%22&ei=iiL3SbqpFZS6M8Hm0eQD","external_links_name":"Google books"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060219062518/http://www.nga.gov/education/chinatp_san.shtm","external_links_name":"NGA, Washington"},{"Link":"http://www.sculpture.org.uk/blog/monumentally-virtual-ephemerally-physical-directions-in-new-sculpture-and-new-media","external_links_name":"\"Monumentally Virtual, Ephemerally Physical: Directions in new sculpture and new media\""},{"Link":"http://www.inceptiongallery.com/monumental-sculptures.html","external_links_name":"Contemporary monumental sculptures"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/4170515-4","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"http://esu.com.ua/search_articles.php?id=69469","external_links_name":"Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socket_4
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Socket 4
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["1 See also","2 References"]
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Component for processors
Socket 4TypeZIFChip form factorsPPGAContacts273FSB protocol?FSB frequency60, 66 MT/sVoltage range5 VProcessorsIntel P5 PentiumPredecessorSocket 3SuccessorSocket 5This article is part of the CPU socket series
Socket 4, presented in 1993, was the first CPU socket designed for the early P5 Pentium microprocessors. Socket 4 was the only 5-volt socket for the Pentium. Socket 4 does support a special Pentium OverDrive, which allows running at 120 MHz (for the 60 MHz Pentium) or 133 MHz (for the 66 MHz Pentium).
Socket 4 was superseded by the 3.3-volt-powered Socket 5 in 1994.
A socket 4 processor mounted on a motherboard
See also
List of Intel microprocessors
References
^ Intel Socket 4 Specification, pcguide.com, retrieved 2009-03-30
vteEarly CPU socketsOther packages
DIP
PLCC
PGAs
486 Socket
Socket 1
Socket 2
Socket 3
Socket 4
Socket 5
Socket 6
Socket 7
Socket 8
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"CPU socket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPU_socket"},{"link_name":"P5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P5_(microarchitecture)"},{"link_name":"Pentium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentium_(brand)"},{"link_name":"microprocessors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor"},{"link_name":"Pentium OverDrive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentium_OverDrive"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Socket 5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socket_5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Socket4.jpg"},{"link_name":"motherboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motherboard"}],"text":"Socket 4, presented in 1993, was the first CPU socket designed for the early P5 Pentium microprocessors. Socket 4 was the only 5-volt socket for the Pentium. Socket 4 does support a special Pentium OverDrive, which allows running at 120 MHz (for the 60 MHz Pentium) or 133 MHz (for the 66 MHz Pentium).[1]Socket 4 was superseded by the 3.3-volt-powered Socket 5 in 1994.A socket 4 processor mounted on a motherboard","title":"Socket 4"}]
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[{"image_text":"A socket 4 processor mounted on a motherboard","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Socket4.jpg/220px-Socket4.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"List of Intel microprocessors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Intel_microprocessors"}]
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[{"reference":"Intel Socket 4 Specification, pcguide.com, retrieved 2009-03-30","urls":[{"url":"http://www.pcguide.com/ref/cpu/char/socketSocket4-c.html","url_text":"Intel Socket 4 Specification"}]}]
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[{"Link":"http://www.pcguide.com/ref/cpu/char/socketSocket4-c.html","external_links_name":"Intel Socket 4 Specification"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anhydrite
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Anhydrite
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["1 Occurrence","1.1 Tidal flat nodules","1.2 Salt dome cap rocks","1.3 Igneous rocks","2 Naming history","3 Other uses","4 References","5 Further reading"]
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Mineral, anhydrous calcium sulfate
"Angelite" redirects here. For the musical ensemble, see Angelite (choir).
Not to be confused with anhydride.
AnhydriteAnhydrite, from Chihuahua, MexicoGeneralCategorySulfate mineralFormula(repeating unit)CaSO4IMA symbolAnhStrunz classification7.AD.30Dana classification28.3.2.1Crystal systemOrthorhombicCrystal classDipyramidal (mmm) H–M symbol: (2/m 2/m 2/m)Space groupAmmaUnit cella = 6.245(1) Å, b = 6.995(2) Åc = 6.993(2) Å; Z = 4IdentificationColorColorless to pale blue or violet if transparent; white, mauve, rose, pale brown or gray from included impuritiesCrystal habitRare tabular and prismatic crystals. Usually occurs as fibrous, parallel veins that break off into cleavage fragments. Also occurs as grainy, massive, or nodular massesTwinningSimple or repeatedly on {011} common; contact twins rare on {120}Cleavage perfect perfect good, resulting in pseudocubic fragmentsFractureConchoidalTenacityBrittleMohs scale hardness3.5LusterPearly on {010} vitreous to greasy on {001} vitreous on {100}StreakWhiteDiaphaneityTransparent to translucentSpecific gravity2.97Optical propertiesBiaxial (+)Refractive indexnα = 1.567–1.574 nβ = 1.574–1.579 nγ = 1.609–1.618Birefringenceδ = 0.042–0.044PleochroismFor violet varieties X = colorless to pale yellow or rose Y = pale violet or rose Z = violet.2V angle56–84°Fusibility2Other characteristicsSome specimens fluoresce; many more fluoresce after heatingReferences
Anhydrite, or anhydrous calcium sulfate, is a mineral with the chemical formula CaSO4. It is in the orthorhombic crystal system, with three directions of perfect cleavage parallel to the three planes of symmetry. It is not isomorphous with the orthorhombic barium (baryte) and strontium (celestine) sulfates, as might be expected from the chemical formulas. Distinctly developed crystals are somewhat rare, the mineral usually presenting the form of cleavage masses. The Mohs hardness is 3.5, and the specific gravity is 2.9. The color is white, sometimes greyish, bluish, or purple. On the best developed of the three cleavages, the lustre is pearly; on other surfaces it is glassy. When exposed to water, anhydrite readily transforms to the more commonly occurring gypsum, (CaSO4·2H2O) by the absorption of water. This transformation is reversible, with gypsum or calcium sulfate hemihydrate forming anhydrite by heating to around 200 °C (400 °F) under normal atmospheric conditions. Anhydrite is commonly associated with calcite, halite, and sulfides such as galena, chalcopyrite, molybdenite, and pyrite in vein deposits.
Occurrence
Crystal structure of anhydrite
Anhydrite is most frequently found in evaporite deposits with gypsum; it was, for instance, first discovered in 1794 in a salt mine near Hall in Tirol. In this occurrence, depth is critical since nearer the surface anhydrite has been altered to gypsum by absorption of circulating ground water.
From an aqueous solution, calcium sulfate is deposited as crystals of gypsum, but when the solution contains an excess of sodium or potassium chloride, anhydrite is deposited if the temperature is above 40 °C (104 °F). This is one method by which the mineral has been prepared artificially and is identical with its mode of origin in nature. The mineral is common in salt basins.
Tidal flat nodules
Anhydrite occurs in a tidal flat environment in the Persian Gulf sabkhas as massive diagenetic replacement nodules. Cross sections of these nodular masses have a netted appearance and have been referred to as chicken-wire anhydrite. Nodular anhydrite occurs as replacement of gypsum in a variety of sedimentary depositional environments.
Salt dome cap rocks
Massive amounts of anhydrite occur when salt domes form a caprock. Anhydrite is 1–3% of the minerals in salt domes and is generally left as a cap at the top of the salt when the halite is removed by pore waters. The typical cap rock is a salt, topped by a layer of anhydrite, topped by patches of gypsum, topped by a layer of calcite. Interaction of anhydrite with hydrocarbons at high temperature in oil fields can reduce sulfate (SO2–4) into hydrogen sulfide (H2S) with a concomitant precipitation of calcite. The process is known as thermochemical sulfate reduction (TSR).
Hand sample of gypsum and anhydrite drom diapir caprock showing "chicken wire" texture.
Igneous rocks
Anhydrite has been found in some igneous rocks, for example in the intrusive dioritic pluton of El Teniente, Chile and in trachyandesite pumice erupted by El Chichón volcano, Mexico.
Naming history
The name anhydrite was given by A. G. Werner in 1804, because of the absence of water of crystallization, as contrasted with the presence of water in gypsum. Some obsolete names for the species are muriacite and karstenite; the former, an earlier name, being given under the impression that the substance was a chloride (muriate). A peculiar variety occurring as contorted concretionary masses is known as tripe-stone, and a scaly granular variety, from Volpino, near Bergamo, in Lombardy, as vulpinite; the latter is cut and polished for ornamental purposes.
A semi-transparent light blue-grey variety from Peru is referred to by the trade name angelite.
Other uses
Relief carving of an anhydrite kiln, made from a piece of anhydrite, by Ophelia Gordon Bell
The Catalyst Science Discovery Centre in Widnes, England, has a relief carving of an anhydrite kiln, made from a piece of anhydrite, for the United Sulphuric Acid Corporation.
Extensive structural damage in the German city of Staufen im Breisgau has occurred since a 2007 geothermal drilling project allowed subsurface water to invade a layer of anhydrite below the city, causing extensive but uneven ground swelling as pockets of the anhydrite converted to gypsum.
References
^ Warr, L.N. (2021). "IMA–CNMNC approved mineral symbols". Mineralogical Magazine. 85 (3): 291–320. Bibcode:2021MinM...85..291W. doi:10.1180/mgm.2021.43. S2CID 235729616.
^ Klein, Cornelis; Hurlbut, Cornelius S. (1985). Manual of Mineralogy (20th ed.). New York: John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-80580-9.
^ "Anhydrite". Webmineral.
^ "Anhydrite". Mindat.org.
^ "Anhydrite" (PDF). Handbook of Mineralogy.
^ Deer; Howie; Zussman (1992). An Introduction to the Rock=Forming Minerals (2nd ed.). England: Pearson Education. p. 614. ISBN 978-0-582-30094-1.
^ Michael A., Church (2003). Encyclopedia of Sediments & Sedimentary Rocks. Springer. pp. 17–18. ISBN 978-1-4020-0872-6.
^ Walker, C. W. (December 1976). "Origin of Gulf Coast salt-dome cap rock". AAPG Bulletin. 60 (12): 2162–2166. doi:10.1306/c1ea3aa0-16c9-11d7-8645000102c1865d.
^ Saunders, James A.; Thomas, Robert C. (September 1996). "Origin of 'exotic' minerals in Mississippi salt dome cap rocks: results of reaction-path modeling". Applied Geochemistry. 11 (5): 667–676. Bibcode:1996ApGC...11..667S. doi:10.1016/S0883-2927(96)00032-7.
^ Luhr, James F. (2008). "Primary igneous anhydrite: Progress since its recognition in the 1982 El Chichón trachyandesite". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 175 (4): 394–407. Bibcode:2008JVGR..175..394L. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2008.02.016.
^ "Angelite". Mindat.org.
Further reading
Spencer, Leonard James. Anhydrite. 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica
Mineralgalleries.com
Minerals.net
Authority control databases
Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Angelite (choir)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angelite_(choir)"},{"link_name":"anhydride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anhydride"},{"link_name":"calcium sulfate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_sulfate"},{"link_name":"mineral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineral"},{"link_name":"chemical formula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_formula"},{"link_name":"orthorhombic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthorhombic"},{"link_name":"cleavage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleavage_(crystal)"},{"link_name":"symmetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetry"},{"link_name":"isomorphous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isomorphism_(crystallography)"},{"link_name":"barium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barium"},{"link_name":"baryte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baryte"},{"link_name":"strontium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strontium"},{"link_name":"celestine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celestine_(mineral)"},{"link_name":"crystals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal"},{"link_name":"Mohs hardness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohs_hardness"},{"link_name":"specific gravity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_gravity"},{"link_name":"lustre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lustre_(mineralogy)"},{"link_name":"gypsum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gypsum"},{"link_name":"calcium sulfate hemihydrate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bassanite"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"calcite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcite"},{"link_name":"halite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halite"},{"link_name":"sulfides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfide"},{"link_name":"galena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galena"},{"link_name":"chalcopyrite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcopyrite"},{"link_name":"molybdenite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molybdenite"},{"link_name":"pyrite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrite"}],"text":"\"Angelite\" redirects here. For the musical ensemble, see Angelite (choir).Not to be confused with anhydride.Anhydrite, or anhydrous calcium sulfate, is a mineral with the chemical formula CaSO4. It is in the orthorhombic crystal system, with three directions of perfect cleavage parallel to the three planes of symmetry. It is not isomorphous with the orthorhombic barium (baryte) and strontium (celestine) sulfates, as might be expected from the chemical formulas. Distinctly developed crystals are somewhat rare, the mineral usually presenting the form of cleavage masses. The Mohs hardness is 3.5, and the specific gravity is 2.9. The color is white, sometimes greyish, bluish, or purple. On the best developed of the three cleavages, the lustre is pearly; on other surfaces it is glassy. When exposed to water, anhydrite readily transforms to the more commonly occurring gypsum, (CaSO4·2H2O) by the absorption of water. This transformation is reversible, with gypsum or calcium sulfate hemihydrate forming anhydrite by heating to around 200 °C (400 °F) under normal atmospheric conditions.[6] Anhydrite is commonly associated with calcite, halite, and sulfides such as galena, chalcopyrite, molybdenite, and pyrite in vein deposits.","title":"Anhydrite"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Anhydrite.png"},{"link_name":"evaporite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaporite"},{"link_name":"Hall in Tirol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hall_in_Tirol"},{"link_name":"aqueous solution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqueous_solution"},{"link_name":"sodium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium"},{"link_name":"potassium chloride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_chloride"},{"link_name":"basins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_(geology)"}],"text":"Crystal structure of anhydriteAnhydrite is most frequently found in evaporite deposits with gypsum; it was, for instance, first discovered in 1794 in a salt mine near Hall in Tirol. In this occurrence, depth is critical since nearer the surface anhydrite has been altered to gypsum by absorption of circulating ground water.From an aqueous solution, calcium sulfate is deposited as crystals of gypsum, but when the solution contains an excess of sodium or potassium chloride, anhydrite is deposited if the temperature is above 40 °C (104 °F). This is one method by which the mineral has been prepared artificially and is identical with its mode of origin in nature. The mineral is common in salt basins.","title":"Occurrence"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"tidal flat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_flat"},{"link_name":"Persian Gulf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Gulf"},{"link_name":"sabkhas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabkha"},{"link_name":"diagenetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagenesis"},{"link_name":"nodules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nodule_(geology)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"sub_title":"Tidal flat nodules","text":"Anhydrite occurs in a tidal flat environment in the Persian Gulf sabkhas as massive diagenetic replacement nodules. Cross sections of these nodular masses have a netted appearance and have been referred to as chicken-wire anhydrite. Nodular anhydrite occurs as replacement of gypsum in a variety of sedimentary depositional environments.[7]","title":"Occurrence"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"salt domes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_dome"},{"link_name":"caprock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caprock"},{"link_name":"halite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halite"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"hydrocarbons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrocarbon"},{"link_name":"oil fields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_field"},{"link_name":"sulfate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfate"},{"link_name":"hydrogen sulfide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide"},{"link_name":"calcite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcite"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"thermochemical sulfate reduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermochemical_sulfate_reduction"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chickenwire_Gypsum_anhydrite.jpg"}],"sub_title":"Salt dome cap rocks","text":"Massive amounts of anhydrite occur when salt domes form a caprock. Anhydrite is 1–3% of the minerals in salt domes and is generally left as a cap at the top of the salt when the halite is removed by pore waters. The typical cap rock is a salt, topped by a layer of anhydrite, topped by patches of gypsum, topped by a layer of calcite.[8] Interaction of anhydrite with hydrocarbons at high temperature in oil fields can reduce sulfate (SO2–4) into hydrogen sulfide (H2S) with a concomitant precipitation of calcite.[9] The process is known as thermochemical sulfate reduction (TSR).Hand sample of gypsum and anhydrite drom diapir caprock showing \"chicken wire\" texture.","title":"Occurrence"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"igneous rocks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igneous_rock"},{"link_name":"intrusive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrusive_rock"},{"link_name":"dioritic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diorite"},{"link_name":"pluton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluton"},{"link_name":"trachyandesite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trachyandesite"},{"link_name":"pumice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pumice"},{"link_name":"El Chichón","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Chich%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"sub_title":"Igneous rocks","text":"Anhydrite has been found in some igneous rocks, for example in the intrusive dioritic pluton of El Teniente, Chile and in trachyandesite pumice erupted by El Chichón volcano, Mexico.[10]","title":"Occurrence"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"A. G. Werner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._G._Werner"},{"link_name":"Volpino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Costa_Volpino"},{"link_name":"Bergamo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergamo"},{"link_name":"Lombardy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lombardy"},{"link_name":"Peru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peru"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"The name anhydrite was given by A. G. Werner in 1804, because of the absence of water of crystallization, as contrasted with the presence of water in gypsum. Some obsolete names for the species are muriacite and karstenite; the former, an earlier name, being given under the impression that the substance was a chloride (muriate). A peculiar variety occurring as contorted concretionary masses is known as tripe-stone, and a scaly granular variety, from Volpino, near Bergamo, in Lombardy, as vulpinite; the latter is cut and polished for ornamental purposes.A semi-transparent light blue-grey variety from Peru is referred to by the trade name angelite.[11]","title":"Naming history"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Anhydrite_Kiln_by_Ophelia_Gordon_Bell.jpg"},{"link_name":"Ophelia Gordon Bell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophelia_Gordon_Bell"},{"link_name":"Catalyst Science Discovery Centre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalyst_Science_Discovery_Centre"},{"link_name":"Widnes, England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Widnes"},{"link_name":"United Sulphuric Acid Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_Sulphuric_Acid_Corporation&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Extensive structural damage in the German city of Staufen im Breisgau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staufen_im_Breisgau#Geothermal_drilling_controversy"}],"text":"Relief carving of an anhydrite kiln, made from a piece of anhydrite, by Ophelia Gordon BellThe Catalyst Science Discovery Centre in Widnes, England, has a relief carving of an anhydrite kiln, made from a piece of anhydrite, for the United Sulphuric Acid Corporation.Extensive structural damage in the German city of Staufen im Breisgau has occurred since a 2007 geothermal drilling project allowed subsurface water to invade a layer of anhydrite below the city, causing extensive but uneven ground swelling as pockets of the anhydrite converted to gypsum.","title":"Other uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"1911 Encyclopædia Britannica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica"},{"link_name":"Mineralgalleries.com","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20041019083222/http://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/sulfates/anhydrit/anhydrit.htm"},{"link_name":"Minerals.net","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.minerals.net/mineral/sulfates/anhydrit/anhydrit.htm"},{"link_name":"Authority control databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q105439#identifiers"},{"link_name":"Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//esu.com.ua/search_articles.php?id=44083"}],"text":"Spencer, Leonard James. Anhydrite. 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica\nMineralgalleries.com\nMinerals.netAuthority control databases \nEncyclopedia of Modern Ukraine","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"Crystal structure of anhydrite","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Anhydrite.png/220px-Anhydrite.png"},{"image_text":"Hand sample of gypsum and anhydrite drom diapir caprock showing \"chicken wire\" texture.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Chickenwire_Gypsum_anhydrite.jpg/220px-Chickenwire_Gypsum_anhydrite.jpg"},{"image_text":"Relief carving of an anhydrite kiln, made from a piece of anhydrite, by Ophelia Gordon Bell","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Anhydrite_Kiln_by_Ophelia_Gordon_Bell.jpg/220px-Anhydrite_Kiln_by_Ophelia_Gordon_Bell.jpg"}]
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[{"reference":"Warr, L.N. (2021). \"IMA–CNMNC approved mineral symbols\". Mineralogical Magazine. 85 (3): 291–320. Bibcode:2021MinM...85..291W. doi:10.1180/mgm.2021.43. S2CID 235729616.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1180%2Fmgm.2021.43","url_text":"\"IMA–CNMNC approved mineral symbols\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021MinM...85..291W","url_text":"2021MinM...85..291W"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1180%2Fmgm.2021.43","url_text":"10.1180/mgm.2021.43"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:235729616","url_text":"235729616"}]},{"reference":"Klein, Cornelis; Hurlbut, Cornelius S. (1985). Manual of Mineralogy (20th ed.). New York: John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-80580-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/manualofmineralo00klei","url_text":"Manual of Mineralogy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-80580-9","url_text":"978-0-471-80580-9"}]},{"reference":"\"Anhydrite\". Webmineral.","urls":[{"url":"http://webmineral.com/data/Anhydrite.shtml","url_text":"\"Anhydrite\""}]},{"reference":"\"Anhydrite\". Mindat.org.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.mindat.org/min-234.html","url_text":"\"Anhydrite\""}]},{"reference":"\"Anhydrite\" (PDF). Handbook of Mineralogy.","urls":[{"url":"http://rruff.geo.arizona.edu/doclib/hom/anhydrite.pdf","url_text":"\"Anhydrite\""}]},{"reference":"Deer; Howie; Zussman (1992). An Introduction to the Rock=Forming Minerals (2nd ed.). England: Pearson Education. p. 614. ISBN 978-0-582-30094-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-30094-1","url_text":"978-0-582-30094-1"}]},{"reference":"Michael A., Church (2003). Encyclopedia of Sediments & Sedimentary Rocks. Springer. pp. 17–18. ISBN 978-1-4020-0872-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-0872-6","url_text":"978-1-4020-0872-6"}]},{"reference":"Walker, C. W. (December 1976). \"Origin of Gulf Coast salt-dome cap rock\". AAPG Bulletin. 60 (12): 2162–2166. doi:10.1306/c1ea3aa0-16c9-11d7-8645000102c1865d.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1306%2Fc1ea3aa0-16c9-11d7-8645000102c1865d","url_text":"10.1306/c1ea3aa0-16c9-11d7-8645000102c1865d"}]},{"reference":"Saunders, James A.; Thomas, Robert C. (September 1996). \"Origin of 'exotic' minerals in Mississippi salt dome cap rocks: results of reaction-path modeling\". Applied Geochemistry. 11 (5): 667–676. Bibcode:1996ApGC...11..667S. doi:10.1016/S0883-2927(96)00032-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996ApGC...11..667S","url_text":"1996ApGC...11..667S"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0883-2927%2896%2900032-7","url_text":"10.1016/S0883-2927(96)00032-7"}]},{"reference":"Luhr, James F. (2008). \"Primary igneous anhydrite: Progress since its recognition in the 1982 El Chichón trachyandesite\". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 175 (4): 394–407. Bibcode:2008JVGR..175..394L. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2008.02.016.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008JVGR..175..394L","url_text":"2008JVGR..175..394L"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jvolgeores.2008.02.016","url_text":"10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2008.02.016"}]},{"reference":"\"Angelite\". Mindat.org.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.mindat.org/min-232.html","url_text":"\"Angelite\""}]}]
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Vic
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The Old Vic
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["1 History","1.1 Origins","1.2 Old Vic company","1.3 Wartime exile","1.4 The Five Year plan","1.5 National Theatre company","1.6 Prospect Theatre Company","1.7 Youth Theatre","1.8 Reopening","1.9 Kevin Spacey","1.10 Matthew Warchus","1.11 Bicentenary","2 Recent and current productions","2.1 2005","2.2 2006","2.3 2007","2.4 2008","2.5 2009","2.6 2010","2.7 2011 season","2.8 2012 season","2.9 2013 season","2.10 2014 season","2.11 2015 season","2.12 2015–16 season","2.13 2016–17 season","2.14 2017–18 season","2.15 2018–19 season","2.16 2019–20 season","2.17 Old Vic: In Camera series (during COVID-19 pandemic)","2.18 2021–22 season","2.19 2022–23 season","2.20 2023–24 season","2.21 2024-25 season","3 References","4 Sources","5 Further reading","6 External links"]
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Coordinates: 51°30′08″N 0°06′35″W / 51.5022°N 0.1096°W / 51.5022; -0.1096Theatre in Waterloo, London
"Royal Victoria Theatre" redirects here. For the 19th century theatres in Australia, see Queen's Theatre, Adelaide and Royal Victoria Theatre, Sydney.
"Old Vic" redirects here. For the thoroughbred racehorse, see Old Vic (horse).
"Old Vic Theatre School" redirects here. For the drama school in Bristol, see Bristol Old Vic Theatre School.
The Old VicRoyal Coburg TheatreRoyal Victoria TheatreRoyal Victoria PalaceRoyal Victoria Hall and Coffee TavernThe exterior of the Old Vic from the corner of Baylis Road and Waterloo RoadAddressThe CutLondon, SE1EnglandCoordinates51°30′08″N 0°06′35″W / 51.5022°N 0.1096°W / 51.5022; -0.1096Public transit Waterloo WaterlooOwnerOld Vic Theatre Trust 2000DesignationGrade II* listedTypeNon-commercial theatreCapacity1,067ConstructionOpened1818; 206 years ago (1818)Rebuilt1871: J. T. Robinson1880/1902: Elijah Hoole1922/1927: Matcham & Co.,(under F. G. M. Chancellor)1933–38: F. Green & Co1950: Pierre Sonrel1960: Sean Kenny1983: Renton, Howard, Wood & LevineYears active1818–presentArchitectRudolphe Cabanel of AachenWebsiteoldvictheatre.com
Audio description of the theatre by Derek Jacobi
The Old Vic is a 1,000-seat, not-for-profit producing theatre in Waterloo, London, England. It was established in 1818 as the Royal Coburg Theatre, and renamed in 1833 the Royal Victoria Theatre. In 1871 it was rebuilt and reopened as the Royal Victoria Palace. It was taken over by Emma Cons in 1880 and formally named the Royal Victoria Hall, although by that time it was already known as the "Old Vic". In 1898, a niece of Cons, Lilian Baylis, assumed management and began a series of Shakespeare productions in 1914. The building was damaged in 1940 during air raids and it became a Grade II* listed building in 1951 after it reopened.
The Old Vic is the crucible of many of the performing arts companies and theatres in London today. It was the name of a repertory company that was based at the theatre and formed (along with the Chichester Festival Theatre) the core of the National Theatre of Great Britain on its formation in 1963, under Laurence Olivier. The National Theatre remained at the Old Vic until new premises were constructed on the South Bank, opening in 1976. The Old Vic then became the home of Prospect Theatre Company, at that time a highly successful touring company which staged such acclaimed productions as Derek Jacobi's Hamlet. However, with the withdrawal of funding for the company by the Arts Council of Great Britain in 1980 for breaching its touring obligations, Prospect disbanded in 1981. The theatre underwent complete refurbishment in 1985. In 2003, Kevin Spacey was appointed artistic director, which received considerable media attention. Spacey served as artistic director until 2015; two years after he stepped down, he was accused of sexually harassing and assaulting several people. In 2015, Matthew Warchus succeeded Spacey as artistic director.
History
Origins
Royal Coburg Theatre in 1822
The theatre was founded in 1818 by James King and Daniel Dunn (formerly managers of the Surrey Theatre in Bermondsey), and John Thomas Serres, then the marine painter to the King. Serres managed to secure the formal patronage of Princess Charlotte and her husband Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, and named the theatre the Royal Coburg Theatre. The theatre was a "minor" theatre (as opposed to one of the two patent theatres) and was thus technically forbidden to show serious drama. Nevertheless, when the theatre passed to George Bolwell Davidge in 1824 he succeeded in bringing legendary actor Edmund Kean south of the river to play six Shakespeare plays in six nights. The theatre's role in bringing high art to the masses was confirmed when Kean addressed the audience during his curtain call saying "I have never acted to such a set of ignorant, unmitigated brutes as I see before me." More popular staples in the repertoire were "sensational and violent" melodramas demonstrating the evils of drink, "churned out by the house dramatist", confirmed teetotaller Douglas Jerrold.
When Davidge left to take over the Surrey Theatre in 1833, the theatre was bought by Daniel Egerton and William Abbot, who tried to capitalise on the abolition of the legal distinction between patent and minor theatres, enacted in Parliament earlier that year. On 1 July 1833, the theatre was renamed the Royal Victoria Theatre, under the "protection and patronage" of Victoria, Duchess of Kent, mother to Princess Victoria, the 14-year-old heir presumptive to the British throne. The duchess and the princess visited only once, on 28 November of that year, but enjoyed the performance, of light opera and dance, in the "pretty...clean and comfortable" theatre. The single visit scarcely justified the "Old Vic" its later billing as "Queen Victoria's Own Theayter".
The Old Vic, photographed in 2012
In 1841, David Osbaldiston took over as lessee, and was succeeded on his death in 1850 by his lover and the theatre's leading lady, Eliza Vincent, until her death in 1856. Under their management, the theatre remained devoted to melodrama. In 1858, sixteen people were crushed to death inside the theatre after mass panic caused while an actor's clothing caught fire.
In 1867, Joseph Arnold Cave took over as lessee. In 1871 he transferred the lease to Romaine Delatorre, who raised funds for the theatre to be rebuilt in the style of the Alhambra Music Hall. Jethro Thomas Robinson was engaged as the architect. In September 1871 the old theatre closed, and the new building opened as the Royal Victoria Palace in December of the same year, with Cave staying on as manager. By 1873, however, Cave had left and Delatorre's venture failed.
In 1880, under the ownership of Emma Cons (for whose memory there are plaques outside and inside the theatre) it became the Royal Victoria Hall and Coffee Tavern and was run on "strict temperance lines"; by this time it was already known as the "Old Vic". The "penny lectures" given in the hall led to the foundation of Morley College. An endowment from the estate of Samuel Morley led to the creation of the Morley Memorial College for Working Men and Women on the premises, which were shared; lectures were given back stage, and in the theatre dressing rooms. The adult education college moved to its own premises nearby in the 1920s.
On 24 November 1923, the theatre participated in a pioneering radio event, when the first set of the opera La Traviata was broadcast live by the BBC, using transmitters in London, Manchester and Glasgow, via a specially installed relay transmitter on the roof of the adjacent Royal Victoria Tavern.
Old Vic company
The theatre at night
With Emma Cons's death in 1912 the theatre passed to her niece Lilian Baylis, who emphasised the Shakespearean repertoire. The first radio broadcasts from the theatre were made as early as October 1923, by the British Broadcasting Company. The Old Vic Company was established in 1929, led by Sir John Gielgud. Between 1925 and 1931, Lilian Baylis championed the re-building of the then-derelict Sadler's Wells Theatre, and established a ballet company under the direction of Dame Ninette de Valois. For a few years the drama and ballet companies rotated between the two theatres, with the ballet becoming permanently based at Sadler's Wells in 1935. Baylis died in November 1937.
Wartime exile
The Old Vic was damaged badly during the Blitz, and the war-depleted company spent all its time touring, based in Burnley, Lancashire at the Victoria Theatre during the years 1940 to 1943. In 1944, the company was re-established in London with Ralph Richardson and Laurence Olivier as its stars, performing mainly at the New Theatre (now the Noël Coward Theatre) until the Old Vic was ready to reopen in 1950. In 1946, an offshoot of the company was established in Bristol as the Bristol Old Vic.
The Five Year plan
In 1953, Michael Benthall became the Artistic Director. Michael devised the Five Year plan during his tenure. The plan was to produce Shakespeare's First Folio in five years, starting the plan with Hamlet, starring Richard Burton and Claire Bloom as Hamlet and Ophelia respectively, and ending the plan with Hamlet, starring John Neville and Judi Dench in the leading roles. Michael remained at the Old Vic company until 1962.
National Theatre company
In 1963, the Old Vic company was dissolved and the new National Theatre Company, under the artistic direction of Sir Laurence Olivier, was based at the Old Vic until its own building was opened on the South Bank near Waterloo Bridge in 1976.
Staircase of the Old Vic
In July 1974 the Old Vic presented a rock concert for the first time. National Theatre director Peter Hall arranged for the progressive folk-rock band Gryphon to première Midnight Mushrumps, the fantasia inspired by Hall's own 1974 Old Vic production of The Tempest starring John Gielgud for which Gryphon had supplied the music.
Prospect Theatre Company
For two years prior to the departure of the National Theatre Company, Toby Robertson, director of the Prospect Theatre Company, sustained a campaign that the Old Vic should make Prospect its resident company. For the Old Vic, Robertson's overtures proved increasingly hard to resist in the face of poor box office returns achieved by productions staged by other visiting companies; against this, Prospect staged a highly successful season which opened in May 1977, including Hamlet with Derek Jacobi, Antony and Cleopatra with Alec McCowen and Dorothy Tutin; and Saint Joan with Eileen Atkins. In July the Governors of the Old Vic announced "a marriage that was all but a merger" between the Vic and Prospect. In September Toby Robertson, director of Prospect, was asked to take artistic control of the Old Vic, and Christopher Richards, general manager of the Old Vic, became general manager of Prospect.
One major problem, though, was the terms of Prospect's funding by the Arts Council of Great Britain: this was on the basis of it being a touring company, and the council – already funding the National Theatre and the Royal Shakespeare Company in London – could not accept a case for another theatre company in the capital and repeatedly refused requests to fund any London seasons staged by Prospect. Therefore, any London-based productions would have to succeed financially without Arts Council support. Prospect's first season at the Old Vic recouped its costs but left no surplus to fund future productions. Further stagings by visiting companies were box office failures and stretched the theatre's finances to breaking point. Yet Prospect continued to draw audiences to the Old Vic where other companies failed. In December 1978, the governors of the Old Vic agreed to a five-year contract with Prospect, announcing to the press on 23 April that henceforth they would be styled "Prospect Productions Ltd., trading as the Old Vic Company". Unfortunately Prospect's touring commitments kept the company out of the theatre for the first half of 1979, leaving the theatre to sink further into debt. The company returned in July with Jacobi's Hamlet (toured afterwards to Denmark, Australia and China, the first English theatre company to tour that country), followed by Romeo and Juliet, and The Government Inspector with Ian Richardson. The following season, however, proved controversial: the proposed programming, including the double bill of The Padlock and Miss in Her Teens, to mark the bicentenary of David Garrick's death, and a revival of What the Butler Saw, were deemed by the Arts Council unsuitable for touring repertory. An internal report by Prospect now questioned "whether Prospect can any longer satisfy the triple task of filling the Vic, of satisfying the Arts Council Director of Touring's requirements for product of a certain familiar sort, and of realising the vision of Toby Robertson".
Robertson was in effect fired as artistic director in 1980 while he was abroad with the company in China, Timothy West replacing him. The following season, West's first as Robertson's successor, saw Macbeth with Peter O'Toole, The Merchant of Venice with West as Shylock, and a gala performance presented to the Queen Mother to celebrate her eightieth birthday. On 22 December 1980, four days after the gala performance, the Arts Council withdrew its funding from the company, sealing its inevitable demise. The company gave a final season at the Old Vic in 1981, staging The Merchant of Venice, then gave a final tour of Europe, giving its last performance in Rome on 14 June before disbanding.
Youth Theatre
The 'Old Vic Youth Theatre’ was an acting company for young people between the ages of 12 and 20 mainly from the London Borough of Southwark. The group was founded by Tom Vaughan of the Old Vic Theatre, Raymond Rivers of Morley College and Barry Anderson of the Southbank Education Institute. The Inner London Education Authority (ILEA) was the enterprise's main funding body.
During the early spring term of 1977 auditions consisting of improvisational scenes run by the Youth Theatre's first professional directors Lucy Parker and Frederick Proud took place and around 40 applicants were chosen to form the company.
By the middle of the summer in 1977 the 'Old Vic Youth Theatre’ had performed two plays for the paying public. First was ‘The Kitchen’ by Arnold Wesker which also incorporated improvised scenes alongside the actual script and was staged in the Emma Cons Hall at Morley College. The Youth Theatre's second production, ‘A Midsummer Night’s Dream’ by William Shakespeare was first performed at the George Inn Courtyard as part of the Southwark Shakespeare Festival the same year and was the company's debut production at the Old Vic Theatre itself.
In the autumn of 1977 a new round of auditions took place and the existing group expanded into two. One group concentrated on a famous scripted play whilst the other would devise a play through improvisation from which the material was scripted into a play by a professional playwright.
The Youth groups continued to produce plays with new members auditioning each September until the mid 1980s.
Reopening
The Old Vic was significantly restored under the ownership of Toronto department-store entrepreneur 'Honest Ed' Mirvish in 1985. In 1987, his son David Mirvish installed Jonathan Miller as artistic director of the Old Vic and the theatre enjoyed several critical successes – including an Olivier Award for a production of the musical Candide, but suffered three straight years of financial loss. In 1990, Mirvish terminated Miller's contract over budgetary issues, earning much negative criticism in the British press.
In 1997, Mirvish appointed Sir Peter Hall as artistic director and, again, enjoyed critical acclaim with such productions as The Master Builder with Alan Bates and Waiting for Godot with Ben Kingsley, but continuing financial loss. Within a year of the appointment, Mirvish terminated Hall's contract – again to much negative comment in the press – and put the Old Vic up for sale. In 1998, the building was bought by a new charitable trust, the Old Vic Theatre Trust 2000. In 2000, the production company Criterion Productions was renamed Old Vic Productions plc, although relatively few of its productions are at the Old Vic theatre.
Kevin Spacey
In 2003, actor Kevin Spacey was appointed as new artistic director of the Old Vic Theatre Company. Spacey said he wanted to inject new life into the British theatre industry, and bring British and American theatrical talent to the stage. Spacey served as artistic director until 2015.
In November 2017, amid a series of rape and sexual misconduct allegations against Spacey, 20 people contacted the Old Vic with claims that he had sexually harassed or assaulted them at the theatre during his tenure as artistic director. In the wake of the scandal, The Old Vic released a statement apologising for "not creating an environment or culture where people felt able to speak freely", and announced a "commitment to a new way forward".
In 2018, the Old Vic announced that it had established the Guardians Programme, a group of trained staff who offer a confidential outlet for colleagues to share concerns about behaviour or the culture at work. Additionally, a Guardians Network has been formed to bring together the group of organisations from all sectors (not just the arts) who have implemented the principles of a Guardian Programme.
Matthew Warchus
Since 2015, Matthew Warchus has been Artistic Director of The Old Vic. His debut season opened in September 2015 with Warchus's production of a new play about education, Future Conditional by Tamsin Oglesby.
Bicentenary
On 24 October 2017, The Old Vic announced its bicentenary season. The theatre celebrated its 200th birthday on 11 May 2018 with a free performance of Joe Penhall's Mood Music, featuring Ben Chaplin.
Recent and current productions
2005
The Philadelphia Story by Phillip Barry, starring Kevin Spacey and Jennifer Ehle
Richard II by William Shakespeare, starring Kevin Spacey and Ben Miles
Aladdin starring Ian McKellen
2006
Resurrection Blues by Arthur Miller, starring Neve Campbell, Matthew Modine and Maximilian Schell
A Moon for the Misbegotten by Eugene O'Neill, starring Eve Best and Kevin Spacey
2007
Twelfth Night and The Taming of the Shrew by William Shakespeare
The Entertainer by John Osborne, starring Robert Lindsay
Gaslight by Patrick Hamilton, starring Rosamund Pike and Kenneth Cranham
All About My Mother by Pedro Almodóvar, starring Diana Rigg and Lesley Manville
Cinderella starring Pauline Collins and Sandi Toksvig
2008
Speed-the-Plow by David Mamet, starring Jeff Goldblum and Kevin Spacey
Pygmalion by George Bernard Shaw, starring Tim Pigott-Smith and Michelle Dockery
The Norman Conquests by Alan Ayckbourn
2009
Complicit by Joe Sutton, starring Richard Dreyfus, Elizabeth McGovern and David Suchet
Dancing at Lughnasa by Brian Friel
The Cherry Orchard by Anton Chekhov and The Winter’s Tale by William Shakespeare
Inherit the Wind by Jerome Lawrence and Robert E. Lee, starring Kevin Spacey and David Troughton
2010
Six Degrees of Separation by John Guare, starring Lesley Manville
The Real Thing by Tom Stoppard, starring Toby Stephens and Hattie Morahan
As You Like It and The Tempest by William Shakespeare
Design for Living by Noël Coward, starring Tom Burke, Lisa Dillon and Andrew Scott
A Flea in Her Ear by Georges Feydeau, in a translation by John Mortimer, starring Tom Hollander
2011 season
Cause Célèbre by Terence Rattigan, directed by Thea Sharrock, starring Anne-Marie Duff
Richard III by William Shakespeare, directed by Sam Mendes, starring Kevin Spacey
The Playboy of the Western World by J M Synge, directed by John Crowley, starring Niamh Cusack, Ruth Negga and Robert Sheehan
Noises Off by Michael Frayn, directed by Lindsay Posner, starring Janie Dee, Robert Glenister and Celia Imrie
2012 season
The Duchess of Malfi by John Webster, directed by Jamie Lloyd, starring Eve Best
Democracy by Michael Frayn, directed by Paul Miller
Hedda Gabler by Henrik Ibsen in a new version by Brian Friel, directed by Anna Mackmin, starring Sheridan Smith
Kiss Me, Kate music and lyrics by Cole Porter book by Sam and Bella Spewack, directed by Trevor Nunn, choreography by Stephen Mear, starring Alex Bourne, David Burt, Adam Garcia, Clive Rowe and Hannah Waddingham
2013 season
The Winslow Boy by Terence Rattigan, directed by Lindsay Posner, starring Henry Goodman
Sweet Bird of Youth by Tennessee Williams, directed by Marianne Elliott, starring Kim Cattrall and Seth Numrich
Much Ado About Nothing by William Shakespeare, directed by Mark Rylance, starring James Earl Jones and Vanessa Redgrave
Fortune's Fool by Ivan Turgenev in a version by Mike Poulton, directed by Lucy Bailey, starring Richard McCabe
2014 season
Other Desert Cities by Jon Robin Baitz, directed by Lindsay Posner
Clarence Darrow by David W. Rintels, directed by Thea Sharrock, starring Kevin Spacey
The Crucible by Arthur Miller, directed by Yaël Farber, starring Richard Armitage
Electra by Sophocles in a version by Frank McGuinness, directed by Ian Rickson, starring Kristin Scott Thomas
2015 season
Tree, a play for two people written and directed by Daniel Kitson, starring Tim Key and Daniel Kitson
Clarence Darrow by David W. Rintels, directed by Thea Sharrock, starring Kevin Spacey
High Society music and lyrics by Cole Porter book by Arthur Kopit, directed by Maria Friedman
2015–16 season
Future Conditional by Tamsin Oglesby, directed by Matthew Warchus, starring Rob Brydon
The Hairy Ape by Eugene O'Neill, directed by Richard Jones, starring Bertie Carvel
Dr. Seuss's The Lorax adapted for the stage by David Greig, music and lyrics by Charlie Fink, directed by Max Webster
The Master Builder by Henrik Ibsen in a new adaptation by David Hare, directed by Matthew Warchus, starring Ralph Fiennes
The Caretaker by Harold Pinter, directed by Matthew Warchus, starring Timothy Spall, Daniel Mays and George Mackay
Jekyll & Hyde by The McOnie Company, devised directed and choreographed by Drew McOnie
Groundhog Day book by Danny Rubin music and lyrics by Tim Minchin, directed by Matthew Warchus, starring Andy Karl
2016–17 season
No's Knife by Samuel Beckett, co-directed and performed by Lisa Dwan, co-directed by Joe Murphy
King Lear by William Shakespeare, directed by Deborah Warner, starring Glenda Jackson
Art by Yasmina Reza translated by Christopher Hampton, directed by Matthew Warchus, starring Rufus Sewell, Tim Key and Paul Ritter
Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead by Tom Stoppard, directed by David Leveaux, starring Daniel Radcliffe and Joshua McGuire
Woyzeck by Georg Büchner in a new version by Jack Thorne, directed by Joe Murphy, starring John Boyega
Girl from the North Country written and directed by Conor McPherson, music and lyrics by Bob Dylan
Dr. Seuss's The Lorax adapted for the stage by David Greig, music and lyrics by Charlie Fink, directed by Max Webster
2017–18 season
A Christmas Carol, a version by Jack Thorne, directed by Matthew Warchus, starring Rhys Ifans
The Divide, a new play by Alan Ayckbourn, directed by Annabel Bolton
Fanny and Alexander adapted for the stage by Stephen Beresford and starring Penelope Wilton
Mood Music by Joe Penhall and directed by Roger Michell starring Ben Chaplin
Bicentenary Variety Night
Sea Wall by Simon Stephens, starring Andrew Scott
A Monster Calls, based on the novel by Patrick Ness and inspired by an idea from Siobhan Dowd, devised by the company
2018–19 season
Sylvia written by Kate Prince and Priya Parma, with Prince providing choreography and direction as well
A Christmas Carol, a version by Jack Thorne, directed by Matthew Warchus, starring Stephen Tompkinson
The American Clock by Arthur Miller, directed by Rachel Chavkin
All My Sons by Arthur Miller, directed by Jeremy Herrin, starring Sally Field, Bill Pullman, Jenna Coleman and Colin Morgan
Present Laughter by Noël Coward, directed by Matthew Warchus, starring Andrew Scott
2019–20 season
A Very Expensive Poison by Lucy Prebble, based on the book by Luke Harding
Lungs by Duncan Macmillan, directed by Matthew Warchus, starring Matt Smith and Claire Foy
A Christmas Carol, a version by Jack Thorne, directed by Matthew Warchus, starring Paterson Joseph
Endgame (in double bill with Rough for Theatre II) by Samuel Beckett, directed by Richard Jones, starring Alan Cumming and Daniel Radcliffe (closed early due to the COVID-19 pandemic)
Old Vic: In Camera series (during COVID-19 pandemic)
Lungs by Duncan Macmillan, directed by Matthew Warchus, starring Matt Smith and Claire Foy
Three Kings by Stephen Beresford, directed by Matthew Warchus, starring Andrew Scott
Faith Healer by Brian Friel, directed by Matthew Warchus, starring Michael Sheen, David Threlfall and Indira Varma
A Christmas Carol, a version by Jack Thorne, directed by Matthew Warchus, starring Andrew Lincoln
Dr. Seuss's The Lorax adapted for the stage by David Greig, music and lyrics by Charlie Fink, directed by Max Webster, starring Jamael Westman and Audrey Brisson
The Dumb Waiter by Harold Pinter, directed by Jeremy Herrin, starring David Thewlis and Daniel Mays
Bagdad Cafe, adapted and directed by Emma Rice
2021–22 season
The Dumb Waiter by Harold Pinter, directed by Jeremy Herrin, starring David Thewlis and Daniel Mays
Bagdad Cafe, adapted and directed by Emma Rice
Camp Siegfried by Bess Wohl, directed by Katy Rudd, starring Patsy Ferran and Luke Thallon
A Christmas Carol, a version by Jack Thorne, directed by Matthew Warchus, starring Stephen Mangan
A Number by Caryl Churchill, directed by Lyndsey Turner, starring Paapa Essiedu and Lennie James
The 47th by Mike Bartlett, directed by Rupert Goold, starring Bertie Carvel, Tamarie Tunie and Lydia Wilson
Jitney by August Wilson, directed by Tinuke Craig, starring Will Johnson and Solomon Israel
2022–23 season
Eureka Day by Jonathan Spector, directed by Katy Rudd, starring Helen Hunt
A Christmas Carol, a version by Jack Thorne, directed by Matthew Warchus, starring Owen Teale
Sylvia, by Kate Prince and Priya Parma, with music by Josh Cohen and DJ Walde, directed by Kate Prince, starring Beverley Knight
Groundhog Day, by Danny Rubin and Tim Minchin, directed by Matthew Warchus, starring Andy Karl
2023–24 season
Pygmalion by George Bernard Shaw, directed by Richard Jones, starring Bertie Carvel and Patsy Ferran
A Christmas Carol, a version by Jack Thorne, directed by Matthew Warchus, starring Christopher Eccleston
Just For One Day by John O'Farrell, directed by Luke Sheppard
Machinal by Sophie Treadwell, directed by Richard Jones
The Constituent by Joe Penhall, directed by Matthew Warchus, starring James Corden and Anna Maxwell Martin
2024-25 season
A Christmas Carol, a version by Jack Thorne, directed by Matthew Warchus
Oedipus, a new adaptation by Ella Hickson, directed by Matthew Warchus and Hofesh Shechter, starring Rami Malek and Indira Varma
References
^ Historic England, "Old Vic Theatre (1068710)", National Heritage List for England, retrieved 2 September 2020
^ "Kenny, Sean, 1932–1973". National Art Library Catalogue. Victoria and Albert Museum. Archived from the original on 1 August 2013. Retrieved 20 June 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
^ English Heritage listing details 28 April 2007
^ "Spacey 'to run Old Vic'". BBC News. 3 February 2003. Archived from the original on 20 March 2021. Retrieved 9 March 2014.
^ a b Clarke, Stewart (16 November 2017). "Old Vic Theater Logs 20 Complaints About Kevin Spacey, Pledges to Improve Accountability". Variety. Los Angeles, California: Penske Media Corporation. Archived from the original on 20 March 2021. Retrieved 17 February 2019.
^ Brown, Mark (22 May 2014). "Matthew Warchus to take [Kevin Spacey's role running the Old Vic". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 22 June 2016.
^ Frick, John W. (2003). Theatre, culture and temperance reform in nineteenth-century America. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p. 86. ISBN 978-0-521-81778-3.
^ a b Rowell, George Presbury (1993). The Old Vic Theatre: a history. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 26–29. ISBN 0-521-34625-8.
^ "Royal Victoria Theatre". Standard. London. 2 July 1833.
^ "Court Circular". The Times. London. 30 November 1833.
^ Newton, Henry Chance (1923). The Old Vic. and its associations; being my own extraordinary experiences of "Queen Victoria's own theayter". London: Fleetway Press. OCLC 150444870.
^ "7 things you never knew about the Old Vic Theatre". 10 May 2018. Archived from the original on 20 March 2021. Retrieved 22 August 2018.
^ Coleman (2014), pp. 22–36.
^ Coleman (2014), pp. 43–57.
^ 'The Royal Victoria Hall –The Old Vic' Archived 20 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Survey of London: Vol. 23. Lambeth: South Bank and Vauxhall (1951), pp. 37–9. Retrieved 28 April 2007.
^ "Broadcasting the "Old Vic."". The Radio Times. No. 12. 14 December 1923. p. 410. Archived from the original on 20 March 2021. Retrieved 21 December 2019.
^ "Wireless Programme - Saturday (Nov. 24th.)". The Radio Times. No. 8. 16 November 1923. p. 267. Archived from the original on 20 March 2021. Retrieved 21 December 2019.
^ Baylis, Lilian (12 October 1923). "The Romance of the 'Old Vic.'". The Radio Times. No. 3. p. 70. Archived from the original on 20 March 2021. Retrieved 13 July 2019.
^ "Search Results for England & Wales Deaths 1837-2007". Archived from the original on 20 March 2021. Retrieved 13 July 2019.
^ Rowell, p. 157
^ Rowell, p. 158
^ "History of the Old Vic, 1950–1999". The Old Vic. Archived from the original on 5 September 2014. Retrieved 5 September 2014.
^ "Prospect Theatre Company". Ian McKellen Stage. Archived from the original on 10 August 2014. Retrieved 4 September 2014.
^ Rowell, p. 159
^ a b c Rowell, p. 160
^ a b Hunter, Adriana (2006). "Prospect Theatre Company" in Continuum Companion to Twentieth Century Theatre. A&C Black. p. 623. ISBN 9781847140012. Archived from the original on 20 March 2021. Retrieved 15 October 2020.
^ Quoted in Rowell, p. 160
^ Coveney, Michael (8 July 2012). "Toby Robertson obituary". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 3 February 2014. Retrieved 16 September 2013.
^ a b c Rowell, p. 161
^ "Kevin Spacey: Old Vic reveals 20 staff allegations against him". BBC. London, England. 16 November 2017. Archived from the original on 20 March 2021. Retrieved 17 February 2019.
^ Garrido, Duarte (16 November 2017). "Old Vic theatre apologises after Kevin Spacey investigation reveals 20 allegations". Sky News. Archived from the original on 20 March 2021. Retrieved 17 February 2019.
^ {{cite website=The Guardians Programme|date=21 May 2019|url=https://www.oldvictheatre.com/about-us/guardians-programme%7Ctitle=Guardian Programme}}
^ "Matthew Warchus to take Kevin Spacey's role running the Old Vic". The Guardian. 22 May 2014. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 19 May 2015.
^ Kellaway, Kate (13 September 2015). "Future Conditional review – an entertaining assault on the UK's divisive education system". The Observer. Retrieved 26 January 2024.
^ "Old Vic announces bicentennial season | WhatsOnStage". Archived from the original on 20 March 2021. Retrieved 2 May 2018.
^ "The Old Vic is giving out free tickets (And cake) for its birthday". 22 March 2018. Archived from the original on 20 March 2021. Retrieved 2 May 2018.
^ "Fiennes and Spall lead Old Vic season". www.officiallondontheatre.co.uk. Archived from the original on 20 March 2021. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
^ "Matthew Warchus unveils 2016/17 Old Vic Season". Archived from the original on 20 March 2021. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
^ "Fanny & Alexander Cast | The Old Vic". The Old Vic. Archived from the original on 20 March 2021. Retrieved 4 December 2017.
^ "Mood Music Cast | The Old Vic". The Old Vic. Archived from the original on 20 March 2021. Retrieved 4 December 2017.
^ "A Monster Calls Cast | The Old Vic". The Old Vic. Archived from the original on 20 March 2021. Retrieved 4 December 2017.
^ "Sylvia Cast | The Old Vic". The Old Vic. Archived from the original on 20 March 2021. Retrieved 4 December 2017.
Sources
Coleman, Terry (2014). The Old Vic: The Story of a Great Theatre from Kean to Olivier to Spacey. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-31125-5.
Rowell, George (1993). The Old Vic Theatre: A History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521346252.
Further reading
Guide to British Theatres 1750–1950, John Earl and Michael Sell pp. 128–9 (Theatres Trust, 2000) ISBN 0-7136-5688-3
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Old Vic.
Old Vic Theatre official website
Old Vic archive at the University of Bristol Theatre Collection, University of Bristol
Lilian Baylis archive at the University of Bristol Theatre Collection, University of Bristol
Old Vic Theatre History
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For the 19th century theatres in Australia, see Queen's Theatre, Adelaide and Royal Victoria Theatre, Sydney.\"Old Vic\" redirects here. For the thoroughbred racehorse, see Old Vic (horse).\"Old Vic Theatre School\" redirects here. For the drama school in Bristol, see Bristol Old Vic Theatre School.Audio description of the theatre by Derek JacobiThe Old Vic is a 1,000-seat, not-for-profit producing theatre in Waterloo, London, England. It was established in 1818 as the Royal Coburg Theatre, and renamed in 1833 the Royal Victoria Theatre. In 1871 it was rebuilt and reopened as the Royal Victoria Palace. It was taken over by Emma Cons in 1880 and formally named the Royal Victoria Hall, although by that time it was already known as the \"Old Vic\". In 1898, a niece of Cons, Lilian Baylis, assumed management and began a series of Shakespeare productions in 1914. The building was damaged in 1940 during air raids and it became a Grade II* listed building in 1951 after it reopened.[3]The Old Vic is the crucible of many of the performing arts companies and theatres in London today. It was the name of a repertory company that was based at the theatre and formed (along with the Chichester Festival Theatre) the core of the National Theatre of Great Britain on its formation in 1963, under Laurence Olivier. The National Theatre remained at the Old Vic until new premises were constructed on the South Bank, opening in 1976. The Old Vic then became the home of Prospect Theatre Company, at that time a highly successful touring company which staged such acclaimed productions as Derek Jacobi's Hamlet. However, with the withdrawal of funding for the company by the Arts Council of Great Britain in 1980 for breaching its touring obligations, Prospect disbanded in 1981. The theatre underwent complete refurbishment in 1985. In 2003, Kevin Spacey was appointed artistic director, which received considerable media attention.[4] Spacey served as artistic director until 2015; two years after he stepped down, he was accused of sexually harassing and assaulting several people.[5] In 2015, Matthew Warchus succeeded Spacey as artistic director.[6]","title":"The Old Vic"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Royal_Coburg_Theatre_1822.jpg"},{"link_name":"Surrey Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrey_Theatre"},{"link_name":"Bermondsey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bermondsey"},{"link_name":"John Thomas Serres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Thomas_Serres"},{"link_name":"Princess Charlotte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princess_Charlotte_Augusta_of_Wales"},{"link_name":"Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold_I_of_Belgium"},{"link_name":"patent theatres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent_theatre"},{"link_name":"Edmund Kean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Kean"},{"link_name":"teetotaller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teetotaller"},{"link_name":"Douglas Jerrold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Jerrold"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jwf-7"},{"link_name":"Surrey Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrey_Theatre"},{"link_name":"Daniel Egerton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Egerton"},{"link_name":"William Abbot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Abbot_(actor)"},{"link_name":"Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rowell1993-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Victoria, Duchess of Kent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princess_Victoria_of_Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld"},{"link_name":"Princess Victoria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Victoria"},{"link_name":"heir presumptive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heir_presumptive"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rowell1993-8"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_Vic0185.JPG"},{"link_name":"David Osbaldiston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=David_Osbaldiston&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Eliza Vincent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eliza_Vincent&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"Alhambra Music Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alhambra_Music_Hall"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Emma Cons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emma_Cons"},{"link_name":"temperance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperance_movement"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Morley College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morley_College"},{"link_name":"Samuel Morley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Morley_(MP)"},{"link_name":"adult education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adult_education"},{"link_name":"La Traviata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Traviata"},{"link_name":"BBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Radio"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RT-12-410-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RT-8-267-17"}],"sub_title":"Origins","text":"Royal Coburg Theatre in 1822The theatre was founded in 1818 by James King and Daniel Dunn (formerly managers of the Surrey Theatre in Bermondsey), and John Thomas Serres, then the marine painter to the King. Serres managed to secure the formal patronage of Princess Charlotte and her husband Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, and named the theatre the Royal Coburg Theatre. The theatre was a \"minor\" theatre (as opposed to one of the two patent theatres) and was thus technically forbidden to show serious drama. Nevertheless, when the theatre passed to George Bolwell Davidge in 1824 he succeeded in bringing legendary actor Edmund Kean south of the river to play six Shakespeare plays in six nights. The theatre's role in bringing high art to the masses was confirmed when Kean addressed the audience during his curtain call saying \"I have never acted to such a set of ignorant, unmitigated brutes as I see before me.\" More popular staples in the repertoire were \"sensational and violent\" melodramas demonstrating the evils of drink, \"churned out by the house dramatist\", confirmed teetotaller Douglas Jerrold.[7]When Davidge left to take over the Surrey Theatre in 1833, the theatre was bought by Daniel Egerton and William Abbot, who tried to capitalise on the abolition of the legal distinction between patent and minor theatres, enacted in Parliament earlier that year.[8] On 1 July 1833,[9] the theatre was renamed the Royal Victoria Theatre, under the \"protection and patronage\" of Victoria, Duchess of Kent, mother to Princess Victoria, the 14-year-old heir presumptive to the British throne. The duchess and the princess visited only once, on 28 November of that year, but enjoyed the performance, of light opera and dance, in the \"pretty...clean and comfortable\" theatre. The single visit scarcely justified the \"Old Vic\" its later billing as \"Queen Victoria's Own Theayter\".[8][10][11]The Old Vic, photographed in 2012In 1841, David Osbaldiston took over as lessee, and was succeeded on his death in 1850 by his lover and the theatre's leading lady, Eliza Vincent, until her death in 1856. Under their management, the theatre remained devoted to melodrama. In 1858, sixteen people were crushed to death inside the theatre after mass panic caused while an actor's clothing caught fire.[12][13] In 1867, Joseph Arnold Cave took over as lessee. In 1871 he transferred the lease to Romaine Delatorre, who raised funds for the theatre to be rebuilt[clarification needed] in the style of the Alhambra Music Hall. Jethro Thomas Robinson was engaged as the architect. In September 1871 the old theatre closed, and the new building opened as the Royal Victoria Palace in December of the same year, with Cave staying on as manager. By 1873, however, Cave had left and Delatorre's venture failed.[14]In 1880, under the ownership of Emma Cons (for whose memory there are plaques outside and inside the theatre) it became the Royal Victoria Hall and Coffee Tavern and was run on \"strict temperance lines\"; by this time it was already known as the \"Old Vic\".[15] The \"penny lectures\" given in the hall led to the foundation of Morley College. An endowment from the estate of Samuel Morley led to the creation of the Morley Memorial College for Working Men and Women on the premises, which were shared; lectures were given back stage, and in the theatre dressing rooms. The adult education college moved to its own premises nearby in the 1920s.On 24 November 1923, the theatre participated in a pioneering radio event, when the first set of the opera La Traviata was broadcast live by the BBC, using transmitters in London, Manchester and Glasgow, via a specially installed relay transmitter on the roof of the adjacent Royal Victoria Tavern.[16][17]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_vic_night.JPG"},{"link_name":"Lilian Baylis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lilian_Baylis"},{"link_name":"Shakespearean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespeare"},{"link_name":"British Broadcasting Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Broadcasting_Company"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Baylis-18"},{"link_name":"Sir John Gielgud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Gielgud"},{"link_name":"Lilian Baylis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lilian_Baylis"},{"link_name":"Sadler's Wells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadler%27s_Wells"},{"link_name":"Dame Ninette de Valois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ninette_de_Valois"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"sub_title":"Old Vic company","text":"The theatre at nightWith Emma Cons's death in 1912 the theatre passed to her niece Lilian Baylis, who emphasised the Shakespearean repertoire. The first radio broadcasts from the theatre were made as early as October 1923, by the British Broadcasting Company.[18] The Old Vic Company was established in 1929, led by Sir John Gielgud. Between 1925 and 1931, Lilian Baylis championed the re-building of the then-derelict Sadler's Wells Theatre, and established a ballet company under the direction of Dame Ninette de Valois. For a few years the drama and ballet companies rotated between the two theatres, with the ballet becoming permanently based at Sadler's Wells in 1935. Baylis died in November 1937.[19]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"the Blitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Blitz"},{"link_name":"Burnley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burnley"},{"link_name":"Ralph Richardson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Richardson"},{"link_name":"Laurence Olivier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurence_Olivier"},{"link_name":"New Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No%C3%ABl_Coward_Theatre"},{"link_name":"Bristol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol"},{"link_name":"Bristol Old Vic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol_Old_Vic"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Wartime exile","text":"The Old Vic was damaged badly during the Blitz, and the war-depleted company spent all its time touring, based in Burnley, Lancashire at the Victoria Theatre during the years 1940 to 1943. In 1944, the company was re-established in London with Ralph Richardson and Laurence Olivier as its stars, performing mainly at the New Theatre (now the Noël Coward Theatre) until the Old Vic was ready to reopen in 1950. In 1946, an offshoot of the company was established in Bristol as the Bristol Old Vic.[citation needed]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Michael Benthall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Benthall"},{"link_name":"Richard Burton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Burton"},{"link_name":"Claire Bloom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claire_Bloom"},{"link_name":"John Neville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Neville_(actor)"},{"link_name":"Judi Dench","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judi_Dench"}],"sub_title":"The Five Year plan","text":"In 1953, Michael Benthall became the Artistic Director. Michael devised the Five Year plan during his tenure. The plan was to produce Shakespeare's First Folio in five years, starting the plan with Hamlet, starring Richard Burton and Claire Bloom as Hamlet and Ophelia respectively, and ending the plan with Hamlet, starring John Neville and Judi Dench in the leading roles. Michael remained at the Old Vic company until 1962.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"National Theatre Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_National_Theatre"},{"link_name":"Sir Laurence Olivier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurence_Olivier"},{"link_name":"South Bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Bank"},{"link_name":"Waterloo Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterloo_Bridge"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_Vic.jpg"},{"link_name":"Peter Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Hall_(theatre_director)"},{"link_name":"Gryphon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gryphon_(band)"},{"link_name":"The Tempest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tempest"},{"link_name":"John Gielgud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Gielgud"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"National Theatre company","text":"In 1963, the Old Vic company was dissolved and the new National Theatre Company, under the artistic direction of Sir Laurence Olivier, was based at the Old Vic until its own building was opened on the South Bank near Waterloo Bridge in 1976.Staircase of the Old VicIn July 1974 the Old Vic presented a rock concert for the first time. National Theatre director Peter Hall arranged for the progressive folk-rock band Gryphon to première Midnight Mushrumps, the fantasia inspired by Hall's own 1974 Old Vic production of The Tempest starring John Gielgud for which Gryphon had supplied the music.[citation needed]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"National Theatre Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_National_Theatre"},{"link_name":"Toby Robertson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toby_Robertson"},{"link_name":"Prospect Theatre Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prospect_Theatre_Company"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rowell157-20"},{"link_name":"Derek Jacobi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derek_Jacobi"},{"link_name":"Antony and Cleopatra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antony_and_Cleopatra"},{"link_name":"Alec McCowen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alec_McCowen"},{"link_name":"Dorothy Tutin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorothy_Tutin"},{"link_name":"Saint Joan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Joan_(play)"},{"link_name":"Eileen Atkins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eileen_Atkins"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rowell158-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mckellenProspect-23"},{"link_name":"Arts Council of Great Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arts_Council_of_Great_Britain"},{"link_name":"Royal Shakespeare Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Shakespeare_Company"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rowell160-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Continuum-26"},{"link_name":"Romeo and Juliet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romeo_and_Juliet"},{"link_name":"The Government Inspector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Government_Inspector"},{"link_name":"Ian Richardson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Richardson"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rowell160-25"},{"link_name":"Miss in Her Teens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miss_in_Her_Teens"},{"link_name":"David Garrick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Garrick"},{"link_name":"What the Butler Saw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_the_Butler_Saw_(play)"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rowell160-25"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China"},{"link_name":"Timothy West","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timothy_West"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GuardianRobertsonobit-28"},{"link_name":"Macbeth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macbeth"},{"link_name":"Peter O'Toole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_O%27Toole"},{"link_name":"The Merchant of Venice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Merchant_of_Venice"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rowell161-29"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Continuum-26"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rowell161-29"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rowell161-29"}],"sub_title":"Prospect Theatre Company","text":"For two years prior to the departure of the National Theatre Company, Toby Robertson, director of the Prospect Theatre Company, sustained a campaign that the Old Vic should make Prospect its resident company.[20] For the Old Vic, Robertson's overtures proved increasingly hard to resist in the face of poor box office returns achieved by productions staged by other visiting companies; against this, Prospect staged a highly successful season which opened in May 1977, including Hamlet with Derek Jacobi, Antony and Cleopatra with Alec McCowen and Dorothy Tutin; and Saint Joan with Eileen Atkins.[21][22] In July the Governors of the Old Vic announced \"a marriage that was all but a merger\" between the Vic and Prospect. In September Toby Robertson, director of Prospect, was asked to take artistic control of the Old Vic, and Christopher Richards, general manager of the Old Vic, became general manager of Prospect.[23]One major problem, though, was the terms of Prospect's funding by the Arts Council of Great Britain: this was on the basis of it being a touring company, and the council – already funding the National Theatre and the Royal Shakespeare Company in London – could not accept a case for another theatre company in the capital and repeatedly refused requests to fund any London seasons staged by Prospect. Therefore, any London-based productions would have to succeed financially without Arts Council support. Prospect's first season at the Old Vic recouped its costs but left no surplus to fund future productions. Further stagings by visiting companies were box office failures and stretched the theatre's finances to breaking point.[24] Yet Prospect continued to draw audiences to the Old Vic where other companies failed. In December 1978, the governors of the Old Vic agreed to a five-year contract with Prospect, announcing to the press on 23 April that henceforth they would be styled \"Prospect Productions Ltd., trading as the Old Vic Company\".[25] Unfortunately Prospect's touring commitments kept the company out of the theatre for the first half of 1979, leaving the theatre to sink further into debt. The company returned in July with Jacobi's Hamlet (toured afterwards to Denmark, Australia and China, the first English theatre company to tour that country),[26] followed by Romeo and Juliet, and The Government Inspector with Ian Richardson.[25] The following season, however, proved controversial: the proposed programming, including the double bill of The Padlock and Miss in Her Teens, to mark the bicentenary of David Garrick's death, and a revival of What the Butler Saw, were deemed by the Arts Council unsuitable for touring repertory.[25] An internal report by Prospect now questioned \"whether Prospect can any longer satisfy the triple task of filling the Vic, of satisfying the Arts Council Director of Touring's requirements for product of a certain familiar sort, and of realising the vision of Toby Robertson\".[27]Robertson was in effect fired as artistic director in 1980 while he was abroad with the company in China, Timothy West replacing him.[28] The following season, West's first as Robertson's successor, saw Macbeth with Peter O'Toole, The Merchant of Venice with West as Shylock, and a gala performance presented to the Queen Mother to celebrate her eightieth birthday.[29] On 22 December 1980, four days after the gala performance, the Arts Council withdrew its funding from the company, sealing its inevitable demise.[26][29] The company gave a final season at the Old Vic in 1981, staging The Merchant of Venice, then gave a final tour of Europe, giving its last performance in Rome on 14 June before disbanding.[29]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Southwark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southwark"},{"link_name":"Southbank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Bank"},{"link_name":"Inner London Education Authority","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inner_London_Education_Authority"},{"link_name":"Arnold Wesker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnold_Wesker"}],"sub_title":"Youth Theatre","text":"The 'Old Vic Youth Theatre’ was an acting company for young people between the ages of 12 and 20 mainly from the London Borough of Southwark. The group was founded by Tom Vaughan of the Old Vic Theatre, Raymond Rivers of Morley College and Barry Anderson of the Southbank Education Institute. The Inner London Education Authority (ILEA) was the enterprise's main funding body.During the early spring term of 1977 auditions consisting of improvisational scenes run by the Youth Theatre's first professional directors Lucy Parker and Frederick Proud took place and around 40 applicants were chosen to form the company.By the middle of the summer in 1977 the 'Old Vic Youth Theatre’ had performed two plays for the paying public. First was ‘The Kitchen’ by Arnold Wesker which also incorporated improvised scenes alongside the actual script and was staged in the Emma Cons Hall at Morley College. The Youth Theatre's second production, ‘A Midsummer Night’s Dream’ by William Shakespeare was first performed at the George Inn Courtyard as part of the Southwark Shakespeare Festival the same year and was the company's debut production at the Old Vic Theatre itself.In the autumn of 1977 a new round of auditions took place and the existing group expanded into two. One group concentrated on a famous scripted play whilst the other would devise a play through improvisation from which the material was scripted into a play by a professional playwright.The Youth groups continued to produce plays with new members auditioning each September until the mid 1980s.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"'Honest Ed' Mirvish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_Mirvish"},{"link_name":"David Mirvish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Mirvish"},{"link_name":"Jonathan Miller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Miller"},{"link_name":"Olivier Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olivier_Award"},{"link_name":"Sir Peter Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Hall_(director)"},{"link_name":"The Master Builder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Master_Builder"},{"link_name":"Alan Bates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Bates"},{"link_name":"Waiting for Godot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waiting_for_Godot"},{"link_name":"Ben Kingsley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Kingsley"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Reopening","text":"The Old Vic was significantly restored under the ownership of Toronto department-store entrepreneur 'Honest Ed' Mirvish in 1985. In 1987, his son David Mirvish installed Jonathan Miller as artistic director of the Old Vic and the theatre enjoyed several critical successes – including an Olivier Award for a production of the musical Candide, but suffered three straight years of financial loss. In 1990, Mirvish terminated Miller's contract over budgetary issues, earning much negative criticism in the British press.In 1997, Mirvish appointed Sir Peter Hall as artistic director and, again, enjoyed critical acclaim with such productions as The Master Builder with Alan Bates and Waiting for Godot with Ben Kingsley, but continuing financial loss. Within a year of the appointment, Mirvish terminated Hall's contract – again to much negative comment in the press – and put the Old Vic up for sale. In 1998, the building was bought by a new charitable trust, the Old Vic Theatre Trust 2000. In 2000, the production company Criterion Productions was renamed Old Vic Productions plc, although relatively few of its productions are at the Old Vic theatre.[citation needed]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kevin Spacey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin_Spacey"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"rape and sexual misconduct allegations against Spacey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin_Spacey#Sexual_misconduct_allegations"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-variety-5"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"}],"sub_title":"Kevin Spacey","text":"In 2003, actor Kevin Spacey was appointed as new artistic director of the Old Vic Theatre Company. Spacey said he wanted to inject new life into the British theatre industry, and bring British and American theatrical talent to the stage. Spacey served as artistic director until 2015.[citation needed]In November 2017, amid a series of rape and sexual misconduct allegations against Spacey, 20 people contacted the Old Vic with claims that he had sexually harassed or assaulted them at the theatre during his tenure as artistic director.[5][30] In the wake of the scandal, The Old Vic released a statement apologising for \"not creating an environment or culture where people felt able to speak freely\", and announced a \"commitment to a new way forward\".[31]In 2018, the Old Vic announced that it had established the Guardians Programme, a group of trained staff who offer a confidential outlet for colleagues to share concerns about behaviour or the culture at work. Additionally, a Guardians Network has been formed to bring together the group of organisations from all sectors (not just the arts) who have implemented the principles of a Guardian Programme.[32]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Matthew Warchus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Warchus"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"}],"sub_title":"Matthew Warchus","text":"Since 2015, Matthew Warchus has been Artistic Director of The Old Vic.[33] His debut season opened in September 2015 with Warchus's production of a new play about education, Future Conditional by Tamsin Oglesby.[34]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Joe Penhall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Penhall"},{"link_name":"Mood Music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mood_Music_(play)"},{"link_name":"Ben Chaplin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Chaplin"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"}],"sub_title":"Bicentenary","text":"On 24 October 2017, The Old Vic announced its bicentenary season.[35] The theatre celebrated its 200th birthday on 11 May 2018 with a free performance of Joe Penhall's Mood Music, featuring Ben Chaplin.[36]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Recent and current productions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Philadelphia Story","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Philadelphia_Story_(play)"},{"link_name":"Phillip Barry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Barry"},{"link_name":"Kevin Spacey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin_Spacey"},{"link_name":"Jennifer Ehle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jennifer_Ehle"},{"link_name":"Richard II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_II_(play)"},{"link_name":"William Shakespeare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespeare"},{"link_name":"Kevin Spacey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin_Spacey"},{"link_name":"Ben Miles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Miles"},{"link_name":"Aladdin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aladdin"},{"link_name":"Ian McKellen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_McKellen"}],"sub_title":"2005","text":"The Philadelphia Story by Phillip Barry, starring Kevin Spacey and Jennifer Ehle\nRichard II by William Shakespeare, starring Kevin Spacey and Ben Miles\nAladdin starring Ian McKellen","title":"Recent and current productions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Resurrection Blues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resurrection_Blues"},{"link_name":"Arthur Miller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Miller"},{"link_name":"Neve Campbell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neve_Campbell"},{"link_name":"Matthew Modine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Modine"},{"link_name":"Maximilian Schell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximilian_Schell"},{"link_name":"A Moon for the Misbegotten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Moon_for_the_Misbegotten"},{"link_name":"Eugene O'Neill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugene_O%27Neill"},{"link_name":"Eve Best","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eve_Best"},{"link_name":"Kevin Spacey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin_Spacey"}],"sub_title":"2006","text":"Resurrection Blues by Arthur Miller, starring Neve Campbell, Matthew Modine and Maximilian Schell\nA Moon for the Misbegotten by Eugene O'Neill, starring Eve Best and Kevin Spacey","title":"Recent and current productions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Twelfth Night","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelfth_Night"},{"link_name":"The Taming of the Shrew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Taming_of_the_Shrew"},{"link_name":"William Shakespeare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespeare"},{"link_name":"The Entertainer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Entertainer_(play)"},{"link_name":"John Osborne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Osborne"},{"link_name":"Robert Lindsay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Lindsay_(actor)"},{"link_name":"Gaslight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_Light"},{"link_name":"Patrick Hamilton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Hamilton_(writer)"},{"link_name":"Rosamund Pike","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosamund_Pike"},{"link_name":"Kenneth Cranham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_Cranham"},{"link_name":"All About My Mother","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_About_My_Mother"},{"link_name":"Pedro Almodóvar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro_Almod%C3%B3var"},{"link_name":"Diana Rigg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diana_Rigg"},{"link_name":"Lesley Manville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesley_Manville"},{"link_name":"Cinderella","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinderella"},{"link_name":"Pauline Collins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauline_Collins"},{"link_name":"Sandi Toksvig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandi_Toksvig"}],"sub_title":"2007","text":"Twelfth Night and The Taming of the Shrew by William Shakespeare\nThe Entertainer by John Osborne, starring Robert Lindsay\nGaslight by Patrick Hamilton, starring Rosamund Pike and Kenneth Cranham\nAll About My Mother by Pedro Almodóvar, starring Diana Rigg and Lesley Manville\nCinderella starring Pauline Collins and Sandi Toksvig","title":"Recent and current productions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Speed-the-Plow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed-the-Plow"},{"link_name":"David Mamet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Mamet"},{"link_name":"Jeff Goldblum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeff_Goldblum"},{"link_name":"Kevin Spacey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin_Spacey"},{"link_name":"Pygmalion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pygmalion_(play)"},{"link_name":"George Bernard Shaw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Bernard_Shaw"},{"link_name":"Tim Pigott-Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Pigott-Smith"},{"link_name":"Michelle Dockery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelle_Dockery"},{"link_name":"The Norman Conquests","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Norman_Conquests"},{"link_name":"Alan Ayckbourn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Ayckbourn"}],"sub_title":"2008","text":"Speed-the-Plow by David Mamet, starring Jeff Goldblum and Kevin Spacey\nPygmalion by George Bernard Shaw, starring Tim Pigott-Smith and Michelle Dockery\nThe Norman Conquests by Alan Ayckbourn","title":"Recent and current productions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Complicit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complicit_(play)"},{"link_name":"Joe Sutton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Sutton"},{"link_name":"Richard Dreyfus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Dreyfus"},{"link_name":"Elizabeth McGovern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_McGovern"},{"link_name":"David Suchet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Suchet"},{"link_name":"Dancing at Lughnasa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dancing_at_Lughnasa"},{"link_name":"Brian Friel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Friel"},{"link_name":"The Cherry Orchard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Cherry_Orchard"},{"link_name":"Anton Chekhov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_Chekhov"},{"link_name":"The Winter’s Tale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Winter%E2%80%99s_Tale"},{"link_name":"William Shakespeare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespeare"},{"link_name":"Inherit the Wind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inherit_the_Wind_(play)"},{"link_name":"Jerome Lawrence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerome_Lawrence"},{"link_name":"Robert E. Lee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_E._Lee_(playwright)"},{"link_name":"Kevin Spacey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin_Spacey"},{"link_name":"David Troughton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Troughton"}],"sub_title":"2009","text":"Complicit by Joe Sutton, starring Richard Dreyfus, Elizabeth McGovern and David Suchet\nDancing at Lughnasa by Brian Friel\nThe Cherry Orchard by Anton Chekhov and The Winter’s Tale by William Shakespeare\nInherit the Wind by Jerome Lawrence and Robert E. Lee, starring Kevin Spacey and David Troughton","title":"Recent and current productions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Six Degrees of Separation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six_Degrees_of_Separation_(play)"},{"link_name":"John Guare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Guare"},{"link_name":"Lesley Manville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesley_Manville"},{"link_name":"The Real Thing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Real_Thing_(play)"},{"link_name":"Tom Stoppard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Stoppard"},{"link_name":"Toby Stephens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toby_Stephens"},{"link_name":"Hattie Morahan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hattie_Morahan"},{"link_name":"As You Like It","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/As_You_Like_It"},{"link_name":"The Tempest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tempest"},{"link_name":"William Shakespeare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespeare"},{"link_name":"Design for Living","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_for_Living"},{"link_name":"Noël Coward","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No%C3%ABl_Coward"},{"link_name":"Tom Burke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Burke_(actor)"},{"link_name":"Lisa Dillon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisa_Dillon"},{"link_name":"Andrew Scott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Scott_(actor)"},{"link_name":"A Flea in Her Ear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Flea_in_Her_Ear"},{"link_name":"Georges Feydeau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Feydeau"},{"link_name":"John Mortimer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Mortimer"},{"link_name":"Tom Hollander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Hollander"}],"sub_title":"2010","text":"Six Degrees of Separation by John Guare, starring Lesley Manville\nThe Real Thing by Tom Stoppard, starring Toby Stephens and Hattie Morahan\nAs You Like It and The Tempest by William Shakespeare\nDesign for Living by Noël Coward, starring Tom Burke, Lisa Dillon and Andrew Scott\nA Flea in Her Ear by Georges Feydeau, in a translation by John Mortimer, starring Tom Hollander","title":"Recent and current productions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cause Célèbre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cause_C%C3%A9l%C3%A8bre_(play)"},{"link_name":"Terence Rattigan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terence_Rattigan"},{"link_name":"Thea Sharrock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thea_Sharrock"},{"link_name":"Anne-Marie Duff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne-Marie_Duff"},{"link_name":"Richard III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_III_(play)"},{"link_name":"William Shakespeare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespeare"},{"link_name":"Sam Mendes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam_Mendes"},{"link_name":"Kevin Spacey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin_Spacey"},{"link_name":"The Playboy of the Western World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Playboy_of_the_Western_World"},{"link_name":"J M Synge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Millington_Synge"},{"link_name":"John Crowley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Crowley_(director)"},{"link_name":"Niamh Cusack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niamh_Cusack"},{"link_name":"Ruth Negga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruth_Negga"},{"link_name":"Robert Sheehan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Sheehan"},{"link_name":"Noises Off","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noises_Off"},{"link_name":"Michael Frayn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Frayn"},{"link_name":"Lindsay Posner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lindsay_Posner"},{"link_name":"Janie Dee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janie_Dee"},{"link_name":"Robert Glenister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Glenister"},{"link_name":"Celia Imrie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celia_Imrie"}],"sub_title":"2011 season","text":"Cause Célèbre by Terence Rattigan, directed by Thea Sharrock, starring Anne-Marie Duff\nRichard III by William Shakespeare, directed by Sam Mendes, starring Kevin Spacey\nThe Playboy of the Western World by J M Synge, directed by John Crowley, starring Niamh Cusack, Ruth Negga and Robert Sheehan\nNoises Off by Michael Frayn, directed by Lindsay Posner, starring Janie Dee, Robert Glenister and Celia Imrie","title":"Recent and current productions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Duchess of Malfi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Duchess_of_Malfi"},{"link_name":"John Webster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Webster"},{"link_name":"Jamie Lloyd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamie_Lloyd_(director)"},{"link_name":"Eve Best","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eve_Best"},{"link_name":"Democracy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy_(play)"},{"link_name":"Michael Frayn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Frayn"},{"link_name":"Paul Miller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Miller_(theatre_director)"},{"link_name":"Hedda Gabler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedda_Gabler"},{"link_name":"Henrik Ibsen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henrik_Ibsen"},{"link_name":"Brian Friel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Friel"},{"link_name":"Anna Mackmin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Mackmin"},{"link_name":"Sheridan Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheridan_Smith"},{"link_name":"Kiss Me, Kate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiss_Me,_Kate"},{"link_name":"Cole Porter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cole_Porter"},{"link_name":"Sam and Bella Spewack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bella_and_Samuel_Spewack"},{"link_name":"Trevor Nunn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trevor_Nunn"},{"link_name":"Stephen Mear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Mear"},{"link_name":"David Burt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Burt_(actor)"},{"link_name":"Adam Garcia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Garcia"},{"link_name":"Clive Rowe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clive_Rowe"},{"link_name":"Hannah Waddingham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hannah_Waddingham"}],"sub_title":"2012 season","text":"The Duchess of Malfi by John Webster, directed by Jamie Lloyd, starring Eve Best\nDemocracy by Michael Frayn, directed by Paul Miller\nHedda Gabler by Henrik Ibsen in a new version by Brian Friel, directed by Anna Mackmin, starring Sheridan Smith\nKiss Me, Kate music and lyrics by Cole Porter book by Sam and Bella Spewack, directed by Trevor Nunn, choreography by Stephen Mear, starring Alex Bourne, David Burt, Adam Garcia, Clive Rowe and Hannah Waddingham","title":"Recent and current productions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Winslow Boy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Winslow_Boy"},{"link_name":"Terence Rattigan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terence_Rattigan"},{"link_name":"Lindsay Posner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lindsay_Posner"},{"link_name":"Henry Goodman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Goodman"},{"link_name":"Sweet Bird of Youth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweet_Bird_of_Youth"},{"link_name":"Tennessee Williams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennessee_Williams"},{"link_name":"Marianne Elliott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marianne_Elliott"},{"link_name":"Kim Cattrall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_Cattrall"},{"link_name":"Seth Numrich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seth_Numrich"},{"link_name":"Much Ado About Nothing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Much_Ado_About_Nothing"},{"link_name":"William Shakespeare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespeare"},{"link_name":"Mark Rylance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Rylance"},{"link_name":"James Earl Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Earl_Jones"},{"link_name":"Vanessa Redgrave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanessa_Redgrave"},{"link_name":"Fortune's Fool","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortune%27s_Fool_(1848_play)"},{"link_name":"Ivan Turgenev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Turgenev"},{"link_name":"Mike Poulton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Poulton"},{"link_name":"Lucy Bailey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucy_Bailey"},{"link_name":"Richard McCabe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_McCabe"}],"sub_title":"2013 season","text":"The Winslow Boy by Terence Rattigan, directed by Lindsay Posner, starring Henry Goodman\nSweet Bird of Youth by Tennessee Williams, directed by Marianne Elliott, starring Kim Cattrall and Seth Numrich\nMuch Ado About Nothing by William Shakespeare, directed by Mark Rylance, starring James Earl Jones and Vanessa Redgrave\nFortune's Fool by Ivan Turgenev in a version by Mike Poulton, directed by Lucy Bailey, starring Richard McCabe","title":"Recent and current productions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jon Robin Baitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jon_Robin_Baitz"},{"link_name":"Lindsay Posner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lindsay_Posner"},{"link_name":"Clarence Darrow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarence_Darrow"},{"link_name":"Thea Sharrock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thea_Sharrock"},{"link_name":"Kevin Spacey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin_Spacey"},{"link_name":"The Crucible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Crucible"},{"link_name":"Arthur Miller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Miller"},{"link_name":"Richard Armitage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Armitage_(actor)"},{"link_name":"Electra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electra_(Sophocles_play)"},{"link_name":"Sophocles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophocles"},{"link_name":"Frank McGuinness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_McGuinness"},{"link_name":"Ian Rickson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Rickson"},{"link_name":"Kristin Scott Thomas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristin_Scott_Thomas"}],"sub_title":"2014 season","text":"Other Desert Cities by Jon Robin Baitz, directed by Lindsay Posner\nClarence Darrow by David W. Rintels, directed by Thea Sharrock, starring Kevin Spacey\nThe Crucible by Arthur Miller, directed by Yaël Farber, starring Richard Armitage\nElectra by Sophocles in a version by Frank McGuinness, directed by Ian Rickson, starring Kristin Scott Thomas","title":"Recent and current productions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Daniel Kitson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Kitson"},{"link_name":"Tim Key","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Key"},{"link_name":"Daniel Kitson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Kitson"},{"link_name":"Clarence Darrow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarence_Darrow"},{"link_name":"Thea Sharrock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thea_Sharrock"},{"link_name":"Kevin Spacey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin_Spacey"},{"link_name":"High Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Society_(musical)"},{"link_name":"Cole Porter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cole_Porter"},{"link_name":"Arthur Kopit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Kopit"},{"link_name":"Maria Friedman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Friedman"}],"sub_title":"2015 season","text":"Tree, a play for two people written and directed by Daniel Kitson, starring Tim Key and Daniel Kitson\nClarence Darrow by David W. Rintels, directed by Thea Sharrock, starring Kevin Spacey\nHigh Society music and lyrics by Cole Porter book by Arthur Kopit, directed by Maria Friedman","title":"Recent and current productions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"Matthew Warchus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Warchus"},{"link_name":"Rob Brydon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rob_Brydon"},{"link_name":"The Hairy Ape","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hairy_Ape"},{"link_name":"Eugene O'Neill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugene_O%27Neill"},{"link_name":"Richard Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Jones_(director)"},{"link_name":"Bertie Carvel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertie_Carvel"},{"link_name":"Dr. Seuss's The Lorax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lorax_(play)"},{"link_name":"David Greig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Greig_(dramatist)"},{"link_name":"Charlie Fink","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlie_Fink"},{"link_name":"The Master Builder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Master_Builder"},{"link_name":"Henrik Ibsen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henrik_Ibsen"},{"link_name":"David Hare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Hare_(playwright)"},{"link_name":"Matthew Warchus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Warchus"},{"link_name":"Ralph Fiennes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Fiennes"},{"link_name":"The Caretaker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Caretaker"},{"link_name":"Harold Pinter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Pinter"},{"link_name":"Matthew Warchus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Warchus"},{"link_name":"Timothy Spall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timothy_Spall"},{"link_name":"Daniel Mays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Mays"},{"link_name":"George Mackay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_MacKay_(actor)"},{"link_name":"Jekyll & Hyde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strange_Case_of_Dr_Jekyll_and_Mr_Hyde"},{"link_name":"Groundhog Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groundhog_Day_(musical)"},{"link_name":"Danny Rubin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danny_Rubin"},{"link_name":"Tim Minchin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Minchin"},{"link_name":"Matthew Warchus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Warchus"},{"link_name":"Andy Karl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andy_Karl"}],"sub_title":"2015–16 season","text":"[37]Future Conditional by Tamsin Oglesby, directed by Matthew Warchus, starring Rob Brydon\nThe Hairy Ape by Eugene O'Neill, directed by Richard Jones, starring Bertie Carvel\nDr. Seuss's The Lorax adapted for the stage by David Greig, music and lyrics by Charlie Fink, directed by Max Webster\nThe Master Builder by Henrik Ibsen in a new adaptation by David Hare, directed by Matthew Warchus, starring Ralph Fiennes\nThe Caretaker by Harold Pinter, directed by Matthew Warchus, starring Timothy Spall, Daniel Mays and George Mackay\nJekyll & Hyde by The McOnie Company, devised directed and choreographed by Drew McOnie\nGroundhog Day book by Danny Rubin music and lyrics by Tim Minchin, directed by Matthew Warchus, starring Andy Karl","title":"Recent and current productions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Samuel Beckett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Beckett"},{"link_name":"Lisa Dwan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisa_Dwan"},{"link_name":"King Lear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Lear"},{"link_name":"William Shakespeare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespeare"},{"link_name":"Deborah Warner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deborah_Warner"},{"link_name":"Glenda Jackson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glenda_Jackson"},{"link_name":"Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_(play)"},{"link_name":"Yasmina Reza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yasmina_Reza"},{"link_name":"Christopher Hampton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Hampton"},{"link_name":"Matthew Warchus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Warchus"},{"link_name":"Rufus Sewell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rufus_Sewell"},{"link_name":"Tim Key","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Key"},{"link_name":"Paul Ritter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Ritter"},{"link_name":"Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosencrantz_and_Guildenstern_Are_Dead"},{"link_name":"Tom Stoppard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Stoppard"},{"link_name":"David Leveaux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Leveaux"},{"link_name":"Daniel Radcliffe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Radcliffe"},{"link_name":"Joshua McGuire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joshua_McGuire"},{"link_name":"Woyzeck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woyzeck"},{"link_name":"Georg Büchner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_B%C3%BCchner"},{"link_name":"Jack Thorne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Thorne"},{"link_name":"John Boyega","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Boyega"},{"link_name":"Girl from the North Country","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girl_from_the_North_Country_(musical)"},{"link_name":"Conor McPherson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conor_McPherson"},{"link_name":"Bob Dylan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Dylan"},{"link_name":"Dr. Seuss's The Lorax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lorax_(play)"},{"link_name":"David Greig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Greig_(dramatist)"},{"link_name":"Charlie Fink","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlie_Fink"}],"sub_title":"2016–17 season","text":"[38]No's Knife by Samuel Beckett, co-directed and performed by Lisa Dwan, co-directed by Joe Murphy\nKing Lear by William Shakespeare, directed by Deborah Warner, starring Glenda Jackson\nArt by Yasmina Reza translated by Christopher Hampton, directed by Matthew Warchus, starring Rufus Sewell, Tim Key and Paul Ritter\nRosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead by Tom Stoppard, directed by David Leveaux, starring Daniel Radcliffe and Joshua McGuire\nWoyzeck by Georg Büchner in a new version by Jack Thorne, directed by Joe Murphy, starring John Boyega\nGirl from the North Country written and directed by Conor McPherson, music and lyrics by Bob Dylan\nDr. Seuss's The Lorax adapted for the stage by David Greig, music and lyrics by Charlie Fink, directed by Max Webster","title":"Recent and current productions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"A Christmas Carol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Christmas_Carol_(2017_play)"},{"link_name":"Jack Thorne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Thorne"},{"link_name":"Matthew Warchus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Warchus"},{"link_name":"Rhys Ifans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhys_Ifans"},{"link_name":"Alan Ayckbourn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Ayckbourn"},{"link_name":"Fanny and Alexander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanny_and_Alexander"},{"link_name":"Stephen Beresford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Beresford"},{"link_name":"Penelope Wilton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penelope_Wilton"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Mood Music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mood_Music_(play)"},{"link_name":"Joe Penhall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Penhall"},{"link_name":"Roger Michell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Michell"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Ben Chaplin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Chaplin"},{"link_name":"Simon Stephens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Stephens"},{"link_name":"Andrew Scott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Scott_(actor)"},{"link_name":"A Monster Calls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Monster_Calls"},{"link_name":"Patrick Ness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Ness"},{"link_name":"Siobhan Dowd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siobhan_Dowd"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"}],"sub_title":"2017–18 season","text":"A Christmas Carol, a version by Jack Thorne, directed by Matthew Warchus, starring Rhys Ifans\nThe Divide, a new play by Alan Ayckbourn, directed by Annabel Bolton\nFanny and Alexander adapted for the stage by Stephen Beresford and starring Penelope Wilton[39]\nMood Music by Joe Penhall and directed by Roger Michell[40] starring Ben Chaplin\nBicentenary Variety Night\nSea Wall by Simon Stephens, starring Andrew Scott\nA Monster Calls, based on the novel by Patrick Ness and inspired by an idea from Siobhan Dowd, devised by the company[41]","title":"Recent and current productions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sylvia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sylvia_(musical)"},{"link_name":"Kate Prince","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kate_Prince"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"A Christmas Carol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Christmas_Carol_(2017_play)"},{"link_name":"Jack Thorne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Thorne"},{"link_name":"Matthew Warchus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Warchus"},{"link_name":"Stephen Tompkinson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Tompkinson"},{"link_name":"The American Clock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_American_Clock"},{"link_name":"Arthur Miller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Miller"},{"link_name":"Rachel Chavkin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachel_Chavkin"},{"link_name":"All My Sons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_My_Sons"},{"link_name":"Arthur Miller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Miller"},{"link_name":"Jeremy Herrin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremy_Herrin"},{"link_name":"Sally Field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sally_Field"},{"link_name":"Bill Pullman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Pullman"},{"link_name":"Jenna Coleman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jenna_Coleman"},{"link_name":"Colin Morgan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colin_Morgan"},{"link_name":"Present Laughter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Present_Laughter"},{"link_name":"Noël Coward","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No%C3%ABl_Coward"},{"link_name":"Matthew Warchus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Warchus"},{"link_name":"Andrew Scott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Scott_(actor)"}],"sub_title":"2018–19 season","text":"Sylvia written by Kate Prince and Priya Parma, with Prince providing choreography and direction as well[42]\nA Christmas Carol, a version by Jack Thorne, directed by Matthew Warchus, starring Stephen Tompkinson\nThe American Clock by Arthur Miller, directed by Rachel Chavkin\nAll My Sons by Arthur Miller, directed by Jeremy Herrin, starring Sally Field, Bill Pullman, Jenna Coleman and Colin Morgan\nPresent Laughter by Noël Coward, directed by Matthew Warchus, starring Andrew Scott","title":"Recent and current productions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lucy Prebble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucy_Prebble"},{"link_name":"Luke Harding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luke_Harding"},{"link_name":"Lungs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lungs_(play)"},{"link_name":"Duncan Macmillan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duncan_Macmillan_(playwright)"},{"link_name":"Matthew Warchus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Warchus"},{"link_name":"Matt Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt_Smith"},{"link_name":"Claire Foy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claire_Foy"},{"link_name":"A Christmas Carol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Christmas_Carol_(2017_play)"},{"link_name":"Jack Thorne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Thorne"},{"link_name":"Matthew Warchus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Warchus"},{"link_name":"Paterson Joseph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paterson_Joseph"},{"link_name":"Endgame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endgame_(play)"},{"link_name":"Rough for Theatre II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rough_for_Theatre_II"},{"link_name":"Samuel Beckett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Beckett"},{"link_name":"Richard Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Jones_(director)"},{"link_name":"Alan Cumming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Cumming"},{"link_name":"Daniel Radcliffe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Radcliffe"},{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_London"}],"sub_title":"2019–20 season","text":"A Very Expensive Poison by Lucy Prebble, based on the book by Luke Harding\nLungs by Duncan Macmillan, directed by Matthew Warchus, starring Matt Smith and Claire Foy\nA Christmas Carol, a version by Jack Thorne, directed by Matthew Warchus, starring Paterson Joseph\nEndgame (in double bill with Rough for Theatre II) by Samuel Beckett, directed by Richard Jones, starring Alan Cumming and Daniel Radcliffe (closed early due to the COVID-19 pandemic)","title":"Recent and current productions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lungs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lungs_(play)"},{"link_name":"Duncan Macmillan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duncan_Macmillan_(playwright)"},{"link_name":"Matthew Warchus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Warchus"},{"link_name":"Matt Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt_Smith"},{"link_name":"Claire Foy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claire_Foy"},{"link_name":"Three Kings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Kings_(play)"},{"link_name":"Stephen Beresford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Beresford"},{"link_name":"Matthew Warchus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Warchus"},{"link_name":"Andrew Scott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Scott_(actor)"},{"link_name":"Faith Healer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faith_Healer"},{"link_name":"Brian Friel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Friel"},{"link_name":"Matthew Warchus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Warchus"},{"link_name":"Michael Sheen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Sheen"},{"link_name":"David Threlfall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Threlfall"},{"link_name":"Indira Varma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indira_Varma"},{"link_name":"A Christmas Carol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Christmas_Carol_(2017_play)"},{"link_name":"Jack Thorne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Thorne"},{"link_name":"Matthew Warchus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Warchus"},{"link_name":"Andrew Lincoln","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Lincoln"},{"link_name":"Dr. Seuss's The Lorax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lorax_(play)"},{"link_name":"David Greig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Greig_(dramatist)"},{"link_name":"Charlie Fink","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlie_Fink"},{"link_name":"Jamael Westman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamael_Westman"},{"link_name":"The Dumb Waiter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dumb_Waiter"},{"link_name":"Harold Pinter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Pinter"},{"link_name":"Jeremy Herrin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremy_Herrin"},{"link_name":"David Thewlis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Thewlis"},{"link_name":"Daniel Mays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Mays"},{"link_name":"Bagdad Cafe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bagdad_Cafe"},{"link_name":"Emma Rice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emma_Rice"}],"sub_title":"Old Vic: In Camera series (during COVID-19 pandemic)","text":"Lungs by Duncan Macmillan, directed by Matthew Warchus, starring Matt Smith and Claire Foy\nThree Kings by Stephen Beresford, directed by Matthew Warchus, starring Andrew Scott\nFaith Healer by Brian Friel, directed by Matthew Warchus, starring Michael Sheen, David Threlfall and Indira Varma\nA Christmas Carol, a version by Jack Thorne, directed by Matthew Warchus, starring Andrew Lincoln\nDr. Seuss's The Lorax adapted for the stage by David Greig, music and lyrics by Charlie Fink, directed by Max Webster, starring Jamael Westman and Audrey Brisson\nThe Dumb Waiter by Harold Pinter, directed by Jeremy Herrin, starring David Thewlis and Daniel Mays\nBagdad Cafe, adapted and directed by Emma Rice","title":"Recent and current productions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Dumb Waiter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dumb_Waiter"},{"link_name":"Harold Pinter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Pinter"},{"link_name":"Jeremy Herrin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremy_Herrin"},{"link_name":"David Thewlis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Thewlis"},{"link_name":"Daniel Mays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Mays"},{"link_name":"Bagdad Cafe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bagdad_Cafe"},{"link_name":"Emma Rice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emma_Rice"},{"link_name":"Camp Siegfried","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camp_Siegfried_(play)"},{"link_name":"Bess Wohl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bess_Wohl"},{"link_name":"Patsy Ferran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patsy_Ferran"},{"link_name":"A Christmas Carol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Christmas_Carol_(2017_play)"},{"link_name":"Jack Thorne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Thorne"},{"link_name":"Matthew Warchus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Warchus"},{"link_name":"Stephen Mangan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Mangan"},{"link_name":"A Number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Number"},{"link_name":"Caryl Churchill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caryl_Churchill"},{"link_name":"Paapa Essiedu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paapa_Essiedu"},{"link_name":"Lennie James","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lennie_James"},{"link_name":"The 47th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_47th"},{"link_name":"Mike Bartlett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Bartlett_(playwright)"},{"link_name":"Rupert Goold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rupert_Goold"},{"link_name":"Bertie Carvel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertie_Carvel"},{"link_name":"Lydia Wilson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lydia_Wilson"},{"link_name":"Jitney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jitney_(play)"},{"link_name":"August Wilson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Wilson"}],"sub_title":"2021–22 season","text":"The Dumb Waiter by Harold Pinter, directed by Jeremy Herrin, starring David Thewlis and Daniel Mays\nBagdad Cafe, adapted and directed by Emma Rice\nCamp Siegfried by Bess Wohl, directed by Katy Rudd, starring Patsy Ferran and Luke Thallon\nA Christmas Carol, a version by Jack Thorne, directed by Matthew Warchus, starring Stephen Mangan\nA Number by Caryl Churchill, directed by Lyndsey Turner, starring Paapa Essiedu and Lennie James\nThe 47th by Mike Bartlett, directed by Rupert Goold, starring Bertie Carvel, Tamarie Tunie and Lydia Wilson\nJitney by August Wilson, directed by Tinuke Craig, starring Will Johnson and Solomon Israel","title":"Recent and current productions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Eureka Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eureka_Day"},{"link_name":"Helen Hunt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helen_Hunt"},{"link_name":"A Christmas Carol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Christmas_Carol_(2017_play)"},{"link_name":"Jack Thorne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Thorne"},{"link_name":"Matthew Warchus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Warchus"},{"link_name":"Owen Teale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Owen_Teale"},{"link_name":"Sylvia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sylvia_(musical)"},{"link_name":"Kate Prince","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kate_Prince"},{"link_name":"Beverley Knight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beverley_Knight"},{"link_name":"Groundhog Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groundhog_Day_(musical)"},{"link_name":"Danny Rubin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danny_Rubin"},{"link_name":"Tim Minchin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Minchin"},{"link_name":"Matthew Warchus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Warchus"},{"link_name":"Andy Karl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andy_Karl"}],"sub_title":"2022–23 season","text":"Eureka Day by Jonathan Spector, directed by Katy Rudd, starring Helen Hunt\nA Christmas Carol, a version by Jack Thorne, directed by Matthew Warchus, starring Owen Teale\nSylvia, by Kate Prince and Priya Parma, with music by Josh Cohen and DJ Walde, directed by Kate Prince, starring Beverley Knight\nGroundhog Day, by Danny Rubin and Tim Minchin, directed by Matthew Warchus, starring Andy Karl","title":"Recent and current productions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pygmalion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pygmalion_(play)"},{"link_name":"George Bernard Shaw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Bernard_Shaw"},{"link_name":"Richard Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Jones_(director)"},{"link_name":"Bertie Carvel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertie_Carvel"},{"link_name":"Patsy Ferran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patsy_Ferran"},{"link_name":"A Christmas Carol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Christmas_Carol_(2017_play)"},{"link_name":"Jack Thorne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Thorne"},{"link_name":"Matthew Warchus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Warchus"},{"link_name":"Christopher Eccleston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Eccleston"},{"link_name":"Just For One Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Just_For_One_Day_(musical)"},{"link_name":"John O'Farrell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_O%27Farrell_(author)"},{"link_name":"Machinal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machinal"},{"link_name":"Sophie Treadwell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophie_Treadwell"},{"link_name":"Richard Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Jones_(director)"},{"link_name":"Joe Penhall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Penhall"},{"link_name":"Matthew Warchus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Warchus"},{"link_name":"James Corden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Corden"},{"link_name":"Anna Maxwell Martin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Maxwell_Martin"}],"sub_title":"2023–24 season","text":"Pygmalion by George Bernard Shaw, directed by Richard Jones, starring Bertie Carvel and Patsy Ferran\nA Christmas Carol, a version by Jack Thorne, directed by Matthew Warchus, starring Christopher Eccleston\nJust For One Day by John O'Farrell, directed by Luke Sheppard\nMachinal by Sophie Treadwell, directed by Richard Jones\nThe Constituent by Joe Penhall, directed by Matthew Warchus, starring James Corden and Anna Maxwell Martin","title":"Recent and current productions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"A Christmas Carol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Christmas_Carol_(2017_play)"},{"link_name":"Jack Thorne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Thorne"},{"link_name":"Matthew Warchus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Warchus"},{"link_name":"Oedipus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oedipus"},{"link_name":"Ella Hickson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ella_Hickson"},{"link_name":"Matthew Warchus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Warchus"},{"link_name":"Hofesh Shechter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hofesh_Shechter"},{"link_name":"Rami Malek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rami_Malek"},{"link_name":"Indira Varma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indira_Varma"}],"sub_title":"2024-25 season","text":"A Christmas Carol, a version by Jack Thorne, directed by Matthew Warchus\nOedipus, a new adaptation by Ella Hickson, directed by Matthew Warchus and Hofesh Shechter, starring Rami Malek and Indira Varma","title":"Recent and current productions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-571-31125-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-571-31125-5"},{"link_name":"The Old Vic Theatre: A History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/oldvictheatrehis0000rowe"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780521346252","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521346252"}],"text":"Coleman, Terry (2014). The Old Vic: The Story of a Great Theatre from Kean to Olivier to Spacey. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-31125-5.\nRowell, George (1993). The Old Vic Theatre: A History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521346252.","title":"Sources"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-7136-5688-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7136-5688-3"}],"text":"Guide to British Theatres 1750–1950, John Earl and Michael Sell pp. 128–9 (Theatres Trust, 2000) ISBN 0-7136-5688-3","title":"Further reading"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Audio description of the theatre by Derek Jacobi"},{"image_text":"Royal Coburg Theatre in 1822","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Royal_Coburg_Theatre_1822.jpg/220px-Royal_Coburg_Theatre_1822.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Old Vic, photographed in 2012","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Old_Vic0185.JPG/220px-Old_Vic0185.JPG"},{"image_text":"The theatre at night","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Old_vic_night.JPG/220px-Old_vic_night.JPG"},{"image_text":"Staircase of the Old Vic","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Old_Vic.jpg/220px-Old_Vic.jpg"}]
| null |
[{"reference":"Historic England, \"Old Vic Theatre (1068710)\", National Heritage List for England, retrieved 2 September 2020","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historic_England","url_text":"Historic England"},{"url":"https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1068710","url_text":"\"Old Vic Theatre (1068710)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Heritage_List_for_England","url_text":"National Heritage List for England"}]},{"reference":"\"Kenny, Sean, 1932–1973\". National Art Library Catalogue. Victoria and Albert Museum. Archived from the original on 1 August 2013. Retrieved 20 June 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130801065940/http://catalogue.nal.vam.ac.uk/ipac20/ipac.jsp?session=1W2X184P70977.694&profile=nal&uri=full%3D3100001~!630522~!0&booklistformat=","url_text":"\"Kenny, Sean, 1932–1973\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_and_Albert_Museum","url_text":"Victoria and Albert Museum"}]},{"reference":"\"Spacey 'to run Old Vic'\". BBC News. 3 February 2003. Archived from the original on 20 March 2021. Retrieved 9 March 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/arts/2723437.stm","url_text":"\"Spacey 'to run Old Vic'\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210320102706/https://server-uk.imrworldwide.com/a1.js","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Clarke, Stewart (16 November 2017). \"Old Vic Theater Logs 20 Complaints About Kevin Spacey, Pledges to Improve Accountability\". Variety. Los Angeles, California: Penske Media Corporation. Archived from the original on 20 March 2021. Retrieved 17 February 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://variety.com/2017/legit/news/old-vic-theater-logs-20-complaints-kevin-spacey-1202616355/","url_text":"\"Old Vic Theater Logs 20 Complaints About Kevin Spacey, Pledges to Improve Accountability\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variety_(magazine)","url_text":"Variety"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penske_Media_Corporation","url_text":"Penske Media Corporation"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210320102833/https://variety.com/2017/legit/news/old-vic-theater-logs-20-complaints-kevin-spacey-1202616355/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Brown, Mark (22 May 2014). \"Matthew Warchus to take [Kevin Spacey's role running the Old Vic\". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 22 June 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/stage/2014/may/22/matthew-warchus-kevin-spacey-old-vic-theatre","url_text":"\"Matthew Warchus to take [Kevin Spacey's role running the Old Vic\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian","url_text":"The Guardian"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160303205137/http://www.theguardian.com/stage/2014/may/22/matthew-warchus-kevin-spacey-old-vic-theatre","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Frick, John W. (2003). Theatre, culture and temperance reform in nineteenth-century America. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p. 86. ISBN 978-0-521-81778-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81778-3","url_text":"978-0-521-81778-3"}]},{"reference":"Rowell, George Presbury (1993). The Old Vic Theatre: a history. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 26–29. ISBN 0-521-34625-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/oldvictheatrehis0000rowe/page/26","url_text":"The Old Vic Theatre: a history"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/oldvictheatrehis0000rowe/page/26","url_text":"26–29"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-34625-8","url_text":"0-521-34625-8"}]},{"reference":"\"Royal Victoria Theatre\". Standard. London. 2 July 1833.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Evening_Standard","url_text":"Standard"}]},{"reference":"\"Court Circular\". The Times. London. 30 November 1833.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Times","url_text":"The Times"}]},{"reference":"Newton, Henry Chance (1923). The Old Vic. and its associations; being my own extraordinary experiences of \"Queen Victoria's own theayter\". London: Fleetway Press. OCLC 150444870.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Chance_Newton","url_text":"Newton, Henry Chance"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/150444870","url_text":"150444870"}]},{"reference":"\"7 things you never knew about the Old Vic Theatre\". 10 May 2018. Archived from the original on 20 March 2021. Retrieved 22 August 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.standard.co.uk/go/london/theatre/old-vic-theatre-celebrates-200th-birthday-7-fascinating-things-you-never-knew-a3835981.html","url_text":"\"7 things you never knew about the Old Vic Theatre\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210320102836/https://www.standard.co.uk/culture/theatre/old-vic-theatre-celebrates-200th-birthday-7-fascinating-things-you-never-knew-a3835981.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Broadcasting the \"Old Vic.\"\". The Radio Times. No. 12. 14 December 1923. p. 410. Archived from the original on 20 March 2021. Retrieved 21 December 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Radio_Times/1923/12/14/Broadcasting_the_%22Old_Vic%22","url_text":"\"Broadcasting the \"Old Vic.\"\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Radio_Times","url_text":"The Radio Times"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210320102701/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Radio_Times/1923/12/14/Broadcasting_the_%22Old_Vic%22","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Wireless Programme - Saturday (Nov. 24th.)\". The Radio Times. No. 8. 16 November 1923. p. 267. Archived from the original on 20 March 2021. 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Retrieved 13 July 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lilian_Baylis","url_text":"Baylis, Lilian"},{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Radio_Times/1923/10/12/The_Romance_of_the_%22Old_Vic%22","url_text":"\"The Romance of the 'Old Vic.'\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Radio_Times","url_text":"The Radio Times"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210320102720/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Radio_Times/1923/10/12/The_Romance_of_the_%22Old_Vic%22","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Search Results for England & Wales Deaths 1837-2007\". Archived from the original on 20 March 2021. Retrieved 13 July 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://search.findmypast.co.uk/results/world-records/england-and-wales-deaths-1837-2007?firstname=lilian%20m&lastname=baylis&eventyear=1937&eventyear_offset=1&yearofbirth=1874&yearofbirth_offset=0","url_text":"\"Search Results for England & Wales Deaths 1837-2007\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210320102659/https://www.findmypast.co.uk/search/results?datasetname=england+%26+wales+deaths+1837-2007&firstname=lilian+m&lastname=baylis&eventyear=1937&eventyear_offset=1&yearofbirth=1874&yearofbirth_offset=0","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"History of the Old Vic, 1950–1999\". The Old Vic. Archived from the original on 5 September 2014. Retrieved 5 September 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140905173116/http://www.oldvictheatre.com/about-us/history-of-the-old-vic-2/1950-1999/","url_text":"\"History of the Old Vic, 1950–1999\""},{"url":"http://www.oldvictheatre.com/about-us/history-of-the-old-vic-2/1950-1999/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Prospect Theatre Company\". Ian McKellen Stage. Archived from the original on 10 August 2014. Retrieved 4 September 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.mckellen.com/stage/r2/prospect.htm","url_text":"\"Prospect Theatre Company\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140810064427/http://www.mckellen.com/stage/r2/prospect.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Hunter, Adriana (2006). \"Prospect Theatre Company\" in Continuum Companion to Twentieth Century Theatre. A&C Black. p. 623. ISBN 9781847140012. Archived from the original on 20 March 2021. 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Retrieved 16 September 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/stage/2012/jul/08/toby-robertson","url_text":"\"Toby Robertson obituary\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian","url_text":"The Guardian"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140203154856/http://www.theguardian.com/stage/2012/jul/08/toby-robertson","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Kevin Spacey: Old Vic reveals 20 staff allegations against him\". BBC. London, England. 16 November 2017. Archived from the original on 20 March 2021. Retrieved 17 February 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-42009596","url_text":"\"Kevin Spacey: Old Vic reveals 20 staff allegations against him\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC","url_text":"BBC"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210320102713/https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-42009596","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Garrido, Duarte (16 November 2017). \"Old Vic theatre apologises after Kevin Spacey investigation reveals 20 allegations\". Sky News. Archived from the original on 20 March 2021. Retrieved 17 February 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.sky.com/story/old-vic-apologises-after-spacey-investigation-reveals-20-victims-11128710","url_text":"\"Old Vic theatre apologises after Kevin Spacey investigation reveals 20 allegations\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sky_News","url_text":"Sky News"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210320102718/https://news.sky.com/story/old-vic-apologises-after-spacey-investigation-reveals-20-victims-11128710","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Matthew Warchus to take Kevin Spacey's role running the Old Vic\". The Guardian. 22 May 2014. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 19 May 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/stage/2014/may/22/matthew-warchus-kevin-spacey-old-vic-theatre","url_text":"\"Matthew Warchus to take Kevin Spacey's role running the Old Vic\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160303205137/http://www.theguardian.com/stage/2014/may/22/matthew-warchus-kevin-spacey-old-vic-theatre","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Kellaway, Kate (13 September 2015). \"Future Conditional review – an entertaining assault on the UK's divisive education system\". The Observer. Retrieved 26 January 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/stage/2015/sep/13/future-conditional-review-rob-brydon-matthew-warchus-old-vic","url_text":"\"Future Conditional review – an entertaining assault on the UK's divisive education system\""}]},{"reference":"\"Old Vic announces bicentennial season | WhatsOnStage\". Archived from the original on 20 March 2021. Retrieved 2 May 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.whatsonstage.com/london-theatre/news/old-vic-bicentennial-season-monster-calls-sylvia_44947.html","url_text":"\"Old Vic announces bicentennial season | WhatsOnStage\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210320102658/https://www.whatsonstage.com/london-theatre/news/old-vic-bicentennial-season-monster-calls-sylvia_44947.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"The Old Vic is giving out free tickets (And cake) for its birthday\". 22 March 2018. Archived from the original on 20 March 2021. Retrieved 2 May 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.standard.co.uk/go/london/theatre/the-old-vic-is-giving-out-free-tickets-to-new-show-mood-music-and-cake-for-its-birthday-a3796236.html","url_text":"\"The Old Vic is giving out free tickets (And cake) for its birthday\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210320102709/https://www.standard.co.uk/culture/theatre/the-old-vic-is-giving-out-free-tickets-to-new-show-mood-music-and-cake-for-its-birthday-a3796236.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Fiennes and Spall lead Old Vic season\". www.officiallondontheatre.co.uk. Archived from the original on 20 March 2021. Retrieved 20 September 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.officiallondontheatre.co.uk/news/latest-news/article/item279091/fiennesandspallleadoldvicseason/","url_text":"\"Fiennes and Spall lead Old Vic season\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210320102718/https://officiallondontheatre.com/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Matthew Warchus unveils 2016/17 Old Vic Season\". Archived from the original on 20 March 2021. Retrieved 20 September 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.londontheatre.co.uk/theatre-news/news/matthew-warchus-unveils-201617-old-vic-season","url_text":"\"Matthew Warchus unveils 2016/17 Old Vic Season\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210320102722/https://www.londontheatre.co.uk/theatre-news/news/matthew-warchus-unveils-201617-old-vic-season","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Fanny & Alexander Cast | The Old Vic\". The Old Vic. Archived from the original on 20 March 2021. Retrieved 4 December 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.oldvictheatre.com/whats-on/2018/fanny-alexander/cast","url_text":"\"Fanny & Alexander Cast | The Old Vic\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210320102702/https://www.oldvictheatre.com/whats-on/2018/fanny-alexander/cast","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Mood Music Cast | The Old Vic\". The Old Vic. Archived from the original on 20 March 2021. Retrieved 4 December 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.oldvictheatre.com/whats-on/2018/mood-music/cast","url_text":"\"Mood Music Cast | The Old Vic\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210320102717/https://www.oldvictheatre.com/whats-on/2018/mood-music/cast","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"A Monster Calls Cast | The Old Vic\". The Old Vic. Archived from the original on 20 March 2021. Retrieved 4 December 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.oldvictheatre.com/whats-on/2018/a-monster-calls/cast","url_text":"\"A Monster Calls Cast | The Old Vic\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210320102701/https://www.oldvictheatre.com/whats-on/2018/a-monster-calls/cast","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Sylvia Cast | The Old Vic\". The Old Vic. Archived from the original on 20 March 2021. Retrieved 4 December 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.oldvictheatre.com/whats-on/2018/sylvia-2/cast","url_text":"\"Sylvia Cast | The Old Vic\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210320102706/https://www.oldvictheatre.com/whats-on/2018/sylvia-2/cast","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Coleman, Terry (2014). The Old Vic: The Story of a Great Theatre from Kean to Olivier to Spacey. London: Faber and Faber. 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Vic\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210320102717/https://www.oldvictheatre.com/whats-on/2018/mood-music/cast","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.oldvictheatre.com/whats-on/2018/a-monster-calls/cast","external_links_name":"\"A Monster Calls Cast | The Old Vic\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210320102701/https://www.oldvictheatre.com/whats-on/2018/a-monster-calls/cast","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.oldvictheatre.com/whats-on/2018/sylvia-2/cast","external_links_name":"\"Sylvia Cast | The Old Vic\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210320102706/https://www.oldvictheatre.com/whats-on/2018/sylvia-2/cast","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/oldvictheatrehis0000rowe","external_links_name":"The Old Vic Theatre: A History"},{"Link":"http://www.oldvictheatre.com/","external_links_name":"Old Vic Theatre"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070701202327/http://www.bris.ac.uk/theatrecollection/oldvic.html","external_links_name":"Old Vic archive at the University of Bristol Theatre Collection"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070610085101/http://www.bris.ac.uk/theatrecollection/baylis.html","external_links_name":"Lilian Baylis archive at the University of Bristol Theatre Collection"},{"Link":"http://www.arthurlloyd.co.uk/OldVicTheatre.htm","external_links_name":"Old Vic Theatre History"},{"Link":"https://isni.org/isni/0000000122927542","external_links_name":"ISNI"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/140548301","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12323090w","external_links_name":"France"},{"Link":"https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12323090w","external_links_name":"BnF 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Bodel
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Jean Bodel
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["1 Writings","2 References","3 External links"]
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Old French poet
Jean BodelBornc. 1165Diedc. 1210ArrasOccupationpoetNationalityFrenchPeriodMedievalGenrechanson de geste, fabliaux
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vte
Jean Bodel (c. 1165 – c. 1210), also spelled Jehan Bodel, was an Old French poet who wrote a number of chansons de geste as well as many fabliaux. He lived in Arras.
Writings
Bodel wrote Chanson des Saisnes ("Song of the Saxons") about the war of King Charlemagne with the Saxons and their leader Widukind, whom Bodel calls Guiteclin. He also wrote a miracle play called the Le Jeu de saint Nicolas ("The Game of Saint Nicolas"), which was probably first performed in Arras on 5 December 1200. Set in the middle of an epic battle between Christians and Muslims, the play tells the story of a good Christian who escapes the battle and is found praying to a statue of Saint Nicolas by the Muslim forces. The Muslim leader decides to test the saint by unlocking the doors to his treasury and leaving the statue as a guardian, stipulating that if anything were stolen the Christian would forfeit his life. Three thieves attempt to steal the treasure, but Saint Nicolas stops them. As a result, the Muslim ruler and his entire army convert to Christianity.
Like another French miracle play from the same time period, Le Miracle de Théophile, Le Jeu de saint Nicolas contains an invocation to the Devil in an unknown language:
Palas aron ozinomas
Baske bano tudan donas
Geheamel cla orlay
Berec hé pantaras tay
Bodel was the first person of record to classify the legendary themes and literary cycles known to medieval literature into the "Three Matters".
His epic La Chanson de Saisnes ("Song of the Saxons") contains the line:
Ne sont que III matières à nul homme atandant,
De France et de Bretaigne, et de Rome la grant.
"Not but with three matters no man should attend:
Of France, and of Britain, and of Rome the grand."
the "Matter of Rome", or retellings of stories from classical antiquity
the "Matter of Britain", concerning King Arthur and related topics
the "Matter of France", concerning Charlemagne and his paladins
Bodel contracted leprosy in 1202 or 1205, and entered a leprosarium. He then wrote a long farewell, "Les Congés", his most personal and touching work.
References
^ a b c d e f Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Bodel, Jehan" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 4 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 108.
^ Lynn T. Ramey, "Unauthorized Preaching: The Sermon in Jean Bodel's Jeu de Saint Nicolas," in n: Speculum Sermonis: Interdisciplinary Reflections on the Medieval Sermon, ed. Georgiana Donavin, Cary J. Nederman, and Richard Utz (Turnhout: Brepols, 2004), pp. 221-33.
^ Discussed in: Grillot de Givry, Witchcraft, Magic & Alchemy, Courier Dover Publications, 1971, p. 109.
External links
French Wikisource has original text related to this article: Jean Bodel
Works by or about Jean Bodel at Internet Archive
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2
3
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This article about a poet from France is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chelsea_Physic_Garden
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Chelsea Physic Garden
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["1 History","2 Current garden","3 Associated people","4 References","5 External links"]
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Botanical garden in Chelsea, London
Chelsea Physic GardenChelsea Physic Garden, LondonLocationChelsea, LondonCoordinates51°29′6″N 0°9′46″W / 51.48500°N 0.16278°W / 51.48500; -0.16278Area3.5 acres (1.4 ha)Created1673 (1673)FounderWorshipful Society of ApothecariesSpecies5,000WebsiteOfficial website
The Chelsea Physic Garden was established as the Apothecaries' Garden in London, England, in 1673 by the Worshipful Society of Apothecaries to grow plants to be used as medicines. This four acre physic garden, the term here referring to the science of healing, is among the oldest botanical gardens in Britain, after the University of Oxford Botanic Garden. Its rock garden is the oldest in Europe devoted to alpine plants and Mediterranean plants. The largest fruiting olive tree in Britain is there, protected by the garden's heat-trapping high brick walls, along with what is doubtless the world's northernmost grapefruit growing outdoors. Jealously guarded during the tenure of the Worshipful Society of Apothecaries, the garden became a registered charity in 1983 and was opened to the general public for the first time.
The garden is a member of the London Museums of Health & Medicine. It is also Grade I listed in the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of Special Historic Interest in England by English Heritage.
History
The garden in summer 2006
The garden with the house visible in the background
The Worshipful Society of Apothecaries initially established the garden on a leased site of Sir John Danvers' well-established garden in Chelsea, London. This house, called Danvers House, adjoined the mansion that had once been the house of Sir Thomas More. Danvers House was pulled down in 1696 to make room for Danvers Street.
In 1713, Sir Hans Sloane purchased from Charles Cheyne the adjacent Manor of Chelsea, about 4 acres (1.6 ha), which he leased in 1722 to the Society of Apothecaries for £5 a year in perpetuity, requiring in the Deed of Conveyance that the garden supply the Royal Society, of which he was a principal, with 50 good herbarium samples per year, up to a total of 2,000 plants.
That initiated the golden age of the Chelsea Physic Garden under the direction of Philip Miller (1722–1770), when it became the world's most richly stocked botanic garden. Its seed-exchange programme was established following a visit in 1682 from Paul Hermann, a Dutch botanist connected with the Hortus Botanicus Leiden and has lasted until the present day. The seed exchange programme's most notable act may have been the introduction of cotton into the colony of Georgia and more recently, the worldwide spread of the Madagascar periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus).
Isaac Rand, a member and a fellow of the Royal Society, published a condensed catalogue of the garden in 1730, Index plantarum officinalium, quas ad materiae medicae scientiam promovendam, in horto Chelseiano. Elizabeth Blackwell's A Curious Herbal (1737–1739) was illustrated partly from specimens taken from the Chelsea Physic Garden. In 1781, the collection of specimens was donated by the Royal Society to the British Museum in Bloomsbury, then moved in 1881 to the Department of Botany of the British Museum in Kensington, now the Natural History Museum.
Sir Joseph Banks worked with the head gardener and curator John Fairbairn during the 1780–1814 period. Fairbairn specialized in growing and cultivating plants from around the world.
Parts of the garden have been lost to road development – the river bank during 1874 construction of the Chelsea Embankment on the north bank of the River Thames, and a strip of the garden to allow widening of Royal Hospital Road. What remains is a 3.5 acres (1.4 ha) patch in the heart of London.
The Trustees of the London Parochial Charities took over management of the garden in 1899 and for the majority of the twentieth century, it was used for scientific research and was not open to the public. In 1983, the garden became a charity and was run by a private board of trustees, and a few years later in 1987, it was open to the general public for the first time.
As of 2020, the chairman of the trust that manages the garden is Michael Prideaux. His predecessor was Sarah Troughton. The garden director is Sue Medway. As of 2020 the garden is raising funds to restore the historic glasshouses on the site.
Current garden
As of October 2017, the garden included 5,000 plants, in areas such as:
The Garden of Medicinal Plants
The Pharmaceutical Garden, with plants arranged according to the ailment they are used to treat
The Garden of World Medicine, with medicinal plants arranged by the culture which uses them
The Garden of Edible and Useful Plants
The World Woodland Garden
Associated people
Ensign of the garden
William Aiton
Johann Amman
Alexander Anderson
Joseph Banks
John Bartram
Elizabeth Blackwell
Edward Augustus Bowles
Mark Catesby
Lilian Clarke
William Curtis
Samuel Doody
Henry Field (apothecary)
William Forsyth
Robert Fortune
John Fraser
John Graeffer
William Houstoun
William Hudson
Jacob van Huysum
Lee and Kennedy
John Lindley
Carl Linnaeus
William Gregor MacKenzie
Georg Christian Oeder
Anthony du Gard Pasley
Robert Petre, 8th Baron Petre
James Sherard
Hans Sloane
Daniel Solander
Mary Somerset
Nathaniel Bagshaw Ward
References
Notes
^ "History". Chelsea Physic Garden.
^ "THE CHELSEA PHYSIC GARDEN COMPANY, registered charity no. 286513". Charity Commission for England and Wales.
^ "Medical Museums". medicalmuseums.org. Retrieved 26 August 2016.
^ "Chelsea Physic Garden, Kensington and Chelsea - 1000147". Historic England.
^ a b Stungo, Ruth (1993). "The Royal Society Specimens from the Chelsea Physic Garden 1722-1799". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London. 47 (2): 213–224. doi:10.1098/rsnr.1993.0028. ISSN 0035-9149. JSTOR 531786. PMID 11623188. S2CID 43440960.
^ Minter, Sue (1996). Apothecaries' Garden. The History Press. ISBN 9780752495279.
^ Elliott, Charles (November–December 1998). "The apothecaries' plot". Horticulture: The Art of American Gardening. 95 (9) – via Gale Academic OneFile.
^ "History". Chelsea Physic Garden. Retrieved 11 May 2023.
^ "Trustees". Chelsea Physic Garden. Retrieved 25 October 2017.
^ Lord-Lieutenant of Wiltshire, wiltshire.gov.uk, accessed 12 September 2022
^ Prynn, Jonathan (9 December 2020). "Million pound appeal launched to save threatened glasshouses at Chelsea Physic Garden". Evening Standard.
^ "Plant collections". Chelsea Physic Garden.
Further reading
Minter, Sue (2000). The Apothecaries' Garden. Great Britain. ISBN 978-0-7509-3638-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
External links
Gardens portal
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Chelsea Physic Garden.
Authority control databases International
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National
Germany
Israel
United States
Geographic
BGCI garden
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Worshipful Society of Apothecaries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worshipful_Society_of_Apothecaries"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"physic garden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physic_garden"},{"link_name":"botanical gardens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_garden"},{"link_name":"University of Oxford Botanic Garden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Oxford_Botanic_Garden"},{"link_name":"rock garden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_garden"},{"link_name":"alpine plants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpine_plant"},{"link_name":"olive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olive"},{"link_name":"grapefruit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grapefruit"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Worshipful Society of Apothecaries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worshipful_Society_of_Apothecaries"},{"link_name":"registered charity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charitable_organization"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"the London Museums of Health & Medicine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_London_Museums_of_Health_%26_Medicine"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of Special Historic Interest in England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Register_of_Historic_Parks_and_Gardens_of_Special_Historic_Interest_in_England"},{"link_name":"English Heritage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Heritage"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"The Chelsea Physic Garden was established as the Apothecaries' Garden in London, England, in 1673 by the Worshipful Society of Apothecaries to grow plants to be used as medicines.[1] This four acre physic garden, the term here referring to the science of healing, is among the oldest botanical gardens in Britain, after the University of Oxford Botanic Garden. Its rock garden is the oldest in Europe devoted to alpine plants and Mediterranean plants. The largest fruiting olive tree in Britain is there, protected by the garden's heat-trapping high brick walls, along with what is doubtless the world's northernmost grapefruit growing outdoors.[citation needed] Jealously guarded during the tenure of the Worshipful Society of Apothecaries, the garden became a registered charity[2] in 1983 and was opened to the general public for the first time.The garden is a member of the London Museums of Health & Medicine.[3] It is also Grade I listed in the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of Special Historic Interest in England by English Heritage.[4]","title":"Chelsea Physic Garden"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chelsea_physic_garden.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chelsea_Physic_Garden_with_house.jpg"},{"link_name":"Worshipful Society of Apothecaries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worshipful_Society_of_Apothecaries"},{"link_name":"John Danvers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Danvers"},{"link_name":"Chelsea, London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chelsea,_London"},{"link_name":"Thomas More","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_More"},{"link_name":"Hans Sloane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Sloane"},{"link_name":"Chelsea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chelsea,_London,_England"},{"link_name":"£","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pound_Sterling"},{"link_name":"Royal Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society"},{"link_name":"herbarium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbarium"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-5"},{"link_name":"Philip Miller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Miller"},{"link_name":"Paul Hermann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Hermann_(botanist)"},{"link_name":"Hortus Botanicus Leiden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hortus_Botanicus_Leiden"},{"link_name":"cotton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton"},{"link_name":"the colony of Georgia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)"},{"link_name":"Catharanthus roseus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catharanthus_roseus"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Isaac Rand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Rand"},{"link_name":"Elizabeth Blackwell's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Blackwell_(illustrator)"},{"link_name":"Natural History Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Museum,_London"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-5"},{"link_name":"Chelsea Embankment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chelsea_Embankment"},{"link_name":"River Thames","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Thames"},{"link_name":"Royal Hospital Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Hospital_Road"},{"link_name":"London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Michael Prideaux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Michael_Prideaux&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Sarah Troughton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah_Troughton"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"The garden in summer 2006The garden with the house visible in the backgroundThe Worshipful Society of Apothecaries initially established the garden on a leased site of Sir John Danvers' well-established garden in Chelsea, London. This house, called Danvers House, adjoined the mansion that had once been the house of Sir Thomas More. Danvers House was pulled down in 1696 to make room for Danvers Street.In 1713, Sir Hans Sloane purchased from Charles Cheyne the adjacent Manor of Chelsea, about 4 acres (1.6 ha), which he leased in 1722 to the Society of Apothecaries for £5 a year in perpetuity, requiring in the Deed of Conveyance that the garden supply the Royal Society, of which he was a principal, with 50 good herbarium samples per year, up to a total of 2,000 plants.[5]That initiated the golden age of the Chelsea Physic Garden under the direction of Philip Miller (1722–1770), when it became the world's most richly stocked botanic garden. Its seed-exchange programme was established following a visit in 1682 from Paul Hermann, a Dutch botanist connected with the Hortus Botanicus Leiden and has lasted until the present day. The seed exchange programme's most notable act may have been the introduction of cotton into the colony of Georgia and more recently, the worldwide spread of the Madagascar periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus).[citation needed]Isaac Rand, a member and a fellow of the Royal Society, published a condensed catalogue of the garden in 1730, Index plantarum officinalium, quas ad materiae medicae scientiam promovendam, in horto Chelseiano. Elizabeth Blackwell's A Curious Herbal (1737–1739) was illustrated partly from specimens taken from the Chelsea Physic Garden. In 1781, the collection of specimens was donated by the Royal Society to the British Museum in Bloomsbury, then moved in 1881 to the Department of Botany of the British Museum in Kensington, now the Natural History Museum.[5]Sir Joseph Banks worked with the head gardener and curator John Fairbairn during the 1780–1814 period. Fairbairn specialized in growing and cultivating plants from around the world.Parts of the garden have been lost to road development – the river bank during 1874 construction of the Chelsea Embankment on the north bank of the River Thames, and a strip of the garden to allow widening of Royal Hospital Road. What remains is a 3.5 acres (1.4 ha) patch in the heart of London.[6]The Trustees of the London Parochial Charities took over management of the garden in 1899 and for the majority of the twentieth century, it was used for scientific research and was not open to the public.[7] In 1983, the garden became a charity and was run by a private board of trustees, and a few years later in 1987, it was open to the general public for the first time.[8]As of 2020, the chairman of the trust that manages the garden is Michael Prideaux.[9] His predecessor was Sarah Troughton.[10] The garden director is Sue Medway. As of 2020 the garden is raising funds to restore the historic glasshouses on the site.[11]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"As of October 2017, the garden included 5,000 plants, in areas such as:[12]The Garden of Medicinal Plants\nThe Pharmaceutical Garden, with plants arranged according to the ailment they are used to treat\nThe Garden of World Medicine, with medicinal plants arranged by the culture which uses them\nThe Garden of Edible and Useful Plants\nThe World Woodland Garden","title":"Current garden"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chelsea_Physic_Garden,_ensign.jpg"},{"link_name":"William Aiton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Aiton"},{"link_name":"Johann Amman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Amman"},{"link_name":"Alexander Anderson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Anderson_(botanist)"},{"link_name":"Joseph Banks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Banks"},{"link_name":"John Bartram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Bartram"},{"link_name":"Elizabeth Blackwell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Blackwell_(illustrator)"},{"link_name":"Edward Augustus Bowles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Augustus_Bowles"},{"link_name":"Mark Catesby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Catesby"},{"link_name":"Lilian Clarke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lilian_Clarke"},{"link_name":"William Curtis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Curtis"},{"link_name":"Samuel Doody","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Doody"},{"link_name":"Henry Field (apothecary)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Field_(apothecary)"},{"link_name":"William Forsyth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Forsyth_(horticulturist)"},{"link_name":"Robert Fortune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Fortune"},{"link_name":"John Fraser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Fraser_(botanist)"},{"link_name":"John Graeffer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Graeffer"},{"link_name":"William Houstoun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Houstoun_(botanist)"},{"link_name":"William Hudson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hudson_(botanist)"},{"link_name":"Jacob van Huysum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_van_Huysum"},{"link_name":"Lee and Kennedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_and_Kennedy"},{"link_name":"John Lindley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lindley"},{"link_name":"Carl Linnaeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus"},{"link_name":"William Gregor MacKenzie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Gregor_MacKenzie"},{"link_name":"Georg Christian Oeder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Christian_Oeder"},{"link_name":"Anthony du Gard Pasley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_du_Gard_Pasley"},{"link_name":"Robert Petre, 8th Baron Petre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Petre,_8th_Baron_Petre"},{"link_name":"James Sherard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Sherard"},{"link_name":"Hans Sloane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Sloane"},{"link_name":"Daniel Solander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Solander"},{"link_name":"Mary Somerset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Somerset,_Duchess_of_Beaufort_(1630%E2%80%931715)"},{"link_name":"Nathaniel Bagshaw Ward","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathaniel_Bagshaw_Ward"}],"text":"Ensign of the gardenWilliam Aiton\nJohann Amman\nAlexander Anderson\nJoseph Banks\nJohn Bartram\nElizabeth Blackwell\nEdward Augustus Bowles\nMark Catesby\nLilian Clarke\nWilliam Curtis\nSamuel Doody\nHenry Field (apothecary)\nWilliam Forsyth\nRobert Fortune\nJohn Fraser\nJohn Graeffer\nWilliam Houstoun\nWilliam Hudson\nJacob van Huysum\nLee and Kennedy\nJohn Lindley\nCarl Linnaeus\nWilliam Gregor MacKenzie\nGeorg Christian Oeder\nAnthony du Gard Pasley\nRobert Petre, 8th Baron Petre\nJames Sherard\nHans Sloane\nDaniel Solander\nMary Somerset\nNathaniel Bagshaw Ward","title":"Associated people"}]
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[{"image_text":"The garden in summer 2006","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Chelsea_physic_garden.jpg/220px-Chelsea_physic_garden.jpg"},{"image_text":"The garden with the house visible in the background","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Chelsea_Physic_Garden_with_house.jpg/220px-Chelsea_Physic_Garden_with_house.jpg"},{"image_text":"Ensign of the garden","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Chelsea_Physic_Garden%2C_ensign.jpg/170px-Chelsea_Physic_Garden%2C_ensign.jpg"}]
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[{"reference":"\"History\". Chelsea Physic Garden.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.chelseaphysicgarden.co.uk/Pages/Category/history","url_text":"\"History\""}]},{"reference":"\"THE CHELSEA PHYSIC GARDEN COMPANY, registered charity no. 286513\". Charity Commission for England and Wales.","urls":[{"url":"https://register-of-charities.charitycommission.gov.uk/charity-details/?regId=286513&subId=0","url_text":"\"THE CHELSEA PHYSIC GARDEN COMPANY, registered charity no. 286513\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charity_Commission_for_England_and_Wales","url_text":"Charity Commission for England and Wales"}]},{"reference":"\"Medical Museums\". medicalmuseums.org. Retrieved 26 August 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://medicalmuseums.org/","url_text":"\"Medical Museums\""}]},{"reference":"\"Chelsea Physic Garden, Kensington and Chelsea - 1000147\". Historic England.","urls":[{"url":"https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1000147","url_text":"\"Chelsea Physic Garden, Kensington and Chelsea - 1000147\""}]},{"reference":"Stungo, Ruth (1993). \"The Royal Society Specimens from the Chelsea Physic Garden 1722-1799\". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London. 47 (2): 213–224. doi:10.1098/rsnr.1993.0028. ISSN 0035-9149. JSTOR 531786. PMID 11623188. S2CID 43440960.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/531786","url_text":"\"The Royal Society Specimens from the Chelsea Physic Garden 1722-1799\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsnr.1993.0028","url_text":"10.1098/rsnr.1993.0028"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0035-9149","url_text":"0035-9149"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/531786","url_text":"531786"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11623188","url_text":"11623188"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:43440960","url_text":"43440960"}]},{"reference":"Minter, Sue (1996). Apothecaries' Garden. The History Press. ISBN 9780752495279.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=QNwTDQAAQBAJ","url_text":"Apothecaries' Garden"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780752495279","url_text":"9780752495279"}]},{"reference":"Elliott, Charles (November–December 1998). \"The apothecaries' plot\". Horticulture: The Art of American Gardening. 95 (9) – via Gale Academic OneFile.","urls":[{"url":"https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A21273217/AONE?u=mosc00780&sid=bookmark-AONE&xid=faf427dd","url_text":"\"The apothecaries' plot\""}]},{"reference":"\"History\". Chelsea Physic Garden. Retrieved 11 May 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.chelseaphysicgarden.co.uk/about/history/","url_text":"\"History\""}]},{"reference":"\"Trustees\". Chelsea Physic Garden. Retrieved 25 October 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.chelseaphysicgarden.co.uk/FAQs/trustee-1","url_text":"\"Trustees\""}]},{"reference":"Prynn, Jonathan (9 December 2020). \"Million pound appeal launched to save threatened glasshouses at Chelsea Physic Garden\". Evening Standard.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.standard.co.uk/news/uk/chelsea-physic-garden-glasshouses-appeal-b230894.html","url_text":"\"Million pound appeal launched to save threatened glasshouses at Chelsea Physic Garden\""}]},{"reference":"\"Plant collections\". Chelsea Physic Garden.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.chelseaphysicgarden.co.uk/Pages/Category/plant-collections","url_text":"\"Plant collections\""}]},{"reference":"Minter, Sue (2000). The Apothecaries' Garden. Great Britain. ISBN 978-0-7509-3638-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7509-3638-5","url_text":"978-0-7509-3638-5"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_Beach_Jam
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Motor City Cruise
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["1 History","1.1 Long Beach Jam (2003–2005)","1.2 Bakersfield Jam (2006–2016)","1.3 Northern Arizona Suns (2016–2021)","1.4 Motor City Cruise (2021–present)","2 Season-by-season record","3 Current roster","4 Head coaches","5 NBA affiliates","5.1 Bakersfield Jam","5.2 Northern Arizona Suns","5.3 Motor City Cruise","6 References"]
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American minor league basketball team of the NBA G League
Motor City CruiseConferenceEasternLeagueNBA G LeagueFounded2003HistoryLong Beach JamABA: 2003–2005Bakersfield JamD-League: 2006–2016Northern Arizona Suns2016–2021Motor City Cruise2021–presentArenaWayne State FieldhouseLocationDetroit, MichiganTeam colorsRoyal blue, red, grey, black, white PresidentVacantGeneral managerBen CarloniHead coachJamelle McMillanOwnershipDetroit PistonsAffiliation(s)Detroit PistonsChampionshipsABA: 1 (2004)D-League/G League: 0Division/Conference titlesABA: 1 (2004)D-League/G League: 1 (2013)WebsiteOfficial website
The Motor City Cruise are an American professional basketball team in the NBA G League based in Detroit, and are affiliated with the Detroit Pistons. The Cruise play their home games at Wayne State Fieldhouse. The franchise began play as the Long Beach Jam in 2003 under the revived American Basketball Association and moved to Bakersfield in the D-League in 2006 as the Bakersfield Jam. After ten years in Bakersfield, California, the franchise was moved to Prescott Valley, Arizona, in 2016 by the Phoenix Suns and were subsequently renamed the Northern Arizona Suns. In 2021, the team relocated to Detroit after being purchased by the Pistons.
History
Long Beach Jam (2003–2005)
During the year-long hiatus that the American Basketball Association had in the 2002–03 season, one of the teams the league approved of would be the Long Beach Jam. In the team's inaugural season, the Jam managed to procure NBA Hall of Famer Dennis Rodman, fellow veteran Corey Gaines, up-and-coming player Matt Barnes, and Japanese point guard Yuta Tabuse on their squad. They also got former NBA Finals winning head coach Paul Westhead during the start of the season, but he managed to procure himself an assistant coach gig with the Orlando Magic after their first game of the season. Nevertheless, with the presence of players like Rodman, Gaines and Tabuse under new head coach Earl Cureton, the Jam would hold a 24–7 record. It was not only considered the best record of the league that season, but also gave the Jam a bye all the way into the Finals, where they competed against the winner of the Kansas City Knights (the previous champions of the ABA) and the Juárez Gallos. In the championship round, the Jam barely escaped against the Knights to win the ABA Championship with a final score of 126–123.
In their second and final season under the Long Beach name, the Jam began their season under a pedestrian 8–6 record with another NBA Hall of Famer, this time Nate "Tiny" Archibald, leading the way as head coach during the first half of the 2004–05 season. On January 17, 2005, Archibald resigned from his position as head coach and had former player and future head coach of the Phoenix Mercury, Corey Gaines, assigned as their new head coach during the second half of their season. In that season, they managed to produce an 18–10 record in a greatly expanded ABA, with Gaines improving the team with a 10-4 second half during that season, which produced them with the second-best record in the Red Division. The Jam competed in the playoffs and made it to the quarterfinals, where they lost 130–115 to the Utah Snowbears (who produced a 25–1 that season), who would surprisingly end up forfeiting their last match to the Bellevue Blackhawks (potentially due to sunk costs with the team) since the Snowbears folded soon afterwards, while Bellevue lost the championship match to the Arkansas RimRockers. After the end of that season, the Jam withdrew from the 2005–06 ABA season to move to the NBA Development League the following season afterward, with the intent to also move to Bakersfield around that same period of time.
Bakersfield Jam (2006–2016)
After their first season in Bakersfield ended in 2007, there was a contest where the fans could decide on a new name for the team. The choices were to rename the team Desperados, Roughnecks, Oilers, or keep the name Jam. On May 17, the team announced that the team will remain the Bakersfield Jam, as that name won the poll in a landslide vote.
The team played at Rabobank Arena until 2009 and later at the Jam Events Center.
On April 29, 2009, it was reported that the Jam had ceased operations, citing lack of sufficient fan attendance. However, on June 18, the Jam announced that they had not shut down and plan to play in the 2009–10 season, with further details to come the following day.
On April 30, 2014, it was reported that the Jam would enter a hybrid operation with the Phoenix Suns. Not only would that lead to the Suns having exclusive collaborations with the team, but it would also allow the Jam to operate under their own management in the process. On May 9, it was confirmed that the Suns and the Jam would agree to working under a hybrid affiliation. Four days later, the Jam completed their transition by allowing Suns scout Bubba Barrage to be the team's newest general manager and letting Nate Bjorkgren coach the Jam in place of Will Voigt. Since the Dignity Health Event Center seated only 500, the team did not sell individual general admission tickets and were sold to season ticket holders only.
On May 29, 2015, it was announced that Nate Bjorkgren would leave the Jam to take part in the Suns' organization as a leading player development and assistant coach. Three months later, former NBA coach Chris Jent would be the newest head coach for the Jam.
Northern Arizona Suns (2016–2021)
Northern Arizona Suns logo
On April 12, 2016, the Phoenix Suns announced that the organization had officially purchased the Jam and were relocating the franchise to the town of Prescott Valley, Arizona, for the 2016–17 season and became the Northern Arizona Suns. In response, the previous owners of the Jam franchise, Stan Ellis and David Higdon, announced that they have been working with the D-League in securing a new franchise and affiliation before the 2016–17 season, although it did not come to fruition. On May 2, it was announced that former Arizona Sundogs and current Arizona Rattlers president, Chris Presson, would become the new team president for the Suns. The new team logo and jerseys for Northern Arizona was officially unveiled on May 11 and the front office personnel and coaching staff were announced on August 16. During their first season as the Northern Arizona Suns, the team started out the season strong, entering with a 10–1 record. However, the Suns would enter a major losing streak after having Tyler Ulis and Alan Williams briefly play for them via assignment, and would ultimately not recover from it afterward.
In the 2017 offseason, the D-League rebranded as the NBA G League. On October 20, 2017, the Suns had assistant general manager Louis Lehman take over general manager duties for the Northern Arizona Suns, while previous general manager Bubba Barrage remained in Phoenix as director of player personnel. Three days later, head coach Tyrone Ellis became an assistant coach for Phoenix alongside Northern Arizona assistants Bret Burchard and Brandon Rosenthal, leaving assistant coach Tyler Gatlin as the interim head coach during the G League preseason. Cody Toppert was named the head coach just prior to the start of the season. The team finished the season with a 23–27 record and missed the playoffs. At the end of the season, head coach Toppert was promoted to an assistant coaching position in Phoenix. He would be replaced by former Northern Arizona Suns assistant and Phoenix Suns' assistant coach Bret Burchard.
Following the pandemic-shorted 2019–20 season, the Phoenix Suns originally announced that the team would relocate to the metro Phoenix area for the following season. However, the team withdrew entirely from the 2020–21 season amidst the COVID-19 pandemic when the G League held the abbreviated season in a bubble in Orlando, Florida.
Motor City Cruise (2021–present)
On July 29, 2020, the Detroit Pistons announced that the organization had purchased the Northern Arizona Suns from the Phoenix Suns and were relocating the franchise to Detroit for the 2021–22 season to play at Wayne State Fieldhouse. It was also announced that the team's affiliation with the Grand Rapids Drive would end upon the completion of the 2020–21 season. On October 30, the team name was announced as the Motor City Cruise.
On March 17, 2021, the Cruise announced the hiring of Rob Murphy as president and general manager. Pistons' assistant coach DJ Bakker was named the first head coach for the Cruise on August 23.
Season-by-season record
Season
League
Division/Conference
Finish
Wins
Losses
Pct.
Postseason results
Long Beach Jam
2003–04
ABA
—
1st
24
7
.774
Won ABA Championship (Kansas City) 126–123
2004–05
ABA
Red
2nd
18
10
.643
Won ABA Quarterfinals (Las Vegas) 148–126Lost ABA Semifinals (Utah Snowbears) 115–130
2005–06
Suspended operations for D-League application
Bakersfield Jam
2006–07
D-League
Western
6th
19
31
.380
2007–08
D-League
Western
5th
11
39
.220
2008–09
D-League
Western
3rd
26
24
.520
Lost First Round (Utah) 81–94
2009–10
D-League
Western
8th
17
33
.340
2010–11
D-League
Western
4th
29
21
.580
Lost First Round (Rio Grande Valley) 1–2
2011–12
D-League
Western
3rd
28
22
.560
Won First Round (Dakota) 2–0Lost Semifinals (Los Angeles) 0–2
2012–13
D-League
Western
1st
36
14
.720
Lost First Round (Austin) 0–2
2013–14
D-League
Western
5th
24
26
.480
2014–15
D-League
Western
2nd
34
16
.680
Lost First Round (Austin) 1–2
2015–16
D-League
Pacific
3rd
22
28
.440
Northern Arizona Suns
2016–17
D-League
Pacific
3rd
22
28
.448
2017–18
G League
Pacific
4th
23
27
.460
2018–19
G League
Pacific
5th
12
38
.240
2019–20
G League
Pacific
5th
8
34
.190
Season cancelled by COVID-19 pandemic
2020–21
G League
Opted out of single-site season
Motor City Cruise
2021–22
G League
Eastern
2nd
22
10
.688
Lost Conference Semifinal (Delaware) 116-124
2022–23
G League
Eastern
8st
17
15
.531
ABA regular season
42
17
.712
2003–2005
D/G League regular season
350
406
.463
2006–present
Playoffs
6
11
.353
2003–present
Regular season and Playoffs combined
392
423
.481
2003–present
Current roster
Motor City Cruise rostervte
Players
Coaches
Pos.
No.
Name
Height
Weight
DOB
From
F
6
Alexander, Josh
6 ft 8 in (2.03 m)
243 lb (110 kg)
2000-02-25
American
G
27
Boeheim, Buddy (TW)
6 ft 5 in (1.96 m)
205 lb (93 kg)
1999-11-11
Syracuse
F
18
Evbuomwan, Tosan (TW)
6 ft 7 in (2.01 m)
217 lb (98 kg)
2001-02-16
Princeton
G
2
Higgs, Devon
6 ft 5 in (1.96 m)
198 lb (90 kg)
2000-02-10
Georgia Southwestern State
C
36
Johnson, Jayce
7 ft 0 in (2.13 m)
245 lb (111 kg)
1997-08-01
Marquette
G
21
Jones, ShawnDre'
6 ft 0 in (1.83 m)
170 lb (77 kg)
1994-11-18
Richmond
F
13
Knight, Nathan
6 ft 8 in (2.03 m)
253 lb (115 kg)
1997-09-20
William & Mary
F
0
Peek, Sam
6 ft 7 in (2.01 m)
195 lb (88 kg)
1999-06-11
Stetson
G
8
Rhoden, Jared (TW)
6 ft 6 in (1.98 m)
210 lb (95 kg)
1999-08-27
Seton Hall
F
7
Turell, Ryan
6 ft 7 in (2.01 m)
190 lb (86 kg)
1999-02-03
Yeshiva
G
51
Vaudrin, Chandler
6 ft 7 in (2.01 m)
210 lb (95 kg)
1997-06-26
Winthrop
Head coach
Jamelle McMillan
Assistant coach(es)
Brian Boyle
David Noel
Marcus Stout
Legend
(DP) Unsigned draft pick(FA) Free agent(S) Suspended(P) Prospects(NBA) On assignment from NBA affiliate(TW) Two-way affiliate player Injured
Roster Last transaction: April 23, 2024
Head coaches
#
Head coach
Term
Regular season
Playoffs
Achievements
G
W
L
Win%
G
W
L
Win%
1
Paul Westhead
2003
1
1
0
1.000
—
—
—
—
2
Earl Cureton
2003–2004
30
23
7
.767
1
1
0
1.000
ABA Championship (2004)
3
Nate Archibald
2004–2005
14
8
6
.571
—
—
—
—
4
Corey Gaines
2005
14
10
4
.714
2
1
1
.500
5
Jim Harrick
2006–2007
50
19
31
.380
—
—
—
—
6
Sean Rooks
2007–2008
50
11
39
.220
—
—
—
—
7
Scott Roth
2008–2009
50
26
24
.520
1
0
1
.000
8
Will Voigt
2009–2014
250
134
116
.536
9
3
6
.333
9
Nate Bjorkgren
2014–2015
50
34
16
.680
3
1
2
.333
10
Chris Jent
2015–2016
50
22
28
.440
—
—
—
—
11
Tyrone Ellis
2016–2017
50
22
28
.440
—
—
—
—
12
Cody Toppert
2017–2018
50
23
27
.460
—
—
—
—
13
Bret Burchard
2018–2020
50
12
38
.240
—
—
—
—
14
DJ Bakker
2021–2023
64
39
25
.609
2
1
1
.500
15
Jamelle McMillan
2023–present
64
39
25
.609
2
1
1
.500
NBA affiliates
Bakersfield Jam
Atlanta Hawks (2012–2014)
Golden State Warriors (2006–2010)
Los Angeles Clippers (2009–2014)
Los Angeles Lakers (2010–2011)
Orlando Magic (2008–2009)
Phoenix Suns (2011–2016)
Sacramento Kings (2006–2008)
Toronto Raptors (2011–2014)
Utah Jazz (2013–2014)
Northern Arizona Suns
Phoenix Suns (2016–2021)
Motor City Cruise
Detroit Pistons (2021–present)
References
^ "Detroit Pistons NBA G League Affiliate To Be Named 'Motor City Cruise'". Pistons.com. NBA Media Ventures, LLC. October 30, 2020. Retrieved May 10, 2021. The colors – red, white, blue and gray – and lettering align with the Pistons' current font and color scheme.
^ "Motor City Cruise Reproduction and Usage Guideline Sheet". NBA Properties, Inc. Retrieved May 10, 2021.
^ "Long Beach Jam History & Past Standings". Los Angeles Almanac. Archived from the original on May 25, 2006. Retrieved May 25, 2006.
^ Bakersfield To Keep Jammin'
^ The Jam is not toast after all
^ Phoenix Suns to use D-League Bakersfield as affiliate
^ Phoenix Suns to "make experience seamless" between Suns and D-League's Jam by using same system
^ "Suns make coaching staff changes, drop Kenny Gattison".
^ "Phoenix Suns Buy Bakersfield Jam; Relocate Team to Prescott Valley, Arizona". OurSports Central. April 12, 2016.
^ "Phoenix Suns Purchase Bakersfield Jam". OurSports Central. April 12, 2016.
^ Petersen, Matt (May 11, 2016). "New Logo, Uniforms Cement Suns' D-League Presence in Prescott Valley". Phoenix Suns. Retrieved May 12, 2016.
^ Kotloff, Brian (May 10, 2016). "Northern Arizona Suns Unveil Logo and Uniforms". NBA Development League. Retrieved May 16, 2016.
^ http://northernarizona.dleague.nba.com/news/northern-arizona-suns-announce-basketball-staff/
^ "Louis Lehman Named New GM Of NAZ Suns". www.prescottenews.com. Archived from the original on 2017-10-23.
^ "Northern Arizona Suns endure hectic week as training camp opens". 2 Ways & 10 Days. October 25, 2017. Retrieved November 21, 2018.
^ Jacob Withee (November 4, 2017). "Cody Toppert Named New Head Coach of Northern Arizona Suns". NBA G League.
^ "NAZ Suns' coach Cody Toppert joins Phoenix staff as assistant under Kokoskov". The Daily Courier. June 22, 2018.
^ "Bret Burchard Named Head Coach of Northern Arizona Suns". OurSportsCentral.com. July 25, 2018.
^ "NAZ Suns announce they are leaving Prescott Valley". Arizona Daily Sun. Retrieved July 9, 2020.
^ "NBA G League To Begin Play at Disney In February". NBA G League. January 8, 2021.
^ Beard, Rod (July 29, 2020). "Pistons buy G League team to play in Detroit for 2021-22; Grand Rapids Drive mull options". The Detroit News. Retrieved July 30, 2020.
^ "Pistons announce G-League team name will be Motor City Cruise". WXYZ-TV. October 30, 2020.
^ Maynard, Jason (March 17, 2021). "Motor City Cruise Names Rob Murphy as President and General Manager". NBA.com. Retrieved March 17, 2021.
^ "Motor City Cruise Names DJ Bakker as Head Coach". OurSports Central. August 24, 2021.
vteNBA G League
Seasons
Team rosters
Champions
Awards
Drafts
International Challenge
2023–24 season
EasternConference
Birmingham Squadron
Capital City Go-Go
Cleveland Charge
College Park Skyhawks
Delaware Blue Coats
Grand Rapids Gold
Greensboro Swarm
Indiana Mad Ants
Long Island Nets
Maine Celtics
Motor City Cruise
Osceola Magic
Raptors 905
Westchester Knicks
Windy City Bulls
Wisconsin Herd
WesternConference
Austin Spurs
Capitanes de Ciudad de México
Iowa Wolves
Memphis Hustle
Oklahoma City Blue
Rio Grande Valley Vipers
Rip City Remix
Salt Lake City Stars
San Diego Clippers
Santa Cruz Warriors
Sioux Falls Skyforce
South Bay Lakers
Stockton Kings
Texas Legends
Valley Suns
Category
vteDetroit Pistons
Founded in 1937
Formerly the Fort Wayne Zollner Pistons (1937–1948) and the Fort Wayne Pistons (1948–1957)
Based in Detroit, Michigan
Franchise
All-time roster
Draft history
Head coaches
Seasons
Current season
Arenas
North Side High School Gym
Allen County War Memorial Coliseum
Detroit Olympia
Memorial Building
Cobo Arena
Pontiac Silverdome
The Palace of Auburn Hills
Little Caesars Arena
Personnel
Owner(s)
Tom Gores
President
Ed Stefanski
General manager
Vacant
Head coach
Monty Williams
G League affiliate
Motor City Cruise
Retired numbers
1
2
3
4
10
11
15
16
21
32
40
NBA championships
1989
1990
2004
Rivalries
Boston Celtics
Chicago Bulls
Los Angeles Lakers
Culture and lore
Broadcasters
Hooper
Jordan Rules
1990 Detroit riot
John Mason
Malice at the Palace
vteSports teams based in MichiganBaseball
MLB
Detroit Tigers
ML
Great Lakes Loons
Lansing Lugnuts
West Michigan Whitecaps
NwL
Battle Creek Battle Jacks
Kalamazoo Growlers
Traverse City Pit Spitters
USPBL
Basketball
NBA
Detroit Pistons
G League
Grand Rapids Gold
Motor City Cruise
PBL
Grand Rapids Cyclones
Lake Michigan Admirals
NABL
Grand Rapids Danger
Football
NFL
Detroit Lions
UFL
Michigan Panthers
AAL
West Michigan Ironmen
WFA
Detroit Dark Angels
Flint City Riveters
West Michigan Mayhem
IWFL
Detroit Pride
Hockey
NHL
Detroit Red Wings
AHL
Grand Rapids Griffins
ECHL
Kalamazoo Wings
FPHL
Port Huron Prowlers
Motor City Rockers
OHL
Flint Firebirds
Saginaw Spirit
USHL
Muskegon Lumberjacks
US National Development Team Program
NOJHL
Soo Eagles
USPHL
Detroit Fighting Irish
Motor City HC
Metro Jets
Roller derby
WFTDA
Ann Arbor Roller Derby
Detroit Roller Derby
Flint Roller Derby
Grand Raggidy Roller Derby
Kalamazoo Roller Derby
Lansing Roller Derby
Rugby union
USARNC
Detroit Tradesmen
Michigan RFC
Soccer
USLC
Detroit City FC
NISA
Gold Star FC
Michigan Stars FC
USL2
AFC Ann Arbor
Flint City Bucks
Grand Rapids FC
Kalamazoo FC
Oakland County FC
NPSL
Carpathia FC
USLW
AFC Ann Arbor
Detroit City FC
Flint City AFC
Kalamazoo FC
Midwest United FC
UPSL
Alianza FC
Detroit United
MWPL
Soccer (indoor)
MLIS
Rapid City FC
Waza Flo
MASL2
Muskegon Risers
Ultimate
UFA
Detroit Mechanix
Volleyball
PVF
Grand Rapids Rise
CollegeathleticsNCAADivision I
Central Michigan
Detroit Mercy
Eastern Michigan
Michigan
Michigan State
Oakland
Western Michigan
NCAADivision II
Davenport
Ferris State (D-I hockey)
Grand Valley State
Hillsdale
Lake Superior State (D-I hockey)
Michigan Tech (D-I hockey)
Northern Michigan (D-I hockey)
Northwood
Saginaw Valley State
Wayne State
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"NBA G League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBA_G_League"},{"link_name":"Detroit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detroit"},{"link_name":"Detroit Pistons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detroit_Pistons"},{"link_name":"Wayne State Fieldhouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayne_State_Fieldhouse"},{"link_name":"American Basketball Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Basketball_Association_(2000%E2%80%93present)"},{"link_name":"Bakersfield, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakersfield,_California"},{"link_name":"Prescott Valley, Arizona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prescott_Valley,_Arizona"},{"link_name":"Phoenix Suns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenix_Suns"}],"text":"The Motor City Cruise are an American professional basketball team in the NBA G League based in Detroit, and are affiliated with the Detroit Pistons. The Cruise play their home games at Wayne State Fieldhouse. The franchise began play as the Long Beach Jam in 2003 under the revived American Basketball Association and moved to Bakersfield in the D-League in 2006 as the Bakersfield Jam. After ten years in Bakersfield, California, the franchise was moved to Prescott Valley, Arizona, in 2016 by the Phoenix Suns and were subsequently renamed the Northern Arizona Suns. In 2021, the team relocated to Detroit after being purchased by the Pistons.","title":"Motor City Cruise"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dennis Rodman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dennis_Rodman"},{"link_name":"Corey Gaines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corey_Gaines"},{"link_name":"Matt Barnes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt_Barnes"},{"link_name":"Yuta Tabuse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuta_Tabuse"},{"link_name":"Paul Westhead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Westhead"},{"link_name":"Orlando Magic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orlando_Magic"},{"link_name":"Earl Cureton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl_Cureton"},{"link_name":"Kansas City Knights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kansas_City_Knights"},{"link_name":"Juárez Gallos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ju%C3%A1rez_Gallos_de_Pelea"},{"link_name":"Nate \"Tiny\" Archibald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nate_Archibald"},{"link_name":"Phoenix Mercury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenix_Mercury"},{"link_name":"Corey Gaines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corey_Gaines"},{"link_name":"Arkansas RimRockers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkansas_RimRockers"},{"link_name":"2005–06 ABA season","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005%E2%80%9306_ABA_season"},{"link_name":"NBA Development League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBA_Development_League"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"sub_title":"Long Beach Jam (2003–2005)","text":"During the year-long hiatus that the American Basketball Association had in the 2002–03 season, one of the teams the league approved of would be the Long Beach Jam. In the team's inaugural season, the Jam managed to procure NBA Hall of Famer Dennis Rodman, fellow veteran Corey Gaines, up-and-coming player Matt Barnes, and Japanese point guard Yuta Tabuse on their squad. They also got former NBA Finals winning head coach Paul Westhead during the start of the season, but he managed to procure himself an assistant coach gig with the Orlando Magic after their first game of the season. Nevertheless, with the presence of players like Rodman, Gaines and Tabuse under new head coach Earl Cureton, the Jam would hold a 24–7 record. It was not only considered the best record of the league that season, but also gave the Jam a bye all the way into the Finals, where they competed against the winner of the Kansas City Knights (the previous champions of the ABA) and the Juárez Gallos. In the championship round, the Jam barely escaped against the Knights to win the ABA Championship with a final score of 126–123.In their second and final season under the Long Beach name, the Jam began their season under a pedestrian 8–6 record with another NBA Hall of Famer, this time Nate \"Tiny\" Archibald, leading the way as head coach during the first half of the 2004–05 season. On January 17, 2005, Archibald resigned from his position as head coach and had former player and future head coach of the Phoenix Mercury, Corey Gaines, assigned as their new head coach during the second half of their season. In that season, they managed to produce an 18–10 record in a greatly expanded ABA, with Gaines improving the team with a 10-4 second half during that season, which produced them with the second-best record in the Red Division. The Jam competed in the playoffs and made it to the quarterfinals, where they lost 130–115 to the Utah Snowbears (who produced a 25–1 that season), who would surprisingly end up forfeiting their last match to the Bellevue Blackhawks (potentially due to sunk costs with the team) since the Snowbears folded soon afterwards, while Bellevue lost the championship match to the Arkansas RimRockers. After the end of that season, the Jam withdrew from the 2005–06 ABA season to move to the NBA Development League the following season afterward, with the intent to also move to Bakersfield around that same period of time.[3]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Rabobank Arena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabobank_Arena"},{"link_name":"Jam Events Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jam_Events_Center"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Phoenix Suns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenix_Suns"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Nate Bjorkgren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nate_Bjorkgren"},{"link_name":"Will Voigt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Will_Voigt"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Dignity Health Event Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dignity_Health_Event_Center"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Chris Jent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Jent"}],"sub_title":"Bakersfield Jam (2006–2016)","text":"After their first season in Bakersfield ended in 2007, there was a contest where the fans could decide on a new name for the team. The choices were to rename the team Desperados, Roughnecks, Oilers, or keep the name Jam. On May 17, the team announced that the team will remain the Bakersfield Jam, as that name won the poll in a landslide vote.[4]The team played at Rabobank Arena until 2009 and later at the Jam Events Center.On April 29, 2009, it was reported that the Jam had ceased operations, citing lack of sufficient fan attendance. However, on June 18, the Jam announced that they had not shut down and plan to play in the 2009–10 season, with further details to come the following day.[5]On April 30, 2014, it was reported that the Jam would enter a hybrid operation with the Phoenix Suns. Not only would that lead to the Suns having exclusive collaborations with the team, but it would also allow the Jam to operate under their own management in the process. On May 9, it was confirmed that the Suns and the Jam would agree to working under a hybrid affiliation.[6] Four days later, the Jam completed their transition by allowing Suns scout Bubba Barrage to be the team's newest general manager and letting Nate Bjorkgren coach the Jam in place of Will Voigt.[7] Since the Dignity Health Event Center seated only 500, the team did not sell individual general admission tickets and were sold to season ticket holders only.On May 29, 2015, it was announced that Nate Bjorkgren would leave the Jam to take part in the Suns' organization as a leading player development and assistant coach.[8] Three months later, former NBA coach Chris Jent would be the newest head coach for the Jam.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Northern_Arizona_Suns_logo.svg"},{"link_name":"Phoenix Suns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenix_Suns"},{"link_name":"Prescott Valley, Arizona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prescott_Valley,_Arizona"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Arizona Sundogs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arizona_Sundogs"},{"link_name":"Arizona Rattlers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arizona_Rattlers"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Tyler Ulis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyler_Ulis"},{"link_name":"Alan Williams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Williams_(basketball)"},{"link_name":"NBA G League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBA_G_League"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Tyrone Ellis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyrone_Ellis"},{"link_name":"Bret Burchard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bret_Burchard"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Cody Toppert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cody_Toppert"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Bret Burchard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bret_Burchard"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"2019–20 season","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019%E2%80%9320_NBA_G_League_season"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"2020–21 season","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020%E2%80%9321_NBA_G_League_season"},{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic"},{"link_name":"Orlando, Florida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orlando,_Florida"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"sub_title":"Northern Arizona Suns (2016–2021)","text":"Northern Arizona Suns logoOn April 12, 2016, the Phoenix Suns announced that the organization had officially purchased the Jam and were relocating the franchise to the town of Prescott Valley, Arizona, for the 2016–17 season and became the Northern Arizona Suns.[9] In response, the previous owners of the Jam franchise, Stan Ellis and David Higdon, announced that they have been working with the D-League in securing a new franchise and affiliation before the 2016–17 season, although it did not come to fruition.[10] On May 2, it was announced that former Arizona Sundogs and current Arizona Rattlers president, Chris Presson, would become the new team president for the Suns. The new team logo and jerseys for Northern Arizona was officially unveiled on May 11[11][12] and the front office personnel and coaching staff were announced on August 16.[13] During their first season as the Northern Arizona Suns, the team started out the season strong, entering with a 10–1 record. However, the Suns would enter a major losing streak after having Tyler Ulis and Alan Williams briefly play for them via assignment, and would ultimately not recover from it afterward.In the 2017 offseason, the D-League rebranded as the NBA G League. On October 20, 2017, the Suns had assistant general manager Louis Lehman take over general manager duties for the Northern Arizona Suns, while previous general manager Bubba Barrage remained in Phoenix as director of player personnel.[14] Three days later, head coach Tyrone Ellis became an assistant coach for Phoenix alongside Northern Arizona assistants Bret Burchard and Brandon Rosenthal, leaving assistant coach Tyler Gatlin as the interim head coach during the G League preseason.[15] Cody Toppert was named the head coach just prior to the start of the season.[16] The team finished the season with a 23–27 record and missed the playoffs. At the end of the season, head coach Toppert was promoted to an assistant coaching position in Phoenix.[17] He would be replaced by former Northern Arizona Suns assistant and Phoenix Suns' assistant coach Bret Burchard.[18]Following the pandemic-shorted 2019–20 season, the Phoenix Suns originally announced that the team would relocate to the metro Phoenix area for the following season.[19] However, the team withdrew entirely from the 2020–21 season amidst the COVID-19 pandemic when the G League held the abbreviated season in a bubble in Orlando, Florida.[20]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Detroit Pistons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detroit_Pistons"},{"link_name":"Detroit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detroit"},{"link_name":"Wayne State Fieldhouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayne_State_Fieldhouse"},{"link_name":"Grand Rapids Drive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Rapids_Drive"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Rob Murphy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rob_Murphy_(basketball)"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"sub_title":"Motor City Cruise (2021–present)","text":"On July 29, 2020, the Detroit Pistons announced that the organization had purchased the Northern Arizona Suns from the Phoenix Suns and were relocating the franchise to Detroit for the 2021–22 season to play at Wayne State Fieldhouse. It was also announced that the team's affiliation with the Grand Rapids Drive would end upon the completion of the 2020–21 season.[21] On October 30, the team name was announced as the Motor City Cruise.[22]On March 17, 2021, the Cruise announced the hiring of Rob Murphy as president and general manager.[23] Pistons' assistant coach DJ Bakker was named the first head coach for the Cruise on August 23.[24]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Season-by-season record"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Current roster"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Head coaches"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"NBA affiliates"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Atlanta Hawks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlanta_Hawks"},{"link_name":"Golden State Warriors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_State_Warriors"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles Clippers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Clippers"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles Lakers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Lakers"},{"link_name":"Orlando Magic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orlando_Magic"},{"link_name":"Phoenix Suns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenix_Suns"},{"link_name":"Sacramento Kings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacramento_Kings"},{"link_name":"Toronto Raptors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto_Raptors"},{"link_name":"Utah Jazz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utah_Jazz"}],"sub_title":"Bakersfield Jam","text":"Atlanta Hawks (2012–2014)\nGolden State Warriors (2006–2010)\nLos Angeles Clippers (2009–2014)\nLos Angeles Lakers (2010–2011)\nOrlando Magic (2008–2009)\nPhoenix Suns (2011–2016)\nSacramento Kings (2006–2008)\nToronto Raptors (2011–2014)\nUtah Jazz (2013–2014)","title":"NBA affiliates"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Phoenix Suns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenix_Suns"}],"sub_title":"Northern Arizona Suns","text":"Phoenix Suns (2016–2021)","title":"NBA affiliates"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Detroit Pistons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detroit_Pistons"}],"sub_title":"Motor City Cruise","text":"Detroit Pistons (2021–present)","title":"NBA affiliates"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Northern Arizona Suns logo","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/77/Northern_Arizona_Suns_logo.svg/120px-Northern_Arizona_Suns_logo.svg.png"}]
| null |
[{"reference":"\"Detroit Pistons NBA G League Affiliate To Be Named 'Motor City Cruise'\". Pistons.com. NBA Media Ventures, LLC. October 30, 2020. Retrieved May 10, 2021. The colors – red, white, blue and gray – and lettering align with the Pistons' current font and color scheme.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nba.com/pistons/news/detroit-pistons-nba-g-league-affiliate-be-named-motor-city-cruise","url_text":"\"Detroit Pistons NBA G League Affiliate To Be Named 'Motor City Cruise'\""}]},{"reference":"\"Motor City Cruise Reproduction and Usage Guideline Sheet\". NBA Properties, Inc. Retrieved May 10, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://mediacentral.nba.com/wp-content/uploads/logos/nba%20g%20league/mcc/Motor_City_Cruise_Logosheet.jpg","url_text":"\"Motor City Cruise Reproduction and Usage Guideline Sheet\""}]},{"reference":"\"Long Beach Jam History & Past Standings\". Los Angeles Almanac. Archived from the original on May 25, 2006. Retrieved May 25, 2006.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060525102747/http://www.laalmanac.com/sports/sp12bac.htm","url_text":"\"Long Beach Jam History & Past Standings\""},{"url":"http://www.laalmanac.com/sports/sp12bac.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Suns make coaching staff changes, drop Kenny Gattison\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.azcentral.com/story/sports/nba/suns/2015/05/29/phoenix-suns-coaching-staff-jeff-hornacek-kenny-gattison/28170329/","url_text":"\"Suns make coaching staff changes, drop Kenny Gattison\""}]},{"reference":"\"Phoenix Suns Buy Bakersfield Jam; Relocate Team to Prescott Valley, Arizona\". OurSports Central. April 12, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/phoenix-suns-buy-bakersfield-jam-relocate-team-to-prescott-valley-arizona/n-5124126","url_text":"\"Phoenix Suns Buy Bakersfield Jam; Relocate Team to Prescott Valley, Arizona\""}]},{"reference":"\"Phoenix Suns Purchase Bakersfield Jam\". OurSports Central. April 12, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/phoenix-suns-purchase-bakersfield-jam/n-5124149","url_text":"\"Phoenix Suns Purchase Bakersfield Jam\""}]},{"reference":"Petersen, Matt (May 11, 2016). \"New Logo, Uniforms Cement Suns' D-League Presence in Prescott Valley\". Phoenix Suns. Retrieved May 12, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nba.com/suns/news/new-logo-uniforms-cement-suns-d-league-presence-prescott-valley","url_text":"\"New Logo, Uniforms Cement Suns' D-League Presence in Prescott Valley\""}]},{"reference":"Kotloff, Brian (May 10, 2016). \"Northern Arizona Suns Unveil Logo and Uniforms\". NBA Development League. Retrieved May 16, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://dleague.nba.com/news/northern-arizona-suns-logo-jersey/","url_text":"\"Northern Arizona Suns Unveil Logo and Uniforms\""}]},{"reference":"\"Louis Lehman Named New GM Of NAZ Suns\". www.prescottenews.com. Archived from the original on 2017-10-23.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171023174220/http://www.prescottenews.com/index.php/sports/item/30862-louis-lehman-named-new-gm-of-naz-suns","url_text":"\"Louis Lehman Named New GM Of NAZ Suns\""},{"url":"http://www.prescottenews.com/index.php/sports/item/30862-louis-lehman-named-new-gm-of-naz-suns","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Northern Arizona Suns endure hectic week as training camp opens\". 2 Ways & 10 Days. October 25, 2017. Retrieved November 21, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://2ways10days.com/northern-arizona-suns-endure-hectic-week-as-training-camp-opens-fc3cca050987","url_text":"\"Northern Arizona Suns endure hectic week as training camp opens\""}]},{"reference":"Jacob Withee (November 4, 2017). \"Cody Toppert Named New Head Coach of Northern Arizona Suns\". NBA G League.","urls":[{"url":"http://northernarizona.gleague.nba.com/news/cody-toppert-named-new-head-coach-northern-arizona-suns/","url_text":"\"Cody Toppert Named New Head Coach of Northern Arizona Suns\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBA_G_League","url_text":"NBA G League"}]},{"reference":"\"NAZ Suns' coach Cody Toppert joins Phoenix staff as assistant under Kokoskov\". The Daily Courier. June 22, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dcourier.com/news/2018/jun/21/naz-suns-coach-cody-toppert-joins-phoenix-staff-as/","url_text":"\"NAZ Suns' coach Cody Toppert joins Phoenix staff as assistant under Kokoskov\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Daily_Courier_(Arizona)","url_text":"The Daily Courier"}]},{"reference":"\"Bret Burchard Named Head Coach of Northern Arizona Suns\". OurSportsCentral.com. July 25, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/bret-burchard-named-head-coach-of-northern-arizona-suns/n-5375874","url_text":"\"Bret Burchard Named Head Coach of Northern Arizona Suns\""}]},{"reference":"\"NAZ Suns announce they are leaving Prescott Valley\". Arizona Daily Sun. Retrieved July 9, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bizjournals.com/phoenix/news/2020/07/09/northern-arizona-suns-leave-prescott-valley.html","url_text":"\"NAZ Suns announce they are leaving Prescott Valley\""}]},{"reference":"\"NBA G League To Begin Play at Disney In February\". NBA G League. January 8, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://gleague.nba.com/news/nba-g-league-to-begin-play-at-disney-in-february/","url_text":"\"NBA G League To Begin Play at Disney In February\""}]},{"reference":"Beard, Rod (July 29, 2020). \"Pistons buy G League team to play in Detroit for 2021-22; Grand Rapids Drive mull options\". The Detroit News. Retrieved July 30, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.detroitnews.com/story/sports/nba/pistons/2020/07/29/pistons-bringing-new-g-league-team-detroit-2021-22-season/5535714002/","url_text":"\"Pistons buy G League team to play in Detroit for 2021-22; Grand Rapids Drive mull options\""}]},{"reference":"\"Pistons announce G-League team name will be Motor City Cruise\". WXYZ-TV. October 30, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wxyz.com/sports/pistons-announce-g-league-team-name-will-be-motor-city-cruise","url_text":"\"Pistons announce G-League team name will be Motor City Cruise\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WXYZ-TV","url_text":"WXYZ-TV"}]},{"reference":"Maynard, Jason (March 17, 2021). \"Motor City Cruise Names Rob Murphy as President and General Manager\". NBA.com. Retrieved March 17, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nba.com/pistons/news/motor-city-cruise-names-rob-murphy-president-and-general-manager","url_text":"\"Motor City Cruise Names Rob Murphy as President and General Manager\""}]},{"reference":"\"Motor City Cruise Names DJ Bakker as Head Coach\". OurSports Central. August 24, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/motor-city-cruise-names-dj-bakker-as-head-coach/n-5737356","url_text":"\"Motor City Cruise Names DJ Bakker as Head Coach\""}]}]
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Relocate Team to Prescott Valley, Arizona\""},{"Link":"https://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/phoenix-suns-purchase-bakersfield-jam/n-5124149","external_links_name":"\"Phoenix Suns Purchase Bakersfield Jam\""},{"Link":"http://www.nba.com/suns/news/new-logo-uniforms-cement-suns-d-league-presence-prescott-valley","external_links_name":"\"New Logo, Uniforms Cement Suns' D-League Presence in Prescott Valley\""},{"Link":"http://dleague.nba.com/news/northern-arizona-suns-logo-jersey/","external_links_name":"\"Northern Arizona Suns Unveil Logo and Uniforms\""},{"Link":"http://northernarizona.dleague.nba.com/news/northern-arizona-suns-announce-basketball-staff/","external_links_name":"http://northernarizona.dleague.nba.com/news/northern-arizona-suns-announce-basketball-staff/"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171023174220/http://www.prescottenews.com/index.php/sports/item/30862-louis-lehman-named-new-gm-of-naz-suns","external_links_name":"\"Louis Lehman Named New GM Of NAZ Suns\""},{"Link":"http://www.prescottenews.com/index.php/sports/item/30862-louis-lehman-named-new-gm-of-naz-suns","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://2ways10days.com/northern-arizona-suns-endure-hectic-week-as-training-camp-opens-fc3cca050987","external_links_name":"\"Northern Arizona Suns endure hectic week as training camp opens\""},{"Link":"http://northernarizona.gleague.nba.com/news/cody-toppert-named-new-head-coach-northern-arizona-suns/","external_links_name":"\"Cody Toppert Named New Head Coach of Northern Arizona Suns\""},{"Link":"https://www.dcourier.com/news/2018/jun/21/naz-suns-coach-cody-toppert-joins-phoenix-staff-as/","external_links_name":"\"NAZ Suns' coach Cody Toppert joins Phoenix staff as assistant under Kokoskov\""},{"Link":"https://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/bret-burchard-named-head-coach-of-northern-arizona-suns/n-5375874","external_links_name":"\"Bret Burchard Named Head Coach of Northern Arizona Suns\""},{"Link":"https://www.bizjournals.com/phoenix/news/2020/07/09/northern-arizona-suns-leave-prescott-valley.html","external_links_name":"\"NAZ Suns announce they are leaving Prescott Valley\""},{"Link":"https://gleague.nba.com/news/nba-g-league-to-begin-play-at-disney-in-february/","external_links_name":"\"NBA G League To Begin Play at Disney In February\""},{"Link":"https://www.detroitnews.com/story/sports/nba/pistons/2020/07/29/pistons-bringing-new-g-league-team-detroit-2021-22-season/5535714002/","external_links_name":"\"Pistons buy G League team to play in Detroit for 2021-22; Grand Rapids Drive mull options\""},{"Link":"https://www.wxyz.com/sports/pistons-announce-g-league-team-name-will-be-motor-city-cruise","external_links_name":"\"Pistons announce G-League team name will be Motor City Cruise\""},{"Link":"https://www.nba.com/pistons/news/motor-city-cruise-names-rob-murphy-president-and-general-manager","external_links_name":"\"Motor City Cruise Names Rob Murphy as President and General Manager\""},{"Link":"https://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/motor-city-cruise-names-dj-bakker-as-head-coach/n-5737356","external_links_name":"\"Motor City Cruise Names DJ Bakker as Head Coach\""}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetraterpenoid
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Tetraterpene
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["1 References"]
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The chemical structure of cryptoxanthin, a yellow tetraterpenoid of the xanthophyll type.
Tetraterpenes are terpenes consisting of eight isoprene units and have the molecular formula C40H64. Tetraterpenoids (including many carotenoids) are tetraterpenes that have been chemically modified, as indicated by the presence of oxygen-containing functional groups.
Phytoene is biosynthesized via the head-to-head condensation of two GGPP molecules. One group of tetraterpenes, and possibly the most studied one, is the carotenoids pigments. Carotenoids have important biological functions, with roles in light capture, antioxidative activity and protection against free radicals, synthesis of plant hormones and as structural components of the membranes. Aside their biological relevance, carotenoids are also high-value compounds for the food and pharmaceutical industries. Carotenoids are biosynthesized by photosynthetic and non-photosynthetic organisms; however, in photosynthetic organisms, they are essential components as accessory pigments for the light-harvesting reaction centers. Xanthophylls are another group of tetraterpene pigments distributed widely in nature.
References
^ Davis, Edward M.; Croteau, Rodney (2000). "Cyclization enzymes in the biosynthesis of monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and diterpenes". Biosynthesis. Vol. 209. pp. 53–95. doi:10.1007/3-540-48146-X_2. ISBN 978-3-540-66573-1. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
^ Umeno D, Tobias AV, Arnold FH (December 2002). "Evolution of the C30 carotenoid synthase CrtM for function in a C40 pathway". Journal of Bacteriology. 184 (23): 6690–9. doi:10.1128/JB.184.23.6690-6699.2002. PMC 135437. PMID 12426357.
^ Domonkos I, Kis M, Gombos Z, Ughy B (October 2013). "Carotenoids, versatile components of oxygenic photosynthesis". Progress in Lipid Research. 52 (4): 539–61. doi:10.1016/j.plipres.2013.07.001. PMID 23896007.
^ Havaux M (April 1998). "Carotenoids as membrane stabilizers in chloroplasts". Trends in Plant Science. 3 (4): 147–151. doi:10.1016/s1360-1385(98)01200-x.
^ Sozer O, Komenda J, Ughy B, Domonkos I, Laczkó-Dobos H, Malec P, Gombos Z, Kis M (May 2010). "Involvement of carotenoids in the synthesis and assembly of protein subunits of photosynthetic reaction centers of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803". Plant & Cell Physiology. 51 (5): 823–35. doi:10.1093/pcp/pcq031. PMID 20231245.
This biochemistry article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"terpenes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terpene"},{"link_name":"isoprene units","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terpene#Biosynthesis"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Crot-1"},{"link_name":"Phytoene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytoene"},{"link_name":"GGPP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geranylgeranyl_pyrophosphate"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"carotenoids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carotenoid"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Xanthophylls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xanthophyll"}],"text":"Tetraterpenes are terpenes consisting of eight isoprene units and have the molecular formula C40H64.[1] Tetraterpenoids (including many carotenoids) are tetraterpenes that have been chemically modified, as indicated by the presence of oxygen-containing functional groups.Phytoene is biosynthesized via the head-to-head condensation of two GGPP molecules.[2] One group of tetraterpenes, and possibly the most studied one, is the carotenoids pigments. Carotenoids have important biological functions, with roles in light capture, antioxidative activity and protection against free radicals, synthesis of plant hormones and as structural components of the membranes. Aside their biological relevance, carotenoids are also high-value compounds for the food and pharmaceutical industries. Carotenoids are biosynthesized by photosynthetic and non-photosynthetic organisms; however, in photosynthetic organisms, they are essential components as accessory pigments for the light-harvesting reaction centers.[3][4][5] Xanthophylls are another group of tetraterpene pigments distributed widely in nature.","title":"Tetraterpene"}]
|
[{"image_text":"The chemical structure of cryptoxanthin, a yellow tetraterpenoid of the xanthophyll type.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Cryptoxanthin.svg/400px-Cryptoxanthin.svg.png"}]
| null |
[{"reference":"Davis, Edward M.; Croteau, Rodney (2000). \"Cyclization enzymes in the biosynthesis of monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and diterpenes\". Biosynthesis. Vol. 209. pp. 53–95. doi:10.1007/3-540-48146-X_2. ISBN 978-3-540-66573-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F3-540-48146-X_2","url_text":"10.1007/3-540-48146-X_2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-66573-1","url_text":"978-3-540-66573-1"}]},{"reference":"Umeno D, Tobias AV, Arnold FH (December 2002). \"Evolution of the C30 carotenoid synthase CrtM for function in a C40 pathway\". Journal of Bacteriology. 184 (23): 6690–9. doi:10.1128/JB.184.23.6690-6699.2002. PMC 135437. PMID 12426357.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC135437","url_text":"\"Evolution of the C30 carotenoid synthase CrtM for function in a C40 pathway\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1128%2FJB.184.23.6690-6699.2002","url_text":"10.1128/JB.184.23.6690-6699.2002"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC135437","url_text":"135437"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12426357","url_text":"12426357"}]},{"reference":"Domonkos I, Kis M, Gombos Z, Ughy B (October 2013). \"Carotenoids, versatile components of oxygenic photosynthesis\". Progress in Lipid Research. 52 (4): 539–61. doi:10.1016/j.plipres.2013.07.001. PMID 23896007.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.plipres.2013.07.001","url_text":"10.1016/j.plipres.2013.07.001"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23896007","url_text":"23896007"}]},{"reference":"Havaux M (April 1998). \"Carotenoids as membrane stabilizers in chloroplasts\". Trends in Plant Science. 3 (4): 147–151. doi:10.1016/s1360-1385(98)01200-x.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs1360-1385%2898%2901200-x","url_text":"10.1016/s1360-1385(98)01200-x"}]},{"reference":"Sozer O, Komenda J, Ughy B, Domonkos I, Laczkó-Dobos H, Malec P, Gombos Z, Kis M (May 2010). \"Involvement of carotenoids in the synthesis and assembly of protein subunits of photosynthetic reaction centers of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803\". Plant & Cell Physiology. 51 (5): 823–35. doi:10.1093/pcp/pcq031. PMID 20231245.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fpcp%2Fpcq031","url_text":"\"Involvement of carotenoids in the synthesis and assembly of protein subunits of photosynthetic reaction centers of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fpcp%2Fpcq031","url_text":"10.1093/pcp/pcq031"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20231245","url_text":"20231245"}]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F3-540-48146-X_2","external_links_name":"10.1007/3-540-48146-X_2"},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC135437","external_links_name":"\"Evolution of the C30 carotenoid synthase CrtM for function in a C40 pathway\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1128%2FJB.184.23.6690-6699.2002","external_links_name":"10.1128/JB.184.23.6690-6699.2002"},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC135437","external_links_name":"135437"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12426357","external_links_name":"12426357"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.plipres.2013.07.001","external_links_name":"10.1016/j.plipres.2013.07.001"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23896007","external_links_name":"23896007"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs1360-1385%2898%2901200-x","external_links_name":"10.1016/s1360-1385(98)01200-x"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fpcp%2Fpcq031","external_links_name":"\"Involvement of carotenoids in the synthesis and assembly of protein subunits of photosynthetic reaction centers of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fpcp%2Fpcq031","external_links_name":"10.1093/pcp/pcq031"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20231245","external_links_name":"20231245"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tetraterpene&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolores_mine
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Dolores mine
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["1 Background","2 Production and geology","3 Conflict","4 References"]
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Coordinates: 28°59′21.8″N 108°32′10.3″W / 28.989389°N 108.536194°W / 28.989389; -108.536194Gold and silver mine in northern Mexico
Dolores mineLocationDolores mineChihuahuaCountryMexicoCoordinates28°59′21.8″N 108°32′10.3″W / 28.989389°N 108.536194°W / 28.989389; -108.536194ProductionProductsGold, SilverProduction80,000 oz gold; and 4,000,000 oz silver per year.HistoryOpened2008OwnerCompanyPan American Silver
Dolores mine is an open pit silver and gold mine in the Mexican state of Chihuaua. It is owned by the Canadian company Pan-American Silver (PAS). The mine began production in 2008 and was expected to produce over $3 billion in profits. in 2010 the mine was expected to produce 80,000 ounces of gold and 4,000,000 ounces of silver per year for 17 years.
The mine has generated an environmental conflict, and local communities have fought for better environmental protection and larger shares of the profits from the mine. The conflict is exacerbated by militarisation associated with the Mexican drug war. Arsenic leeching from the mine has contaminated local water supplies, and hundreds of families have been displaced.
Background
The mine was originally developed by the Canadian company Minefinders.
In 2006, farmers from the Huizopa ejido signed a contract with Minefinders, giving the company access to their land for 16 years. The ejido received 39 million pesos ($3.7 million). In 2008, the ejido declared that the contract was fraudulent, and that they had been deceived by the mining company. They demanded that the company take greater measures to mitigate environmental damage from the mine and more equitably share the expected $3 billion in profits from the mine.
The state of Chihuaua has been militarised by the Mexican drug war, and when Pan-American Silver (PAS) bought the mine in 2012, there was an ongoing territorial dispute between organised crime groups. In Mexico, extractive industries may cooperate with organised crime groups who will drive away people living in areas to be mined and help the companies to silence community members who object to extractive projects. This violence also makes it difficult for human rights observers or journalists to travel to the area.
In 2020, research carried out by EJAtlas, MiningWatch Canada, Earthworks and the Institute for Policy Studies found that Pan-American Silver was involved in several environmental conflicts in Latin America and that these conflicts "demonstrate a lack of respect for communities defending their territories from mining."
Production and geology
Dolores mine is located in the Sierra Madre Occidental volcanic belt. The mine uses both open-pit and underground mining methods. The mineralised area is 4,000 meters long, 1,000 meters wide, 700 meters deep.
Dolores mine began production in 2008 with open-pit mining; underground mining techniques were explored beginning in 2010. Mine production was 1.22 million ounces of silver and 56,0000 ounces of gold in 2010, with production increasing in following years. From 2015-2018, the ore grade was 31-44 g/ton silver and 0.57-0.85 g/ton gold. The mine produced 4 million ounces of silver in 2018. In 2021, the mine had 20.5 M oz proven and probable silver reserves, and 650 k oz proven and probable gold reserves.
The mineralised area is 4,000 meters long, 1,000 meters wide, 700 meters deep.
Ore is trucked to leach pads where an arsenic leaching solution is run through it to extract the gold and silver.
Conflict
The Permanent Assembly of the Community of Huizopa blockaded the mine for 17 months beginning in May 2008, until the Mexican military facilitated access to the mine for the developer.
One hundred Indigenous Pima families were displaced during the mine's development due to contamination and diversion of the Tutuaca River. In 2010, a tear was discovered in one of the leach pads, and the mine leaked cyanide sodium into the environment, but complaints about the contamination were ignored.
Mine opponents have been attacked and intimidated by criminal groups.
In May 2018, armed criminal groups set up checkpoints around the mine, forcing the company to curtail operations.
References
^ a b "Armed groups threaten Canadian-owned mine in northern Mexico". AP NEWS. 2018-05-27. Retrieved 2022-12-12.
^ a b "Mexican Farmers say mine will destroy grazing land | Intercontinental Cry". Retrieved 2022-12-13.
^ a b c World, Upside Down (2011-12-19). "Militarized Mining in Mexico". Upside Down World. Retrieved 2022-12-13.
^ a b c d "Conflict and harm at Pan American Silver". theecologist.org. Retrieved 2022-12-12.
^ a b Villalobos Díaz, Diana; Martínez Esparza, Patricia (2018). "Diagnóstico y propuestas sobre la violencia en la Sierra Tarahumara para la sociedad civil, comunidades, autoridades estatales y federales 2006-2017" (PDF). FICOSEC. Consultoría Técnica Comunitaria, A. C (CONTEC).
^ a b EJOLT. "Mina Dolores, Chihuahua México | EJAtlas". Environmental Justice Atlas. Retrieved 2022-12-13.
^ a b "Major Mines & Projects | Dolores Mine". miningdataonline.com. Retrieved 2022-12-12.
^ a b c d "Dolores Mine". Mining Technology. Retrieved 2022-12-13.
^ "Mexico violence hits Canadian silver miner's operations". CBC. May 2018.
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chihuaua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chihuahua_(state)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"Pan-American Silver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan_American_Silver"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-2"},{"link_name":"environmental conflict","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_conflict"},{"link_name":"Mexican drug war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexican_drug_war"}],"text":"Gold and silver mine in northern MexicoDolores mine is an open pit silver and gold mine in the Mexican state of Chihuaua.[1] It is owned by the Canadian company Pan-American Silver (PAS). The mine began production in 2008 and was expected to produce over $3 billion in profits.[2] in 2010 the mine was expected to produce 80,000 ounces of gold and 4,000,000 ounces of silver per year for 17 years.The mine has generated an environmental conflict, and local communities have fought for better environmental protection and larger shares of the profits from the mine. The conflict is exacerbated by militarisation associated with the Mexican drug war. Arsenic leeching from the mine has contaminated local water supplies, and hundreds of families have been displaced.","title":"Dolores mine"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Minefinders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minefinders&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-2"},{"link_name":"Mexican drug war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexican_drug_war"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-6"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-6"},{"link_name":"EJAtlas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EJAtlas"},{"link_name":"MiningWatch Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MiningWatch_Canada"},{"link_name":"Institute for Policy Studies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Policy_Studies"},{"link_name":"environmental conflicts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_conflict"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-4"}],"text":"The mine was originally developed by the Canadian company Minefinders.In 2006, farmers from the Huizopa ejido signed a contract with Minefinders, giving the company access to their land for 16 years. The ejido received 39 million pesos ($3.7 million). In 2008, the ejido declared that the contract was fraudulent, and that they had been deceived by the mining company. They demanded that the company take greater measures to mitigate environmental damage from the mine and more equitably share the expected $3 billion in profits from the mine.[2]The state of Chihuaua has been militarised by the Mexican drug war,[3] and when Pan-American Silver (PAS) bought the mine in 2012, there was an ongoing territorial dispute between organised crime groups.[4] In Mexico, extractive industries may cooperate with organised crime groups who will drive away people living in areas to be mined and help the companies to silence community members who object to extractive projects.[5][6] This violence also makes it difficult for human rights observers or journalists to travel to the area.[5][6]In 2020, research carried out by EJAtlas, MiningWatch Canada, Earthworks and the Institute for Policy Studies found that Pan-American Silver was involved in several environmental conflicts in Latin America and that these conflicts \"demonstrate a lack of respect for communities defending their territories from mining.\"[4]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sierra Madre Occidental","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierra_Madre_Occidental"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:7-8"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:7-8"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:7-8"}],"text":"Dolores mine is located in the Sierra Madre Occidental volcanic belt. The mine uses both open-pit and underground mining methods.[7] The mineralised area is 4,000 meters long, 1,000 meters wide, 700 meters deep.[8]Dolores mine began production in 2008 with open-pit mining; underground mining techniques were explored beginning in 2010. Mine production was 1.22 million ounces of silver and 56,0000 ounces of gold in 2010, with production increasing in following years.[8] From 2015-2018, the ore grade was 31-44 g/ton silver and 0.57-0.85 g/ton gold. The mine produced 4 million ounces of silver in 2018. In 2021, the mine had 20.5 M oz proven and probable silver reserves, and 650 k oz proven and probable gold reserves.[7]The mineralised area is 4,000 meters long, 1,000 meters wide, 700 meters deep.[8]Ore is trucked to leach pads where an arsenic leaching solution is run through it to extract the gold and silver.","title":"Production and geology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-4"},{"link_name":"Pima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pima_people"},{"link_name":"Tutuaca River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutuaca_River"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:7-8"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-4"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-3"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"}],"text":"The Permanent Assembly of the Community of Huizopa blockaded the mine for 17 months beginning in May 2008,[3] until the Mexican military facilitated access to the mine for the developer.[4]One hundred Indigenous Pima families were displaced during the mine's development due to contamination and diversion of the Tutuaca River. In 2010, a tear was discovered in one of the leach pads,[8] and the mine leaked cyanide sodium into the environment, but complaints about the contamination were ignored.[4]Mine opponents have been attacked and intimidated by criminal groups.[3]In May 2018, armed criminal groups set up checkpoints around the mine, forcing the company to curtail operations.[9][1]","title":"Conflict"}]
|
[]
| null |
[{"reference":"\"Armed groups threaten Canadian-owned mine in northern Mexico\". AP NEWS. 2018-05-27. Retrieved 2022-12-12.","urls":[{"url":"https://apnews.com/article/34ae66df86c04529bcff9590516f073f","url_text":"\"Armed groups threaten Canadian-owned mine in northern Mexico\""}]},{"reference":"\"Mexican Farmers say mine will destroy grazing land | Intercontinental Cry\". Retrieved 2022-12-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://intercontinentalcry.org/mexican-farmers-say-mine-will-destroy-grazing-land/","url_text":"\"Mexican Farmers say mine will destroy grazing land | Intercontinental Cry\""}]},{"reference":"World, Upside Down (2011-12-19). \"Militarized Mining in Mexico\". Upside Down World. Retrieved 2022-12-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://upsidedownworld.org/archives/mexico/militarized-mining-in-mexico/","url_text":"\"Militarized Mining in Mexico\""}]},{"reference":"\"Conflict and harm at Pan American Silver\". theecologist.org. Retrieved 2022-12-12.","urls":[{"url":"https://theecologist.org/2020/mar/04/conflict-and-harm-pan-american-silver","url_text":"\"Conflict and harm at Pan American Silver\""}]},{"reference":"Villalobos Díaz, Diana; Martínez Esparza, Patricia (2018). \"Diagnóstico y propuestas sobre la violencia en la Sierra Tarahumara para la sociedad civil, comunidades, autoridades estatales y federales 2006-2017\" (PDF). FICOSEC. Consultoría Técnica Comunitaria, A. C (CONTEC).","urls":[{"url":"https://kwira.org/wp-content/uploads/Diagnostico-integrado-Contec.pdf","url_text":"\"Diagnóstico y propuestas sobre la violencia en la Sierra Tarahumara para la sociedad civil, comunidades, autoridades estatales y federales 2006-2017\""}]},{"reference":"EJOLT. \"Mina Dolores, Chihuahua México | EJAtlas\". Environmental Justice Atlas. Retrieved 2022-12-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://ejatlas.org/conflict/mina-dolores-mexico","url_text":"\"Mina Dolores, Chihuahua México | EJAtlas\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_Justice_Atlas","url_text":"Environmental Justice Atlas"}]},{"reference":"\"Major Mines & Projects | Dolores Mine\". miningdataonline.com. Retrieved 2022-12-12.","urls":[{"url":"https://miningdataonline.com/property/197/Dolores-Mine.aspx","url_text":"\"Major Mines & Projects | Dolores Mine\""}]},{"reference":"\"Dolores Mine\". Mining Technology. Retrieved 2022-12-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.mining-technology.com/projects/doloresminechihuahua/","url_text":"\"Dolores Mine\""}]},{"reference":"\"Mexico violence hits Canadian silver miner's operations\". CBC. May 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cbc.ca/news/business/pan-american-silver-dolores-1.4680871","url_text":"\"Mexico violence hits Canadian silver miner's operations\""}]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Dolores_mine¶ms=28_59_21.8_N_108_32_10.3_W_type:landmark_region:EC","external_links_name":"28°59′21.8″N 108°32′10.3″W / 28.989389°N 108.536194°W / 28.989389; -108.536194"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Dolores_mine¶ms=28_59_21.8_N_108_32_10.3_W_type:landmark_region:EC","external_links_name":"28°59′21.8″N 108°32′10.3″W / 28.989389°N 108.536194°W / 28.989389; -108.536194"},{"Link":"https://apnews.com/article/34ae66df86c04529bcff9590516f073f","external_links_name":"\"Armed groups threaten Canadian-owned mine in northern Mexico\""},{"Link":"https://intercontinentalcry.org/mexican-farmers-say-mine-will-destroy-grazing-land/","external_links_name":"\"Mexican Farmers say mine will destroy grazing land | Intercontinental Cry\""},{"Link":"https://upsidedownworld.org/archives/mexico/militarized-mining-in-mexico/","external_links_name":"\"Militarized Mining in Mexico\""},{"Link":"https://theecologist.org/2020/mar/04/conflict-and-harm-pan-american-silver","external_links_name":"\"Conflict and harm at Pan American Silver\""},{"Link":"https://kwira.org/wp-content/uploads/Diagnostico-integrado-Contec.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Diagnóstico y propuestas sobre la violencia en la Sierra Tarahumara para la sociedad civil, comunidades, autoridades estatales y federales 2006-2017\""},{"Link":"https://ejatlas.org/conflict/mina-dolores-mexico","external_links_name":"\"Mina Dolores, Chihuahua México | EJAtlas\""},{"Link":"https://miningdataonline.com/property/197/Dolores-Mine.aspx","external_links_name":"\"Major Mines & Projects | Dolores Mine\""},{"Link":"https://www.mining-technology.com/projects/doloresminechihuahua/","external_links_name":"\"Dolores Mine\""},{"Link":"https://www.cbc.ca/news/business/pan-american-silver-dolores-1.4680871","external_links_name":"\"Mexico violence hits Canadian silver miner's operations\""}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashvad
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Kashvad
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["1 Family tree","2 References"]
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Kashvad" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Kashvād (Persian: کشواد) or Jashwadaghan (Arabic: جشواغان), is an Iranian mythical hero. He is an emblem of victory, justice and loyalty in a story narrated in the poetic opus of Shahnameh, the national epic of Iran by the 10th-century poet Ferdowsi Tousi.
Family tree
Kashvad
Goudarz
GivRohamBahramHojir
BizhanFarhad
References
^ Omidsalar, Mahmoud. "KAŠVĀD". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 27 February 2016.
^ History of the Prophets and Kings
vteShahnameh of FerdowsiCharactersPishdadian
Keyumars
Hushang
Tahmuras
Jamshid
Fereydun
Iraj
Manuchehr
Nowzar
Zaav
Garshasp
Kayanian
Kay Kawād
Kay Kāvus
Kay Khosrow
Kay Lohrasp
Goshtasb
Kay Bahman
Humay Chehrzad
Kay Darab
Dara II
Male characters
Jamasp
Siamak
Shahrasp
Abtin
Kayanoush
Kāve
Arash
Salm
Tur
Qobád
Qaren
Tous
Gostaham
Gershasp
Nariman
Sām
Zāl
Rostam
Sohrab
Esfandiyār
Pashotan
Faramarz
Fariborz
Siyâvash
Farud
Zangay-i Shavaran
Kashvad
Goudarz
Giv
Bizhan
Rohham
Bahram
Hojir
Gorgin
Zavara
Shaghad
Rostam Farrokhzād
Barbad
Eskandar (Alexander)
Female characters
Faranak
Arnavāz
Shahrnāz
Sindukht
Rudaba
Sudabeh
Tahmina
Banu Goshasp
Gordafarid
Farangis
Manizheh
Katāyoun
Tazian
Mardas
Zahhak
Mehrab Kaboli
Turanian
Zadashm
Pashang
Aghrirat
Garsivaz
Afrasiab
Tageuo
Shideh
Arjasp
Viseh
Piran
Houman
Barman
Nastihan
Biderafsh
Clans andfamilies
Kashvadian
House of Goudarz
House of Viseh
House of Nowzar
House of Sasan
House of Sām
Creatures and animals
Akvan Div
Kharvazan Div
Arzhang Div
Div-e Sepid
Koulad-Ghandi
Huma bird
Simurgh
Rakhsh
Shabdiz
Shabrang
White Elephant
Places
Iran
Turan
Zabulistan
Sistan
Kabul
Balkh
Ctesiphon
Estakhr
Mazandaran
Alborzkouh
Mount Damavand
Tammisha
Kasa-Roud
Other locations...
Structures
Gonbadan Castle (Dez-i Gonbadan)
Roein Castle (Dez-i Roein)
Sepid Castle (Dezh-i Sepid
Bahman Castle (Dezh-i Bahman)
Alanan Castle (Dezh-i Alanan
Gang Castle (Gang-Dez)
Manuscripts
Florence Shahnameh
Great Mongol Shahnameh (or Demotte)
Baysonghor Shahnameh
Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp
Shahnameh of Rashida
Windsor Shahnameh
Davari Shahnameh
Related
Daqiqi
Abu-Mansuri Shahnameh
Derafsh Kaviani
Babr-e Bayan
Zal and Rudabeh
Rostam and Sohrab
Rostam and Esfandiyar
Rostam's Seven Labours
Davazdah Rokh
Khosrow and Shirin
Bijan and Manijeh
Persian mythology
Category
This article related to the Shahnameh is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Persian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_language"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Arabic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_language"},{"link_name":"Iranian mythical hero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_mythology"},{"link_name":"Shahnameh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahnameh"},{"link_name":"Ferdowsi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdowsi"}],"text":"Kashvād[1] (Persian: کشواد) or Jashwadaghan[2] (Arabic: جشواغان), is an Iranian mythical hero. He is an emblem of victory, justice and loyalty in a story narrated in the poetic opus of Shahnameh, the national epic of Iran by the 10th-century poet Ferdowsi Tousi.","title":"Kashvad"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Family tree"}]
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[{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Qaran_Unhorses_Barman%2C_a_folio_from_the_Shahnameh_of_Shah_Tahmasp%2C_Tabriz%2C_about_1523_%E2%80%93_35._The_Sarikhani_Collection%2C_I.MS.4025.jpeg/80px-Qaran_Unhorses_Barman%2C_a_folio_from_the_Shahnameh_of_Shah_Tahmasp%2C_Tabriz%2C_about_1523_%E2%80%93_35._The_Sarikhani_Collection%2C_I.MS.4025.jpeg"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Shahnameh3-5.jpg/80px-Shahnameh3-5.jpg"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Hajir_%28The_Shahnama_of_Shah_Tahmasp%29.png/80px-Hajir_%28The_Shahnama_of_Shah_Tahmasp%29.png"}]
| null |
[{"reference":"Omidsalar, Mahmoud. \"KAŠVĀD\". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 27 February 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kasvad","url_text":"\"KAŠVĀD\""}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Kashvad%22","external_links_name":"\"Kashvad\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Kashvad%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Kashvad%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Kashvad%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Kashvad%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Kashvad%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kasvad","external_links_name":"\"KAŠVĀD\""},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kashvad&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-creole_continuum
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Post-creole continuum
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["1 Stratification","2 Other examples","3 Notes","4 References"]
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Set of varieties of a creole language
This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (January 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
A post-creole continuum (or simply creole continuum) is a dialect continuum of varieties of a creole language between those most and least similar to the superstrate language (that is, a closely related language whose speakers assert or asserted dominance of some sort). Due to social, political, and economic factors, a creole language can decreolize towards one of the languages from which it is descended, aligning its morphology, phonology, and syntax to the local standard of the dominant language but to different degrees depending on a speaker's status.
Stratification
William Stewart, in 1965, proposed the terms acrolect, the highest or most prestigious variety on the continuum, and basilect, the lowest or least prestigious variety, as sociolinguistic labels for the upper and lower boundaries, respectively, of a post-creole speech continuum. In the early 1970s Derek Bickerton popularized these terms (as well as mesolect for intermediate points in the continuum) to refer to the phenomenon of code-switching used by some users of creole languages who also have some fluency in the standard language upon which the contact language is based. University of Chicago linguist Salikoko Mufwene explains the phenomenon of creole languages as "basilectalization" away from a standard, often European, language among a mixed European and non-European population. In certain speech communities, a continuum exists between speakers of a creole language and a related standard language. There are no discrete boundaries between the different varieties, and the situation in which such a continuum exists involves considerable social stratification.
The following table (from Bell 1976) shows the 18 different ways of rendering the phrase I gave him one in Guyanese English:
1
aɪ
ɡeɪv
hɪm
wʌn
2
wan
3
a
ɪm
4
iː
5
ɡɪv
hɪm
6
ɪm
7
iː
8
dɪd
ɡɪv
9
dɪ
ɡɪ
10
dɪd
11
dɪ
ɡiː
12
ɡɪ
hiː
13
mɪ
14
iː
15
bɪn
16
ɡiː
17
æm
18
The continuum shown has the acrolect form as (which is identical with Standard English) while the basilect form is . Due to code-switching, most speakers have a command of a range in the continuum and, depending on social position, occupation, etc. can implement the different levels with various levels of skill.
If a society is so stratified as to have little to no contact between groups who speak the creole and those who speak the superstrate (dominant) language, a situation of diglossia occurs, rather than a continuum. Assigning separate and distinct functions for the two varieties will have the same effect. This is the case in Haiti with Haitian Creole and French.
Use of the terms acrolect, mesolect and basilect attempts to avoid the value judgement inherent in earlier terminology, by which the language spoken by the ruling classes in a capital city was defined as the "correct" or "pure" form while that spoken by the lower classes and inhabitants of outlying provinces was "a dialect" characterised as "incorrect", "impure" or "debased".
Other examples
It has been suggested (Rickford 1977; Dillard 1972) that African American Vernacular English is a decreolized form of a slave creole. After emancipation, African-Americans' recognition and exercise of increased opportunities for interaction created a strong influence of Standard American English onto the speech of Black Americans so that a continuum exists today with Standard English as the acrolect and varieties closest to the original creole as the basilect.
In Jamaica, a continuum exists between Jamaican English and Jamaican Patois.
In Haiti, the acrolect is Haitian French and the basilect has been standardized as Haitian Creole.
Meanwhile, in southern Africa, Afrikaans is a codified mesolect, or a partial creole, with the acrolect (standard Dutch) stripped of official status decades ago, having been used for only religious purposes.
Notes
^ Stewart (1965:15)
^ Mufwene, Salikoko (2002). "Salikoko Mufwene: Pidgin and Creole Languages". mufwene.uchicago.edu. Archived from the original on March 15, 2016. Retrieved 2019-04-30.
^ DeCamp (1977:?)
^ Meade (2001:19)
^ Irvine-Sobers GA (2018). The acrolect in Jamaica: The architecture of phonological variation (pdf). Berlin: Language Science Press. doi:10.5281/zenodo.1306618. ISBN 978-3-96110-114-6.
^ Deumert, Ana (2017-07-12). "Creole as necessity? Creole as choice?". Language Contact in Africa and the African Diaspora in the Americas. Creole Language Library. 53. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company: 101–122. doi:10.1075/cll.53.05due. ISBN 978-90-272-5277-7. Retrieved 2021-08-03.
^ Smith, J.J (1952). "THEORIES ABOUT THE ORIGIN OF AFRIKAANS" (PDF). Hofmeyer Foundation Lectures, University of the Witwatersrand.
References
Languages portal
Bell, R.T. (1976), Sociolinguistics: Goals, Approaches, and Problems, Batsford
Bickerton, Derek (1975). Dynamics of a Creole System. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521205146.
DeCamp, D (1977), "The Development of Pidgin and Creole Studies", in Valdman, A (ed.), Pidgin and Creole Linguistics, Indiana University Press
Dillard, John L. (1972), Black English: Its History and Usage in the United States, Random House, ISBN 0-394-71872-0
Meade, R.R. (2001), Acquisition of Jamaican Phonology, Dordrecht: Holland Institute of Linguistics
Rickford, John (1977), "The Question of Prior Creolization in Black English", in Valdman, A (ed.), Pidgin and Creole Linguistics, Indiana University Press
Stewart, William (1965), "Urban Negro speech: Sociolinguistic factors affecting English teaching", in R. Shuy; A. Davis; R. Hogan (eds.), Social dialects and language learning, National Council of Teachers of English, pp. 10–18
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"dialect continuum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialect_continuum"},{"link_name":"varieties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)"},{"link_name":"creole language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creole_language"},{"link_name":"superstrate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstrate"},{"link_name":"decreolize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decreolization"},{"link_name":"morphology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)"},{"link_name":"phonology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonology"},{"link_name":"syntax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntax"}],"text":"A post-creole continuum (or simply creole continuum) is a dialect continuum of varieties of a creole language between those most and least similar to the superstrate language (that is, a closely related language whose speakers assert or asserted dominance of some sort). Due to social, political, and economic factors, a creole language can decreolize towards one of the languages from which it is descended, aligning its morphology, phonology, and syntax to the local standard of the dominant language but to different degrees depending on a speaker's status.","title":"Post-creole continuum"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"William Stewart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Alexander_Stewart"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Derek Bickerton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derek_Bickerton"},{"link_name":"code-switching","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code-switching"},{"link_name":"standard language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_language"},{"link_name":"University of Chicago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Chicago"},{"link_name":"Salikoko Mufwene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salikoko_Mufwene"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"speech communities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_community"},{"link_name":"Bell 1976","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFBell1976"},{"link_name":"Guyanese English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guyanese_Creole_language"},{"link_name":"Standard English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_English"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"diglossia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diglossia"},{"link_name":"Haiti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haiti"},{"link_name":"Haitian Creole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haitian_Creole"},{"link_name":"French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language"},{"link_name":"value judgement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_judgment"}],"text":"William Stewart, in 1965, proposed the terms acrolect, the highest or most prestigious variety on the continuum, and basilect, the lowest or least prestigious variety, as sociolinguistic labels for the upper and lower boundaries, respectively, of a post-creole speech continuum.[1] In the early 1970s Derek Bickerton popularized these terms (as well as mesolect for intermediate points in the continuum) to refer to the phenomenon of code-switching used by some users of creole languages who also have some fluency in the standard language upon which the contact language is based. University of Chicago linguist Salikoko Mufwene explains the phenomenon of creole languages as \"basilectalization\" away from a standard, often European, language among a mixed European and non-European population.[2] In certain speech communities, a continuum exists between speakers of a creole language and a related standard language. There are no discrete boundaries between the different varieties, and the situation in which such a continuum exists involves considerable social stratification.The following table (from Bell 1976) shows the 18 different ways of rendering the phrase I gave him one in Guyanese English:The continuum shown has the acrolect form as [aɪ ɡeɪv hɪm wʌn] (which is identical with Standard English) while the basilect form is [mɪ ɡiː æm wan]. Due to code-switching, most speakers have a command of a range in the continuum and, depending on social position, occupation, etc. can implement the different levels with various levels of skill.[3]If a society is so stratified as to have little to no contact between groups who speak the creole and those who speak the superstrate (dominant) language, a situation of diglossia occurs, rather than a continuum. Assigning separate and distinct functions for the two varieties will have the same effect. This is the case in Haiti with Haitian Creole and French.Use of the terms acrolect, mesolect and basilect attempts to avoid the value judgement inherent in earlier terminology, by which the language spoken by the ruling classes in a capital city was defined as the \"correct\" or \"pure\" form while that spoken by the lower classes and inhabitants of outlying provinces was \"a dialect\" characterised as \"incorrect\", \"impure\" or \"debased\".","title":"Stratification"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rickford 1977","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFRickford1977"},{"link_name":"Dillard 1972","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFDillard1972"},{"link_name":"African American Vernacular English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American_Vernacular_English"},{"link_name":"Standard American English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_English"},{"link_name":"Jamaica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamaica"},{"link_name":"Jamaican English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamaican_English"},{"link_name":"Jamaican Patois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamaican_Patois"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-irvinesobers-5"},{"link_name":"Haitian French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haitian_French"},{"link_name":"Haitian Creole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haitian_Creole"},{"link_name":"Afrikaans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrikaans"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Dutch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_language"}],"text":"It has been suggested (Rickford 1977; Dillard 1972) that African American Vernacular English is a decreolized form of a slave creole. After emancipation, African-Americans' recognition and exercise of increased opportunities for interaction created a strong influence of Standard American English onto the speech of Black Americans so that a continuum exists today with Standard English as the acrolect and varieties closest to the original creole as the basilect.In Jamaica, a continuum exists between Jamaican English and Jamaican Patois.[4][5]In Haiti, the acrolect is Haitian French and the basilect has been standardized as Haitian Creole.Meanwhile, in southern Africa, Afrikaans is a codified mesolect, or a partial creole,[6][7] with the acrolect (standard Dutch) stripped of official status decades ago, having been used for only religious purposes.","title":"Other examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"Stewart (1965","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFStewart1965"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"Mufwene, Salikoko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salikoko_Mufwene"},{"link_name":"\"Salikoko Mufwene: Pidgin and Creole Languages\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20160315163631/https://mufwene.uchicago.edu/pidginCreoleLanguage.html"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//mufwene.uchicago.edu/pidginCreoleLanguage.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"DeCamp (1977","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFDeCamp1977"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"Meade (2001","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFMeade2001"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-irvinesobers_5-0"},{"link_name":"The acrolect in Jamaica: The architecture of phonological variation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//langsci-press.org/catalog/book/203"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.5281/zenodo.1306618","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.5281%2Fzenodo.1306618"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-96110-114-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-96110-114-6"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"\"Creole as necessity? Creole as choice?\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//dx.doi.org/10.1075/cll.53.05due"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1075/cll.53.05due","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1075%2Fcll.53.05due"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-90-272-5277-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-5277-7"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"\"THEORIES ABOUT THE ORIGIN OF AFRIKAANS\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.dbnl.org/arch/smit086theo01_01/pag/smit086theo01_01.pdf"}],"text":"^ Stewart (1965:15)\n\n^ Mufwene, Salikoko (2002). \"Salikoko Mufwene: Pidgin and Creole Languages\". mufwene.uchicago.edu. Archived from the original on March 15, 2016. Retrieved 2019-04-30.\n\n^ DeCamp (1977:?)\n\n^ Meade (2001:19)\n\n^ Irvine-Sobers GA (2018). The acrolect in Jamaica: The architecture of phonological variation (pdf). Berlin: Language Science Press. doi:10.5281/zenodo.1306618. ISBN 978-3-96110-114-6.\n\n^ Deumert, Ana (2017-07-12). \"Creole as necessity? Creole as choice?\". Language Contact in Africa and the African Diaspora in the Americas. Creole Language Library. 53. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company: 101–122. doi:10.1075/cll.53.05due. ISBN 978-90-272-5277-7. Retrieved 2021-08-03.\n\n^ Smith, J.J (1952). \"THEORIES ABOUT THE ORIGIN OF AFRIKAANS\" (PDF). Hofmeyer Foundation Lectures, University of the Witwatersrand.","title":"Notes"}]
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[]
| null |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_S%C3%BCssli
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Thomas Süssli
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["1 Decorations and awards","2 References","3 External links"]
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Swiss Lieutenant General (born 1966)
Thomas SüssliBorn (1966-09-24) 24 September 1966 (age 57)Zürich, SwitzerlandAllegiance SwitzerlandService/branchSwiss Armed ForcesYears of service1995–presentRank KorpskommandantCommands heldChief of the Armed Forces of Switzerland
Thomas Süssli (born 24 September 1966) is a Swiss Lieutenant General. Since 1 January 2020, he has served as the Chief of the Armed Forces. He succeeded Philippe Rebord.
Süssli worked in the private sector in the banking and IT realms before becoming a full-time officer in 2015. In 2019, he was chosen to succeed Philippe Rebord as Chief of the Armed Forces, with his selection being viewed by observers as unusual considering his background. Rebord's formal retirement ceremony was held on 5 December 2019, and Süssli formally became the Armed Forces chief on 1 January 2020.
Decorations and awards
Length of Service Decorationwith three golden rosettes
Pistol (Level 1)
Military sport (Level 1)
Namibia Mission Insignia
Source:
References
^ "Cyberdefence specialist to be new army chief". SWI swissinfo.ch.
^ "Thomas Süssli wird neuer Armeechef".
^ "Informatiker und Ex-Banker: Thomas Süssli ist der neue Armeechef". Aargauer Zeitung.
^ "Überrumpelte Offiziere legen sich Erklärung zurecht – der neue Armeechef sei ein Charmebolzen". Aargauer Zeitung.
^ "Switzerland: The new head of the army has been inducted – Switzerland". En24 News. 5 December 2019. Retrieved 27 December 2019.
^ "Armée: le chef de l'armée Philippe Rebord passe le relais à son successeur Thomas Süssli au Château de Chillon". Le Nouvelliste. 5 December 2019. Retrieved 10 January 2020.
^ "Readout of Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Gen. Mark. A. Milley's Meeting with Switzerland Chief of the Armed Forces Lt. Gen. (S) Thomas Süssli". Air University. 18 December 2019. Archived from the original on 22 January 2020. Retrieved 22 January 2020.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Thomas Süssli.
Official profile page
Military offices
Preceded byLt Gen Philippe Rebord
Chief of the Armed Forces 1 January 2020 – present
Incumbent
This biographical article related to the military of Switzerland is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
|
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[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outside_the_box
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Thinking outside the box
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["1 History","2 See also","3 References","4 Further reading","5 External links"]
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Metaphor for unconventional thinking
"Outside the box" redirects here. For other uses, see Outside the Box (disambiguation). Not to be confused with Out-of-the-box functionality.
Thinking outside the box (also thinking out of the box or thinking beyond the box and, especially in Australia, thinking outside the square) is a idiom that means to think differently, unconventionally, or from a new perspective. The phrase also often refers to novel or creative thinking.
History
The origin of the phrase is unclear. "Think beyond the boundary"-metaphors, that is, metaphors that allude to think differently or with less constraints, seem to have an old history. For example, in 1888, The Annual Register records the phrase think outside the lines.
Since at least 1954, the nine dots puzzle has been used as a metaphor of the type "think beyond the boundary". Early phrasings include go outside the dots (1954), breakthrough thinking that gets outside the nine-dot square (1959), and what are the actual boundaries of the problem? (1963).
The "nine dots" puzzle and its solution. The goal of the puzzle is to link all 9 dots using four straight lines or less, without lifting the pen.
In 1969, Norman Vincent Peale writes this in an article for the Chicago Tribune, quote:There is one particular puzzle you may have seen. It's a drawing of a box with some dots in it, and the idea is to connect all the dots by using only four lines. You can work on that puzzle, but the only way to solve it is to draw the lines so they connect outside the box. It's so simple once you realize the principle behind it. But if you keep trying to solve it inside the box, you'll never be able to master that particular puzzle.
That puzzle represents the way a lot of people think. They get caught up inside the box of their own lives. You've got to approach any problem objectively. Stand back and see it for exactly what it is. From a little distance, you can see it a lot more clearly. Try and get a different perspective, a fresh point of view. Step outside the box your problem has created within you and come at it from a different direction.
All of a sudden, just like the puzzle, you'll see how to handle your problem. And just like the four lines that connect all the dots, you'll discover the course of action that's just right in order to set your life straight.
In 1970, the phrase think outside the dots appears without mentioning the nine dots puzzle.
Finally, in 1971, the specific phrase think outside the box is attested, again appearing together with the nine dots puzzle. In 1976, the phrase is used in England and 1978 in the USA, both without mentioning the nine dots puzzle.
Beyond the above attestations, there are several unconfirmed accounts of how the phrase got introduced. According to Martin Kihn, it goes back to management consultants in the 1970s and 1980s challenging their clients to solve the "nine dots" puzzle. According to John Adair, he introduced the nine dots puzzle in 1969, from which the saying comes. According to The Creative Thinking Association of America, Mike Vance popularized the phrase "thinking out of the box". Moreover, it is claimed that the use of the nine-dot puzzle in consultancy circles stems from the corporate culture of the Walt Disney Company, where the puzzle was used in-house.
See also
Egg of Columbus
Einstellung effect
Eureka effect
Functional fixedness
Gordian Knot
Kobayashi Maru
Lateral thinking
References
^ "box - definition of box in English - Oxford Dictionaries". Archived from the original on November 21, 2016. Retrieved 21 November 2016.
^ "think outside the box - Definition, meaning & more - Collins Dictionary". Retrieved 21 November 2016.
^ "Thinking Outside The Square". Retrieved 21 November 2016.
^ The Annual Register: a review of public events at home and abroad, for the year 1887. London: Rivingtons, Waterloo Place. 1888. p. 168. said that the Liberal party became a one-man party, which scarcely ventured to think outside the lines prescribed by its dictator.
^ O'Toole, Garson (2010-05-03). "Antedating of "Outside the Box"".
^ Anderson, John F. (1954-10-30). "Down to Earth". Dallas Morning News. p. 1. An instructor at M.I.T. began his course with a group of graduate students one day by walking to the blackboard and drawing nine dots in this fashion We are not here to go through old routines. Don't let your thinking be contained in a small square of knowledge. Learn to go outside the dots and you may be the one to solve man's most puzzling problems.
^ a b c Wilton, David (2021-07-19). "think outside the box". Wordorigins.org.
^ Humphrey, Hal (1959-11-13). "'Breakthrough thinking' gets outside 9-dot square". Detroit Free Press. p. 41. One of our biggest advertising agencies "Breakthrough thinking is the fresh approach, the new concept, that gets outside the nine-dot square."
^ Tréguer, Pascal (2021-04-28). "'to think outside the box': meaning and origin". word histories.
^ Platzer, Norbert A. J. (1963-04-18). "Incentiveness, Motivation, Training Needs of a Scientist". The Springfield Union. p. 52. the next aplitude for creative thinking defining the problem. We must ask ourselves: "What are the actual boundaries of the problem?" Perhaps some of you have seen this little problem before. Here are nine dots . This teaches us, we should avoid imposing limitations that are not in our problem, as I told you before in the cases of Kettering and Reppe.
^ Peale, Norman Vincent (1969-10-25). "Blackmail Is the Problem". Chicago Tribune. p. 13.
^ Liberman, Mark (2005-06-02). "Language Log: X-ing outside the Y".
^ Westell, Anthony (1970-05-23). "Canada Entering Big League In Research". Ottawa Journal. p. 7. The problem, says William Davd Hopper, is to think "outside the dots" about the questions of how to feed a hungry world. He means that the need is to think imaginatively, creatively, about the development of less-developed countries, and not merely to keep pouring more money and technology into patterns of foreign aid established, not very successfully, over the past 20 years.
^ Notaro, Michael R. (1971). "Management of Personnel: Organization Patterns and Techniques". Data Management. Vol. 9/#9. Data Processing Management Organization. p. 77.
^ "box, n.2". OED Online. Oxford University Press.
^ Hall, David (1976-07-18). "Ex officer's strategy for business success". Sunday Telegraph. p. 24. it is abundantly clear that Service people can turn their hand to many jobs provided they can think "outside the box."
^ Robert S., Mendelsohn (1978-03-31). "People's Doctor". The Newark Advocate. p. 10. Some of my best teachers have been those who utilize the techniques of shock and surprise to rouse me out of conventional habits of thought, forcing me to question accepted teaching and stimulating me to think "outside the box."
^ Kihn, Martin. "'Outside the Box': the Inside Story," FastCompany 1995
^ Adair, John (2007). The art of creative thinking how to be innovative and develop great ideas. London Philadelphia: Kogan Page. p. 127. ISBN 9780749452186.
^ Biography of Mike Vance at Creative Thinking Association of America.
Further reading
Adams, J. L. (1979). Conceptual Blockbusting: A Guide to Better Ideas. New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-201-10089-1. ISBN 0-201-10089-4 (more solutions to the nine dots problem - with less than 4 lines!)
Scheerer, M. (1963). "Problem-solving". Scientific American. 208 (4): 118–128. Bibcode:1963SciAm.208d.118S. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0463-118. PMID 13986996.
Golomb, Solom W.; Selfridge, John L. (1970). "Unicursal polygonal paths and other graphs on point lattices". Pi Mu Epsilon Journal. 5: 107–117. MR 0268063.
External links
Look up outside the box in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Out-of-the-box vs. outside the box citing Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary (OALD), Word of the Month
|
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Not to be confused with Out-of-the-box functionality.Thinking outside the box (also thinking out of the box[1][2] or thinking beyond the box and, especially in Australia, thinking outside the square[3]) is a idiom that means to think differently, unconventionally, or from a new perspective. The phrase also often refers to novel or creative thinking.","title":"Thinking outside the box"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Annual Register","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Annual_Register"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"nine dots puzzle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nine_dots_puzzle"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wordorigins-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wordorigins-7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:9dots.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ninedots.svg"},{"link_name":"Norman Vincent Peale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_Vincent_Peale"},{"link_name":"Chicago Tribune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Tribune"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wordorigins-7"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Martin Kihn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Kihn"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-18"},{"link_name":"John Adair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adair_(author)"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"corporate culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_culture"},{"link_name":"Walt Disney Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walt_Disney_Company"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"The origin of the phrase is unclear. \"Think beyond the boundary\"-metaphors, that is, metaphors that allude to think differently or with less constraints, seem to have an old history. For example, in 1888, The Annual Register records the phrase think outside the lines.[4][5]Since at least 1954, the nine dots puzzle has been used as a metaphor of the type \"think beyond the boundary\". Early phrasings include go outside the dots (1954),[6][7] breakthrough thinking that gets outside the nine-dot square (1959),[8][9] and what are the actual boundaries of the problem? (1963).[10][7]The \"nine dots\" puzzle and its solution. The goal of the puzzle is to link all 9 dots using four straight lines or less, without lifting the pen.In 1969, Norman Vincent Peale writes this in an article for the Chicago Tribune, quote:[11][12]There is one particular puzzle you may have seen. It's a drawing of a box with some dots in it, and the idea is to connect all the dots by using only four lines. You can work on that puzzle, but the only way to solve it is to draw the lines so they connect outside the box. It's so simple once you realize the principle behind it. But if you keep trying to solve it inside the box, you'll never be able to master that particular puzzle.\nThat puzzle represents the way a lot of people think. They get caught up inside the box of their own lives. You've got to approach any problem objectively. Stand back and see it for exactly what it is. From a little distance, you can see it a lot more clearly. Try and get a different perspective, a fresh point of view. Step outside the box your problem has created within you and come at it from a different direction.\n\nAll of a sudden, just like the puzzle, you'll see how to handle your problem. And just like the four lines that connect all the dots, you'll discover the course of action that's just right in order to set your life straight.In 1970, the phrase think outside the dots appears without mentioning the nine dots puzzle.[13][7]Finally, in 1971, the specific phrase think outside the box is attested, again appearing together with the nine dots puzzle.[14][15] In 1976, the phrase is used in England[16] and 1978 in the USA,[17] both without mentioning the nine dots puzzle.Beyond the above attestations, there are several unconfirmed accounts of how the phrase got introduced. According to Martin Kihn, it goes back to management consultants in the 1970s and 1980s challenging their clients to solve the \"nine dots\" puzzle.[18] According to John Adair, he introduced the nine dots puzzle in 1969, from which the saying comes.[19] According to The Creative Thinking Association of America, Mike Vance popularized the phrase \"thinking out of the box\".[20] Moreover, it is claimed that the use of the nine-dot puzzle in consultancy circles stems from the corporate culture of the Walt Disney Company, where the puzzle was used in-house.[citation needed]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Conceptual Blockbusting: A Guide to Better Ideas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/conceptualblockb00adam_0"},{"link_name":"W. W. Norton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._W._Norton"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-201-10089-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-201-10089-1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-201-10089-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-10089-4"},{"link_name":"Scientific American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_American"},{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1963SciAm.208d.118S","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1963SciAm.208d.118S"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1038/scientificamerican0463-118","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0463-118"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"13986996","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13986996"},{"link_name":"Golomb, Solom W.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomon_W._Golomb"},{"link_name":"Selfridge, John L.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_L._Selfridge"},{"link_name":"MR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0268063","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=0268063"}],"text":"Adams, J. L. (1979). Conceptual Blockbusting: A Guide to Better Ideas. New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-201-10089-1. ISBN 0-201-10089-4 (more solutions to the nine dots problem - with less than 4 lines!)\nScheerer, M. (1963). \"Problem-solving\". Scientific American. 208 (4): 118–128. Bibcode:1963SciAm.208d.118S. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0463-118. PMID 13986996.\nGolomb, Solom W.; Selfridge, John L. (1970). \"Unicursal polygonal paths and other graphs on point lattices\". Pi Mu Epsilon Journal. 5: 107–117. MR 0268063.","title":"Further reading"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"Egg of Columbus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egg_of_Columbus"},{"title":"Einstellung effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstellung_effect"},{"title":"Eureka effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eureka_effect"},{"title":"Functional fixedness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_fixedness"},{"title":"Gordian Knot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordian_Knot"},{"title":"Kobayashi Maru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kobayashi_Maru"},{"title":"Lateral thinking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_thinking"}]
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[{"reference":"\"box - definition of box in English - Oxford Dictionaries\". Archived from the original on November 21, 2016. Retrieved 21 November 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161121234309/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/box","url_text":"\"box - definition of box in English - Oxford Dictionaries\""},{"url":"https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/box","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"think outside the box - Definition, meaning & more - Collins Dictionary\". Retrieved 21 November 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/think-outside-the-box?showCookiePolicy=true","url_text":"\"think outside the box - Definition, meaning & more - Collins Dictionary\""}]},{"reference":"\"Thinking Outside The Square\". Retrieved 21 November 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.limelightmagazine.com.au/features/thinking-outside-square","url_text":"\"Thinking Outside The Square\""}]},{"reference":"The Annual Register: a review of public events at home and abroad, for the year 1887. London: Rivingtons, Waterloo Place. 1888. p. 168. [Lord Hartington] said that [...] the Liberal party became a one-man party, which scarcely ventured to think outside the lines prescribed by its dictator.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=_3tdAAAAIAAJ&q=%22think+outside+the+lines%22&pg=PP9","url_text":"The Annual Register: a review of public events at home and abroad, for the year 1887"}]},{"reference":"O'Toole, Garson (2010-05-03). \"Antedating of \"Outside the Box\"\".","urls":[{"url":"https://listserv.linguistlist.org/pipermail/ads-l/2010-May/098893.html","url_text":"\"Antedating of \"Outside the Box\"\""}]},{"reference":"Anderson, John F. (1954-10-30). \"Down to Earth\". Dallas Morning News. p. 1. An instructor at M.I.T. began his course with a group of graduate students one day by walking to the blackboard and drawing nine dots in this fashion [...] We are not here to go through old routines. Don't let your thinking be contained in a small square of knowledge. Learn to go outside the dots and you may be the one to solve man's most puzzling problems.","urls":[{"url":"https://archives.dallasnews.com/uncategorized/IO_968f2bc4-5474-46df-ac8f-1b6b8a166d6b/","url_text":"\"Down to Earth\""}]},{"reference":"Wilton, David (2021-07-19). \"think outside the box\". Wordorigins.org.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wordorigins.org/big-list-entries/think-outside-the-box","url_text":"\"think outside the box\""}]},{"reference":"Humphrey, Hal (1959-11-13). \"'Breakthrough thinking' gets outside 9-dot square\". Detroit Free Press. p. 41. One of our biggest advertising agencies [writes] \"Breakthrough thinking is the fresh approach, the new concept, that gets outside the nine-dot square.\"","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/image/98259134/","url_text":"\"'Breakthrough thinking' gets outside 9-dot square\""}]},{"reference":"Tréguer, Pascal (2021-04-28). \"'to think outside the box': meaning and origin\". word histories.","urls":[{"url":"https://wordhistories.net/2021/04/28/think-outside-box/","url_text":"\"'to think outside the box': meaning and origin\""}]},{"reference":"Platzer, Norbert A. J. (1963-04-18). \"Incentiveness, Motivation, Training Needs of a Scientist\". The Springfield Union. p. 52. [...] the next aplitude for creative thinking [is] defining the problem. We must ask ourselves: \"What are the actual boundaries of the problem?\" Perhaps some of you have seen this little problem before. Here are nine dots [...]. This teaches us, we should avoid imposing limitations that are not in our problem, as I told you before in the cases of Kettering and Reppe.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_F._Kettering","url_text":"Kettering"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Reppe","url_text":"Reppe"}]},{"reference":"Peale, Norman Vincent (1969-10-25). \"Blackmail Is the Problem\". Chicago Tribune. p. 13.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_Vincent_Peale","url_text":"Peale, Norman Vincent"},{"url":"https://newspaperarchive.com/chicago-tribune-oct-25-1969-p-13-335162371-fullpage.jpg","url_text":"\"Blackmail Is the Problem\""},{"url":"https://newspaperarchive.com/chicago-tribune-oct-25-1969-p-13-335162371-fullpage.jpg","url_text":"13"}]},{"reference":"Liberman, Mark (2005-06-02). \"Language Log: X-ing outside the Y\".","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Liberman","url_text":"Liberman, Mark"},{"url":"http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/002220.html","url_text":"\"Language Log: X-ing outside the Y\""}]},{"reference":"Westell, Anthony (1970-05-23). \"Canada Entering Big League In Research\". Ottawa Journal. p. 7. The problem, says William Dav[i]d Hopper, is to think \"outside the dots\" about the questions of how to feed a hungry world. He means that the need is to think imaginatively, creatively, about the development of less-developed countries, and not merely to keep pouring more money and technology into patterns of foreign aid established, not very successfully, over the past 20 years.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/image/43253372/","url_text":"\"Canada Entering Big League In Research\""}]},{"reference":"Notaro, Michael R. (1971). \"Management of Personnel: Organization Patterns and Techniques\". Data Management. Vol. 9/#9. Data Processing Management Organization. p. 77.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/sim_information-executive_1971-09_9_9/page/76","url_text":"\"Management of Personnel: Organization Patterns and Techniques\""},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/sim_information-executive_1971-09_9_9/page/77","url_text":"77"}]},{"reference":"\"box, n.2\". OED Online. Oxford University Press.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/22297?redirectedFrom=think+outside+the+box#eid1294628220","url_text":"\"box, n.2\""}]},{"reference":"Hall, David (1976-07-18). \"Ex officer's strategy for business success\". Sunday Telegraph. p. 24. [...] it is abundantly clear that Service people can turn their hand to many jobs provided they can think \"outside the box.\"","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/image/750596070/?terms=%22think%20outside%20the%20box%22&match=1","url_text":"\"Ex officer's strategy for business success\""},{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/image/750596070/?terms=%22think%20outside%20the%20box%22&match=1","url_text":"24"}]},{"reference":"Robert S., Mendelsohn (1978-03-31). \"People's Doctor\". The Newark Advocate. p. 10. Some of my best teachers have been those who utilize the techniques of shock and surprise to rouse me out of conventional habits of thought, forcing me to question accepted teaching and stimulating me to think \"outside the box.\"","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_S._Mendelsohn","url_text":"Robert S., Mendelsohn"},{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/image/288820411/?terms=%22think%20outside%20the%20box%22&match=1","url_text":"\"People's Doctor\""},{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/image/288820411/?terms=%22think%20outside%20the%20box%22&match=1","url_text":"10"}]},{"reference":"Adair, John (2007). The art of creative thinking how to be innovative and develop great ideas. London Philadelphia: Kogan Page. p. 127. ISBN 9780749452186.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/artcreativethink00adai","url_text":"The art of creative thinking how to be innovative and develop great ideas"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/artcreativethink00adai/page/n137","url_text":"127"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780749452186","url_text":"9780749452186"}]},{"reference":"Adams, J. L. (1979). Conceptual Blockbusting: A Guide to Better Ideas. New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-201-10089-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/conceptualblockb00adam_0","url_text":"Conceptual Blockbusting: A Guide to Better Ideas"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._W._Norton","url_text":"W. W. Norton"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-201-10089-1","url_text":"978-0-201-10089-1"}]},{"reference":"Scheerer, M. (1963). \"Problem-solving\". Scientific American. 208 (4): 118–128. Bibcode:1963SciAm.208d.118S. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0463-118. PMID 13986996.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_American","url_text":"Scientific American"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1963SciAm.208d.118S","url_text":"1963SciAm.208d.118S"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0463-118","url_text":"10.1038/scientificamerican0463-118"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13986996","url_text":"13986996"}]},{"reference":"Golomb, Solom W.; Selfridge, John L. (1970). \"Unicursal polygonal paths and other graphs on point lattices\". Pi Mu Epsilon Journal. 5: 107–117. MR 0268063.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomon_W._Golomb","url_text":"Golomb, Solom W."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_L._Selfridge","url_text":"Selfridge, John L."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MR_(identifier)","url_text":"MR"},{"url":"https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=0268063","url_text":"0268063"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Martian_(film)
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The Martian (film)
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["1 Plot","2 Cast","3 Production","3.1 Development","3.2 Filming","3.3 NASA involvement","4 Music","5 Marketing","6 Release","6.1 Box office forecast","6.2 Theatrical run","6.3 Home media","7 Reception","7.1 Critical response","7.2 Accolades","8 Scientific accuracy","9 See also","10 Notes","11 References","12 External links"]
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2015 film by Ridley Scott
The MartianTheatrical release posterDirected byRidley ScottScreenplay byDrew GoddardBased onThe Martianby Andy WeirProduced by
Simon Kinberg
Ridley Scott
Michael Schaefer
Mark Huffam
Starring
Matt Damon
Jessica Chastain
Kristen Wiig
Jeff Daniels
Michael Peña
Sean Bean
Kate Mara
Sebastian Stan
Aksel Hennie
Mackenzie Davis
Benedict Wong
Donald Glover
Chen Shu
Eddy Ko
Chiwetel Ejiofor
CinematographyDariusz WolskiEdited byPietro ScaliaMusic byHarry Gregson-WilliamsProductioncompanies
Scott Free Productions
Kinberg Genre
TSG Entertainment
Distributed by20th Century FoxRelease dates
September 11, 2015 (2015-09-11) (TIFF)
September 30, 2015 (2015-09-30) (United Kingdom)
October 2, 2015 (2015-10-02) (United States)
Running time142 minutesCountries
United Kingdom
United States
LanguageEnglishBudget$108 millionBox office$630.6 million
The Martian is a 2015 science fiction film directed by Ridley Scott and starring Matt Damon. Drew Goddard adapted the screenplay from the 2011 novel of the same name by Andy Weir. It also stars Jessica Chastain, Jeff Daniels, Kristen Wiig, Chiwetel Ejiofor, Sean Bean, Michael Peña, Kate Mara, Sebastian Stan, Aksel Hennie, Mackenzie Davis, Donald Glover, and Benedict Wong.
The film depicts an astronaut's struggle to survive on Mars after being left behind and NASA's efforts to return him to Earth.
The Martian was produced through 20th Century Fox in the United Kingdom and the United States. Producer Simon Kinberg began developing the film after Fox optioned the novel in March 2013. Goddard, who adapted the novel into a screenplay, was initially attached to direct, but production was only approved after Scott replaced Goddard as director and Damon was cast as the main character. Filming began in November 2014 and lasted about 70 days. Twenty sets were built on one of the largest sound stages in the world in Budapest, Hungary. Wadi Rum in Jordan was also used for exterior filming.
The film premiered at the 2015 Toronto International Film Festival on September 11, 2015. It was released in the UK on September 30, 2015, and in the US on October 2, 2015, in 2D, 3D, IMAX 3D and 4DX. It received positive reviews with praise for its direction, visual effects, musical score, screenplay, scientific accuracy, and likability, largely due to Damon's performance and grossed over $630 million worldwide, becoming Scott's highest-grossing film to date and the tenth-highest-grossing film of 2015. It was nominated for seven awards at the 88th Academy Awards, and received numerous other accolades.
Plot
Ares III mission landing site (Acidalia Planitia region)
In 2035, the crew of the Ares III mission to Mars is exploring Acidalia Planitia on Martian solar day (sol) 18 of their 31-sol expedition. A severe dust storm threatens to topple their Mars Ascent Vehicle (MAV). In the ensuing evacuation, astronaut Mark Watney is struck by debris and presumed dead. With the MAV on the verge of toppling, the remaining crew takes off for their orbiting vessel, the Hermes, leaving Watney behind.
Watney awakens after the storm, injured and with a low-oxygen warning. He returns to the crew's surface habitat ("Hab") and treats his wound. As Watney recovers, he begins a video diary. Unable to communicate with Earth, his only chance of rescue is the next Mars mission; in four years, Ares IV will land 3,200 kilometers (2,000 mi) away at the Schiaparelli crater, the Ares IV MAV has already arrived on the site in preparation for the mission.
Watney's immediate concern is food; being a botanist, he creates a garden inside the Hab using Martian soil fertilized with the crew's bio-waste and manufactures water from leftover rocket fuel. He then cultivates potatoes using whole potatoes reserved for a special Thanksgiving meal. He also begins modifying a crewed rover for the journey to the Ares IV MAV.
On Earth, NASA satellite planner Mindy Park, reviewing satellite images, notices moved equipment and realizes Watney must be alive. NASA director Teddy Sanders releases the news to the public but decides not to inform the Ares III crew en route to Earth, over flight director Mitch Henderson's strong objection.
Watney takes the rover on a one-month journey to retrieve the Pathfinder probe, which fell silent in 1997. Using Pathfinder's camera, he establishes visual contact with NASA. The agency transmits a software patch to link the mission's rover with Pathfinder, enabling communication by text. Sanders finally allows Henderson to inform Watney's crewmates.
The Hab's airlock blows out, injuring Watney and destroying the potato crops; although he repairs the airlock, he is again threatened by starvation. Mars missions director Vincent Kapoor and Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) director Bruce Ng prepare a resupply to deliver enough food for Watney to survive until Ares IV's arrival. Sanders orders routine safety inspections bypassed to expedite the mission, but an oversight causes catastrophe as the resupply spacecraft disintegrates shortly after launch.
The China National Space Administration decides to offer a launch vehicle — originally intended for the Taiyang Shen space probe — to resupply Watney, in exchange for getting a Chinese astronaut on the next Ares mission. Astrophysicist Rich Purnell devises an alternative plan: have the Taiyang Shen launcher rendezvous with and resupply the Hermes, which will then use Earth's gravity to "slingshot" back to Mars two years earlier than Ares IV.
Sanders rejects the idea, considering it too risky for the Hermes crew. Henderson surreptitiously sends Purnell's proposal to the crew; they unanimously vote in favor and divert the Hermes. Sanders is forced to support them publicly, but demands Henderson's resignation after Watney is rescued.
Watney begins the 90-sol journey to Schiaparelli, where the MAV for Ares IV is pre-positioned. He must use it to rendezvous with the Hermes, but it needs to be lightened considerably. After takeoff, when the MAV runs out of fuel, its velocity relative to the Hermes is too fast for Watney to be picked up.
Commander Lewis quickly improvises, using an explosive to breach a forward airlock, resulting in air escaping violently and slowing down the Hermes. It is still not enough; using a tethered Manned Maneuvering Unit, Lewis is unable to reach Watney. So he pierces his pressure suit, using the escaping air to propel himself to Lewis, ending his 561 sols alone on Mars.
After returning to Earth, Watney becomes a survival instructor for astronaut candidates. Five years later, as the Ares V is about to launch, those involved in Watney's rescue are seen in their current lives.
Mark Watney's route on Mars
Cast
Matt Damon and Jessica Chastain
Matt Damon as Dr. Mark Watney, a botanist and mechanical engineer who is part of the Ares III team.
Jessica Chastain as Commander Melissa Lewis, USN Submarine Warfare officer, oceanographer, geologist and the Ares III mission commander.
Kristen Wiig as Annie Montrose, the director of media relations for NASA.
Jeff Daniels as Theodore "Teddy" Sanders, the Administrator of NASA.
Michael Peña as Major Rick Martinez, USAF officer, engineer, pilot of the Ares III mission for MAV.
Sean Bean as Mitch Henderson, the Hermes flight director
Kate Mara as Beth Johanssen, the Ares III's system operator.
Sebastian Stan as Dr. Chris Beck, flight surgeon for the Ares III mission.
Aksel Hennie as Dr. Alex Vogel, a German national who is the navigator and chemist of Ares III.
Mackenzie Davis as Mindy Park, a satellite planner in Mission Control.
Benedict Wong as Bruce Ng, director of Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL).
Donald Glover as Rich Purnell, a JPL astrodynamicist.
Chen Shu as Zhu Tao (Chinese: 朱涛), deputy chief scientist at the China National Space Administration.
Eddy Ko as Guo Ming (Chinese: 郭明), chief scientist at the China National Space Administration.
Chiwetel Ejiofor as Vincent Kapoor, NASA's Director of Mars Missions.
Nick Mohammed as Tim Grimes
Chastain prepared for her role by meeting with astronauts and scientists at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory and the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center. She was inspired by astronaut Tracy Caldwell Dyson, saying, "She's very matter of fact, very straightforward. My character is dealing with the guilt of leaving a crew member behind, but she's still responsible for the lives of five other crew mates. I tried to play her as Tracy would have been in those moments." Damon prepared for the role by a different method: "For me, the rehearsal process was sitting with Ridley and going kind of line-by-line and moment-by-moment through the script and playing out a plan of attack for what we wanted each scene to accomplish."
The Media Action Network for Asian-Americans (MANAA) criticized the casting of white actor Mackenzie Davis as Mindy Park, whom it said author Andy Weir had described as Korean-American. The group also criticized the casting of Chiwetel Ejiofor as Vincent Kapoor, whom the organization said Weir described as an Asian Indian character. In the novel, the character's name was Venkat Kapoor, and he identifies religiously as a Hindu (a Baptist and a Hindu in the film). The group described these casting decisions as whitewashing, part of a broader phenomenon that deprives Asian actors of opportunities. Weir said in October 2015 he perceived Mindy Park as Korean but said he did not explicitly write her as Korean. He also dismissed criticism of Ejiofor's casting, saying that Kapoor is "an American. Americans come from lots of different sources. You can be Venkat Kapoor and black." He said his novel intentionally avoided physical descriptions of his characters.
Naomi Scott was cast and filmed as Ryoko, a member of the JPL team. Her scenes were removed from the final cut.
Production
Director Ridley Scott and screenwriter Drew Goddard
Ridley Scott – director, producer
Simon Kinberg – producer
Michael Schaefer – producer
Aditya Sood – producer
Mark Huffam – producer
Drew Goddard – screenwriter, executive producer
Andy Weir – author (source material)
Dariusz Wolski – cinematographer
Arthur Max – production designer
Janty Yates – costume designer
Pietro Scalia – editor
Harry Gregson-Williams – music composer
Development
The Martian was directed by Scott and based on a screenplay by Drew Goddard that was adapted from Weir's 2011 novel of the same name. 20th Century Fox optioned the novel in March 2013, and producer Simon Kinberg was attached to develop the novel into a film. The following May, Goddard entered negotiations with the studio to write and direct The Martian. Goddard wrote a screenplay for the film and Matt Damon expressed interest in starring under Goddard's direction. Goddard then pursued an opportunity to direct Sinister Six, a comic book film about a team of supervillains. Kinberg then brought the book to Scott's attention. In May 2014, Scott entered negotiations with the studio to direct the film with Damon cast as the film's stranded astronaut. Scott said he was attracted by the emphasis on science and thought a balance could be struck between entertainment and learning. Damon said he was attracted by the novel, the screenplay, and the opportunity to work with Scott. Following Scott's commitment, the project picked up the pace and was quickly approved. Goddard has since expressed that he felt Scott made a much better film than he could have directed, telling Creative Screenwriting, "When it's Scott, collaboration is easy because I just revere him. Every day I would just look around and think, 'Is that really Ridley Scott sitting there at the table? This is exciting!'"
Filming
Wadi Rum in Jordan was used for external scenes on Mars in filming The Martian.
Korda Studios 26 kilometres (16 mi) west of Budapest, Hungary, in the wine-making village of Etyek, was chosen for filming interior scenes of The Martian. It had one of the largest sound stages in the world. Filming began in Hungary on November 24, 2014. Around 20 sets were constructed for the film, which was filmed with 3D cameras. Actual potatoes were grown in a sound stage next to the one used for filming. They were planted at different times so that different stages of growth could be shown in film scenes. A team of six people built 15 suits for the film. External scenes depicting Mars were filmed in Wadi Rum, a UNESCO world heritage site in Jordan, over eight days in March 2015. Wadi Rum had been used as a location for other films set on Mars, including Mission to Mars (2000), Red Planet (2000) and The Last Days on Mars (2013). All told, filming lasted about 70 days.
A special Mars rover model was built for the filming; the movie cast and team presented the rover model to Jordan in return for the hospitality they had received. The rover is now exhibited in Jordan's Royal Automobile Museum.
Weir avoided writing Watney as lonely and depressed in his novel. While Watney's humor is preserved in the film, Scott also depicted the character's isolation in the vast, dusty Martian landscape. Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter wrote: "The scenes back on Earth provide a hectic, densely populated counterweight to the Martian aridity, which is magnificently represented by exteriors shot in the vicinity of Wadi Rum in Jordan." Damon said he and Scott were inspired by the documentary film Touching the Void (2003), which featured trapped mountain climbers. Scott also expected to film Watney as a Robinson Crusoe, a character in full isolation, but learned to film Watney differently since the character would be self-monitoring his behavior under the watch of various mission cameras.
According to Scott, the first cut of the movie was 2 hours and 45 minutes long. An extended cut of the movie was released on home video.
NASA involvement
Damon while making hand prints in concrete at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. He is accompanied by Jim Erickson (left) and Andrew J. Feustel (right).
When the novel was first published, NASA invited Weir to tour the Johnson Space Center and Jet Propulsion Laboratory. When Scott began preparing the film, Weir contacted NASA to collaborate on the film. When Scott and producer Mark Huffam had their first production meeting, they called NASA and spoke with its film and television liaison Bert Ulrich. NASA decided to help the filmmakers with depicting the science and technology in The Martian since it saw potential in promoting space exploration.
NASA staff members that joined the effort included James L. Green, director of the Planetary Science Division, and Dave Lavery, program executive for Solar System Exploration. Scott conversed with Green twice before filming started. During one month, NASA answered hundreds of questions on radioisotope systems, the look of potential "habs"—the residences for future Mars astronauts—and more. The questions were answered by Green or passed on to the right expert, and then came back to Scott's team to make their way into the production. The space agency also provided hundreds of real images of Mars and control centers, down to what the computer screens look like. Green arranged an eight-hour tour of the Johnson Space Center in Houston for production designer Arthur Max, who met with specialists and took hundreds of photos. The production designer created a futuristic, heavily modernized Mission Control as a studio set; Ars Technica described its depiction as "the space agency that we all dream of" and the opposite of the real Johnson Center's appearance as "a run down college campus".
Newsweek said NASA collaborated more with The Martian than most other space-themed films: "Staff from many NASA departments consulted on the film, from script development through principal photography, and are now helping with marketing timed to the theatrical release." As part of the collaboration, the production's NASA liaison included the front page of the script for the film in the payload of the spacecraft Orion during its Exploration Flight Test 1 on December 5, 2014.
The Los Angeles Times said NASA and the wider scientific community anticipated the film as a way to publicize a human mission to Mars. The New York Times reports that the film "serves as a nice plug for NASA, which has returned the favor by pushing the movie on its website. (On Monday , scientists announced that signs of liquid water could be seen in photographs taken on Mars by a camera on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, timing that suggests NASA certainly has the whole cross-promotion thing down.)" Jim Erickson, NASA project manager, said the film would show moviegoers "the risks and rewards" of humans traveling to Mars.
In October 2015, NASA presented a new web tool to follow Watney's trek across Mars and details of NASA's next steps, as well as a health hazards report for a real-world human journey to Mars.
In 2016, then-U.S. President Barack Obama named The Martian as among the best science fiction films he had ever seen.
Music
Main article: The Martian (soundtrack)
Harry Gregson-Williams composed the score for The Martian. It is the fourth collaboration between Gregson-Williams and Scott. Gregson-Williams previously worked on music for Scott's films Kingdom of Heaven (2005), Prometheus (2012) and Exodus: Gods and Kings, composing the main film score for the first and last films, and doing additional music for the other two.
A running gag in the film is commander Melissa Lewis' love for 1970s songs (especially of the disco genre, which apparently Watney hates), the only music available to Watney on Mars which often appears as diegetic music. The soundtrack includes:
"Turn the Beat Around" by Vicki Sue Robinson
"Hot Stuff" by Donna Summer
"Rock the Boat" by The Hues Corporation
"Don't Leave Me This Way" by Thelma Houston
"Starman" by David Bowie
"Waterloo" by ABBA
"Love Train" by The O'Jays
"I Will Survive" by Gloria Gaynor (closing credits)
The exit music, which includes "Don't Leave Me This Way" and "I Will Survive," is a commentary on Watney's situation on Mars.
Marketing
20th Century Fox launched a viral marketing campaign for The Martian. On June 7, 2015, NASA astronaut Michael J. Massimino shared an in-universe video diary depicting Damon's character and the other crew members. Ars Technica compared the video diary to similar viral videos marketed for Scott's 2012 film Prometheus in having a similar "style of slickly produced fictional promotional material". The studio then released an official trailer on June 8. Forbes said, "20th Century Fox has cut together a pretty perfect trailer in that it absolutely makes the sale. It establishes the stakes, offers a sympathetic lead character, shows off an all-star cast, tosses out a potential catchphrase, and ends on a grimly humorous tagline." In response to the trailer, Jimmy Kimmel, host of the late-night talk show Jimmy Kimmel Live!, released a spoof trailer, The Mastronaut: Emission to Mars, that edited the original to parody the film.
At the start of August, Fox released another video, depicting interviews with each of the main crew members. Mid-month, the studio released another film trailer, and NASA hosted a "Martian Day" at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory to both promote The Martian and highlight the space program's ongoing efforts to carry out a human mission to Mars. At the end of August, Fox released another video, presenting it as a special episode of the TV series StarTalk in which astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson discusses the hazards of traveling to Mars. In September, Scott's RSA Films released a teaser for The Martian that depicted Damon wearing Under Armour sports clothing and being active in his off-world tasks. The teaser originated from a collaboration between RSA Films and the marketing shop 3AM (under theatrical advertising agency Wild Card), initiated in 2014, to produce advertising content for The Martian. RSA contacted the advertising agency Droga5, under whom Under Armour is a client. Droga5 ultimately collaborated with WME and 3AM to produce the teaser.
Forbes's Peter Himler said American astronauts had traditionally been used by public relations to promote commercial products, starting with the drink Tang. Himler said it "came as no surprise" that NASA astronauts in the International Space Station were reported by The Guardian and CBS News as having read Weir's novel and hoping to see the film on board the ISS. NASA participated in the marketing of the film despite its lack of involvement with previous films. Though it turned down a request for Interstellar to be screened on the ISS, The Martian was screened on board 402 km (250 miles) above the Earth's surface on September 19, 2015, and also at the Johnson Space Center in Houston, and at the Kennedy Space Center at Cape Canaveral on October 1, 2015.
In November 2015, 20th Century Fox announced The Martian VR Experience, a "virtual reality adventure" where viewers play as Mark Watney and reenact scenes from the film. The project was executive produced by Scott alongside Joel Newton and directed by Robert Stromberg. It was released for HTC Vive and PlayStation VR on November 15, 2016, and is also available for the Oculus Rift and Samsung Gear VR. The project won 2 major awards; a Silver Lion at the Cannes Film Festival and an AICP Award.
Release
Matt Damon and his wife Luciana Bozán Barroso at the 2015 Toronto International Film Festival
The Martian premiered at the 2015 Toronto International Film Festival on September 11, 2015. The film screened in a sneak preview at the New York Film Festival on September 27, 2015. It also screened at Fantastic Fest in Austin, Texas, on September 29, 2015. The film was released in the Dolby Vision format in Dolby Cinema in North America.
Box office forecast
Two months before The Martian's release, BoxOffice forecast that the film would gross $46 million on its opening weekend in the United States and ultimately $172 million in its theatrical run. The magazine said positive factors for its performance included the continued sales of Weir's novel, Scott's success with past science fiction films, and the positive reception of prior space-based films Gravity (2013) and Interstellar (2014). The magazine said negative factors included Damon not being a consistent draw at the box office, Gravity and Interstellar setting high expectations, and Scott's "stumble" with his previous film Exodus: Gods and Kings (2014). A week before the film's release, pre-release trackings in North America (United States and Canada) showed that the film was on pace to earn between $40–50 million at its opening weekend from 3,826 theaters.
In comparison to other contemporary space films, Gravity, facing far less competition, opened to a better-than-expected $55.8 million in 2013. In November 2014, Interstellar debuted to $47.5 million. Unlike Gravity and Interstellar, which had the benefit of IMAX locations, boosting profits, The Martian was not initially playing in IMAX, since IMAX was committed to an exclusive run of Robert Zemeckis' The Walk. The Martian played in more than 350 premium large-format theaters including 2,550 3D locations. Also, the film was released several days after the announcement of NASA's discovery of water on Mars' planetary surface, which might have aided in boosting its opening. Ticket selling website Fandango reported that the film was outselling Gravity. Unlike Gravity, The Martian did not contain abundant 3D spectacle (even though it was filmed in 3D), and was longer than Gravity.
Theatrical run
The Martian was a financial success. It grossed $228.4 million in the United States & Canada and $402.2 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of $630.6 million against a budget of $108 million. Worldwide, it was the tenth-highest-grossing film of 2015. Deadline Hollywood calculated the net profit of the film to be $150.32 million, accounting for production budgets, P&A, talent participations, and other costs, with box office grosses, and ancillary revenues from home media, placing it tenth on their list of 2015's "Most Valuable Blockbusters"; and The Hollywood Reporter reported around $80–100 million profits for the film.
The film was released in theaters in 2D and 3D. In the United Kingdom, it was released on September 30, 2015, a Wednesday, and in the United States on the following Friday, October 2, 2015. It was also released in 49 markets including Mexico, Hong Kong, India and Taiwan from the weekend October 2–4, 2015 and expanded to Germany, Russia, and South Korea the following weekend. It opened in Spain on October 16, then France on October 21. China opened on November 25 and Japan bowed in the first quarter of 2016 on February 5. Various sites estimated the film to gross between $45 and $50 million over its opening weekend in the United States.
In North America, it opened on Friday, October 2, 2015, and earned $18.06 million on its opening day of which $2 million came from premium large formats from 3,831 theaters. The film's Friday gross included $2.5 million from late-night Thursday screenings that took place in 2,800 theaters. During its opening weekend, it earned $54.3 million from 3,831 theaters ranking first at the box office which is the second biggest October opening, behind Gravity ($55.7 million) and the second biggest for Scott, behind Hannibal ($58 million) and Damon, behind The Bourne Ultimatum ($69.2 million). The film made $6 million at 375 premium large format screens. 3D accounted for 45% of the ticket sales while RealD 3D accounted for 42% or $23 million of that sales which is one of highest for the 3D company in 2015. The film fell short of breaking Gravity's record which might have been hurt by Hurricane Joaquin, the NFL season and the last day of the Major League Baseball regular season. In its second weekend of release, it dropped gradually by 31.9% and earned $37 million from 3,854 theaters (+23 theaters) maintaining the top position. The Martian's demographics in its sophomore weekend remained in sync with its opening frame drawing 52% males and 72% over 25. It topped the box office for two consecutive weekends before being dethroned by Goosebumps in its third weekend after a close race between the two ($23.6 million for Goosebumps and $21.3 million for The Martian). It returned to the top of the box office for the third time in its fourth weekend, and went on the top the box office for four non-consecutive weekends before being overtaken by Spectre in its fifth weekend. On November 5, the film surpassed Gladiator ($187.7 million) to become Scott's highest-grossing film at the domestic box office.
Internationally, The Martian was released in a total of 81 countries. Outside North America, it opened on the same weekend in 54 markets and grossed $44.6 million from 9,299 screens topping the international box office as well as opening at No. 1 in over 15 markets. The following weekend, it added 23 more markets and grossed an estimated $57.5 million from 77 markets from 12,859 screens. Its opening weekends in South Korea ($12.5 million), the United Kingdom, Ireland and Malta ($10.2 million), Russia and the CIS ($7.4 million), France ($6.9 million), Australia ($4.5 million) and Germany ($4.3 million; behind Inside Out) represented its largest takings. In terms of total earnings, the United Kingdom ($35.3 million), South Korea ($33.6 million), Australia ($16.57 million) and Germany ($16 million) are the top markets. In South Korea, it became Fox's third-highest-grossing film ever behind Avatar (2009) and Kingsman: The Secret Service (2015). It topped the box office outside of North America for two consecutive weekends before being overtaken by Ant-Man in its third weekend but returned to the top in its fourth weekend. In its fifth weekend, it was surpassed by Spectre thereby topping the international box office for three weekends in total. The Martian opened in China on Wednesday, November 25 and earned $50 million in its five-day opening weekend from 4,848 screens of which $6.6 million came from 249 IMAX theaters. In its second weekend, it fell by 60% to $13.7 million, while in total, it grossed $95 million there. It opened in Japan on February 5, 2016 under the name Odyssey, where it earned $5.2 million from 8,333 screens in its three-day opening weekend, debuting at No. 1 at the box office and helped the film push past the $600 million mark. Its Saturday and Sunday take was $4.25 million. It dropped just 19% in its second after adding $3.4 million. It has topped the box office there for four consecutive weekends and as of February 28 has grossed a total of $23.2 million.
For its United States release, the film was originally scheduled to be released on November 25, 2015, but 20th Century Fox switched The Martian with Victor Frankenstein so that the former would be its first film for all audiences in the country's fall season (September–November). On the film's 3D screenings, RealD's chief Anthony Marcoly said 3D technology was proliferating from action-packed blockbuster films commonly released in the United States' summer season. Marcoly said the technology was being used in more immersive storytelling, citing The Martian and The Walk (released the same year) as two examples.
Home media
The Martian was released on Digital on December 22, 2015 and on Blu-ray and DVD on January 12, 2016. It was released on 4K Ultra HD Blu-ray on February 14, 2016. An extended cut of the film adding an additional ten minutes was released on June 7, 2016.
Reception
Critical response
On the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 91%, with an average rating of 7.9/10, based on 383 reviews. The website's critics consensus read, "Smart, thrilling, and surprisingly funny, The Martian offers a faithful adaptation of the bestselling book that brings out the best in leading man Matt Damon and director Ridley Scott." Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the film a score of 80 out of 100 based on 46 critics. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported filmgoers gave it an average 4.5 out of 5 and a 66% "definite recommend". Audience demographics were 54% men and a total of 59% over 35.
The Martian received praise for its direction, visual effects, musical score, screenplay, scientific accuracy, and likability, largely due to Damon's performance. Variety reported, "Critics are calling the film a funny, thrilling ride, and a return to form for Scott after The Counselor and Exodus: Gods and Kings fell flat." In The Guardian, aerospace engineer Dr Robert Zubrin commented: is the first genuine Mars movie. It is the first movie that attempts to be realistic and that is actually about human beings grappling with the problems of exploring Mars, as opposed to various movies set on Mars that are essentially either shoot'em ups or horror films. It does not engage in fantasy: no monsters, no magic, no Nazis. However, there are a number of technical mistakes.
Manohla Dargis, of The New York Times, stated that the film "involves a dual journey into outer and inner space, a trip that takes you into that immensity called the universe and deep into the equally vast landscape of a single consciousness. For this accidental castaway, space is the place where he's physically marooned, but also where his mind is set free", from a film director, whose "great, persistent theme is what it means to be human".
Negative reviews focused on the lack of character depth or atmosphere. Jaime N. Christley, writing in Slant Magazine, commented, "It goes in for the idea of texture, tics, and human behavior, but there's no conviction, and no real push for eccentricity. ... It hardly seems interested in its characters or in any depiction of their work, settling instead for types of characters and kinds of scenes, correctly placed among the pendulum swings of Watney's dramatic journey." In The Village Voice, Stephanie Zacharek stated that the actors "are treated as accessories", and that the director is "workmanlike in his approach to science, which always trumps magic in The Martian—that's the point. But if we can't feel a sense of wonder at the magnitude and mystery of space, why even bother?" In Cinemixtape, J. Olson commented: "Ridley Scott and company have concocted the most colossally mediocre sci-fi movie of the decade, all in pursuit of empty backslapping and a grade school level celebration of science. Not only is The Martian not in the same class as Scott's two masterpieces – Alien and Blade Runner – it's not even on the same continent."
Accolades
Main article: List of accolades received by The Martian (film)
At the 88th Academy Awards, The Martian received nominations for Best Picture, Best Actor, Best Adapted Screenplay, Best Production Design, Best Sound Editing, Best Sound Mixing, and Best Visual Effects. The film's other nominations include six British Academy Film Awards, nine Critics' Choice Movie Awards, and three Golden Globe Awards (winning two). It received four National Board of Review Awards and was named one of the top-ten films of 2015 by the American Film Institute. Solanum watneyi, a species of bush tomato from Australia, has been named after the character of Mark Watney, to honor the fictional heroic botanist portrayal. It is a member of the same genus as the potato, Solanum.
Scientific accuracy
See also: Effect of spaceflight on the human body, Human mission to Mars, and Plants in space
James L. Green, the Director of the Planetary Science Division at NASA's Science Mission Directorate, worked as an adviser for the film.
When Weir wrote the novel The Martian, he strove to present the science correctly and used reader feedback to get it right. When Scott began directing the film, he also sought to make it realistic and received help from James L. Green, the Director of the Planetary Science Division at NASA's Science Mission Directorate. Green put together teams to answer scientific questions that Scott asked. Green said, "The Martian is reasonably realistic", though he said the film's hazardous dust storm, despite reaching speeds of 120 miles per hour (190 km/h), would in reality have weak force. Green also found the NASA buildings in the film to be more stylish than the functional ones NASA actually uses. Film critics picked up the point that the Martian winds could amount to "barely a light breeze" in their reviews, and screenwriter Goddard agreed the winds had to be considerably exaggerated in order to set up the situation that sets the story in motion.
The process used by the character Watney to produce water was accurate and is being used by NASA for a planned Martian rover. The radioisotope thermoelectric generator was also appropriately used for heat. When his rations begin to run low, Watney builds an improvised garden using Martian soil and the crew's feces as a fertilizer. However Martian soil has since been found to be toxic to both plant and animal life, although it is believed that microbial organisms have the potential to live on Mars. In one scene, the glass face shield on Watney's helmet cracks; as oxygen momentarily drops below the critical level, he quickly patches the helmet with duct tape and avoids suffocation.
Time magazine criticized another duct tape based repair: "When a pressure leak causes an entire pod on Watney’s habitat to blow up, he patches a yawning opening in what's left of the dwelling with plastic tarp and PSA duct tape." Such a repair would not work in an average Martian temperature of −60 °C (−76 °F).
While Martian gravity is less than 40% of Earth's, director Scott chose not to depict the gravitational difference, finding the effort less worthwhile to put on screen than zero gravity. Scott said the heavy spacesuits would weigh the main character enough to make up for not showing the partial gravity. The climate of Mars is also cold enough that it would make Watney's initial plan to disable the rover's heater immediately impractical, since the average temperature is −80 °F (−62 °C); it is cold enough on Mars for carbon dioxide snow to fall at the poles in winter. However, this issue is almost immediately brought up, and is the reason for the plan failing.
The plot key to the eventual rescue plan is gravity assist, a well-known practice that has been used on a number of robotic planetary exploration missions and served as a backup strategy on manned Apollo missions. It would have been one of the first approaches that everyone within NASA would have considered, but in the film, only one JPL astrodynamicist argues for sending the Ares mission back to Mars using gravity assist rather than having a separate mission to rescue Watney.
Ed Finn, director of the Center for Science and the Imagination at Arizona State University, said, "What this story does really well is imagine a near-future scenario that doesn't push too far off where we are today technically." British physicist Brian Cox said, "The Martian is the best advert for a career in engineering I've ever seen."
See also
Astrobotany
Project Hail Mary, another science fiction novel by Andy Weir
List of films set on Mars
Robinson Crusoe on Mars
Stranded
Martian
Oxia Palus quadrangle
Robinsonade
Survival film
Notes
^ The film opened in Korea during the three-day Hangul Day Holiday and earned almost $12.5 million from 1.81 million admissions over four days. It is Ridley Scott's highest-opening film in Korea, surpassing Robin Hood which grossed $10.2 million from 1.6 million admissions in 2010 and Fox's biggest opening weekend of all time in the market and the biggest ever October opening.
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External links
Wikiquote has quotations related to The Martian (film).
Official website
The Martian at IMDb
The Martian at the TCM Movie Database
The Martian at AllMovie
The Martian at the AFI Catalog of Feature Films
Mars Trek at NASA. Search for "The Martian Path" in Data for Mark Watney's trek across Mars.
The Martian – Nine real NASA technologies Archived June 20, 2018, at the Wayback Machine at NASA
The Martian at Museum of the Moving Image
vteRidley Scott
Filmography
Awards and nominations
Unrealised projects
Feature films
The Duellists (1977)
Alien (1979)
Blade Runner (1982)
Legend (1985)
Someone to Watch Over Me (1987)
Black Rain (1989)
Thelma & Louise (1991)
1492: Conquest of Paradise (1992)
White Squall (1996)
G.I. Jane (1997)
Gladiator (2000)
Hannibal (2001)
Black Hawk Down (2001)
Matchstick Men (2003)
Kingdom of Heaven (2005)
A Good Year (2006)
American Gangster (2007)
Body of Lies (2008)
Robin Hood (2010)
Prometheus (2012)
The Counselor (2013)
Exodus: Gods and Kings (2014)
The Martian (2015)
Alien: Covenant (2017)
All the Money in the World (2017)
The Last Duel (2021)
House of Gucci (2021)
Napoleon (2023)
Gladiator II (2024)
Other work
Boy and Bicycle (short film, 1965)
"The Bike Ride" (advertisement, 1973)
"1984" (advertisement, 1984)
All the Invisible Children (segment "Jonathan", 2005)
"Raised by Wolves" (TV episode, 2020)
"Pentagram" (TV episode, 2020)
Family
Tony Scott (brother)
Giannina Facio (third wife)
Jake Scott (son)
Luke Scott (son)
Jordan Scott (daughter)
Related
Ridley (Metroid)
Scott Free Productions
Category
vteDrew GoddardFilmsWritten
Cloverfield (2008)
World War Z (2013)
The Martian (2015)
Project Hail Mary (2026)
Written and directed
The Cabin in the Woods (2012)
Bad Times at the El Royale (2018)
TV series created by
Daredevil (2015–18)
Awards for The Martian
vteGolden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy1951–1975
An American in Paris (1951)
With a Song in My Heart (1952)
Carmen Jones (1954)
Guys and Dolls (1955)
The King and I (1956)
Les Girls (1957)
Gigi / Auntie Mame (1958)
Porgy and Bess / Some Like It Hot (1959)
Song Without End / The Apartment (1960)
West Side Story / A Majority of One (1961)
The Music Man / That Touch of Mink (1962)
Tom Jones (1963)
My Fair Lady (1964)
The Sound of Music (1965)
The Russians Are Coming the Russians Are Coming (1966)
The Graduate (1967)
Oliver! (1968)
The Secret of Santa Vittoria (1969)
M*A*S*H (1970)
Fiddler on the Roof (1971)
Cabaret (1972)
American Graffiti (1973)
The Longest Yard (1974)
The Sunshine Boys (1975)
1976–2000
A Star Is Born (1976)
The Goodbye Girl (1977)
Heaven Can Wait (1978)
Breaking Away (1979)
Coal Miner's Daughter (1980)
Arthur (1981)
Tootsie (1982)
Yentl (1983)
Romancing the Stone (1984)
Prizzi's Honor (1985)
Hannah and Her Sisters (1986)
Hope and Glory (1987)
Working Girl (1988)
Driving Miss Daisy (1989)
Green Card (1990)
Beauty and the Beast (1991)
The Player (1992)
Mrs. Doubtfire (1993)
The Lion King (1994)
Babe (1995)
Evita (1996)
As Good as It Gets (1997)
Shakespeare in Love (1998)
Toy Story 2 (1999)
Almost Famous (2000)
2001–present
Moulin Rouge! (2001)
Chicago (2002)
Lost in Translation (2003)
Sideways (2004)
Walk the Line (2005)
Dreamgirls (2006)
Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street (2007)
Vicky Cristina Barcelona (2008)
The Hangover (2009)
The Kids Are All Right (2010)
The Artist (2011)
Les Misérables (2012)
American Hustle (2013)
The Grand Budapest Hotel (2014)
The Martian (2015)
La La Land (2016)
Lady Bird (2017)
Green Book (2018)
Once Upon a Time in Hollywood (2019)
Borat Subsequent Moviefilm (2020)
West Side Story (2021)
The Banshees of Inisherin (2022)
Poor Things (2023)
vteHugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, Long Form2000s
The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (2003)
The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2004)
The Incredibles (2005)
Serenity (2006)
Pan's Labyrinth (2007)
Stardust (2008)
WALL-E (2009)
2010s
Moon (2010)
Inception (2011)
Game of Thrones (season 1) (2012)
Marvel's The Avengers (2013)
Gravity (2014)
Guardians of the Galaxy (2015)
The Martian (2016)
Arrival (2017)
Wonder Woman (2018)
Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse (2019)
2020s
Good Omens (2020)
The Old Guard (2021)
Dune (2022)
Everything Everywhere All at Once (2023)
vteWorks by Andy WeirWebcomics
Casey and Andy (2001–2008)
Cheshire Crossing (2006–2008; 2017–2019; with Sarah Andersen)
Novels
The Martian (2011)
Artemis (2017)
Project Hail Mary (2021)
Short stories
"The Egg" (2009)
"Lacero" (2014; with Ernest Cline's Ready Player One)
Adaptations
The Martian (2015 film)
Project Hail Mary (2026 film)
Portals: Film United States Solar System Speculative fiction
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"science fiction film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_fiction_film"},{"link_name":"Ridley Scott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ridley_Scott"},{"link_name":"Matt Damon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt_Damon"},{"link_name":"Drew Goddard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drew_Goddard"},{"link_name":"same name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Martian_(Weir_novel)"},{"link_name":"Andy Weir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andy_Weir"},{"link_name":"Jessica Chastain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jessica_Chastain"},{"link_name":"Jeff Daniels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeff_Daniels"},{"link_name":"Kristen Wiig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristen_Wiig"},{"link_name":"Chiwetel Ejiofor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiwetel_Ejiofor"},{"link_name":"Sean Bean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sean_Bean"},{"link_name":"Michael Peña","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Pe%C3%B1a"},{"link_name":"Kate Mara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kate_Mara"},{"link_name":"Sebastian Stan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sebastian_Stan"},{"link_name":"Aksel Hennie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aksel_Hennie"},{"link_name":"Mackenzie Davis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mackenzie_Davis"},{"link_name":"Donald Glover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Glover"},{"link_name":"Benedict Wong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benedict_Wong"},{"link_name":"Mars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars"},{"link_name":"NASA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA"},{"link_name":"20th Century Fox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/20th_Century_Fox"},{"link_name":"Simon Kinberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Kinberg"},{"link_name":"optioned","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Option_(filmmaking)"},{"link_name":"Budapest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budapest"},{"link_name":"Hungary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungary"},{"link_name":"Wadi Rum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wadi_Rum"},{"link_name":"Jordan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan"},{"link_name":"2015 Toronto International Film Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_Toronto_International_Film_Festival"},{"link_name":"3D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_film"},{"link_name":"IMAX 3D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMAX_3D"},{"link_name":"4DX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4DX"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"tenth-highest-grossing film of 2015","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_in_film#Highest-grossing_films"},{"link_name":"88th Academy Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/88th_Academy_Awards"},{"link_name":"numerous other accolades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_accolades_received_by_The_Martian_(film)"}],"text":"2015 film by Ridley ScottThe Martian is a 2015 science fiction film directed by Ridley Scott and starring Matt Damon. Drew Goddard adapted the screenplay from the 2011 novel of the same name by Andy Weir. It also stars Jessica Chastain, Jeff Daniels, Kristen Wiig, Chiwetel Ejiofor, Sean Bean, Michael Peña, Kate Mara, Sebastian Stan, Aksel Hennie, Mackenzie Davis, Donald Glover, and Benedict Wong.The film depicts an astronaut's struggle to survive on Mars after being left behind and NASA's efforts to return him to Earth.The Martian was produced through 20th Century Fox in the United Kingdom and the United States. Producer Simon Kinberg began developing the film after Fox optioned the novel in March 2013. Goddard, who adapted the novel into a screenplay, was initially attached to direct, but production was only approved after Scott replaced Goddard as director and Damon was cast as the main character. Filming began in November 2014 and lasted about 70 days. Twenty sets were built on one of the largest sound stages in the world in Budapest, Hungary. Wadi Rum in Jordan was also used for exterior filming.The film premiered at the 2015 Toronto International Film Festival on September 11, 2015. It was released in the UK on September 30, 2015, and in the US on October 2, 2015, in 2D, 3D, IMAX 3D and 4DX.[5] It received positive reviews with praise for its direction, visual effects, musical score, screenplay, scientific accuracy, and likability, largely due to Damon's performance and grossed over $630 million worldwide, becoming Scott's highest-grossing film to date and the tenth-highest-grossing film of 2015. It was nominated for seven awards at the 88th Academy Awards, and received numerous other accolades.","title":"The Martian (film)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PIA19913-MarsLandingSite-Ares3Mission-TheMartian-2015Film-20150517.jpg"},{"link_name":"Acidalia Planitia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acidalia_Planitia"},{"link_name":"mission to Mars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_mission_to_Mars"},{"link_name":"Acidalia Planitia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acidalia_Planitia"},{"link_name":"Martian solar day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_sol"},{"link_name":"dust storm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_of_Mars#Effect_of_dust_storms"},{"link_name":"surface habitat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_habitat"},{"link_name":"treats his wound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-surgery"},{"link_name":"Schiaparelli crater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schiaparelli_(Martian_crater)"},{"link_name":"botanist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botany"},{"link_name":"Martian soil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martian_soil"},{"link_name":"rover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rover_(space_exploration)"},{"link_name":"NASA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA"},{"link_name":"flight director","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_controller#Flight_director"},{"link_name":"rover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Exploration_Vehicle"},{"link_name":"Pathfinder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_Pathfinder"},{"link_name":"software patch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patch_(computing)"},{"link_name":"airlock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airlock"},{"link_name":"Jet Propulsion Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_Propulsion_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"China National Space Administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_National_Space_Administration"},{"link_name":"use Earth's gravity to \"slingshot\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_assist"},{"link_name":"Commander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commander"},{"link_name":"Manned Maneuvering Unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manned_Maneuvering_Unit"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_route_of_%27The_Martian%27_-_from_Chryse_Planitia_over_Arabia_Terra_in_the_Martian_highlands_to_Ares_4.jpg"}],"text":"Ares III mission landing site (Acidalia Planitia region)In 2035, the crew of the Ares III mission to Mars is exploring Acidalia Planitia on Martian solar day (sol) 18 of their 31-sol expedition. A severe dust storm threatens to topple their Mars Ascent Vehicle (MAV). In the ensuing evacuation, astronaut Mark Watney is struck by debris and presumed dead. With the MAV on the verge of toppling, the remaining crew takes off for their orbiting vessel, the Hermes, leaving Watney behind.Watney awakens after the storm, injured and with a low-oxygen warning. He returns to the crew's surface habitat (\"Hab\") and treats his wound. As Watney recovers, he begins a video diary. Unable to communicate with Earth, his only chance of rescue is the next Mars mission; in four years, Ares IV will land 3,200 kilometers (2,000 mi) away at the Schiaparelli crater, the Ares IV MAV has already arrived on the site in preparation for the mission.Watney's immediate concern is food; being a botanist, he creates a garden inside the Hab using Martian soil fertilized with the crew's bio-waste and manufactures water from leftover rocket fuel. He then cultivates potatoes using whole potatoes reserved for a special Thanksgiving meal. He also begins modifying a crewed rover for the journey to the Ares IV MAV.On Earth, NASA satellite planner Mindy Park, reviewing satellite images, notices moved equipment and realizes Watney must be alive. NASA director Teddy Sanders releases the news to the public but decides not to inform the Ares III crew en route to Earth, over flight director Mitch Henderson's strong objection.Watney takes the rover on a one-month journey to retrieve the Pathfinder probe, which fell silent in 1997. Using Pathfinder's camera, he establishes visual contact with NASA. The agency transmits a software patch to link the mission's rover with Pathfinder, enabling communication by text. Sanders finally allows Henderson to inform Watney's crewmates.The Hab's airlock blows out, injuring Watney and destroying the potato crops; although he repairs the airlock, he is again threatened by starvation. Mars missions director Vincent Kapoor and Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) director Bruce Ng prepare a resupply to deliver enough food for Watney to survive until Ares IV's arrival. Sanders orders routine safety inspections bypassed to expedite the mission, but an oversight causes catastrophe as the resupply spacecraft disintegrates shortly after launch.The China National Space Administration decides to offer a launch vehicle — originally intended for the Taiyang Shen space probe — to resupply Watney, in exchange for getting a Chinese astronaut on the next Ares mission. Astrophysicist Rich Purnell devises an alternative plan: have the Taiyang Shen launcher rendezvous with and resupply the Hermes, which will then use Earth's gravity to \"slingshot\" back to Mars two years earlier than Ares IV.Sanders rejects the idea, considering it too risky for the Hermes crew. Henderson surreptitiously sends Purnell's proposal to the crew; they unanimously vote in favor and divert the Hermes. Sanders is forced to support them publicly, but demands Henderson's resignation after Watney is rescued.Watney begins the 90-sol journey to Schiaparelli, where the MAV for Ares IV is pre-positioned. He must use it to rendezvous with the Hermes, but it needs to be lightened considerably. After takeoff, when the MAV runs out of fuel, its velocity relative to the Hermes is too fast for Watney to be picked up.Commander Lewis quickly improvises, using an explosive to breach a forward airlock, resulting in air escaping violently and slowing down the Hermes. It is still not enough; using a tethered Manned Maneuvering Unit, Lewis is unable to reach Watney. So he pierces his pressure suit, using the escaping air to propel himself to Lewis, ending his 561 sols alone on Mars.After returning to Earth, Watney becomes a survival instructor for astronaut candidates. Five years later, as the Ares V is about to launch, those involved in Watney's rescue are seen in their current lives.Mark Watney's route on Mars","title":"Plot"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Matt_Damon_TIFF_2015.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SDCC_2015_-_Jessica_Chastain_(19111308673)_(cropped).jpg"},{"link_name":"Matt Damon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt_Damon"},{"link_name":"botanist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botany"},{"link_name":"Jessica Chastain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jessica_Chastain"},{"link_name":"Commander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commander_(United_States)#Naval"},{"link_name":"Kristen Wiig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristen_Wiig"},{"link_name":"Jeff Daniels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeff_Daniels"},{"link_name":"Michael Peña","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Pe%C3%B1a"},{"link_name":"Major","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_(United_States)#Air_Force"},{"link_name":"Sean Bean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sean_Bean"},{"link_name":"Kate Mara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kate_Mara"},{"link_name":"Sebastian Stan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sebastian_Stan"},{"link_name":"Aksel Hennie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aksel_Hennie"},{"link_name":"Mackenzie Davis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mackenzie_Davis"},{"link_name":"Benedict Wong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benedict_Wong"},{"link_name":"Jet Propulsion Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_Propulsion_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"Donald Glover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Glover"},{"link_name":"Chen Shu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen_Shu_(actress)"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"China National Space Administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_National_Space_Administration"},{"link_name":"Eddy Ko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddy_Ko"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"Chiwetel Ejiofor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiwetel_Ejiofor"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McNaryDave-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MTV-7"},{"link_name":"Nick Mohammed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick_Mohammed"},{"link_name":"Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson_Space_Center"},{"link_name":"Tracy Caldwell Dyson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tracy_Caldwell_Dyson"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-haricharan-9"},{"link_name":"Andy Weir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andy_Weir"},{"link_name":"Hindu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu"},{"link_name":"Baptist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptist"},{"link_name":"whitewashing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racebending"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McNaryDave-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MTV-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MTV-7"},{"link_name":"Naomi Scott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naomi_Scott"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"Matt Damon and Jessica ChastainMatt Damon as Dr. Mark Watney, a botanist and mechanical engineer who is part of the Ares III team.\nJessica Chastain as Commander Melissa Lewis, USN Submarine Warfare officer, oceanographer, geologist and the Ares III mission commander.\nKristen Wiig as Annie Montrose, the director of media relations for NASA.\nJeff Daniels as Theodore \"Teddy\" Sanders, the Administrator of NASA.\nMichael Peña as Major Rick Martinez, USAF officer, engineer, pilot of the Ares III mission for MAV.\nSean Bean as Mitch Henderson, the Hermes flight director\nKate Mara as Beth Johanssen, the Ares III's system operator.\nSebastian Stan as Dr. Chris Beck, flight surgeon for the Ares III mission.\nAksel Hennie as Dr. Alex Vogel, a German national who is the navigator and chemist of Ares III.\nMackenzie Davis as Mindy Park, a satellite planner in Mission Control.\nBenedict Wong as Bruce Ng, director of Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL).\nDonald Glover as Rich Purnell, a JPL astrodynamicist.\nChen Shu as Zhu Tao (Chinese: 朱涛), deputy chief scientist at the China National Space Administration.\nEddy Ko as Guo Ming (Chinese: 郭明), chief scientist at the China National Space Administration.\nChiwetel Ejiofor as Vincent Kapoor, NASA's Director of Mars Missions.[6][7]\nNick Mohammed as Tim GrimesChastain prepared for her role by meeting with astronauts and scientists at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory and the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center. She was inspired by astronaut Tracy Caldwell Dyson, saying, \"She's very matter of fact, very straightforward. My character is dealing with the guilt of leaving a crew member behind, but she's still responsible for the lives of five other crew mates. I tried to play her as Tracy would have been in those moments.\"[8] Damon prepared for the role by a different method: \"For me, the rehearsal process was sitting with Ridley and going kind of line-by-line and moment-by-moment through the script and playing out a plan of attack for what we wanted each scene to accomplish.\"[9]The Media Action Network for Asian-Americans (MANAA) criticized the casting of white actor Mackenzie Davis as Mindy Park, whom it said author Andy Weir had described as Korean-American. The group also criticized the casting of Chiwetel Ejiofor as Vincent Kapoor, whom the organization said Weir described as an Asian Indian character. In the novel, the character's name was Venkat Kapoor, and he identifies religiously as a Hindu (a Baptist and a Hindu in the film). The group described these casting decisions as whitewashing, part of a broader phenomenon that deprives Asian actors of opportunities.[6] Weir said in October 2015 he perceived Mindy Park as Korean but said he did not explicitly write her as Korean. He also dismissed criticism of Ejiofor's casting, saying that Kapoor is \"an American. Americans come from lots of different sources. You can be Venkat Kapoor and black.\"[7] He said his novel intentionally avoided physical descriptions of his characters.[7]Naomi Scott was cast and filmed as Ryoko, a member of the JPL team. Her scenes were removed from the final cut.[10]","title":"Cast"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NASA_Journey_to_Mars_and_%E2%80%9CThe_Martian%E2%80%9D_(201508180030HQ).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Drew_Goddard,_%22The_Cabin_in_the_Woods%22_World_Premiere_(cropped).jpg"},{"link_name":"Ridley Scott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ridley_Scott"},{"link_name":"Drew Goddard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drew_Goddard"},{"link_name":"Ridley Scott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ridley_Scott"},{"link_name":"Simon Kinberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Kinberg"},{"link_name":"Michael Schaefer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Schaefer_(producer)"},{"link_name":"Mark Huffam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Huffam"},{"link_name":"Drew Goddard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drew_Goddard"},{"link_name":"Andy Weir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andy_Weir"},{"link_name":"Dariusz Wolski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dariusz_Wolski"},{"link_name":"Arthur Max","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Max"},{"link_name":"Janty Yates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janty_Yates"},{"link_name":"Pietro Scalia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pietro_Scalia"},{"link_name":"Harry Gregson-Williams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Gregson-Williams"}],"text":"Director Ridley Scott and screenwriter Drew GoddardRidley Scott – director, producer\nSimon Kinberg – producer\nMichael Schaefer – producer\nAditya Sood – producer\nMark Huffam – producer\nDrew Goddard – screenwriter, executive producer\nAndy Weir – author (source material)\nDariusz Wolski – cinematographer\nArthur Max – production designer\nJanty Yates – costume designer\nPietro Scalia – editor\nHarry Gregson-Williams – music composer","title":"Production"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Drew Goddard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drew_Goddard"},{"link_name":"novel of the same name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Martian_(Weir_novel)"},{"link_name":"20th Century Fox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/20th_Century_Fox"},{"link_name":"optioned","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Option_(filmmaking)"},{"link_name":"Simon Kinberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Kinberg"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Matt Damon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt_Damon"},{"link_name":"a team of supervillains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinister_Six"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"sub_title":"Development","text":"The Martian was directed by Scott and based on a screenplay by Drew Goddard that was adapted from Weir's 2011 novel of the same name. 20th Century Fox optioned the novel in March 2013, and producer Simon Kinberg was attached to develop the novel into a film.[11] The following May, Goddard entered negotiations with the studio to write and direct The Martian.[12] Goddard wrote a screenplay for the film[13] and Matt Damon expressed interest in starring under Goddard's direction. Goddard then pursued an opportunity to direct Sinister Six, a comic book film about a team of supervillains.[14] Kinberg then brought the book to Scott's attention.[15] In May 2014, Scott entered negotiations with the studio to direct the film with Damon cast as the film's stranded astronaut.[16] Scott said he was attracted by the emphasis on science and thought a balance could be struck between entertainment and learning. Damon said he was attracted by the novel, the screenplay, and the opportunity to work with Scott.[17] Following Scott's commitment, the project picked up the pace and was quickly approved.[18] Goddard has since expressed that he felt Scott made a much better film than he could have directed, telling Creative Screenwriting, \"When it's Scott, collaboration is easy because I just revere him. Every day I would just look around and think, 'Is that really Ridley Scott sitting there at the table? This is exciting!'\"[19]","title":"Production"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wadi_Rum_in_December.jpg"},{"link_name":"Wadi Rum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wadi_Rum"},{"link_name":"Jordan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan"},{"link_name":"Korda Studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korda_Studios"},{"link_name":"Budapest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budapest"},{"link_name":"Etyek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etyek"},{"link_name":"sound stages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_stage"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-weintraub-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-weintraub-21"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-klimek-23"},{"link_name":"Wadi Rum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wadi_Rum"},{"link_name":"UNESCO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO"},{"link_name":"Jordan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-weintraub-21"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Mission to Mars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mission_to_Mars"},{"link_name":"Red Planet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Planet_(film)"},{"link_name":"The Last Days on Mars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Last_Days_on_Mars"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-weintraub-21"},{"link_name":"Royal Automobile Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Automobile_Museum"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Todd McCarthy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Todd_McCarthy"},{"link_name":"The Hollywood Reporter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hollywood_Reporter"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Touching the Void","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touching_the_Void_(film)"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hutchinson-30"},{"link_name":"Robinson Crusoe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robinson_Crusoe"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-klimek-23"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Collider-33"}],"sub_title":"Filming","text":"Wadi Rum in Jordan was used for external scenes on Mars in filming The Martian.Korda Studios 26 kilometres (16 mi) west of Budapest, Hungary, in the wine-making village of Etyek, was chosen for filming interior scenes of The Martian. It had one of the largest sound stages in the world.[20][21] Filming began in Hungary on November 24, 2014.[22] Around 20 sets were constructed for the film, which was filmed with 3D cameras.[21] Actual potatoes were grown in a sound stage next to the one used for filming. They were planted at different times so that different stages of growth could be shown in film scenes.[23] A team of six people built 15 suits for the film. External scenes depicting Mars were filmed in Wadi Rum, a UNESCO world heritage site in Jordan, over eight days in March 2015.[21][24][25] Wadi Rum had been used as a location for other films set on Mars, including Mission to Mars (2000), Red Planet (2000) and The Last Days on Mars (2013).[26] All told, filming lasted about 70 days.[21]\nA special Mars rover model was built for the filming; the movie cast and team presented the rover model to Jordan in return for the hospitality they had received. The rover is now exhibited in Jordan's Royal Automobile Museum.[27][28]Weir avoided writing Watney as lonely and depressed in his novel. While Watney's humor is preserved in the film, Scott also depicted the character's isolation in the vast, dusty Martian landscape. Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter wrote: \"The scenes back on Earth provide a hectic, densely populated counterweight to the Martian aridity, which is magnificently represented by exteriors shot in the vicinity of Wadi Rum in Jordan.\"[29] Damon said he and Scott were inspired by the documentary film Touching the Void (2003), which featured trapped mountain climbers.[30] Scott also expected to film Watney as a Robinson Crusoe, a character in full isolation, but learned to film Watney differently since the character would be self-monitoring his behavior under the watch of various mission cameras.[23]According to Scott, the first cut of the movie was 2 hours and 45 minutes long.[31] An extended cut of the movie was released on home video.[32][33]","title":"Production"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NASA_Journey_to_Mars_and_%E2%80%9CThe_Martian%22_(201508180009HQ).jpg"},{"link_name":"Andrew J. Feustel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_J._Feustel"},{"link_name":"NASA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bradley-34"},{"link_name":"Mark Huffam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Huffam"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lidz-35"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bradley-34"},{"link_name":"James L. Green","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_L._Green"},{"link_name":"Dave Lavery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave_Lavery"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lidz-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-latimes-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wall-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nasa-38"},{"link_name":"Houston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston"},{"link_name":"Arthur Max","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Max"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-latimes-36"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nasa-38"},{"link_name":"Ars Technica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ars_Technica"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-The_Martian_brings_science,_largely_unchanged,_from_book_to_screen-39"},{"link_name":"Newsweek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newsweek"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lidz-35"},{"link_name":"Orion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orion_(spacecraft)"},{"link_name":"Exploration Flight Test 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploration_Flight_Test_1"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times"},{"link_name":"human mission to Mars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_mission_to_Mars"},{"link_name":"Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_Reconnaissance_Orbiter"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NASA-20150928-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT-20150928-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT-20151001-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dave-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NASA-20151008b-45"},{"link_name":"health hazards report","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effect_of_spaceflight_on_the_human_body"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AP-20151029-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NASA-20151029oig-47"},{"link_name":"real-world","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reality"},{"link_name":"human journey to Mars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_mission_to_Mars"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NASA-20151008-48"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CAP-20151028-49"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Video-20151028-50"},{"link_name":"Barack Obama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barack_Obama"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"}],"sub_title":"NASA involvement","text":"Damon while making hand prints in concrete at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. He is accompanied by Jim Erickson (left) and Andrew J. Feustel (right).When the novel was first published, NASA invited Weir to tour the Johnson Space Center and Jet Propulsion Laboratory. When Scott began preparing the film, Weir contacted NASA to collaborate on the film.[34] When Scott and producer Mark Huffam had their first production meeting, they called NASA and spoke with its film and television liaison Bert Ulrich.[35] NASA decided to help the filmmakers with depicting the science and technology in The Martian since it saw potential in promoting space exploration.[34]NASA staff members that joined the effort included James L. Green, director of the Planetary Science Division, and Dave Lavery, program executive for Solar System Exploration.[35] Scott conversed with Green twice before filming started. During one month, NASA answered hundreds of questions on radioisotope systems, the look of potential \"habs\"—the residences for future Mars astronauts—and more. The questions were answered by Green or passed on to the right expert, and then came back to Scott's team to make their way into the production.[36][37] The space agency also provided hundreds of real images of Mars and control centers, down to what the computer screens look like.[38] Green arranged an eight-hour tour of the Johnson Space Center in Houston for production designer Arthur Max, who met with specialists and took hundreds of photos.[36][38] The production designer created a futuristic, heavily modernized Mission Control as a studio set; Ars Technica described its depiction as \"the space agency that we all dream of\" and the opposite of the real Johnson Center's appearance as \"a run down college campus\".[39]Newsweek said NASA collaborated more with The Martian than most other space-themed films: \"Staff from many NASA departments consulted on the film, from script development through principal photography, and are now helping with marketing timed to the theatrical release.\"[35] As part of the collaboration, the production's NASA liaison included the front page of the script for the film in the payload of the spacecraft Orion during its Exploration Flight Test 1 on December 5, 2014.[40]The Los Angeles Times said NASA and the wider scientific community anticipated the film as a way to publicize a human mission to Mars. The New York Times reports that the film \"serves as a nice plug for NASA, which has returned the favor by pushing the movie on its website. (On Monday [September 28, 2015], scientists announced that signs of liquid water could be seen in photographs taken on Mars by a camera on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter,[41][42] timing that suggests NASA certainly has the whole cross-promotion thing down.)\"[43] Jim Erickson, NASA project manager, said the film would show moviegoers \"the risks and rewards\" of humans traveling to Mars.[44]In October 2015, NASA presented a new web tool to follow Watney's trek across Mars[45] and details of NASA's next steps, as well as a health hazards report[46][47] for a real-world human journey to Mars.[48][49][50]In 2016, then-U.S. President Barack Obama named The Martian as among the best science fiction films he had ever seen.[51]","title":"Production"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Harry Gregson-Williams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Gregson-Williams"},{"link_name":"score","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_score"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Heaven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Heaven_(film)"},{"link_name":"Prometheus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prometheus_(2012_film)"},{"link_name":"Exodus: Gods and Kings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exodus:_Gods_and_Kings"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-music-52"},{"link_name":"disco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disco"},{"link_name":"diegetic music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diegetic_music"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"Turn the Beat Around","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turn_the_Beat_Around"},{"link_name":"Vicki Sue Robinson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicki_Sue_Robinson"},{"link_name":"Hot Stuff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_Stuff_(Donna_Summer_song)"},{"link_name":"Donna Summer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donna_Summer"},{"link_name":"Rock the Boat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_the_Boat_(The_Hues_Corporation_song)"},{"link_name":"The Hues Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hues_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Don't Leave Me This Way","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%27t_Leave_Me_This_Way"},{"link_name":"Thelma Houston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thelma_Houston"},{"link_name":"Starman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starman_(song)"},{"link_name":"David Bowie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Bowie"},{"link_name":"Waterloo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterloo_(ABBA_song)"},{"link_name":"ABBA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABBA"},{"link_name":"Love Train","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love_Train"},{"link_name":"The O'Jays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_O%27Jays"},{"link_name":"I Will Survive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Will_Survive"},{"link_name":"Gloria Gaynor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gloria_Gaynor"},{"link_name":"closing credits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Closing_credits"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"}],"text":"Harry Gregson-Williams composed the score for The Martian. It is the fourth collaboration between Gregson-Williams and Scott. Gregson-Williams previously worked on music for Scott's films Kingdom of Heaven (2005), Prometheus (2012) and Exodus: Gods and Kings, composing the main film score for the first and last films, and doing additional music for the other two.[52]A running gag in the film is commander Melissa Lewis' love for 1970s songs (especially of the disco genre, which apparently Watney hates), the only music available to Watney on Mars which often appears as diegetic music. The soundtrack includes:[53]\"Turn the Beat Around\" by Vicki Sue Robinson\n\"Hot Stuff\" by Donna Summer\n\"Rock the Boat\" by The Hues Corporation\n\"Don't Leave Me This Way\" by Thelma Houston\n\"Starman\" by David Bowie\n\"Waterloo\" by ABBA\n\"Love Train\" by The O'Jays\n\"I Will Survive\" by Gloria Gaynor (closing credits)The exit music, which includes \"Don't Leave Me This Way\" and \"I Will Survive,\" is a commentary on Watney's situation on Mars.[54]","title":"Music"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"20th Century Fox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/20th_Century_Fox"},{"link_name":"viral marketing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_marketing"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lesnick-55"},{"link_name":"Michael J. 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Massimino shared an in-universe video diary depicting Damon's character and the other crew members.[56][57] Ars Technica compared the video diary to similar viral videos marketed for Scott's 2012 film Prometheus in having a similar \"style of slickly produced fictional promotional material\". The studio then released an official trailer on June 8.[58] Forbes said, \"20th Century Fox has cut together a pretty perfect trailer in that it absolutely makes the sale. It establishes the stakes, offers a sympathetic lead character, shows off an all-star cast, tosses out a potential catchphrase, and ends on a grimly humorous tagline.\"[59] In response to the trailer, Jimmy Kimmel, host of the late-night talk show Jimmy Kimmel Live!, released a spoof trailer, The Mastronaut: Emission to Mars, that edited the original to parody the film.[60]At the start of August, Fox released another video, depicting interviews with each of the main crew members.[61] Mid-month, the studio released another film trailer, and NASA hosted a \"Martian Day\" at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory to both promote The Martian and highlight the space program's ongoing efforts to carry out a human mission to Mars.[37] At the end of August, Fox released another video, presenting it as a special episode of the TV series StarTalk in which astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson discusses the hazards of traveling to Mars.[62] In September, Scott's RSA Films released a teaser for The Martian that depicted Damon wearing Under Armour sports clothing and being active in his off-world tasks.[63] The teaser originated from a collaboration between RSA Films and the marketing shop 3AM (under theatrical advertising agency Wild Card), initiated in 2014, to produce advertising content for The Martian. RSA contacted the advertising agency Droga5, under whom Under Armour is a client.[64] Droga5 ultimately collaborated with WME and 3AM to produce the teaser.[63]Forbes's Peter Himler said American astronauts had traditionally been used by public relations to promote commercial products, starting with the drink Tang. Himler said it \"came as no surprise\" that NASA astronauts in the International Space Station were reported by The Guardian and CBS News as having read Weir's novel and hoping to see the film on board the ISS.[65] NASA participated in the marketing of the film despite its lack of involvement with previous films. Though it turned down a request for Interstellar to be screened on the ISS,[38] The Martian was screened on board[66] 402 km (250 miles) above the Earth's surface on September 19, 2015, and also at the Johnson Space Center in Houston, and at the Kennedy Space Center at Cape Canaveral on October 1, 2015.[38]In November 2015, 20th Century Fox announced The Martian VR Experience, a \"virtual reality adventure\" where viewers play as Mark Watney and reenact scenes from the film.[67] The project was executive produced by Scott alongside Joel Newton and directed by Robert Stromberg. It was released for HTC Vive and PlayStation VR on November 15, 2016, and is also available for the Oculus Rift and Samsung Gear VR.[68] The project won 2 major awards; a Silver Lion at the Cannes Film Festival and an AICP Award.","title":"Marketing"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%27The_Martian%27_World_Premiere_(NHQ201509110004).jpg"},{"link_name":"2015 Toronto International Film Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_Toronto_International_Film_Festival"},{"link_name":"2015 Toronto International Film Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_Toronto_International_Film_Festival"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TIFF-69"},{"link_name":"New York Film Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Film_Festival"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"Fantastic Fest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantastic_Fest"},{"link_name":"Austin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austin,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"Dolby Vision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolby_Laboratories"},{"link_name":"Dolby Cinema","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolby_Cinema"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"}],"text":"Matt Damon and his wife Luciana Bozán Barroso at the 2015 Toronto International Film FestivalThe Martian premiered at the 2015 Toronto International Film Festival on September 11, 2015.[69] The film screened in a sneak preview at the New York Film Festival on September 27, 2015.[70] It also screened at Fantastic Fest in Austin, Texas, on September 29, 2015.[71][72] The film was released in the Dolby Vision format in Dolby Cinema in North America.[73]","title":"Release"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"BoxOffice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BoxOffice_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"Gravity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_(2013_film)"},{"link_name":"Interstellar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstellar_(film)"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-track1-75"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-track1-75"},{"link_name":"Robert Zemeckis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Zemeckis"},{"link_name":"The Walk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Walk_(2015_film)"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-track1-75"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-track3-76"},{"link_name":"water on Mars' planetary surface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_on_Mars"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NASA-20150928-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT-20150928-42"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-track2-77"},{"link_name":"Fandango","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fandango_(ticket_service)"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-track2-77"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"}],"sub_title":"Box office forecast","text":"Two months before The Martian's release, BoxOffice forecast that the film would gross $46 million on its opening weekend in the United States and ultimately $172 million in its theatrical run. The magazine said positive factors for its performance included the continued sales of Weir's novel, Scott's success with past science fiction films, and the positive reception of prior space-based films Gravity (2013) and Interstellar (2014). The magazine said negative factors included Damon not being a consistent draw at the box office, Gravity and Interstellar setting high expectations, and Scott's \"stumble\" with his previous film Exodus: Gods and Kings (2014).[74] A week before the film's release, pre-release trackings in North America (United States and Canada) showed that the film was on pace to earn between $40–50 million at its opening weekend from 3,826 theaters.[75]In comparison to other contemporary space films, Gravity, facing far less competition, opened to a better-than-expected $55.8 million in 2013. In November 2014, Interstellar debuted to $47.5 million.[75] Unlike Gravity and Interstellar, which had the benefit of IMAX locations, boosting profits, The Martian was not initially playing in IMAX, since IMAX was committed to an exclusive run of Robert Zemeckis' The Walk. The Martian played in more than 350 premium large-format theaters including 2,550 3D locations.[75][76] Also, the film was released several days after the announcement of NASA's discovery of water on Mars' planetary surface,[41][42] which might have aided in boosting its opening.[77] Ticket selling website Fandango reported that the film was outselling Gravity.[77] Unlike Gravity, The Martian did not contain abundant 3D spectacle (even though it was filmed in 3D), and was longer than Gravity.[78]","title":"Release"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BOM-4"},{"link_name":"tenth-highest-grossing film of 2015","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_in_film#Highest-grossing_films"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"Deadline 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release","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_weekend_in_box_office_performance"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"},{"link_name":"Goosebumps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goosebumps_(film)"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GB-94"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"},{"link_name":"Spectre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectre_(2015_film)"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-98"},{"link_name":"Gladiator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gladiator_(2000_film)"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-99"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Overseas11thOpening-100"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Overseas10thOpening-86"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Overseas11thOpening-100"},{"link_name":"[nb 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-102"},{"link_name":"Inside Out","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inside_Out_(2015_film)"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Overseas10thOpening-86"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Overseas11thOpening-100"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Overseas13thOpening-103"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Overseas14thOpening-104"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Overseas15thOpening-105"},{"link_name":"Avatar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avatar_(2009_film)"},{"link_name":"Kingsman: The Secret Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingsman:_The_Secret_Service"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Overseas14thOpening-104"},{"link_name":"Ant-Man","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ant-Man_(film)"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Overseas12thOpening-106"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Overseas13thOpening-103"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Overseas14thOpening-104"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Overseas17thOpening-107"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-108"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-109"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Overseas11thOpening-100"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Japan-110"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Japan-110"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Overseas6thOpening-111"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Overseas7thOpening-112"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Overseas9thOpening-113"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-114"},{"link_name":"Victor Frankenstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Frankenstein_(film)"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mcclintock-115"},{"link_name":"blockbuster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blockbuster_(entertainment)"},{"link_name":"The Walk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Walk_(2015_film)"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lang-83"}],"sub_title":"Theatrical run","text":"The Martian was a financial success.[79] It grossed $228.4 million in the United States & Canada and $402.2 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of $630.6 million against a budget of $108 million.[4] Worldwide, it was the tenth-highest-grossing film of 2015.[80] Deadline Hollywood calculated the net profit of the film to be $150.32 million, accounting for production budgets, P&A, talent participations, and other costs, with box office grosses, and ancillary revenues from home media, placing it tenth on their list of 2015's \"Most Valuable Blockbusters\";[81] and The Hollywood Reporter reported around $80–100 million profits for the film.[82]The film was released in theaters in 2D and 3D.[83] In the United Kingdom, it was released on September 30, 2015, a Wednesday,[84] and in the United States on the following Friday, October 2, 2015.[85] It was also released in 49 markets including Mexico, Hong Kong, India and Taiwan from the weekend October 2–4, 2015 and expanded to Germany, Russia, and South Korea the following weekend. It opened in Spain on October 16, then France on October 21. China opened on November 25 and Japan bowed in the first quarter of 2016 on February 5.[86][87] Various sites estimated the film to gross between $45 and $50 million over its opening weekend in the United States.[88]In North America, it opened on Friday, October 2, 2015, and earned $18.06 million on its opening day of which $2 million came from premium large formats from 3,831 theaters.[89][90] The film's Friday gross included $2.5 million from late-night Thursday screenings that took place in 2,800 theaters.[91] During its opening weekend, it earned $54.3 million from 3,831 theaters ranking first at the box office which is the second biggest October opening, behind Gravity ($55.7 million) and the second biggest for Scott, behind Hannibal ($58 million) and Damon, behind The Bourne Ultimatum ($69.2 million).[4] The film made $6 million at 375 premium large format screens.[92] 3D accounted for 45% of the ticket sales while RealD 3D accounted for 42% or $23 million of that sales which is one of highest for the 3D company in 2015.[92] The film fell short of breaking Gravity's record which might have been hurt by Hurricane Joaquin, the NFL season and the last day of the Major League Baseball regular season.[92] In its second weekend of release, it dropped gradually by 31.9% and earned $37 million from 3,854 theaters (+23 theaters) maintaining the top position. The Martian's demographics in its sophomore weekend remained in sync with its opening frame drawing 52% males and 72% over 25.[93] It topped the box office for two consecutive weekends before being dethroned by Goosebumps in its third weekend after a close race between the two ($23.6 million for Goosebumps and $21.3 million for The Martian).[94][95] It returned to the top of the box office for the third time in its fourth weekend,[96] and went on the top the box office for four non-consecutive weekends[97] before being overtaken by Spectre in its fifth weekend.[98] On November 5, the film surpassed Gladiator ($187.7 million) to become Scott's highest-grossing film at the domestic box office.[99]Internationally, The Martian was released in a total of 81 countries.[100] Outside North America, it opened on the same weekend in 54 markets and grossed $44.6 million from 9,299 screens topping the international box office as well as opening at No. 1 in over 15 markets.[86] The following weekend, it added 23 more markets and grossed an estimated $57.5 million from 77 markets from 12,859 screens.[100] Its opening weekends in South Korea ($12.5 million)[nb 1], the United Kingdom, Ireland and Malta ($10.2 million), Russia and the CIS ($7.4 million), France ($6.9 million), Australia ($4.5 million) and Germany ($4.3 million; behind Inside Out) represented its largest takings.[86][100][102] In terms of total earnings, the United Kingdom ($35.3 million), South Korea ($33.6 million), Australia ($16.57 million) and Germany ($16 million) are the top markets.[103][104] In South Korea, it became Fox's third-highest-grossing film ever behind Avatar (2009) and Kingsman: The Secret Service (2015).[103] It topped the box office outside of North America for two consecutive weekends before being overtaken by Ant-Man in its third weekend[105] but returned to the top in its fourth weekend.[102] In its fifth weekend, it was surpassed by Spectre thereby topping the international box office for three weekends in total.[103] The Martian opened in China on Wednesday, November 25 and earned $50 million in its five-day opening weekend from 4,848 screens of which $6.6 million came from 249 IMAX theaters.[106] In its second weekend, it fell by 60% to $13.7 million,[107] while in total, it grossed $95 million there.[108] It opened in Japan on February 5, 2016 under the name Odyssey,[100][109] where it earned $5.2 million from 8,333 screens in its three-day opening weekend, debuting at No. 1 at the box office and helped the film push past the $600 million mark. Its Saturday and Sunday take was $4.25 million.[109][110] It dropped just 19% in its second after adding $3.4 million.[111] It has topped the box office there for four consecutive weekends and as of February 28 has grossed a total of $23.2 million.[112][113]For its United States release, the film was originally scheduled to be released on November 25, 2015, but 20th Century Fox switched The Martian with Victor Frankenstein so that the former would be its first film for all audiences in the country's fall season (September–November).[114] On the film's 3D screenings, RealD's chief Anthony Marcoly said 3D technology was proliferating from action-packed blockbuster films commonly released in the United States' summer season. Marcoly said the technology was being used in more immersive storytelling, citing The Martian and The Walk (released the same year) as two examples.[83]","title":"Release"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Blu-ray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blu-ray"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Collider-33"}],"sub_title":"Home media","text":"The Martian was released on Digital on December 22, 2015 [citation needed] and on Blu-ray and DVD on January 12, 2016. It was released on 4K Ultra HD Blu-ray on February 14, 2016. An extended cut of the film adding an additional ten minutes was released on June 7, 2016.[33]","title":"Release"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"review aggregator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Review_aggregator"},{"link_name":"Rotten Tomatoes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotten_Tomatoes"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-116"},{"link_name":"Metacritic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metacritic"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-117"},{"link_name":"CinemaScore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CinemaScore"},{"link_name":"PostTrak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostTrak"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-118"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-119"},{"link_name":"Variety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variety_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"The Counselor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Counselor"},{"link_name":"Exodus: Gods and Kings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exodus:_Gods_and_Kings"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-120"},{"link_name":"The Guardian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian"},{"link_name":"Robert Zubrin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Zubrin"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TG-20151006-rz-121"},{"link_name":"Manohla Dargis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manohla_Dargis"},{"link_name":"The New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT-20151001-43"},{"link_name":"Slant Magazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slant_Magazine"},{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-122"},{"link_name":"The Village Voice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Village_Voice"},{"link_name":"Stephanie Zacharek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephanie_Zacharek"},{"link_name":"[122]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-123"},{"link_name":"Alien","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alien_(film)"},{"link_name":"Blade Runner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blade_Runner"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-124"}],"sub_title":"Critical response","text":"On the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 91%, with an average rating of 7.9/10, based on 383 reviews. The website's critics consensus read, \"Smart, thrilling, and surprisingly funny, The Martian offers a faithful adaptation of the bestselling book that brings out the best in leading man Matt Damon and director Ridley Scott.\"[115] Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the film a score of 80 out of 100 based on 46 critics.[116] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of \"A\" on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported filmgoers gave it an average 4.5 out of 5 and a 66% \"definite recommend\". Audience demographics were 54% men and a total of 59% over 35.[117]The Martian received praise for its direction, visual effects, musical score, screenplay, scientific accuracy, and likability, largely due to Damon's performance.[118] Variety reported, \"Critics are calling the film a funny, thrilling ride, and a return to form for [Ridley] Scott after The Counselor and Exodus: Gods and Kings fell flat.\"[119] In The Guardian, aerospace engineer Dr Robert Zubrin commented:[The film] is the first genuine Mars movie. It is the first movie that attempts to be realistic and that is actually about human beings grappling with the problems of exploring Mars, as opposed to various movies set on Mars that are essentially either shoot'em ups or horror films. It does not engage in fantasy: no monsters, no magic, no Nazis. However, there are a number of technical mistakes.[120]Manohla Dargis, of The New York Times, stated that the film \"involves a dual journey into outer and inner space, a trip that takes you into that immensity called the universe and deep into the equally vast landscape of a single consciousness. For this accidental castaway, space is the place where he's physically marooned, but also where his mind is set free\", from a film director, whose \"great, persistent theme is what it means to be human\".[43]Negative reviews focused on the lack of character depth or atmosphere. Jaime N. Christley, writing in Slant Magazine, commented, \"It goes in for the idea of texture, tics, and human behavior, but there's no conviction, and no real push for eccentricity. ... It hardly seems interested in its characters or in any depiction of their work, settling instead for types of characters and kinds of scenes, correctly placed among the pendulum swings of Watney's dramatic journey.\"[121] In The Village Voice, Stephanie Zacharek stated that the actors \"are treated as accessories\", and that the director is \"workmanlike in his approach to science, which always trumps magic in The Martian—that's the point. But if we can't feel a sense of wonder at the magnitude and mystery of space, why even bother?\"[122] In Cinemixtape, J. Olson commented: \"Ridley Scott and company have concocted the most colossally mediocre sci-fi movie of the decade, all in pursuit of empty backslapping and a grade school level celebration of science. Not only is The Martian not in the same class as Scott's two masterpieces – Alien and Blade Runner – it's not even on the same continent.\"[123]","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"88th Academy Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/88th_Academy_Awards"},{"link_name":"Best Picture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Picture"},{"link_name":"Best Actor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Actor"},{"link_name":"Best Adapted Screenplay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Adapted_Screenplay"},{"link_name":"Best Production Design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Production_Design"},{"link_name":"Best Sound Editing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Sound_Editing"},{"link_name":"Best Sound Mixing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Sound_Mixing"},{"link_name":"Best Visual Effects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Visual_Effects"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-125"},{"link_name":"British Academy Film Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Academy_Film_Awards"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-126"},{"link_name":"Critics' Choice Movie Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critics%27_Choice_Movie_Awards"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-127"},{"link_name":"Golden Globe Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Globe_Awards"},{"link_name":"[127]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-128"},{"link_name":"National Board of Review Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Board_of_Review_Awards"},{"link_name":"American Film Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Film_Institute"},{"link_name":"[128]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-129"},{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-130"},{"link_name":"bush tomato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bush_tomato"},{"link_name":"Solanum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solanum"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-131"},{"link_name":"[131]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Time-2016-02-25-132"},{"link_name":"[132]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HuffPost-2015-09-28-133"}],"sub_title":"Accolades","text":"At the 88th Academy Awards, The Martian received nominations for Best Picture, Best Actor, Best Adapted Screenplay, Best Production Design, Best Sound Editing, Best Sound Mixing, and Best Visual Effects.[124] The film's other nominations include six British Academy Film Awards,[125] nine Critics' Choice Movie Awards,[126] and three Golden Globe Awards (winning two).[127] It received four National Board of Review Awards and was named one of the top-ten films of 2015 by the American Film Institute.[128][129] Solanum watneyi, a species of bush tomato from Australia, has been named after the character of Mark Watney, to honor the fictional heroic botanist portrayal. It is a member of the same genus as the potato, Solanum.[130][131][132]","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Effect of spaceflight on the human body","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effect_of_spaceflight_on_the_human_body"},{"link_name":"Human mission to Mars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_mission_to_Mars"},{"link_name":"Plants in space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plants_in_space"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:James_L_Green.jpg"},{"link_name":"James L. Green","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_L._Green"},{"link_name":"Science Mission Directorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Mission_Directorate"},{"link_name":"[133]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ordona-134"},{"link_name":"[134]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cohn-135"},{"link_name":"James L. Green","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_L._Green"},{"link_name":"Science Mission Directorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Mission_Directorate"},{"link_name":"[135]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-french-136"},{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-137"},{"link_name":"functional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functionalism_(architecture)"},{"link_name":"[137]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-138"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-139"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-140"},{"link_name":"[140]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-141"},{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-142"},{"link_name":"[142]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-143"},{"link_name":"radioisotope thermoelectric generator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator"},{"link_name":"[134]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cohn-135"},{"link_name":"garden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plants_in_space"},{"link_name":"Martian soil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martian_soil"},{"link_name":"feces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_feces"},{"link_name":"Martian soil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martian_soil"},{"link_name":"toxic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martian_soil#Toxicity"},{"link_name":"microbial organisms have the potential to live on Mars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_on_Mars"},{"link_name":"[143]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-toxicsoil1-144"},{"link_name":"[144]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-toxicmars-145"},{"link_name":"[145]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-146"},{"link_name":"duct tape","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duct_tape"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[146]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-time-off-147"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bradley-34"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dave-44"},{"link_name":"climate of Mars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_of_Mars"},{"link_name":"carbon dioxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"gravity assist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_assist"},{"link_name":"[146]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-time-off-147"},{"link_name":"Arizona State University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arizona_State_University"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dave-44"},{"link_name":"physicist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicist"},{"link_name":"Brian Cox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Cox_(physicist)"},{"link_name":"[147]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-148"}],"text":"See also: Effect of spaceflight on the human body, Human mission to Mars, and Plants in spaceJames L. Green, the Director of the Planetary Science Division at NASA's Science Mission Directorate, worked as an adviser for the film.[133]When Weir wrote the novel The Martian, he strove to present the science correctly and used reader feedback to get it right.[134] When Scott began directing the film, he also sought to make it realistic and received help from James L. Green, the Director of the Planetary Science Division at NASA's Science Mission Directorate. Green put together teams to answer scientific questions that Scott asked.[135] Green said, \"The Martian is reasonably realistic\", though he said the film's hazardous dust storm, despite reaching speeds of 120 miles per hour (190 km/h), would in reality have weak force.[136] Green also found the NASA buildings in the film to be more stylish than the functional ones NASA actually uses.[137] Film critics picked up the point that the Martian winds could amount to \"barely a light breeze\" in their reviews,[138][139] and screenwriter Goddard agreed the winds had to be considerably exaggerated in order to set up the situation that sets the story in motion.[140][141][142]The process used by the character Watney to produce water was accurate and is being used by NASA for a planned Martian rover. The radioisotope thermoelectric generator was also appropriately used for heat.[134] When his rations begin to run low, Watney builds an improvised garden using Martian soil and the crew's feces as a fertilizer. However Martian soil has since been found to be toxic to both plant and animal life, although it is believed that microbial organisms have the potential to live on Mars.[143][144][145] In one scene, the glass face shield on Watney's helmet cracks; as oxygen momentarily drops below the critical level, he quickly patches the helmet with duct tape and avoids suffocation.[citation needed]Time magazine criticized another duct tape based repair: \"When a pressure leak causes an entire pod on Watney’s habitat to blow up, he patches a yawning opening in what's left of the dwelling with plastic tarp and PSA duct tape.\" Such a repair would not work in an average Martian temperature of −60 °C (−76 °F).[146]While Martian gravity is less than 40% of Earth's, director Scott chose not to depict the gravitational difference, finding the effort less worthwhile to put on screen than zero gravity.[34] Scott said the heavy spacesuits would weigh the main character enough to make up for not showing the partial gravity.[44] The climate of Mars is also cold enough that it would make Watney's initial plan to disable the rover's heater immediately impractical, since the average temperature is −80 °F (−62 °C); it is cold enough on Mars for carbon dioxide snow to fall at the poles in winter.[citation needed] However, this issue is almost immediately brought up, and is the reason for the plan failing.The plot key to the eventual rescue plan is gravity assist, a well-known practice that has been used on a number of robotic planetary exploration missions and served as a backup strategy on manned Apollo missions. It would have been one of the first approaches that everyone within NASA would have considered,[146] but in the film, only one JPL astrodynamicist argues for sending the Ares mission back to Mars using gravity assist rather than having a separate mission to rescue Watney.Ed Finn, director of the Center for Science and the Imagination at Arizona State University, said, \"What this story does really well is imagine a near-future scenario that doesn't push too far off where we are today technically.\"[44] British physicist Brian Cox said, \"The Martian is the best advert for a career in engineering I've ever seen.\"[147]","title":"Scientific accuracy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-102"},{"link_name":"Hangul Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hangul_Day"},{"link_name":"Robin Hood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robin_Hood_(2010_film)"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Overseas11thOpening-100"}],"text":"^ The film opened in Korea during the three-day Hangul Day Holiday and earned almost $12.5 million from 1.81 million admissions over four days. It is Ridley Scott's highest-opening film in Korea, surpassing Robin Hood which grossed $10.2 million from 1.6 million admissions in 2010[101] and Fox's biggest opening weekend of all time in the market and the biggest ever October opening.[100]","title":"Notes"}]
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[{"image_text":"Ares III mission landing site (Acidalia Planitia region)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/PIA19913-MarsLandingSite-Ares3Mission-TheMartian-2015Film-20150517.jpg/220px-PIA19913-MarsLandingSite-Ares3Mission-TheMartian-2015Film-20150517.jpg"},{"image_text":"Mark Watney's route on Mars","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/The_route_of_%27The_Martian%27_-_from_Chryse_Planitia_over_Arabia_Terra_in_the_Martian_highlands_to_Ares_4.jpg/550px-The_route_of_%27The_Martian%27_-_from_Chryse_Planitia_over_Arabia_Terra_in_the_Martian_highlands_to_Ares_4.jpg"},{"image_text":"Wadi Rum in Jordan was used for external scenes on Mars in filming The Martian.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Wadi_Rum_in_December.jpg/220px-Wadi_Rum_in_December.jpg"},{"image_text":"Damon while making hand prints in concrete at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. He is accompanied by Jim Erickson (left) and Andrew J. Feustel (right).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/NASA_Journey_to_Mars_and_%E2%80%9CThe_Martian%22_%28201508180009HQ%29.jpg/220px-NASA_Journey_to_Mars_and_%E2%80%9CThe_Martian%22_%28201508180009HQ%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Matt Damon and his wife Luciana Bozán Barroso at the 2015 Toronto International Film Festival","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/%27The_Martian%27_World_Premiere_%28NHQ201509110004%29.jpg/220px-%27The_Martian%27_World_Premiere_%28NHQ201509110004%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"James L. Green, the Director of the Planetary Science Division at NASA's Science Mission Directorate, worked as an adviser for the film.[133]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/James_L_Green.jpg/170px-James_L_Green.jpg"}]
|
[{"title":"Astrobotany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrobotany"},{"title":"Project Hail Mary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Hail_Mary"},{"title":"List of films set on Mars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_films_set_on_Mars"},{"title":"Robinson Crusoe on Mars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robinson_Crusoe_on_Mars"},{"title":"Stranded","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stranded_(2001_film)"},{"title":"Martian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martian"},{"title":"Oxia Palus quadrangle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxia_Palus_quadrangle"},{"title":"Robinsonade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robinsonade"},{"title":"Survival film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Survival_film"}]
|
[{"reference":"\"The Martian (12A)\". British Board of Film Classification. September 16, 2015. Archived from the original on September 30, 2020. Retrieved September 16, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbfc.co.uk/releases/martian-film","url_text":"\"The Martian (12A)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Board_of_Film_Classification","url_text":"British Board of Film Classification"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200930200451/https://www.bbfc.co.uk/releases/martian-film","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"The Martian (EN)\". Lumiere. Archived from the original on October 23, 2020. 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Hollywood's 'The Martian' and Palestine's 'Arab Idol' finish scenes in Jordan\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Jordan_Times","url_text":"The Jordan Times"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201027043549/https://www.albawaba.com/entertainment/that%27s-a-wrap%21-hollywood%27s-%22the-martian%22-and-palestine%27s-%22arab-idol%22-in-jordan-670308","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"The Royal Automobile Museum patrons the premiere of 'The Martian' film\". ameinfo. Mediaquest Corp. October 22, 2015. Archived from the original on September 24, 2020. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physical_science
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Outline of physical science
|
["1 Definition","2 Branches of physical science","3 History of physical science","4 General principles of the physical sciences","4.1 Basic principles of physics","4.2 Basic principles of astronomy","4.3 Basic principles of chemistry","4.4 Basic principles of Earth science","5 Notable physical scientists","5.1 Earth scientists","6 See also","7 Notes","8 References","8.1 Works cited","9 External links"]
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Hierarchical outline list of articles related to the physical sciences
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Physical science is a branch of natural science that studies non-living systems, in contrast to life science. It in turn has many branches, each referred to as a "physical science", together is called the "physical sciences".
Definition
Physical science can be described as all of the following:
A branch of science (a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe).
A branch of natural science – natural science is a major branch of science that tries to explain and predict nature's phenomena, based on empirical evidence. In natural science, hypotheses must be verified scientifically to be regarded as scientific theory. Validity, accuracy, and social mechanisms ensuring quality control, such as peer review and repeatability of findings, are amongst the criteria and methods used for this purpose. Natural science can be broken into two main branches: life science (for example biology) and physical science. Each of these branches, and all of their sub-branches, are referred to as natural sciences.
Branches of physical science
Physics – natural and physical science could involve the study of matter and its motion through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves.
Branches of physics
Astronomy – study of celestial objects (such as stars, galaxies, planets, moons, asteroids, comets and nebulae), the physics, chemistry, and evolution of such objects, and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth, including supernovae explosions, gamma-ray bursts, and cosmic microwave background radiation.
Branches of astronomy
Chemistry – studies the composition, structure, properties and change of matter. In this realm, chemistry deals with such topics as the properties of individual atoms, the manner in which atoms form chemical bonds in the formation of compounds, the interactions of substances through intermolecular forces to give matter its general properties, and the interactions between substances through chemical reactions to form different substances.
Branches of chemistry
Earth science – all-embracing term referring to the fields of science dealing with planet Earth. Earth science is the study of how the natural environment (ecosphere or Earth system) works and how it evolved to its current state. It includes the study of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere.
History of physical science
History of physical science – history of the branch of natural science that studies non-living systems, in contrast to the life sciences. It in turn has many branches, each referred to as a "physical science", together called the "physical sciences". However, the term "physical" creates an unintended, somewhat arbitrary distinction, since many branches of physical science also study biological phenomena (organic chemistry, for example). The four main branches of physical science are astronomy, physics, chemistry, and the Earth sciences, which include meteorology and geology.
History of physics – history of the physical science that studies matter and its motion through space-time, and related concepts such as energy and force
History of acoustics – history of the study of mechanical waves in solids, liquids, and gases (such as vibration and sound)
History of agrophysics – history of the study of physics applied to agroecosystems
History of soil physics – history of the study of soil physical properties and processes.
History of astrophysics – history of the study of the physical aspects of celestial objects
History of astronomy – history of the study of the universe beyond Earth, including its formation and development, and the evolution, physics, chemistry, meteorology, and motion of celestial objects (such as galaxies, planets, etc.) and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth (such as the cosmic background radiation).
History of astrodynamics – history of the application of ballistics and celestial mechanics to the practical problems concerning the motion of rockets and other spacecraft.
History of astrometry – history of the branch of astronomy that involves precise measurements of the positions and movements of stars and other celestial bodies.
History of cosmology – history of the discipline that deals with the nature of the Universe as a whole.
History of extragalactic astronomy – history of the branch of astronomy concerned with objects outside our own Milky Way Galaxy
History of galactic astronomy – history of the study of our own Milky Way galaxy and all its contents.
History of physical cosmology – history of the study of the largest-scale structures and dynamics of the universe and is concerned with fundamental questions about its formation and evolution.
History of planetary science – history of the scientific study of planets (including Earth), moons, and planetary systems, in particular those of the Solar System and the processes that form them.
History of stellar astronomy – history of the natural science that deals with the study of celestial objects (such as stars, planets, comets, nebulae, star clusters, and galaxies) and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth (such as cosmic background radiation)
History of atmospheric physics – history of the study of the application of physics to the atmosphere
History of atomic, molecular, and optical physics – history of the study of how matter and light interact
History of biophysics – history of the study of physical processes relating to biology
History of medical physics – history of the application of physics concepts, theories and methods to medicine.
History of neurophysics – history of the branch of biophysics dealing with the nervous system.
History of chemical physics – history of the branch of physics that studies chemical processes from the point of view of physics.
History of computational physics – history of the study and implementation of numerical algorithms to solve problems in physics for which a quantitative theory already exists.
History of condensed matter physics – history of the study of the physical properties of condensed phases of matter.
History of cryogenics – history of cryogenics is the study of the production of very low temperature (below −150 °C, −238 °F or 123K) and the behavior of materials at those temperatures.
History of Dynamics – history of the study of the causes of motion and changes in motion
History of econophysics – history of the interdisciplinary research field, applying theories and methods originally developed by physicists in order to solve problems in economics
History of electromagnetism – history of the branch of science concerned with the forces that occur between electrically charged particles.
History of geophysics – history of the physics of the Earth and its environment in space; also the study of the Earth using quantitative physical methods
History of materials physics – history of the use of physics to describe materials in many different ways such as force, heat, light and mechanics.
History of mathematical physics – history of the application of mathematics to problems in physics and the development of mathematical methods for such applications and for the formulation of physical theories.
History of mechanics – history of the branch of physics concerned with the behavior of physical bodies when subjected to forces or displacements, and the subsequent effects of the bodies on their environment.
History of biomechanics – history of the study of the structure and function of biological systems such as humans, animals, plants, organs, and cells by means of the methods of mechanics.
History of classical mechanics – history of one of the two major sub-fields of mechanics, which is concerned with the set of physical laws describing the motion of bodies under the action of a system of forces.
History of continuum mechanics – history of the branch of mechanics that deals with the analysis of the kinematics and the mechanical behavior of materials modeled as a continuous mass rather than as discrete particles.
History of fluid mechanics – history of the study of fluids and the forces on them.
History of quantum mechanics – history of the branch of physics dealing with physical phenomena where the action is on the order of the Planck constant.
History of thermodynamics – history of the branch of physical science concerned with heat and its relation to other forms of energy and work.
History of nuclear physics – history of the field of physics that studies the building blocks and interactions of atomic nuclei.
History of optics – history of the branch of physics which involves the behavior and properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the construction of instruments that use or detect it.
History of particle physics – history of the branch of physics that studies the existence and interactions of particles that are the constituents of what is usually referred to as matter or radiation.
History of psychophysics – history of the quantitatively investigates the relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they affect.
History of plasma physics – history of the state of matter similar to gas in which a certain portion of the particles are ionized.
History of polymer physics – history of the field of physics that studies polymers, their fluctuations, mechanical properties, as well as the kinetics of reactions involving degradation and polymerization of polymers and monomers respectively.
History of quantum physics – history of the branch of physics dealing with physical phenomena where the action is on the order of the Planck constant.
History of theory of relativity –
History of statics – history of the branch of mechanics concerned with the analysis of loads (force, torque/moment) on physical systems in static equilibrium, that is, in a state where the relative positions of subsystems do not vary over time, or where components and structures are at a constant velocity.
History of solid state physics – history of the study of rigid matter, or solids, through methods such as quantum mechanics, crystallography, electromagnetism, and metallurgy.
History of vehicle dynamics – history of the dynamics of vehicles, here assumed to be ground vehicles.
History of chemistry – history of the physical science of atomic matter (matter that is composed of chemical elements), especially its chemical reactions, but also including its properties, structure, composition, behavior, and changes as they relate the chemical reactions
History of analytical chemistry – history of the study of the separation, identification, and quantification of the chemical components of natural and artificial materials.
History of astrochemistry – history of the study of the abundance and reactions of chemical elements and molecules in the universe, and their interaction with radiation.
History of cosmochemistry – history of the study of the chemical composition of matter in the universe and the processes that led to those compositions
History of atmospheric chemistry – history of the branch of atmospheric science in which the chemistry of the Earth's atmosphere and that of other planets is studied. It is a multidisciplinary field of research and draws on environmental chemistry, physics, meteorology, computer modeling, oceanography, geology and volcanology, and other disciplines
History of biochemistry – history of the study of chemical processes in living organisms, including, but not limited to, living matter. Biochemistry governs all living organisms and living processes.
History of agrochemistry – history of the study of both chemistry and biochemistry which are important in agricultural production, the processing of raw products into foods and beverages, and in environmental monitoring and remediation.
History of bioinorganic chemistry – history of the examines the role of metals in biology.
History of bioorganic chemistry – history of the rapidly growing scientific discipline that combines organic chemistry and biochemistry.
History of biophysical chemistry – history of the new branch of chemistry that covers a broad spectrum of research activities involving biological systems.
History of environmental chemistry – history of the scientific study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places.
History of immunochemistry – history of the branch of chemistry that involves the study of the reactions and components on the immune system.
History of medicinal chemistry – history of the discipline at the intersection of chemistry, especially synthetic organic chemistry, and pharmacology and various other biological specialties, where they are involved with design, chemical synthesis, and development for market of pharmaceutical agents (drugs).
History of pharmacology – history of the branch of medicine and biology concerned with the study of drug action.
History of natural product chemistry – history of the chemical compound or substance produced by a living organism – history of the found in nature that usually has a pharmacological or biological activity for use in pharmaceutical drug discovery and drug design.
History of neurochemistry – history of the specific study of neurochemicals, which include neurotransmitters and other molecules such as neuro-active drugs that influence neuron function.
History of computational chemistry – history of the branch of chemistry that uses principles of computer science to assist in solving chemical problems.
History of chemo-informatics – history of the use of computer and informational techniques, applied to a range of problems in the field of chemistry.
History of molecular mechanics – history of the uses Newtonian mechanics to model molecular systems.
History of Flavor chemistry – history of someone who uses chemistry to engineer artificial and natural flavors.
History of Flow chemistry – history of the chemical reaction is run in a continuously flowing stream rather than in batch production.
History of geochemistry – history of the study of the mechanisms behind major geological systems using chemistry
History of aqueous geochemistry – history of the study of the role of various elements in watersheds, including copper, sulfur, mercury, and how elemental fluxes are exchanged through atmospheric-terrestrial-aquatic interactions
History of isotope geochemistry – history of the study of the relative and absolute concentrations of the elements and their isotopes using chemistry and geology
History of ocean chemistry – history of the study of the chemistry of marine environments including the influences of different variables.
History of organic geochemistry – history of the study of the impacts and processes that organisms have had on Earth
History of regional, environmental and exploration geochemistry – history of the study of the spatial variation in the chemical composition of materials at the surface of the Earth
History of inorganic chemistry – history of the branch of chemistry concerned with the properties and behavior of inorganic compounds.
History of nuclear chemistry – history of the subfield of chemistry dealing with radioactivity, nuclear processes, and nuclear properties.
History of radiochemistry – history of the chemistry of radioactive materials, where radioactive isotopes of elements are used to study the properties and chemical reactions of non-radioactive isotopes (often within radiochemistry the absence of radioactivity leads to a substance being described as being inactive as the isotopes are stable).
History of organic chemistry – history of the study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation (by synthesis or by other means) of carbon-based compounds, hydrocarbons, and their derivatives.
History of petrochemistry – history of the branch of chemistry that studies the transformation of crude oil (petroleum) and natural gas into useful products or raw materials.
History of organometallic chemistry – history of the study of chemical compounds containing bonds between carbon and a metal.
History of photochemistry – history of the study of chemical reactions that proceed with the absorption of light by atoms or molecules..
History of physical chemistry – history of the study of macroscopic, atomic, subatomic, and particulate phenomena in chemical systems in terms of physical laws and concepts.
History of chemical kinetics – history of the study of rates of chemical processes.
History of chemical thermodynamics – history of the study of the interrelation of heat and work with chemical reactions or with physical changes of state within the confines of the laws of thermodynamics.
History of electrochemistry – history of the branch of chemistry that studies chemical reactions which take place in a solution at the interface of an electron conductor (a metal or a semiconductor) and an ionic conductor (the electrolyte), and which involve electron transfer between the electrode and the electrolyte or species in solution.
History of Femtochemistry – history of the Femtochemistry is the science that studies chemical reactions on extremely short timescales, approximately 10−15 seconds (one femtosecond, hence the name).
History of mathematical chemistry – history of the area of research engaged in novel applications of mathematics to chemistry; it concerns itself principally with the mathematical modeling of chemical phenomena.
History of mechanochemistry – history of the coupling of the mechanical and the chemical phenomena on a molecular scale and includes mechanical breakage, chemical behavior of mechanically stressed solids (e.g., stress-corrosion cracking), tribology, polymer degradation under shear, cavitation-related phenomena (e.g., sonochemistry and sonoluminescence), shock wave chemistry and physics, and even the burgeoning field of molecular machines.
History of physical organic chemistry – history of the study of the interrelationships between structure and reactivity in organic molecules.
History of quantum chemistry – history of the branch of chemistry whose primary focus is the application of quantum mechanics in physical models and experiments of chemical systems.
History of sonochemistry – history of the study of the effect of sonic waves and wave properties on chemical systems.
History of stereochemistry – history of the study of the relative spatial arrangement of atoms within molecules.
History of supramolecular chemistry – history of the area of chemistry beyond the molecules and focuses on the chemical systems made up of a discrete number of assembled molecular subunits or components.
History of thermochemistry – history of the study of the energy and heat associated with chemical reactions and/or physical transformations.
History of phytochemistry – history of the strict sense of the word the study of phytochemicals.
History of polymer chemistry – history of the multidisciplinary science that deals with the chemical synthesis and chemical properties of polymers or macromolecules.
History of solid-state chemistry – history of the study of the synthesis, structure, and properties of solid phase materials, particularly, but not necessarily exclusively of, non-molecular solids
Multidisciplinary fields involving chemistry
History of chemical biology – history of the scientific discipline spanning the fields of chemistry and biology that involves the application of chemical techniques and tools, often compounds produced through synthetic chemistry, to the study and manipulation of biological systems.
History of chemical engineering – history of the branch of engineering that deals with physical science (e.g., chemistry and physics), and life sciences (e.g., biology, microbiology and biochemistry) with mathematics and economics, to the process of converting raw materials or chemicals into more useful or valuable forms.
History of chemical oceanography – history of the study of the behavior of the chemical elements within the Earth's oceans.
History of chemical physics – history of the branch of physics that studies chemical processes from the point of view of physics.
History of materials science – history of the interdisciplinary field applying the properties of matter to various areas of science and engineering.
History of nanotechnology – history of the study of manipulating matter on an atomic and molecular scale
History of oenology – history of the science and study of all aspects of wine and winemaking except vine-growing and grape-harvesting, which is a subfield called viticulture.
History of spectroscopy – history of the study of the interaction between matter and radiated energy
History of surface science – history of the Surface science is the study of physical and chemical phenomena that occur at the interface of two phases, including solid–liquid interfaces, solid–gas interfaces, solid–vacuum interfaces, and liquid–gas interfaces.
History of Earth science – history of the all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. Earth science, and all of its branches, are branches of physical science.
History of atmospheric sciences – history of the umbrella term for the study of the atmosphere, its processes, the effects other systems have on the atmosphere, and the effects of the atmosphere on these other systems.
History of climatology
History of meteorology
History of atmospheric chemistry
History of biogeography – history of the study of the distribution of species (biology), organisms, and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time.
History of cartography – history of the study and practice of making maps or globes.
History of climatology – history of the study of climate, scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time
History of coastal geography – history of the study of the dynamic interface between the ocean and the land, incorporating both the physical geography (i.e. coastal geomorphology, geology and oceanography) and the human geography (sociology and history) of the coast.
History of environmental science – history of an integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary approach to the study of environmental systems.
History of ecology – history of the scientific study of the distribution and abundance of living organisms and how the distribution and abundance are affected by interactions between the organisms and their environment.
History of Freshwater biology – history of the scientific biological study of freshwater ecosystems and is a branch of limnology
History of marine biology – history of the scientific study of organisms in the ocean or other marine or brackish bodies of water
History of parasitology – history of the Parasitology is the study of parasites, their hosts, and the relationship between them.
History of population dynamics – history of the Population dynamics is the branch of life sciences that studies short-term and long-term changes in the size and age composition of populations, and the biological and environmental processes influencing those changes.
History of environmental chemistry – history of the Environmental chemistry is the scientific study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places.
History of environmental soil science – history of the Environmental soil science is the study of the interaction of humans with the pedosphere as well as critical aspects of the biosphere, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, and the atmosphere.
History of environmental geology – history of the Environmental geology, like hydrogeology, is an applied science concerned with the practical application of the principles of geology in the solving of environmental problems.
History of toxicology – history of the branch of biology, chemistry, and medicine concerned with the study of the adverse effects of chemicals on living organisms.
History of geodesy – history of the scientific discipline that deals with the measurement and representation of the Earth, including its gravitational field, in a three-dimensional time-varying space
History of geography – history of the science that studies the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of Earth
History of geoinformatics – history of the science and the technology which develops and uses information science infrastructure to address the problems of geography, geosciences and related branches of engineering.
History of geology – history of the study of the Earth, with the general exclusion of present-day life, flow within the ocean, and the atmosphere.
History of planetary geology – history of the planetary science discipline concerned with the geology of the celestial bodies such as the planets and their moons, asteroids, comets, and meteorites.
History of geomorphology – history of the scientific study of landforms and the processes that shape them
History of geostatistics – history of the branch of statistics focusing on spatial or spatiotemporal datasets
History of geophysics – history of the physics of the Earth and its environment in space; also the study of the Earth using quantitative physical methods.
History of glaciology – history of the study of glaciers, or more generally ice and natural phenomena that involve ice.
History of hydrology – history of the study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on Earth and other planets, including the hydrologic cycle, water resources and environmental watershed sustainability.
History of hydrogeology – history of the area of geology that deals with the distribution and movement of groundwater in the soil and rocks of the Earth's crust (commonly in aquifers).
History of mineralogy – history of the study of chemistry, crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of minerals.
History of meteorology – history of the interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere which explains and forecasts weather events.
History of oceanography – history of the branch of Earth science that studies the ocean
History of paleoclimatology – history of the study of changes in climate taken on the scale of the entire history of Earth
History of paleontology – history of the study of prehistoric life
History of petrology – history of the branch of geology that studies the origin, composition, distribution and structure of rocks.
History of limnology – history of the study of inland waters
History of seismology – history of the scientific study of earthquakes and the propagation of elastic waves through the Earth or through other planet-like bodies
History of soil science – history of the study of soil as a natural resource on the surface of the earth including soil formation, classification and mapping; physical, chemical, biological, and fertility properties of soils; and these properties in relation to the use and management of soils.
History of topography – history of the study of surface shape and features of the Earth and other observable astronomical objects including planets, moons, and asteroids.
History of volcanology – history of the study of volcanoes, lava, magma, and related geological, geophysical and geochemical phenomena.
General principles of the physical sciences
Principle – law or rule that has to be, or usually is to be followed, or can be desirably followed, or is an inevitable consequence of something, such as the laws observed in nature or the way that a system is constructed. The principles of such a system are understood by its users as the essential characteristics of the system, or reflecting system's designed purpose, and the effective operation or use of which would be impossible if any one of the principles was to be ignored.
Basic principles of physics
Physics – branch of science that studies matter and its motion through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. Physics is one of the "fundamental sciences" because the other natural sciences (like biology, geology etc.) deal with systems that seem to obey the laws of physics. According to physics, the physical laws of matter, energy and the fundamental forces of nature govern the interactions between particles and physical entities (such as planets, molecules, atoms or the subatomic particles). Some of the basic pursuits of physics, which include some of the most prominent developments in modern science in the last millennium, include:
Describing the nature, measuring and quantifying of bodies and their motion, dynamics etc.
Newton's laws of motion
Mass, force and weight
Momentum and conservation of energy
Gravity, theories of gravity
Energy, work, and their relationship
Motion, position, and energy
Different forms of Energy, their interconversion and the inevitable loss of energy in the form of heat (Thermodynamics)
Energy conservation, conversion, and transfer.
Energy source the transfer of energy from one source to work in another.
Kinetic molecular theory
Phases of matter and phase transitions
Temperature and thermometers
Energy and heat
Heat flow: conduction, convection, and radiation
The four laws of thermodynamics
The principles of waves and sound
The principles of electricity, magnetism, and electromagnetism
The principles, sources, and properties of light
Basic principles of astronomy
Astronomy – science of celestial bodies and their interactions in space. Its studies include the following:
The life and characteristics of stars and galaxies
Origins of the universe. Physical science uses the Big Bang theory as the commonly accepted scientific theory of the origin of the universe.
A heliocentric Solar System. Ancient cultures saw the Earth as the centre of the Solar System or universe (geocentrism). In the 16th century, Nicolaus Copernicus advanced the ideas of heliocentrism, recognizing the Sun as the centre of the Solar System.
The structure of solar systems, planets, comets, asteroids, and meteors
The shape and structure of Earth (roughly spherical, see also Spherical Earth)
Earth in the Solar System
Time measurement
The composition and features of the Moon
Interactions of the Earth and Moon
(Note: Astronomy should not be confused with astrology, which assumes that people's destiny and human affairs in general correlate to the apparent positions of astronomical objects in the sky – although the two fields share a common origin, they are quite different; astronomers embrace the scientific method, while astrologers do not.)
Basic principles of chemistry
Chemistry – branch of science that studies the composition, structure, properties and change of matter. Chemistry is chiefly concerned with atoms and molecules and their interactions and transformations, for example, the properties of the chemical bonds formed between atoms to create chemical compounds. As such, chemistry studies the involvement of electrons and various forms of energy in photochemical reactions, oxidation-reduction reactions, changes in phases of matter, and separation of mixtures. Preparation and properties of complex substances, such as alloys, polymers, biological molecules, and pharmaceutical agents are considered in specialized fields of chemistry.
Chemistry, the central science, partial ordering of the sciences proposed by Balaban and Klein.
Physical chemistry
Chemical thermodynamics
Reaction kinetics
Molecular structure
Quantum chemistry
Spectroscopy
Theoretical chemistry
Electron configuration
Molecular modelling
Molecular dynamics
Statistical mechanics
Computational chemistry
Mathematical chemistry
Cheminformatics
Nuclear chemistry
The nature of the atomic nucleus
Characterization of radioactive decay
Nuclear reactions
Organic chemistry
Organic compounds
Organic reaction
Functional groups
Organic synthesis
Inorganic chemistry
Inorganic compounds
Crystal structure
Coordination chemistry
Solid-state chemistry
Biochemistry
Analytical chemistry
Instrumental analysis
Electroanalytical method
Wet chemistry
Electrochemistry
Redox reaction
Materials chemistry
Basic principles of Earth science
Earth science – the science of the planet Earth, as of 2018 the only identified life-bearing planet. Its studies include the following:
The water cycle and the process of transpiration
Freshwater
Oceanography
Weathering and erosion
Rocks
Agrophysics
Soil science
Pedogenesis
Soil fertility
Earth's tectonic structure
Geomorphology and geophysics
Physical geography
Seismology: stress, strain, and earthquakes
Characteristics of mountains and volcanoes
Characteristics and formation of fossils
Atmospheric sciences – the branches of science that study the atmosphere, its processes, the effects other systems have on the atmosphere, and the effects of the atmosphere on these other systems.
Atmosphere of Earth
Atmospheric pressure and winds
Evaporation, condensation, and humidity
Fog and clouds
Meteorology, weather, climatology, and climate
Hydrology, clouds and precipitation
Air masses and weather fronts
Major storms: thunderstorms, tornadoes, and hurricanes
Major climate groups
Speleology
Cave
Notable physical scientists
List of physicists
List of astronomers
List of chemists
Earth scientists
List of Russian Earth scientists
See also
Outline of science
Outline of natural science
Outline of physical science
Outline of earth science
Outline of formal science
Outline of social science
Outline of applied science
Notes
^ The term 'universe' is defined as everything that physically exists: the entirety of space and time, all forms of matter, energy and momentum, and the physical laws and constants that govern them. However, the term 'universe' may also be used in slightly different contextual senses, denoting concepts such as the cosmos or the philosophical world.
References
^ Wilson, Edward O. (1998). Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge (1st ed.). New York, NY: Vintage Books. pp. 49–71. ISBN 0-679-45077-7.
^ "... modern science is a discovery as well as an invention. It was a discovery that nature generally acts regularly enough to be described by laws and even by mathematics; and required invention to devise the techniques, abstractions, apparatus, and organization for exhibiting the regularities and securing their law-like descriptions." —p.vii, J. L. Heilbron, (2003, editor-in-chief). The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-511229-6.
^ "science". Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Merriam-Webster, Inc. Retrieved 2011-10-16. 3 a: knowledge or a system of knowledge covering general truths or the operation of general laws especially as obtained and tested through scientific method b: such knowledge or such a system of knowledge concerned with the physical world and its phenomena
^ a b At the start of The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Richard Feynman offers the atomic hypothesis as the single most prolific scientific concept: "If, in some cataclysm, all scientific knowledge were to be destroyed one sentence what statement would contain the most information in the fewest words? I believe it is that all things are made up of atoms – little particles that move around in perpetual motion, attracting each other when they are a little distance apart, but repelling upon being squeezed into one another ..." (Feynman, Leighton & Sands 1963, p. I-2)
^ a b "Physical science is that department of knowledge which relates to the order of nature, or, in other words, to the regular succession of events." (Maxwell 1878, p. 9)
^ Young & Freedman 2014, p. 9
^ "Physics is the study of your world and the world and universe around you." (Holzner 2006, p. 7)
^ a b Russell, John B. "What is Chemistry?". Chemweb.ucc.ie. Archived from the original on 3 January 2021.
^ a b Chemistry Archived 2016-03-05 at the Wayback Machine. (n.d.). Merriam-Webster's Medical Dictionary. Retrieved August 19, 2007.
^ Scharringhausen, Britt. "What's the difference between astronomy and astrology? (Beginner) – Curious About Astronomy? Ask an Astronomer". curious.astro.cornell.edu. Retrieved 2017-05-27.
^ Temming, Maria (July 14, 2014). "Astrology vs Astronomy: What's the Difference?". Sky & Telescope.
^ "astrology | Origin and meaning of astrology by Online Etymology Dictionary". www.etymonline.com. Retrieved 2017-10-17.
Works cited
Feynman, R.P.; Leighton, R.B.; Sands, M. (1963). The Feynman Lectures on Physics. Vol. 1. ISBN 0-201-02116-1.
Holzner, S. (2006). Physics for Dummies. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-470-61841-8. Physics is the study of your world and universe around you.
Maxwell, J.C. (1878). Matter and Motion. D. Van Nostrand. ISBN 0-486-66895-9.
Young, H.D.; Freedman, R.A. (2014). Sears and Zemansky's University Physics with Modern Physics Technology Update (13th ed.). Pearson Education. ISBN 978-1-292-02063-1.
External links
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It in turn has many branches, each referred to as a \"physical science\", together is called the \"physical sciences\".","title":"Outline of physical science"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science"},{"link_name":"knowledge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_knowledge"},{"link_name":"universe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wilson-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Heilbron-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"natural science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_natural_science"},{"link_name":"science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science"},{"link_name":"empirical evidence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_evidence"},{"link_name":"hypotheses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothesis"},{"link_name":"life science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_science"}],"text":"Physical science can be described as all of the following:A branch of science (a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe).[1][2][3]\nA branch of natural science – natural science is a major branch of science that tries to explain and predict nature's phenomena, based on empirical evidence. In natural science, hypotheses must be verified scientifically to be regarded as scientific theory. Validity, accuracy, and social mechanisms ensuring quality control, such as peer review and repeatability of findings, are amongst the criteria and methods used for this purpose. Natural science can be broken into two main branches: life science (for example biology) and physical science. Each of these branches, and all of their sub-branches, are referred to as natural sciences.","title":"Definition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_physics"},{"link_name":"matter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matter"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-feynmanleightonsands1963-atomic-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-maxwell1878-physicalscience-5"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-youngfreedman2014p9-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-holzner2003-physics-8"},{"link_name":"Branches of physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_physics#Branches_of_physics"},{"link_name":"Astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_astronomy"},{"link_name":"Branches of astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_astronomy#Branches_of_astronomy"},{"link_name":"Chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry"},{"link_name":"matter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matter"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-definition-9"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chemistry-10"},{"link_name":"Branches of chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry#Branches_of_chemistry"},{"link_name":"Earth science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_sciences"},{"link_name":"lithosphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithosphere"}],"text":"Physics – natural and physical science could involve the study of matter[4] and its motion through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force.[5] More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves.[a][6][7]\nBranches of physics\nAstronomy – study of celestial objects (such as stars, galaxies, planets, moons, asteroids, comets and nebulae), the physics, chemistry, and evolution of such objects, and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth, including supernovae explosions, gamma-ray bursts, and cosmic microwave background radiation.\nBranches of astronomy\nChemistry – studies the composition, structure, properties and change of matter.[8][9] In this realm, chemistry deals with such topics as the properties of individual atoms, the manner in which atoms form chemical bonds in the formation of compounds, the interactions of substances through intermolecular forces to give matter its general properties, and the interactions between substances through chemical reactions to form different substances.\nBranches of chemistry\nEarth science – all-embracing term referring to the fields of science dealing with planet Earth. Earth science is the study of how the natural environment (ecosphere or Earth system) works and how it evolved to its current state. It includes the study of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere.","title":"Branches of physical science"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"History of physical science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physical_science"},{"link_name":"life sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_life_sciences"},{"link_name":"History of physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physics"},{"link_name":"History of acoustics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_acoustics"},{"link_name":"History of agrophysics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_agrophysics"},{"link_name":"agroecosystems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agroecosystems"},{"link_name":"History of soil physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_soil_physics&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of astrophysics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_astrophysics"},{"link_name":"History of astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_astronomy"},{"link_name":"History of astrodynamics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_astrodynamics"},{"link_name":"History of astrometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_astrometry"},{"link_name":"History of cosmology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_cosmology"},{"link_name":"History of extragalactic astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_extragalactic_astronomy&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of galactic astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_galactic_astronomy&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of physical cosmology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physical_cosmology"},{"link_name":"History of planetary science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_planetary_science"},{"link_name":"History of stellar astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_astronomy#Stellar_astronomy"},{"link_name":"History of atmospheric physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_atmospheric_physics&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of atomic, molecular, and optical physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_atomic,_molecular,_and_optical_physics"},{"link_name":"History of biophysics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_biophysics"},{"link_name":"History of medical physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_medical_physics&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of neurophysics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_neurophysics&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of chemical physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemical_physics&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of computational physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_computational_physics&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of condensed matter physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_condensed_matter_physics"},{"link_name":"History of cryogenics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_cryogenics&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of Dynamics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_dynamics_(mechanics)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of econophysics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_econophysics"},{"link_name":"History of electromagnetism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_electromagnetism"},{"link_name":"History of geophysics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_geophysics"},{"link_name":"History of materials physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_materials_physics&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of mathematical physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_mathematical_physics&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_mechanics"},{"link_name":"History of biomechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_biomechanics"},{"link_name":"History of classical mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_classical_mechanics"},{"link_name":"History of continuum mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_continuum_mechanics&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of fluid mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_fluid_mechanics"},{"link_name":"History of quantum mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_quantum_mechanics"},{"link_name":"History of thermodynamics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_thermodynamics"},{"link_name":"History of nuclear physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_nuclear_physics"},{"link_name":"History of optics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_optics"},{"link_name":"History of particle physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_particle_physics"},{"link_name":"History of psychophysics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychophysics"},{"link_name":"History of plasma physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_plasma_physics&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"state of matter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_matter"},{"link_name":"History of polymer physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_polymer_physics&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of quantum physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_quantum_physics"},{"link_name":"History of theory of relativity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_theory_of_relativity"},{"link_name":"History of statics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_statics&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of solid state physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_solid_state_physics&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of vehicle dynamics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_vehicle_dynamics&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry"},{"link_name":"History of analytical chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_analytical_chemistry"},{"link_name":"History of astrochemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_astrochemistry&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of cosmochemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_cosmochemistry"},{"link_name":"History of atmospheric chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_atmospheric_chemistry"},{"link_name":"History of biochemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_biochemistry"},{"link_name":"History of agrochemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_agrochemistry&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"environmental monitoring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_monitoring"},{"link_name":"History of bioinorganic chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_bioinorganic_chemistry"},{"link_name":"History of bioorganic chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_bioorganic_chemistry&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of biophysical chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_biophysical_chemistry&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of environmental chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_environmental_chemistry&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of immunochemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_immunochemistry&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of medicinal chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_medicinal_chemistry&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of pharmacology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_pharmacology"},{"link_name":"History of natural product chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_natural_product_chemistry&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of neurochemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_neurochemistry"},{"link_name":"History of computational chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_computational_chemistry"},{"link_name":"History of chemo-informatics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemo-informatics&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of molecular mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_molecular_mechanics&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of Flavor chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Flavor_chemistry&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of Flow chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Flow_chemistry&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of geochemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_geochemistry"},{"link_name":"History of aqueous geochemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_aqueous_geochemistry&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of isotope geochemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_isotope_geochemistry&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of ocean chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_ocean_chemistry&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of organic geochemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_organic_geochemistry&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of regional, environmental and exploration geochemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_regional,_environmental_and_exploration_geochemistry&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of inorganic chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_inorganic_chemistry&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of nuclear chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_nuclear_chemistry"},{"link_name":"History of radiochemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_radiochemistry&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of organic chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_organic_chemistry"},{"link_name":"History of petrochemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_petrochemistry&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of organometallic chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_organometallic_chemistry"},{"link_name":"History of photochemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_photochemistry"},{"link_name":"History of physical chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physical_chemistry"},{"link_name":"History of chemical kinetics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemical_kinetics&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of chemical thermodynamics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemical_thermodynamics"},{"link_name":"History of electrochemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_electrochemistry"},{"link_name":"History of Femtochemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Femtochemistry&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of mathematical chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_mathematical_chemistry&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of mechanochemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_mechanochemistry&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of physical organic chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_physical_organic_chemistry&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of quantum chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_quantum_chemistry"},{"link_name":"History of sonochemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_sonochemistry&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of stereochemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_stereochemistry&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of supramolecular chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_supramolecular_chemistry"},{"link_name":"History of thermochemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_thermochemistry"},{"link_name":"History of phytochemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_phytochemistry&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of polymer chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_polymer_chemistry"},{"link_name":"History of solid-state chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_solid-state_chemistry"},{"link_name":"History of chemical biology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemical_biology&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of chemical engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemical_engineering"},{"link_name":"History of chemical oceanography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemical_oceanography&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of chemical physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemical_physics&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of materials science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_materials_science"},{"link_name":"History of nanotechnology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_nanotechnology"},{"link_name":"History of oenology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_oenology&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of spectroscopy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_spectroscopy"},{"link_name":"History of surface science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_surface_science"},{"link_name":"History of Earth science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Earth_science&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of atmospheric sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_atmospheric_sciences&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of climatology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_climatology"},{"link_name":"History of meteorology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_meteorology"},{"link_name":"History of atmospheric chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_atmospheric_chemistry"},{"link_name":"History of biogeography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_biogeography"},{"link_name":"History of cartography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_cartography"},{"link_name":"History of climatology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_climatology"},{"link_name":"History of coastal geography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_coastal_geography&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of environmental science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_environmental_science"},{"link_name":"History of ecology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_ecology"},{"link_name":"History of Freshwater biology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Freshwater_biology&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of marine biology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_marine_biology"},{"link_name":"History of parasitology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_parasitology"},{"link_name":"History of population dynamics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_population_dynamics"},{"link_name":"History of environmental chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_environmental_chemistry&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of environmental soil science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_environmental_soil_science&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of environmental geology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_environmental_geology&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of toxicology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_toxicology"},{"link_name":"History of geodesy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_geodesy"},{"link_name":"History of geography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_geography"},{"link_name":"History of geoinformatics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_geoinformatics&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of geology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_geology"},{"link_name":"History of planetary geology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_planetary_geology&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of geomorphology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_geomorphology"},{"link_name":"History of geostatistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_geostatistics&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of geophysics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_geophysics"},{"link_name":"History of glaciology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_glaciology&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of hydrology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_hydrology"},{"link_name":"History of hydrogeology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_hydrogeology&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of mineralogy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_mineralogy"},{"link_name":"History of meteorology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_meteorology"},{"link_name":"History of oceanography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_oceanography"},{"link_name":"History of paleoclimatology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_paleoclimatology"},{"link_name":"History of paleontology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_paleontology"},{"link_name":"History of petrology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_petrology"},{"link_name":"History of limnology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_limnology"},{"link_name":"History of seismology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_seismology"},{"link_name":"History of soil science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_soil_science"},{"link_name":"soil formation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_formation"},{"link_name":"History of topography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_topography&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"History of volcanology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_volcanology"}],"text":"History of physical science – history of the branch of natural science that studies non-living systems, in contrast to the life sciences. It in turn has many branches, each referred to as a \"physical science\", together called the \"physical sciences\". However, the term \"physical\" creates an unintended, somewhat arbitrary distinction, since many branches of physical science also study biological phenomena (organic chemistry, for example). The four main branches of physical science are astronomy, physics, chemistry, and the Earth sciences, which include meteorology and geology.History of physics – history of the physical science that studies matter and its motion through space-time, and related concepts such as energy and force\nHistory of acoustics – history of the study of mechanical waves in solids, liquids, and gases (such as vibration and sound)\nHistory of agrophysics – history of the study of physics applied to agroecosystems\nHistory of soil physics – history of the study of soil physical properties and processes.\nHistory of astrophysics – history of the study of the physical aspects of celestial objects\nHistory of astronomy – history of the study of the universe beyond Earth, including its formation and development, and the evolution, physics, chemistry, meteorology, and motion of celestial objects (such as galaxies, planets, etc.) and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth (such as the cosmic background radiation).\nHistory of astrodynamics – history of the application of ballistics and celestial mechanics to the practical problems concerning the motion of rockets and other spacecraft.\nHistory of astrometry – history of the branch of astronomy that involves precise measurements of the positions and movements of stars and other celestial bodies.\nHistory of cosmology – history of the discipline that deals with the nature of the Universe as a whole.\nHistory of extragalactic astronomy – history of the branch of astronomy concerned with objects outside our own Milky Way Galaxy\nHistory of galactic astronomy – history of the study of our own Milky Way galaxy and all its contents.\nHistory of physical cosmology – history of the study of the largest-scale structures and dynamics of the universe and is concerned with fundamental questions about its formation and evolution.\nHistory of planetary science – history of the scientific study of planets (including Earth), moons, and planetary systems, in particular those of the Solar System and the processes that form them.\nHistory of stellar astronomy – history of the natural science that deals with the study of celestial objects (such as stars, planets, comets, nebulae, star clusters, and galaxies) and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth (such as cosmic background radiation)\nHistory of atmospheric physics – history of the study of the application of physics to the atmosphere\nHistory of atomic, molecular, and optical physics – history of the study of how matter and light interact\nHistory of biophysics – history of the study of physical processes relating to biology\nHistory of medical physics – history of the application of physics concepts, theories and methods to medicine.\nHistory of neurophysics – history of the branch of biophysics dealing with the nervous system.\nHistory of chemical physics – history of the branch of physics that studies chemical processes from the point of view of physics.\nHistory of computational physics – history of the study and implementation of numerical algorithms to solve problems in physics for which a quantitative theory already exists.\nHistory of condensed matter physics – history of the study of the physical properties of condensed phases of matter.\nHistory of cryogenics – history of cryogenics is the study of the production of very low temperature (below −150 °C, −238 °F or 123K) and the behavior of materials at those temperatures.\nHistory of Dynamics – history of the study of the causes of motion and changes in motion\nHistory of econophysics – history of the interdisciplinary research field, applying theories and methods originally developed by physicists in order to solve problems in economics\nHistory of electromagnetism – history of the branch of science concerned with the forces that occur between electrically charged particles.\nHistory of geophysics – history of the physics of the Earth and its environment in space; also the study of the Earth using quantitative physical methods\nHistory of materials physics – history of the use of physics to describe materials in many different ways such as force, heat, light and mechanics.\nHistory of mathematical physics – history of the application of mathematics to problems in physics and the development of mathematical methods for such applications and for the formulation of physical theories.\nHistory of mechanics – history of the branch of physics concerned with the behavior of physical bodies when subjected to forces or displacements, and the subsequent effects of the bodies on their environment.\nHistory of biomechanics – history of the study of the structure and function of biological systems such as humans, animals, plants, organs, and cells by means of the methods of mechanics.\nHistory of classical mechanics – history of one of the two major sub-fields of mechanics, which is concerned with the set of physical laws describing the motion of bodies under the action of a system of forces.\nHistory of continuum mechanics – history of the branch of mechanics that deals with the analysis of the kinematics and the mechanical behavior of materials modeled as a continuous mass rather than as discrete particles.\nHistory of fluid mechanics – history of the study of fluids and the forces on them.\nHistory of quantum mechanics – history of the branch of physics dealing with physical phenomena where the action is on the order of the Planck constant.\nHistory of thermodynamics – history of the branch of physical science concerned with heat and its relation to other forms of energy and work.\nHistory of nuclear physics – history of the field of physics that studies the building blocks and interactions of atomic nuclei.\nHistory of optics – history of the branch of physics which involves the behavior and properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the construction of instruments that use or detect it.\nHistory of particle physics – history of the branch of physics that studies the existence and interactions of particles that are the constituents of what is usually referred to as matter or radiation.\nHistory of psychophysics – history of the quantitatively investigates the relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they affect.\nHistory of plasma physics – history of the state of matter similar to gas in which a certain portion of the particles are ionized.\nHistory of polymer physics – history of the field of physics that studies polymers, their fluctuations, mechanical properties, as well as the kinetics of reactions involving degradation and polymerization of polymers and monomers respectively.\nHistory of quantum physics – history of the branch of physics dealing with physical phenomena where the action is on the order of the Planck constant.\nHistory of theory of relativity –\nHistory of statics – history of the branch of mechanics concerned with the analysis of loads (force, torque/moment) on physical systems in static equilibrium, that is, in a state where the relative positions of subsystems do not vary over time, or where components and structures are at a constant velocity.\nHistory of solid state physics – history of the study of rigid matter, or solids, through methods such as quantum mechanics, crystallography, electromagnetism, and metallurgy.\nHistory of vehicle dynamics – history of the dynamics of vehicles, here assumed to be ground vehicles.History of chemistry – history of the physical science of atomic matter (matter that is composed of chemical elements), especially its chemical reactions, but also including its properties, structure, composition, behavior, and changes as they relate the chemical reactions\nHistory of analytical chemistry – history of the study of the separation, identification, and quantification of the chemical components of natural and artificial materials.\nHistory of astrochemistry – history of the study of the abundance and reactions of chemical elements and molecules in the universe, and their interaction with radiation.\nHistory of cosmochemistry – history of the study of the chemical composition of matter in the universe and the processes that led to those compositions\nHistory of atmospheric chemistry – history of the branch of atmospheric science in which the chemistry of the Earth's atmosphere and that of other planets is studied. It is a multidisciplinary field of research and draws on environmental chemistry, physics, meteorology, computer modeling, oceanography, geology and volcanology, and other disciplines\nHistory of biochemistry – history of the study of chemical processes in living organisms, including, but not limited to, living matter. Biochemistry governs all living organisms and living processes.\nHistory of agrochemistry – history of the study of both chemistry and biochemistry which are important in agricultural production, the processing of raw products into foods and beverages, and in environmental monitoring and remediation.\nHistory of bioinorganic chemistry – history of the examines the role of metals in biology.\nHistory of bioorganic chemistry – history of the rapidly growing scientific discipline that combines organic chemistry and biochemistry.\nHistory of biophysical chemistry – history of the new branch of chemistry that covers a broad spectrum of research activities involving biological systems.\nHistory of environmental chemistry – history of the scientific study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places.\nHistory of immunochemistry – history of the branch of chemistry that involves the study of the reactions and components on the immune system.\nHistory of medicinal chemistry – history of the discipline at the intersection of chemistry, especially synthetic organic chemistry, and pharmacology and various other biological specialties, where they are involved with design, chemical synthesis, and development for market of pharmaceutical agents (drugs).\nHistory of pharmacology – history of the branch of medicine and biology concerned with the study of drug action.\nHistory of natural product chemistry – history of the chemical compound or substance produced by a living organism – history of the found in nature that usually has a pharmacological or biological activity for use in pharmaceutical drug discovery and drug design.\nHistory of neurochemistry – history of the specific study of neurochemicals, which include neurotransmitters and other molecules such as neuro-active drugs that influence neuron function.\nHistory of computational chemistry – history of the branch of chemistry that uses principles of computer science to assist in solving chemical problems.\nHistory of chemo-informatics – history of the use of computer and informational techniques, applied to a range of problems in the field of chemistry.\nHistory of molecular mechanics – history of the uses Newtonian mechanics to model molecular systems.\nHistory of Flavor chemistry – history of someone who uses chemistry to engineer artificial and natural flavors.\nHistory of Flow chemistry – history of the chemical reaction is run in a continuously flowing stream rather than in batch production.\nHistory of geochemistry – history of the study of the mechanisms behind major geological systems using chemistry\nHistory of aqueous geochemistry – history of the study of the role of various elements in watersheds, including copper, sulfur, mercury, and how elemental fluxes are exchanged through atmospheric-terrestrial-aquatic interactions\nHistory of isotope geochemistry – history of the study of the relative and absolute concentrations of the elements and their isotopes using chemistry and geology\nHistory of ocean chemistry – history of the study of the chemistry of marine environments including the influences of different variables.\nHistory of organic geochemistry – history of the study of the impacts and processes that organisms have had on Earth\nHistory of regional, environmental and exploration geochemistry – history of the study of the spatial variation in the chemical composition of materials at the surface of the Earth\nHistory of inorganic chemistry – history of the branch of chemistry concerned with the properties and behavior of inorganic compounds.\nHistory of nuclear chemistry – history of the subfield of chemistry dealing with radioactivity, nuclear processes, and nuclear properties.\nHistory of radiochemistry – history of the chemistry of radioactive materials, where radioactive isotopes of elements are used to study the properties and chemical reactions of non-radioactive isotopes (often within radiochemistry the absence of radioactivity leads to a substance being described as being inactive as the isotopes are stable).\nHistory of organic chemistry – history of the study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation (by synthesis or by other means) of carbon-based compounds, hydrocarbons, and their derivatives.\nHistory of petrochemistry – history of the branch of chemistry that studies the transformation of crude oil (petroleum) and natural gas into useful products or raw materials.\nHistory of organometallic chemistry – history of the study of chemical compounds containing bonds between carbon and a metal.\nHistory of photochemistry – history of the study of chemical reactions that proceed with the absorption of light by atoms or molecules..\nHistory of physical chemistry – history of the study of macroscopic, atomic, subatomic, and particulate phenomena in chemical systems in terms of physical laws and concepts.\nHistory of chemical kinetics – history of the study of rates of chemical processes.\nHistory of chemical thermodynamics – history of the study of the interrelation of heat and work with chemical reactions or with physical changes of state within the confines of the laws of thermodynamics.\nHistory of electrochemistry – history of the branch of chemistry that studies chemical reactions which take place in a solution at the interface of an electron conductor (a metal or a semiconductor) and an ionic conductor (the electrolyte), and which involve electron transfer between the electrode and the electrolyte or species in solution.\nHistory of Femtochemistry – history of the Femtochemistry is the science that studies chemical reactions on extremely short timescales, approximately 10−15 seconds (one femtosecond, hence the name).\nHistory of mathematical chemistry – history of the area of research engaged in novel applications of mathematics to chemistry; it concerns itself principally with the mathematical modeling of chemical phenomena.\nHistory of mechanochemistry – history of the coupling of the mechanical and the chemical phenomena on a molecular scale and includes mechanical breakage, chemical behavior of mechanically stressed solids (e.g., stress-corrosion cracking), tribology, polymer degradation under shear, cavitation-related phenomena (e.g., sonochemistry and sonoluminescence), shock wave chemistry and physics, and even the burgeoning field of molecular machines.\nHistory of physical organic chemistry – history of the study of the interrelationships between structure and reactivity in organic molecules.\nHistory of quantum chemistry – history of the branch of chemistry whose primary focus is the application of quantum mechanics in physical models and experiments of chemical systems.\nHistory of sonochemistry – history of the study of the effect of sonic waves and wave properties on chemical systems.\nHistory of stereochemistry – history of the study of the relative spatial arrangement of atoms within molecules.\nHistory of supramolecular chemistry – history of the area of chemistry beyond the molecules and focuses on the chemical systems made up of a discrete number of assembled molecular subunits or components.\nHistory of thermochemistry – history of the study of the energy and heat associated with chemical reactions and/or physical transformations.\nHistory of phytochemistry – history of the strict sense of the word the study of phytochemicals.\nHistory of polymer chemistry – history of the multidisciplinary science that deals with the chemical synthesis and chemical properties of polymers or macromolecules.\nHistory of solid-state chemistry – history of the study of the synthesis, structure, and properties of solid phase materials, particularly, but not necessarily exclusively of, non-molecular solids\nMultidisciplinary fields involving chemistry\nHistory of chemical biology – history of the scientific discipline spanning the fields of chemistry and biology that involves the application of chemical techniques and tools, often compounds produced through synthetic chemistry, to the study and manipulation of biological systems.\nHistory of chemical engineering – history of the branch of engineering that deals with physical science (e.g., chemistry and physics), and life sciences (e.g., biology, microbiology and biochemistry) with mathematics and economics, to the process of converting raw materials or chemicals into more useful or valuable forms.\nHistory of chemical oceanography – history of the study of the behavior of the chemical elements within the Earth's oceans.\nHistory of chemical physics – history of the branch of physics that studies chemical processes from the point of view of physics.\nHistory of materials science – history of the interdisciplinary field applying the properties of matter to various areas of science and engineering.\nHistory of nanotechnology – history of the study of manipulating matter on an atomic and molecular scale\nHistory of oenology – history of the science and study of all aspects of wine and winemaking except vine-growing and grape-harvesting, which is a subfield called viticulture.\nHistory of spectroscopy – history of the study of the interaction between matter and radiated energy\nHistory of surface science – history of the Surface science is the study of physical and chemical phenomena that occur at the interface of two phases, including solid–liquid interfaces, solid–gas interfaces, solid–vacuum interfaces, and liquid–gas interfaces.History of Earth science – history of the all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. Earth science, and all of its branches, are branches of physical science.\nHistory of atmospheric sciences – history of the umbrella term for the study of the atmosphere, its processes, the effects other systems have on the atmosphere, and the effects of the atmosphere on these other systems.\nHistory of climatology\nHistory of meteorology\nHistory of atmospheric chemistry\nHistory of biogeography – history of the study of the distribution of species (biology), organisms, and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time.\nHistory of cartography – history of the study and practice of making maps or globes.\nHistory of climatology – history of the study of climate, scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time\nHistory of coastal geography – history of the study of the dynamic interface between the ocean and the land, incorporating both the physical geography (i.e. coastal geomorphology, geology and oceanography) and the human geography (sociology and history) of the coast.\nHistory of environmental science – history of an integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary approach to the study of environmental systems.\nHistory of ecology – history of the scientific study of the distribution and abundance of living organisms and how the distribution and abundance are affected by interactions between the organisms and their environment.\nHistory of Freshwater biology – history of the scientific biological study of freshwater ecosystems and is a branch of limnology\nHistory of marine biology – history of the scientific study of organisms in the ocean or other marine or brackish bodies of water\nHistory of parasitology – history of the Parasitology is the study of parasites, their hosts, and the relationship between them.\nHistory of population dynamics – history of the Population dynamics is the branch of life sciences that studies short-term and long-term changes in the size and age composition of populations, and the biological and environmental processes influencing those changes.\nHistory of environmental chemistry – history of the Environmental chemistry is the scientific study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places.\nHistory of environmental soil science – history of the Environmental soil science is the study of the interaction of humans with the pedosphere as well as critical aspects of the biosphere, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, and the atmosphere.\nHistory of environmental geology – history of the Environmental geology, like hydrogeology, is an applied science concerned with the practical application of the principles of geology in the solving of environmental problems.\nHistory of toxicology – history of the branch of biology, chemistry, and medicine concerned with the study of the adverse effects of chemicals on living organisms.\nHistory of geodesy – history of the scientific discipline that deals with the measurement and representation of the Earth, including its gravitational field, in a three-dimensional time-varying space\nHistory of geography – history of the science that studies the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of Earth\nHistory of geoinformatics – history of the science and the technology which develops and uses information science infrastructure to address the problems of geography, geosciences and related branches of engineering.\nHistory of geology – history of the study of the Earth, with the general exclusion of present-day life, flow within the ocean, and the atmosphere.\nHistory of planetary geology – history of the planetary science discipline concerned with the geology of the celestial bodies such as the planets and their moons, asteroids, comets, and meteorites.\nHistory of geomorphology – history of the scientific study of landforms and the processes that shape them\nHistory of geostatistics – history of the branch of statistics focusing on spatial or spatiotemporal datasets\nHistory of geophysics – history of the physics of the Earth and its environment in space; also the study of the Earth using quantitative physical methods.\nHistory of glaciology – history of the study of glaciers, or more generally ice and natural phenomena that involve ice.\nHistory of hydrology – history of the study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on Earth and other planets, including the hydrologic cycle, water resources and environmental watershed sustainability.\nHistory of hydrogeology – history of the area of geology that deals with the distribution and movement of groundwater in the soil and rocks of the Earth's crust (commonly in aquifers).\nHistory of mineralogy – history of the study of chemistry, crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of minerals.\nHistory of meteorology – history of the interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere which explains and forecasts weather events.\nHistory of oceanography – history of the branch of Earth science that studies the ocean\nHistory of paleoclimatology – history of the study of changes in climate taken on the scale of the entire history of Earth\nHistory of paleontology – history of the study of prehistoric life\nHistory of petrology – history of the branch of geology that studies the origin, composition, distribution and structure of rocks.\nHistory of limnology – history of the study of inland waters\nHistory of seismology – history of the scientific study of earthquakes and the propagation of elastic waves through the Earth or through other planet-like bodies\nHistory of soil science – history of the study of soil as a natural resource on the surface of the earth including soil formation, classification and mapping; physical, chemical, biological, and fertility properties of soils; and these properties in relation to the use and management of soils.\nHistory of topography – history of the study of surface shape and features of the Earth and other observable astronomical objects including planets, moons, and asteroids.\nHistory of volcanology – history of the study of volcanoes, lava, magma, and related geological, geophysical and geochemical phenomena.","title":"History of physical science"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Principle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle"}],"text":"Principle – law or rule that has to be, or usually is to be followed, or can be desirably followed, or is an inevitable consequence of something, such as the laws observed in nature or the way that a system is constructed. The principles of such a system are understood by its users as the essential characteristics of the system, or reflecting system's designed purpose, and the effective operation or use of which would be impossible if any one of the principles was to be ignored.","title":"General principles of the physical sciences"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_physics"},{"link_name":"matter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matter"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-feynmanleightonsands1963-atomic-4"},{"link_name":"motion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion_(physics)"},{"link_name":"space and time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacetime"},{"link_name":"energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy"},{"link_name":"force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Force"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-maxwell1878-physicalscience-5"},{"link_name":"fundamental sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_science"},{"link_name":"Motion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion_(physics)"},{"link_name":"energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy"},{"link_name":"Energy conservation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_of_energy"},{"link_name":"conversion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_conversion"},{"link_name":"Energy source","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_source"},{"link_name":"Kinetic molecular theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinetic_theory_of_gases"},{"link_name":"Phases of matter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_(matter)"},{"link_name":"phase transitions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_transition"},{"link_name":"Temperature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperature"},{"link_name":"thermometers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermometer"},{"link_name":"Energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy"},{"link_name":"heat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat"},{"link_name":"conduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_conduction"},{"link_name":"convection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convection"},{"link_name":"radiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_radiation"},{"link_name":"laws of thermodynamics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laws_of_thermodynamics"},{"link_name":"waves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave"},{"link_name":"sound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound"},{"link_name":"electricity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity"},{"link_name":"magnetism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetism"},{"link_name":"electromagnetism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetism"},{"link_name":"light","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light"}],"sub_title":"Basic principles of physics","text":"Physics – branch of science that studies matter[4] and its motion through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force.[5] Physics is one of the \"fundamental sciences\" because the other natural sciences (like biology, geology etc.) deal with systems that seem to obey the laws of physics. According to physics, the physical laws of matter, energy and the fundamental forces of nature govern the interactions between particles and physical entities (such as planets, molecules, atoms or the subatomic particles). Some of the basic pursuits of physics, which include some of the most prominent developments in modern science in the last millennium, include:Describing the nature, measuring and quantifying of bodies and their motion, dynamics etc.\nNewton's laws of motion\nMass, force and weight\nMomentum and conservation of energy\nGravity, theories of gravity\nEnergy, work, and their relationship\nMotion, position, and energy\nDifferent forms of Energy, their interconversion and the inevitable loss of energy in the form of heat (Thermodynamics)\nEnergy conservation, conversion, and transfer.\nEnergy source the transfer of energy from one source to work in another.\nKinetic molecular theory\nPhases of matter and phase transitions\nTemperature and thermometers\nEnergy and heat\nHeat flow: conduction, convection, and radiation\nThe four laws of thermodynamics\nThe principles of waves and sound\nThe principles of electricity, magnetism, and electromagnetism\nThe principles, sources, and properties of light","title":"General principles of the physical sciences"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_astronomy"},{"link_name":"science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science"},{"link_name":"stars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stars"},{"link_name":"galaxies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxies"},{"link_name":"Big Bang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang"},{"link_name":"heliocentric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliocentric"},{"link_name":"Copernicus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copernicus"},{"link_name":"solar systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary_system"},{"link_name":"planets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet"},{"link_name":"comets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet"},{"link_name":"asteroids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid"},{"link_name":"meteors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteor"},{"link_name":"Spherical Earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherical_Earth"},{"link_name":"Moon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon"},{"link_name":"astrology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"scientific method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method"}],"sub_title":"Basic principles of astronomy","text":"Astronomy – science of celestial bodies and their interactions in space. Its studies include the following:The life and characteristics of stars and galaxies\nOrigins of the universe. Physical science uses the Big Bang theory as the commonly accepted scientific theory of the origin of the universe.\nA heliocentric Solar System. Ancient cultures saw the Earth as the centre of the Solar System or universe (geocentrism). In the 16th century, Nicolaus Copernicus advanced the ideas of heliocentrism, recognizing the Sun as the centre of the Solar System.\nThe structure of solar systems, planets, comets, asteroids, and meteors\nThe shape and structure of Earth (roughly spherical, see also Spherical Earth)\nEarth in the Solar System\nTime measurement\nThe composition and features of the Moon\nInteractions of the Earth and Moon(Note: Astronomy should not be confused with astrology, which assumes[10][11][12] that people's destiny and human affairs in general correlate to the apparent positions of astronomical objects in the sky – although the two fields share a common origin, they are quite different; astronomers embrace the scientific method, while astrologers do not.)","title":"General principles of the physical sciences"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry"},{"link_name":"matter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matter"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-definition-9"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chemistry-10"},{"link_name":"atoms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom"},{"link_name":"molecules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecule"},{"link_name":"chemical bonds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_bond"},{"link_name":"chemical compounds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_compound"},{"link_name":"electrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron"},{"link_name":"energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy"},{"link_name":"photochemical reactions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photochemical_reaction"},{"link_name":"oxidation-reduction reactions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redox"},{"link_name":"changes in phases of matter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_transition"},{"link_name":"separation of mixtures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separation_process"},{"link_name":"alloys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloy"},{"link_name":"polymers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymer"},{"link_name":"pharmaceutical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmaceutical"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Partial_ordering_of_the_sciences_Balaban_Klein_Scientometrics2006_615-637.svg"},{"link_name":"the central science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_central_science"},{"link_name":"Physical chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_chemistry"},{"link_name":"Chemical thermodynamics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_thermodynamics"},{"link_name":"Reaction kinetics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_kinetics"},{"link_name":"Molecular structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_structure"},{"link_name":"Quantum chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_chemistry"},{"link_name":"Spectroscopy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectroscopy"},{"link_name":"Theoretical chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_chemistry"},{"link_name":"Electron configuration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_configuration"},{"link_name":"Molecular modelling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_modelling"},{"link_name":"Molecular dynamics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_dynamics"},{"link_name":"Statistical mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_mechanics"},{"link_name":"Computational chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_chemistry"},{"link_name":"Mathematical chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_chemistry"},{"link_name":"Cheminformatics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheminformatics"},{"link_name":"Nuclear chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_chemistry"},{"link_name":"atomic nucleus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_nucleus"},{"link_name":"radioactive decay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_decay"},{"link_name":"Nuclear reactions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_reactions"},{"link_name":"Organic chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_organic_chemistry"},{"link_name":"Organic compounds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_compounds"},{"link_name":"Organic reaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_reaction"},{"link_name":"Functional groups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_groups"},{"link_name":"Organic synthesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_synthesis"},{"link_name":"Inorganic chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inorganic_chemistry"},{"link_name":"Inorganic compounds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inorganic_compounds"},{"link_name":"Crystal structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_structure"},{"link_name":"Coordination chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordination_complex"},{"link_name":"Solid-state chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid-state_chemistry"},{"link_name":"Biochemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_biochemistry"},{"link_name":"Analytical chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytical_chemistry"},{"link_name":"Instrumental analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_chemistry"},{"link_name":"Electroanalytical method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroanalytical_method"},{"link_name":"Wet chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wet_chemistry"},{"link_name":"Electrochemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrochemistry"},{"link_name":"Redox reaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redox_reaction"},{"link_name":"Materials chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materials_chemistry"}],"sub_title":"Basic principles of chemistry","text":"Chemistry – branch of science that studies the composition, structure, properties and change of matter.[8][9] Chemistry is chiefly concerned with atoms and molecules and their interactions and transformations, for example, the properties of the chemical bonds formed between atoms to create chemical compounds. As such, chemistry studies the involvement of electrons and various forms of energy in photochemical reactions, oxidation-reduction reactions, changes in phases of matter, and separation of mixtures. Preparation and properties of complex substances, such as alloys, polymers, biological molecules, and pharmaceutical agents are considered in specialized fields of chemistry.Chemistry, the central science, partial ordering of the sciences proposed by Balaban and Klein.Physical chemistry\nChemical thermodynamics\nReaction kinetics\nMolecular structure\nQuantum chemistry\nSpectroscopy\nTheoretical chemistry\nElectron configuration\nMolecular modelling\nMolecular dynamics\nStatistical mechanics\nComputational chemistry\nMathematical chemistry\nCheminformatics\nNuclear chemistry\nThe nature of the atomic nucleus\nCharacterization of radioactive decay\nNuclear reactions\nOrganic chemistry\nOrganic compounds\nOrganic reaction\nFunctional groups\nOrganic synthesis\nInorganic chemistry\nInorganic compounds\nCrystal structure\nCoordination chemistry\nSolid-state chemistry\nBiochemistry\nAnalytical chemistry\nInstrumental analysis\nElectroanalytical method\nWet chemistry\nElectrochemistry\nRedox reaction\nMaterials chemistry","title":"General principles of the physical sciences"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Earth science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_earth_science"},{"link_name":"science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science"},{"link_name":"Earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Outline_of_physical_science&action=edit"},{"link_name":"life-bearing planet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary_habitability"},{"link_name":"water cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_cycle"},{"link_name":"transpiration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transpiration"},{"link_name":"Freshwater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freshwater"},{"link_name":"Oceanography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanography"},{"link_name":"Weathering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weathering"},{"link_name":"erosion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erosion"},{"link_name":"Rocks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_(geology)"},{"link_name":"Agrophysics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agrophysics"},{"link_name":"Soil science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_science"},{"link_name":"Pedogenesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedogenesis"},{"link_name":"Soil fertility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_fertility"},{"link_name":"tectonic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tectonics"},{"link_name":"Geomorphology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorphology"},{"link_name":"geophysics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_geophysics"},{"link_name":"Physical geography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_geography"},{"link_name":"Seismology: stress, strain, and earthquakes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seismology"},{"link_name":"mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain"},{"link_name":"volcanoes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcano"},{"link_name":"fossils","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil"},{"link_name":"Atmospheric sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_sciences"},{"link_name":"Atmosphere of Earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth"},{"link_name":"Atmospheric pressure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_pressure"},{"link_name":"winds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind"},{"link_name":"Evaporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaporation"},{"link_name":"condensation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condensation"},{"link_name":"humidity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humidity"},{"link_name":"Fog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fog"},{"link_name":"clouds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud"},{"link_name":"Meteorology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_meteorology"},{"link_name":"weather","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather"},{"link_name":"climatology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatology"},{"link_name":"climate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate"},{"link_name":"Hydrology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrology"},{"link_name":"clouds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud"},{"link_name":"precipitation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precipitation_(meteorology)"},{"link_name":"Air masses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_mass"},{"link_name":"weather fronts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather_front"},{"link_name":"thunderstorms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thunderstorm"},{"link_name":"tornadoes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado"},{"link_name":"hurricanes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurricane"},{"link_name":"Major climate groups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate#Climate_classification"},{"link_name":"Speleology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speleology"},{"link_name":"Cave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cave"}],"sub_title":"Basic principles of Earth science","text":"Earth science – the science of the planet Earth, as of 2018[update] the only identified life-bearing planet. Its studies include the following:The water cycle and the process of transpiration\nFreshwater\nOceanography\nWeathering and erosion\nRocks\nAgrophysics\nSoil science\nPedogenesis\nSoil fertility\nEarth's tectonic structure\nGeomorphology and geophysics\nPhysical geography\nSeismology: stress, strain, and earthquakes\nCharacteristics of mountains and volcanoes\nCharacteristics and formation of fossils\nAtmospheric sciences – the branches of science that study the atmosphere, its processes, the effects other systems have on the atmosphere, and the effects of the atmosphere on these other systems.\nAtmosphere of Earth\nAtmospheric pressure and winds\nEvaporation, condensation, and humidity\nFog and clouds\nMeteorology, weather, climatology, and climate\nHydrology, clouds and precipitation\nAir masses and weather fronts\nMajor storms: thunderstorms, tornadoes, and hurricanes\nMajor climate groups\nSpeleology\nCave","title":"General principles of the physical sciences"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of physicists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physicists"},{"link_name":"List of astronomers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomers"},{"link_name":"List of chemists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists"}],"text":"List of physicists\nList of astronomers\nList of chemists","title":"Notable physical scientists"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of Russian Earth scientists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Russian_Earth_scientists"}],"sub_title":"Earth scientists","text":"List of Russian Earth scientists","title":"Notable physical scientists"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"cosmos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmos"},{"link_name":"philosophical world","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_(philosophy)"}],"text":"^ The term 'universe' is defined as everything that physically exists: the entirety of space and time, all forms of matter, energy and momentum, and the physical laws and constants that govern them. However, the term 'universe' may also be used in slightly different contextual senses, denoting concepts such as the cosmos or the philosophical world.","title":"Notes"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Chemistry, the central science, partial ordering of the sciences proposed by Balaban and Klein.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Partial_ordering_of_the_sciences_Balaban_Klein_Scientometrics2006_615-637.svg/450px-Partial_ordering_of_the_sciences_Balaban_Klein_Scientometrics2006_615-637.svg.png"}]
|
[{"title":"Outline of science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science"},{"title":"Outline of natural science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_natural_science"},{"title":"Outline of earth science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_earth_science"},{"title":"Outline of formal science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_formal_science"},{"title":"Outline of social science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_social_science"},{"title":"Outline of applied science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_applied_science"}]
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[{"reference":"Wilson, Edward O. (1998). Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge (1st ed.). New York, NY: Vintage Books. pp. 49–71. ISBN 0-679-45077-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/consilienceunity00wils/page/49","url_text":"Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/consilienceunity00wils/page/49","url_text":"49–71"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-679-45077-7","url_text":"0-679-45077-7"}]},{"reference":"\"science\". Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Merriam-Webster, Inc. Retrieved 2011-10-16. 3 a: knowledge or a system of knowledge covering general truths or the operation of general laws especially as obtained and tested through scientific method b: such knowledge or such a system of knowledge concerned with the physical world and its phenomena","urls":[{"url":"http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/science","url_text":"\"science\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merriam-Webster","url_text":"Merriam-Webster"}]},{"reference":"Russell, John B. \"What is Chemistry?\". Chemweb.ucc.ie. Archived from the original on 3 January 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210103071622/http://chemweb.ucc.ie/what_is_chemistry.htm","url_text":"\"What is Chemistry?\""},{"url":"http://chemweb.ucc.ie/what_is_chemistry.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Scharringhausen, Britt. \"What's the difference between astronomy and astrology? (Beginner) – Curious About Astronomy? Ask an Astronomer\". curious.astro.cornell.edu. Retrieved 2017-05-27.","urls":[{"url":"http://curious.astro.cornell.edu/about-us/145-people-in-astronomy/careers-in-astronomy/general-questions/899-what-s-the-difference-between-astronomy-and-astrology-beginner","url_text":"\"What's the difference between astronomy and astrology? (Beginner) – Curious About Astronomy? Ask an Astronomer\""}]},{"reference":"Temming, Maria (July 14, 2014). \"Astrology vs Astronomy: What's the Difference?\". Sky & Telescope.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.skyandtelescope.com/astronomy-resources/whats-difference-astrology-vs-astronomy/","url_text":"\"Astrology vs Astronomy: What's the Difference?\""}]},{"reference":"\"astrology | Origin and meaning of astrology by Online Etymology Dictionary\". www.etymonline.com. Retrieved 2017-10-17.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.etymonline.com/word/astrology","url_text":"\"astrology | Origin and meaning of astrology by Online Etymology Dictionary\""}]},{"reference":"Feynman, R.P.; Leighton, R.B.; Sands, M. (1963). The Feynman Lectures on Physics. Vol. 1. ISBN 0-201-02116-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman","url_text":"Feynman, R.P."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Feynman_Lectures_on_Physics","url_text":"The Feynman Lectures on Physics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-02116-1","url_text":"0-201-02116-1"}]},{"reference":"Holzner, S. (2006). Physics for Dummies. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-470-61841-8. Physics is the study of your world and universe around you.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0764554336","url_text":"Physics for Dummies"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons","url_text":"John Wiley & Sons"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-470-61841-8","url_text":"0-470-61841-8"}]},{"reference":"Maxwell, J.C. (1878). Matter and Motion. D. Van Nostrand. ISBN 0-486-66895-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell","url_text":"Maxwell, J.C."},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/matterandmotion03maxwgoog","url_text":"Matter and Motion"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-66895-9","url_text":"0-486-66895-9"}]},{"reference":"Young, H.D.; Freedman, R.A. (2014). Sears and Zemansky's University Physics with Modern Physics Technology Update (13th ed.). Pearson Education. ISBN 978-1-292-02063-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_Physics","url_text":"Sears and Zemansky's University Physics with Modern Physics Technology Update"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearson_Education","url_text":"Pearson Education"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-292-02063-1","url_text":"978-1-292-02063-1"}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Outline_of_physical_science&action=edit","external_links_name":"[update]"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/consilienceunity00wils/page/49","external_links_name":"Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/consilienceunity00wils/page/49","external_links_name":"49–71"},{"Link":"http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/science","external_links_name":"\"science\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210103071622/http://chemweb.ucc.ie/what_is_chemistry.htm","external_links_name":"\"What is Chemistry?\""},{"Link":"http://chemweb.ucc.ie/what_is_chemistry.htm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Chemistry","external_links_name":"Chemistry"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160305233029/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/chemistry","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://curious.astro.cornell.edu/about-us/145-people-in-astronomy/careers-in-astronomy/general-questions/899-what-s-the-difference-between-astronomy-and-astrology-beginner","external_links_name":"\"What's the difference between astronomy and astrology? (Beginner) – Curious About Astronomy? Ask an Astronomer\""},{"Link":"https://www.skyandtelescope.com/astronomy-resources/whats-difference-astrology-vs-astronomy/","external_links_name":"\"Astrology vs Astronomy: What's the Difference?\""},{"Link":"http://www.etymonline.com/word/astrology","external_links_name":"\"astrology | Origin and meaning of astrology by Online Etymology Dictionary\""},{"Link":"https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0764554336","external_links_name":"Physics for Dummies"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/matterandmotion03maxwgoog","external_links_name":"Matter and Motion"},{"Link":"https://ck12.org/physical-science/","external_links_name":"Physical science topics and articles for school curricula (grades K-12)"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007534572205171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh89005705","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000081598&P_CON_LNG=ENG","external_links_name":"Latvia"},{"Link":"https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10644274","external_links_name":"NARA"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_the_Computer
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Fred the Computer
|
["1 Dial-up newspapers","2 References","3 External links"]
|
At the Middlesex News, the first general-circulation U.S. newspaper on the Internet
Fred the Computer was launched in 1987 by the Middlesex News in Framingham, Massachusetts. A single-line BBS system, it was used to preview the next day's edition with news headlines and weather information. It was sometimes called Fred the Middlesex News Computer.
The original sysop for the system was Sharon Machlis, now an online editor at Computerworld, who built the system out of TBBS and a dual-floppy Leading Edge PC. Adam Gaffin (later editor of universalhub.com), took over after Machlis left and upgraded the system to a 286. Subscriptions from readers enabled him to purchase a 19.2k modem and a second phone line for the system. Later, Fred was used to organize and display the newspaper's archive of film reviews.
Along with 10 other members of the Associated Press, the Middlesex News in 1980 offered a digital text edition to CompuServe. The bulletin board service's subscribers could then, via dial-up, access News stories on their personal computers.
Dial-up newspapers
In 1987, when the Middlesex News debuted its own BBS, subscribers could dial into Fred and see the next day's headlines, submit press releases and write letters to the editor. This was one of the earliest online transmissions of news directly from a newspaper to its readers. Karen McKelvey's 1991 guide to dial-up libraries and newspapers lists only five: Fred the Computer, Newsday's Newsday Online, StarText (Fort Worth Star-Telegram), Omaha CityNet (Omaha World-Telegram) and the Electric Newspaper (Long Beach Press-Telegram).
In 1993, the Middlesex News set up a Gopher site, making it the first general-circulation United States newspaper on the Internet, offering daily headlines, movie reviews and restaurant reports. In 1998, the Middlesex News became the MetroWest Daily News which launched its online edition September 2001.
References
^ "Eleven Newspapers Chosen for Electronic Delivery Test". The Boston Globe, p. 1, June 27, 1980.
^ "McKelvey, Karen. CERFnet: No-fee dial-ups, 1991". Archived from the original on 2006-09-28. Retrieved 2006-08-19.
External links
Adam Gaffin at the Middlesex News
Commercial Online Newspaper Services (2/26/95) Archived 2008-12-03 at the Wayback Machine
Public Access to Library Catalogs
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Middlesex News","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MetroWest_Daily_News"},{"link_name":"Framingham, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Framingham,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"BBS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulletin_board_system"},{"link_name":"Computerworld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computerworld"},{"link_name":"Leading Edge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leading_Edge_Products"},{"link_name":"PC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_PC_compatible"},{"link_name":"286","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_80286"},{"link_name":"modem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modem"},{"link_name":"phone line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_line"},{"link_name":"Associated Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associated_Press"},{"link_name":"CompuServe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CompuServe"},{"link_name":"dial-up","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dial-up_Internet_access"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"Fred the Computer was launched in 1987 by the Middlesex News in Framingham, Massachusetts. A single-line BBS system, it was used to preview the next day's edition with news headlines and weather information. It was sometimes called Fred the Middlesex News Computer.The original sysop for the system was Sharon Machlis, now an online editor at Computerworld, who built the system out of TBBS and a dual-floppy Leading Edge PC. Adam Gaffin (later editor of universalhub.com), took over after Machlis left and upgraded the system to a 286. Subscriptions from readers enabled him to purchase a 19.2k modem and a second phone line for the system. Later, Fred was used to organize and display the newspaper's archive of film reviews.Along with 10 other members of the Associated Press, the Middlesex News in 1980 offered a digital text edition to CompuServe. The bulletin board service's subscribers could then, via dial-up, access News stories on their personal computers.[1]","title":"Fred the Computer"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Newsday","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newsday"},{"link_name":"StarText","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/StarText"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Gopher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gopher_(protocol)"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"MetroWest Daily News","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MetroWest_Daily_News"}],"text":"In 1987, when the Middlesex News debuted its own BBS, subscribers could dial into Fred and see the next day's headlines, submit press releases and write letters to the editor. This was one of the earliest online transmissions of news directly from a newspaper to its readers. Karen McKelvey's 1991 guide to dial-up libraries and newspapers lists only five: Fred the Computer, Newsday's Newsday Online, StarText (Fort Worth Star-Telegram), Omaha CityNet (Omaha World-Telegram) and the Electric Newspaper (Long Beach Press-Telegram).[2]In 1993, the Middlesex News set up a Gopher site, making it the first general-circulation United States newspaper on the Internet, offering daily headlines, movie reviews and restaurant reports. In 1998, the Middlesex News became the MetroWest Daily News which launched its online edition September 2001.","title":"Dial-up newspapers"}]
|
[]
| null |
[{"reference":"\"McKelvey, Karen. CERFnet: No-fee dial-ups, 1991\". Archived from the original on 2006-09-28. Retrieved 2006-08-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060928011020/http://alimentarus.net/internet_guides/internet.libraries.txt","url_text":"\"McKelvey, Karen. CERFnet: No-fee dial-ups, 1991\""},{"url":"http://alimentarus.net/internet_guides/internet.libraries.txt","url_text":"the original"}]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060928011020/http://alimentarus.net/internet_guides/internet.libraries.txt","external_links_name":"\"McKelvey, Karen. CERFnet: No-fee dial-ups, 1991\""},{"Link":"http://alimentarus.net/internet_guides/internet.libraries.txt","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.textfiles.com/digest/TELECOMDIGEST/vol11.iss1051-1061.txt","external_links_name":"Adam Gaffin at the Middlesex News"},{"Link":"https://www.eff.org/Net_culture/Net_info/Resources/newspapers_online.list","external_links_name":"Commercial Online Newspaper Services (2/26/95)"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20081203203136/http://www.eff.org/Net_culture/Net_info/Resources/newspapers_online.list","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.textfiles.com/bbs/libcat.pro","external_links_name":"Public Access to Library Catalogs"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_David_Michaelis
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Johann David Michaelis
|
["1 Life and work","2 Family","3 References"]
|
Prussian academic (1717–1791)
Johann David Michaelis (1790)
Johann David Michaelis (27 February 1717 – 22 August 1791) was a German biblical scholar and teacher. He was member of a family that was committed to solid discipline in Hebrew and the cognate languages, which distinguished the University of Halle in the period of Pietism. He was a member of the Göttingen school of history.
Life and work
Michaelis was born on 27 February 1717 in Halle an der Saale. His Pietistic Lutheran family placed a great deal of importance in the study of Oriental languages in fulfilling the Church's goal. He was trained for academic life under his father's eye. At Halle he was influenced, especially in philosophy, by Siegmund J. Baumgarten (1706–1757), the link between the old Pietism and J. S. Semler, while he cultivated his strong taste for history under Chancellor Ludwig.
In 1739, he completed his doctoral dissertation, where he defended the antiquity and divine authority of the vowel points in Hebrew. His scholarship still moved along the old traditional lines, and he was also much exercised by certain religious scruples, with some seeing a conflict between his independent mind and that of submission to authority - encouraged by the Lutheranism in which he had been trained. He visited England and the Netherlands in 1741–1742. In Holland, he became acquainted with Albert Schultens, whose philological views would influence him. In 1745 he became an assistant professor (Privatdozent) of oriental languages at the Göttingen. In 1746 he became professor extraordinarius and in 1750 ordinarius. He remained in Göttingen until his death in 1791. From 1771-1785 he was editor of the Orientalische Und Exegetische Bibliothek.
One of his works was a translation of four parts of Samuel Richardson's Clarissa; and translations of some of the then current English paraphrases on biblical books showed his sympathy with a school which attracted him by its freer air. His Oriental studies were reshaped by reading Schultens; for the Halle school, with all its learning, had no conception of the principles on which a fruitful connection between Biblical and Oriental learning could be established. His linguistic work was hampered by the lack of manuscript material, which is felt in his philological writings, e.g., in his valuable Supplementa to the Hebrew lexicons (1784–1792). He could not become such an Arabist as J. J. Reiske; and, though for many years the most famous teacher of Semitic languages in Europe, neither his grammatical nor his critical work has left a permanent mark, with the exception perhaps of his text-critical studies on the Peshitta. He had a particular interest for history, antiquities, and especially geography and natural science. He had in fact started his university course as a medicinae cultor, and in his autobiography he half regrets that he did not choose the medical profession. In geography he found a field hardly touched since Samuel Bochart, in whose footsteps he followed in the Spicilegium geographiae hebraeorum exterae post Bochartum (1769–1780).
Michaelis inspired the famous Danish Arabia Expedition (1761–67), conducted by Carsten Niebuhr and Peter Forsskål. The cuneiform inscriptions Niebuhr brought back from the expedition were the basis for the earliest attempts made to decipher cuneiform. In spite of his doctrinal writings—which at the time made no little noise, so that his Compendium of Dogmatic (1760) was confiscated in Sweden, and the Knighthood of the Polar Star was afterwards given him in reparation—it was the natural side of the Bible that really attracted him. Michaelis arguably contributed the most in introducing the method of studying Hebrew antiquity as an integral part of ancient Eastern life.
Johann David Michaelis (1717-91)
The personal character of Michaelis can be read between the lines of his autobiography with the aid of the other materials collected by J. M. Hassencamp (J. D. Michaelis Lebensbeschreibung, etc., 1793). The same volume contains a full list of his works. Besides those already mentioned it is sufficient to refer to his Introduction to the New Testament (the first edition, 1750, preceded the full development of his powers, and is a very different book from the later editions), his reprint of Robert Lowth's Praelectiones with important additions (1758–1762), his German translation of the Bible with notes (1773–1792), his Orientalische und exegetische Bibliothek (1775–1785) and Neue O. und E. Bib. (1786–1791), his Mosaisches Recht (1770–1771) (quite influenced by Montesquieu's L'esprit des lois of 1748) and his edition of Edmund Castell's Lexicon syriacum (1787–1788). His Litterarischer Briefwechsel (1794–1796) contains much that is interesting for the history of learning in his time.
He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1789.
Family
Michaelis' great uncle Johann Heinrich Michaelis (1668–1738) was the chief director of A.H. Francke's Collegium orientale theologicum, a practical school of Biblical and Oriental philology then quite unique, and the author of an annotated Hebrew Bible and various exegetical works of reputation, especially the Adnotationes uberiores in hagiographos (1720).
Michaelis' daughter Luise Michaelis was briefly engaged to Gothic writer and philosopher Carl Grosse.
In his chief publications J. H. Michaelis had as fellow-worker his sister's son Christian Benedikt Michaelis (1680–1764), the father of Johann David, who was likewise influential as professor at the University of Halle, and a sound scholar, especially in Syriac.
Michaelis' daughter Caroline played an important role in early German Romanticism as the wife of critic August Wilhelm von Schlegel and later of philosopher Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling.
References
^ a b c d e f g h i j k One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Michaelis, Johann David". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 18 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 360.
^ Stroumsa, Guy G. (2021). The Idea of Semitic Monotheism: The Rise and Fall of a Scholarly Myth. Oxford University Press. p. 67. ISBN 9780192653864.
^ a b c d e f McKim, Donald K. (2007). Dictionary of Major Biblical Interpreters. InterVarsity Press. p. 736. ISBN 9780830829279.
^ "Fellow details". Royal Society. Archived from the original on 14 March 2022. Retrieved 26 January 2016.
^ Bridgwater, Patrick (2013). German Gothic Novel in Anglo-German Perspective. Amsterdam: Rodopi. p. 74. ISBN 978-1-306-16765-9. OCLC 864747549.
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He was member of a family that was committed to solid discipline in Hebrew and the cognate languages, which distinguished the University of Halle in the period of Pietism.[1] He was a member of the Göttingen school of history.[2]","title":"Johann David Michaelis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Halle an der Saale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halle_an_der_Saale"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McKim-3"},{"link_name":"Pietistic Lutheran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pietism"},{"link_name":"Oriental languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oriental_languages"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McKim-3"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-1"},{"link_name":"philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy"},{"link_name":"Siegmund J. Baumgarten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siegmund_Jakob_Baumgarten"},{"link_name":"J. S. 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M. Hassencamp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Matth%C3%A4us_Hassencamp"},{"link_name":"Introduction to the New Testament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=52suAAAAYAAJ"},{"link_name":"Robert Lowth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Lowth"},{"link_name":"Montesquieu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montesquieu"},{"link_name":"Edmund Castell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Castell"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-1"},{"link_name":"Fellow of the Royal Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Michaelis was born on 27 February 1717 in Halle an der Saale.[3] His Pietistic Lutheran family placed a great deal of importance in the study of Oriental languages in fulfilling the Church's goal.[3] He was trained for academic life under his father's eye.[1] At Halle he was influenced, especially in philosophy, by Siegmund J. Baumgarten (1706–1757), the link between the old Pietism and J. S. Semler, while he cultivated his strong taste for history under Chancellor Ludwig.[1]In 1739, he completed his doctoral dissertation, where he defended the antiquity and divine authority of the vowel points in Hebrew.[3] His scholarship still moved along the old traditional lines, and he was also much exercised by certain religious scruples, with some seeing a conflict between his independent mind and that of submission to authority - encouraged by the Lutheranism in which he had been trained.[1] He visited England and the Netherlands in 1741–1742. In Holland, he became acquainted with Albert Schultens, whose philological views would influence him.[3] In 1745 he became an assistant professor (Privatdozent) of oriental languages at the Göttingen. In 1746 he became professor extraordinarius and in 1750 ordinarius. He remained in Göttingen until his death in 1791.[1] From 1771-1785 he was editor of the Orientalische Und Exegetische Bibliothek.[3]One of his works was a translation of four parts of Samuel Richardson's Clarissa; and translations of some of the then current English paraphrases on biblical books showed his sympathy with a school which attracted him by its freer air. His Oriental studies were reshaped by reading Schultens; for the Halle school, with all its learning, had no conception of the principles on which a fruitful connection between Biblical and Oriental learning could be established. His linguistic work was hampered by the lack of manuscript material, which is felt in his philological writings, e.g., in his valuable Supplementa to the Hebrew lexicons (1784–1792). He could not become such an Arabist as J. J. Reiske; and, though for many years the most famous teacher of Semitic languages in Europe, neither his grammatical nor his critical work has left a permanent mark, with the exception perhaps of his text-critical studies on the Peshitta.[1] He had a particular interest for history, antiquities, and especially geography and natural science. He had in fact started his university course as a medicinae cultor, and in his autobiography he half regrets that he did not choose the medical profession. In geography he found a field hardly touched since Samuel Bochart, in whose footsteps he followed in the Spicilegium geographiae hebraeorum exterae post Bochartum (1769–1780).[1]Michaelis inspired the famous Danish Arabia Expedition (1761–67), conducted by Carsten Niebuhr and Peter Forsskål. The cuneiform inscriptions Niebuhr brought back from the expedition were the basis for the earliest attempts made to decipher cuneiform.[3] In spite of his doctrinal writings—which at the time made no little noise, so that his Compendium of Dogmatic (1760) was confiscated in Sweden, and the Knighthood of the Polar Star was afterwards given him in reparation—it was the natural side of the Bible that really attracted him. Michaelis arguably contributed the most in introducing the method of studying Hebrew antiquity as an integral part of ancient Eastern life.[1]Johann David Michaelis (1717-91)The personal character of Michaelis can be read between the lines of his autobiography with the aid of the other materials collected by J. M. Hassencamp (J. D. Michaelis Lebensbeschreibung, etc., 1793). The same volume contains a full list of his works. Besides those already mentioned it is sufficient to refer to his Introduction to the New Testament (the first edition, 1750, preceded the full development of his powers, and is a very different book from the later editions), his reprint of Robert Lowth's Praelectiones with important additions (1758–1762), his German translation of the Bible with notes (1773–1792), his Orientalische und exegetische Bibliothek (1775–1785) and Neue O. und E. Bib. (1786–1791), his Mosaisches Recht (1770–1771) (quite influenced by Montesquieu's L'esprit des lois of 1748) and his edition of Edmund Castell's Lexicon syriacum (1787–1788). His Litterarischer Briefwechsel (1794–1796) contains much that is interesting for the history of learning in his time.[1]He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1789.[4]","title":"Life and work"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Johann Heinrich Michaelis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Johann_Heinrich_Michaelis&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"A.H. Francke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Hermann_Francke"},{"link_name":"philology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philology"},{"link_name":"exegetical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exegetical"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-1"},{"link_name":"Carl Grosse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Grosse"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-5"},{"link_name":"Christian Benedikt Michaelis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Christian_Benedikt_Michaelis&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Syriac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syriac_language"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-1"},{"link_name":"Caroline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karoline_Schelling"},{"link_name":"Romanticism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism"},{"link_name":"August Wilhelm von Schlegel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Wilhelm_von_Schlegel"},{"link_name":"Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_Schelling"}],"text":"Michaelis' great uncle Johann Heinrich Michaelis (1668–1738) was the chief director of A.H. Francke's Collegium orientale theologicum, a practical school of Biblical and Oriental philology then quite unique, and the author of an annotated Hebrew Bible and various exegetical works of reputation, especially the Adnotationes uberiores in hagiographos (1720).[1]\nMichaelis' daughter Luise Michaelis was briefly engaged to Gothic writer and philosopher Carl Grosse.[5]\nIn his chief publications J. H. Michaelis had as fellow-worker his sister's son Christian Benedikt Michaelis (1680–1764), the father of Johann David, who was likewise influential as professor at the University of Halle, and a sound scholar, especially in Syriac.[1]\nMichaelis' daughter Caroline played an important role in early German Romanticism as the wife of critic August Wilhelm von Schlegel and later of philosopher Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling.","title":"Family"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_music
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Islamic music
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["1 Secular and folk musical styles","1.1 Classical Islamic music","1.2 Middle East","1.3 North Africa","1.4 Horn of Africa","1.5 West Africa","1.6 Central Asia","1.7 South Asia","1.8 Southeast Asia","2 Types of Muslim devotional recitation and music","2.1 Nasheed","2.2 Music for public religious celebrations","3 Modes","4 Instruments","5 Differences of opinion over prohibition","6 Contemporary Islamic music","7 See also","8 References","9 Further reading"]
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Musical traditions of the Muslim world
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A Musical Gathering – Ottoman, 18th century
Part of a series onIslamic studies
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vte
Islamic music may refer to religious music, as performed in Islamic public services or private devotions, or more generally to musical traditions of the Muslim world. The heartland of Islam is the Middle East, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, Balkans, and West Africa,
Iran, Central Asia, and South Asia. Due to Islam being a multi-ethnic religion, the musical expression of its adherents is vastly diverse. Indigenous traditions of various part have influenced the musical styles popular among Muslims today. The word "music" in Arabic, the language of Islam, (mūsīqā موسيقى) is defined more narrowly than in English or some other languages, and "its concept" was at least originally "reserved for secular art music; separate names and concepts belonged to folk songs and to religious chants".
At least one scholar (Jacob M. Landau) makes the generalization about Islamic music that it "is characterized by a highly subtle organization of melody and rhythm", that "the vocal component predominates over the instrumental", and that the individual musician "is permitted, and indeed encouraged, to improvise".
Historically, the question of whether music is permitted in Islamic jurisprudence is disputed. Regardless, Islamic art and music flourished during the Islamic Golden Age. Islamic music is also credited with influencing European and Western music; for example, French musicologist Baron Rodolphe d'Erlanger in his assessment of the Abbasid Caliphate in Islamic history credits Abu Nasr Muhammad al-Farabi's Kitabu l'musiqi al-kabir ("The Great Book of Music") with this influence.
Secular and folk musical styles
Classical Islamic music
According to scholar Jacob M. Landau, "a fusion of musical styles" was able to develop between "pre-Islamic Arabian music" and the music of Persians, Byzantines, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Turks, Moors, because of "strong affinities between Arabic music and the music of the nations occupied by the expanding Arabic peoples". The core area where this "new art" of classical Islamic music succeeded stretched "from the Nile valley to Persia".
However, many parts of the Muslim world did not adopt the "new art" of classical Islamic music, or adopted it but also kept native music forms which were "alien" to classical Islamic music. In general, the farther from the area between the Nile and Persia one travels, "the less one finds undiluted Islamic music."
Middle East
Arabic music
Egyptian music
Iranian music
Turkish classical music
Yemeni music
All of these regions were connected by trade long before the Islamic conquests of the 7th century, and it is likely that musical styles travelled the same routes as trade goods. However, lacking recordings, we can only speculate as to the pre-Islamic music of these areas. Islam must have had a great influence on music, as it united vast areas under the first caliphs, and facilitated trade between distant lands. Certainly, the Sufis, brotherhoods of Muslim mystics, spread their music far and wide.
Khaliji music has roots going back more than 1,000 years, to the Islamic period, under the Umayyads and Abbasids.
North Africa
The Berber and Arabic speaking countries of Central and Western North Africa, such as Morocco, Algeria, Libya and Tunisia, share some musical traditions with Egypt and the Arabic-speaking countries of the Middle East. Popular modern styles of music such as Raï and Chaabi originated in Berber countries. In addition, West African influences can be heard in the popular music of Gnawa.
Music of Algeria
Music of Morocco
Horn of Africa
Somali oud player Nuruddin Ali Amaan
Most Somali music is based on the pentatonic scale. That is, the songs only use five pitches per octave in contrast to a heptatonic (seven note) scale such as the major scale. At first listen, Somali music might be mistaken for the sounds of nearby regions such as Ethiopia, Sudan or Eritrea, but it is ultimately recognizable by its own unique tunes and styles. Somali songs are usually the product of collaboration between lyricists (midho), songwriters (lahan), and singers ('odka or "voice"). Instruments prominently featured in Somali music include the kaban (oud).
West Africa
Main articles: West African music and African music
Islam is the largest and oldest organized religion in this region, although indigenous Sahelian and Saharan styles and genres are more prominent than those influenced by Middle-Eastern theory.
West African musical genres are more varied, and tend to incorporate both native and Berber influences, rather than those of Arab origin. A long history of court griot music based on historical accounts and praise-singing exists in the region. Wind and string instruments, such as the Kora harp, xalam lute, or Tambin flute (similar to the ney) are generally preferred to percussion, although percussion instruments such as the talking drum and djembe are also widely played among Muslim populations
Central Asia
Many of the countries in Central Asia such as Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan have been heavily influenced by Turkic and Persian culture. Bowed instruments are common, as is bardic singing.
Music of Central Asia
South Asia
See also: Qawwali
Qawwali in India
The music of the Muslim countries of South Asia (Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Maldives and Pakistan) as well as countries with sizeable Muslim minorities (India, Nepal and Sri Lanka) merged Middle Eastern genres with indigenous classical musical modes, and is generally distinct in style and orchestration, yet due to the strong links encountered between the Middle-East, Central Asia, and South Asia, it is closer to Middle-Eastern styles than those of the periphery of the Islamic world, which tend to be purely indigenous.
Music of Afghanistan
Music of Bangladesh
Music of Maldives
Music of Pakistan
Southeast Asia
"Al-Ushyaaq" Arab-Indonesian Gambus musical ensemble in Jakarta, 1949
Main articles: Gamelan and Kulintang
Muslim-majority Indonesia has been significantly less influenced by Middle Eastern traditions than South Asia. As a result, many local musical styles predate the coming of Islam, although exceptions include Malay Zapin and Joget, and the Indonesian Gambus (derived from Qanbus), all of which show strong Middle Eastern influence.
There are also local music genres in Muslim-majority regions in Southeast Asia that are influenced by Arabian traditions, such as the tagonian of the Sundanese people and glipang of the people of Probolinggo
The music of South East Asia's Muslim-majority regions is more closely related to the musical genres of South East and East Asia. Gong chime ensembles such as Gamelan and Kulintang existed in the region before the arrival of Islam, and musical theory and method owe more to heavy Chinese influence, as well as Hindu–Buddhist principles, than to Arabic musical philosophy. Variations of one of two main scales prevail in the region among different ensembles: slendro and pelog (both of which originated in Java).
In Java, use of the gamelan for Islamic devotional music was encouraged by the Muslim saint Sunan Kalijogo.
Types of Muslim devotional recitation and music
Nasheed
Main article: Nasheed
Nasheeds are moral, religious recitations recited in various melodies by some Muslims of today without any musical instruments. However, some nasheed groups use percussion instruments, such as the daff. Singing moral songs of this type without instrumentation is considered permissible (halal) by many Muslims.Main article: Sufi music
Further information: Qawwali, Kafi, and Sufi rock
Sufi worship services are often called dhikr or zikr. See that article for further elaboration.
The dhikr of South Asian Muslims is "quietist". The Sufi services best known in the West are the chanting and rhythmic dancing of the whirling dervishes or Mevlevi Sufis of Turkey.
However, Sufis may also perform devotional songs in public, for the enjoyment and edification of listeners. The mood is religious, but the gathering is not a worship service.
In Turkey, once the seat of the Ottoman Empire and the Caliphate, concerts of sacred song are called "Mehfil-e-Sama' " (or "gathering of Sama'"). Song forms include ilahi and nefe.
In South Asia, especially Bangladesh, Pakistan and India, a widely known style of Sufi music is qawwali. A traditional qawwali programme would include:
A hamd—a song in praise of Allah
A na`at—a song in praise of Muhammad
Manqabats—songs in praise of the illustrious teachers of the Sufi brotherhood to which the musicians belong
Ghazals—songs of intoxication and yearning, which use the language of romantic love to express the soul's longing for union with the divine.
Shi'a qawwali performances typically follow the naat with a manqabat in praise of Ali,
and sometimes a marsiya, a lamentation over the death of much of Ali's family at the Battle of Karbala.
The most well-known qawwali singer in modern times is Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan.
Another traditional South Asian genre of Sufi music is the Kafi, which is more meditative and involves solo singing as opposed to the ensemble form seen in qawwali. The most widely known exponent of the Kafi is the Pakistani singer Abida Parveen.
Sufi music has developed with the times. A Pakistani Sufi rock band, Junoon, was formed in the 1990s to bring a modern twist to suit the new younger generation. The band achieved wide popularity, in Pakistan as well as in the West.
Music for public religious celebrations
Ta'zieh music—Ta'zieh is a passion play, part musical drama, part religious drama, rarely performed outside Iran. It depicts the martyrdom of Imam Hussein, venerated by Shia Muslims.
Ashurah music—performed during the Muharram mourning period, commemorating the deaths of Imam Hussein and his followers. (Shia)
Thikiri (from the Arabic word "Dhikr") which means remembrance of God—performed by the Qadiriyya Sufi orders of waYao or Yao people in East and Southern Africa (Tanzania, Mozambique, Malawi, Zimbabwe, and South Africa).
Manzuma—moral songs performed in Ethiopia.
Madih nabawi—Arabic hymns praising Muhammad.
Modes
Arabic Maqam
Dastgah
According to scholar Jacob M. Landau, in Islamic music, "melodies are organized in terms of maqāmāt (singular maqām), or "modes," characteristic melodic patterns with prescribed scales, preferential notes, typical melodic and rhythmic formulas, variety of intonations, and other conventional devices."
rhythmic modes are known as īqāʿāt (singular īqāʿ), and they have a "cyclical patterns of strong and weak beats".
Instruments
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (May 2008)
Although there are a wide variety of opinions on the permissibility of musical instruments, those who produce Islamic music with instruments often feature the following instruments:
Traditional:
Drums (daf, bendir, zarb, rebana, etc.)
Gongs
Differences of opinion over prohibition
Main article: Islam and music
Strictly speaking, the words 'Islamic religious music' present a contradiction in terms. The practice of orthodox Sunni and Shi'a Islam does not involve any activity recognized within Muslim cultures as 'music'. The melodious recitation of the Holy Qur'an and the call to prayer are central to Islam, but generic terms for music have never been applied to them. Instead, specialist designations have been used. However, a wide variety of religious and spiritual genres that use musical instruments exists, usually performed at various public and private assemblies outside the orthodox sphere.— Eckhard Neubauer, Veronica Doubleday, Islamic religious music, New Grove Dictionary of Music online
The question of permissibility of music in Islamic jurisprudence is historically disputed, and with the advent of a whole new generation of Muslim musicians who try to blend their work and faith, the issue "has taken on extra significance".
Islamic art and music flourished during the Islamic Golden Age.
Contemporary Islamic music
Notable nasheed artists include:
Atif Aslam – Pakistan
Ahmad Hussain – United Kingdom
Ahmed Bukhatir – United Arab Emirates
Ahmet Özhan – Turkey
Akagündüz Kutbay – Turkey
Abu Ratib – Syria
Al-Andalus Ensemble – Spain
Dawud Wharnsby – Canada
Haddad Alwi – Indonesia
Syech bin Abdul Qodir Assegaf – Indonesia
Hamza Namira – Egypt
Hamza Robertson – United Kingdom
Imad Rami – Syria
Junaid Jamshed – Pakistan
Maher Zain – Sweden
Mecca2Medina – United Kingdom
Mesut Kurtis – United Kingdom
Muslim Belal – United Kingdom
Native Deen – United States
Nazeel Azami – United Kingdom
Raef – United States
Raihan – Malaysia
Sami Yusuf – United Kingdom
Yahya Hawwa – Syria
Yusuf Islam – United Kingdom
Zain Bhikha – South Africa
Notable Sufi singers include:
Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan – Pakistan
Abida Parveen – Pakistan
Sabri Brothers – Pakistan
Munshi Raziuddin – India
Fareed Ayaz – Pakistan
Alam Lohar – Pakistan
Noted composers:
A. R. Rahman – India
Resul Pookutty – India
Rohail Hyatt – Pakistan
See also
Afghanistan National Institute of Music
Durood
Hamd
Islamic poetry
Mawlid
Mehfil
Na'at
Nasheed
Religious music in Iran
Sufi poetry
Sufism
Sufi music
References
^ a b c d e f g Landau, Jacob M. "Islamic Arts. Music". Britannica. Retrieved 4 January 2022.
^ a b Al-Shawkani, Muhammed. Nayl Al-Awtaar. Vol. 8.
^ a b Bhattacharyya, Prasanta; Ghosh, Tapan Kumar (December 14, 2016). Mapping out the Rushdie Republic: Some Recent Surveys. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4438-5562-4 – via Google Books.
^ a b c Bohlman, Philip V.; Werkman, Mary (June 7, 2013). Revival and Reconciliation: Sacred Music in the Making of European Modernity. Scarecrow Press, Chicago. ISBN 978-0-8108-8269-0 – via Google Books.
^ a b LIFE Aladdin. Time Home Entertainment. May 24, 2019. ISBN 978-1-5478-4903-1 – via Google Books.
^ "Afropop Worldwide | Feature: Africans in the Arabian (Persian) Gulf".
^ Abdullahi, pp.170–171
^ Neubauer, Eckhard; Doubleday, Veronica (2001). "Islamic religious music". Grove Music Online. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.52787. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. Retrieved 2021-04-12.
^ "Scholars and musicians hotly debate whether music is permissible or not". Irish Times. 21 July 2006. Retrieved 27 August 2021.
Further reading
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Islamic music.
Wikiquote has quotations related to Islamic music.
Neubauer, Eckhardt; Doubleday, Veronica (2001). "Islamic religious music". Grove Music online. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.52787. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. Retrieved 2021-04-12.
Jenkins, Jean and Olsen, Poul Rovsing (1976). Music and Musical Instruments in the World of Islam. World of Islam Festival. ISBN 0-905035-11-9.
Habib Hassan Touma (1996). The Music of the Arabs, trans. Laurie Schwartz. Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press. ISBN 0-931340-88-8.
Shiloah, Amnon (1995). "Music in the World of Islam: A Socio-cultural study." Wayne State University Press. Detroit. ISBN 0-8143-2589-0
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In addition, West African influences can be heard in the popular music of Gnawa.Music of Algeria\nMusic of Morocco","title":"Secular and folk musical styles"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Oudplyrsomhd3.png"},{"link_name":"Somali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somali_people"},{"link_name":"oud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oud"},{"link_name":"Somali music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Somalia"},{"link_name":"pentatonic scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentatonic_scale"},{"link_name":"pitches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitch_(music)"},{"link_name":"octave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octave"},{"link_name":"heptatonic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heptatonic_scale"},{"link_name":"major scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_scale"},{"link_name":"Ethiopia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopia"},{"link_name":"Sudan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudan"},{"link_name":"Eritrea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eritrea"},{"link_name":"lyricists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyricist"},{"link_name":"songwriters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songwriter"},{"link_name":"singers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singing"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"oud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oud"}],"sub_title":"Horn of Africa","text":"Somali oud player Nuruddin Ali AmaanMost Somali music is based on the pentatonic scale. That is, the songs only use five pitches per octave in contrast to a heptatonic (seven note) scale such as the major scale. At first listen, Somali music might be mistaken for the sounds of nearby regions such as Ethiopia, Sudan or Eritrea, but it is ultimately recognizable by its own unique tunes and styles. Somali songs are usually the product of collaboration between lyricists (midho), songwriters (lahan), and singers ('odka or \"voice\").[7] Instruments prominently featured in Somali music include the kaban (oud).","title":"Secular and folk musical styles"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sahelian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahelian"},{"link_name":"Saharan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara"},{"link_name":"Berber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berber_music"},{"link_name":"Arab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_music"},{"link_name":"griot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griot"},{"link_name":"Kora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kora_(instrument)"},{"link_name":"xalam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xalam"},{"link_name":"Tambin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tambin"},{"link_name":"ney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ney"},{"link_name":"percussion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percussion"},{"link_name":"talking drum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talking_drum"},{"link_name":"djembe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djembe"}],"sub_title":"West Africa","text":"Islam is the largest and oldest organized religion in this region, although indigenous Sahelian and Saharan styles and genres are more prominent than those influenced by Middle-Eastern theory.West African musical genres are more varied, and tend to incorporate both native and Berber influences, rather than those of Arab origin. A long history of court griot music based on historical accounts and praise-singing exists in the region. Wind and string instruments, such as the Kora harp, xalam lute, or Tambin flute (similar to the ney) are generally preferred to percussion, although percussion instruments such as the talking drum and djembe are also widely played among Muslim populations","title":"Secular and folk musical styles"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Uzbekistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzbekistan"},{"link_name":"Tajikistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajikistan"},{"link_name":"Turkmenistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkmenistan"},{"link_name":"Music of Central Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Central_Asia"}],"sub_title":"Central Asia","text":"Many of the countries in Central Asia such as Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan have been heavily influenced by Turkic and Persian culture. Bowed instruments are common, as is bardic singing.Music of Central Asia","title":"Secular and folk musical styles"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Qawwali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qawwali"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Qawwal_Qutbi_Brothers.jpg"},{"link_name":"Qawwali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qawwali"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"Afghanistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistan"},{"link_name":"Bangladesh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladesh"},{"link_name":"Maldives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maldives"},{"link_name":"Pakistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"Nepal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepal"},{"link_name":"Sri Lanka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lanka"},{"link_name":"classical musical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_classical_music"},{"link_name":"Music of Afghanistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Afghanistan"},{"link_name":"Music of Bangladesh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Bangladesh"},{"link_name":"Music of Maldives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Maldives"},{"link_name":"Music of Pakistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Pakistan"}],"sub_title":"South Asia","text":"See also: QawwaliQawwali in IndiaThe music of the Muslim countries of South Asia (Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Maldives and Pakistan) as well as countries with sizeable Muslim minorities (India, Nepal and Sri Lanka) merged Middle Eastern genres with indigenous classical musical modes, and is generally distinct in style and orchestration, yet due to the strong links encountered between the Middle-East, Central Asia, and South Asia, it is closer to Middle-Eastern styles than those of the periphery of the Islamic world, which tend to be purely indigenous.Music of Afghanistan\nMusic of Bangladesh\nMusic of Maldives\nMusic of Pakistan","title":"Secular and folk musical styles"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Al-Usysyaaq_Gambus_Orchestra,_Jakarta.jpg"},{"link_name":"Arab-Indonesian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab-Indonesian"},{"link_name":"Jakarta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jakarta"},{"link_name":"Indonesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia"},{"link_name":"South Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asia"},{"link_name":"Malay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malay_people"},{"link_name":"Zapin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zapin"},{"link_name":"Indonesian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia"},{"link_name":"Qanbus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qanbus"},{"link_name":"Sundanese people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sundanese_people"},{"link_name":"Probolinggo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probolinggo"},{"link_name":"South East","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asia"},{"link_name":"East Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Asia"},{"link_name":"Gong chime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gong_chime"},{"link_name":"Gamelan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamelan"},{"link_name":"Kulintang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulintang"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_music"},{"link_name":"Hindu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu"},{"link_name":"Buddhist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist"},{"link_name":"slendro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slendro"},{"link_name":"pelog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelog"},{"link_name":"Java","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java"},{"link_name":"Sunan Kalijogo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunan_Kalijaga"}],"sub_title":"Southeast Asia","text":"\"Al-Ushyaaq\" Arab-Indonesian Gambus musical ensemble in Jakarta, 1949Muslim-majority Indonesia has been significantly less influenced by Middle Eastern traditions than South Asia. As a result, many local musical styles predate the coming of Islam, although exceptions include Malay Zapin and Joget, and the Indonesian Gambus (derived from Qanbus), all of which show strong Middle Eastern influence.There are also local music genres in Muslim-majority regions in Southeast Asia that are influenced by Arabian traditions, such as the tagonian of the Sundanese people and glipang of the people of ProbolinggoThe music of South East Asia's Muslim-majority regions is more closely related to the musical genres of South East and East Asia. Gong chime ensembles such as Gamelan and Kulintang existed in the region before the arrival of Islam, and musical theory and method owe more to heavy Chinese influence, as well as Hindu–Buddhist principles, than to Arabic musical philosophy. Variations of one of two main scales prevail in the region among different ensembles: slendro and pelog (both of which originated in Java).In Java, use of the gamelan for Islamic devotional music was encouraged by the Muslim saint Sunan Kalijogo.","title":"Secular and folk musical styles"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Types of Muslim devotional recitation and music"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"daff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daf"},{"link_name":"halal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halal"},{"link_name":"Qawwali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qawwali"},{"link_name":"Kafi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kafi"},{"link_name":"Sufi rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufi_rock"},{"link_name":"Sufi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufi"},{"link_name":"dhikr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhikr"},{"link_name":"whirling dervishes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whirling_dervishes"},{"link_name":"Mevlevi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mevlevi"},{"link_name":"Sufi music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufi_music"},{"link_name":"qawwali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qawwali"},{"link_name":"hamd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamd"},{"link_name":"na`at","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Na%60at"},{"link_name":"Manqabats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manqabat&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Ghazals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghazal"},{"link_name":"Shi'a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shi%27a"},{"link_name":"marsiya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marsiya"},{"link_name":"Battle of Karbala","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Karbala"},{"link_name":"Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nusrat_Fateh_Ali_Khan"},{"link_name":"Kafi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kafi"},{"link_name":"Abida Parveen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abida_Parveen"},{"link_name":"Sufi rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufi_rock"},{"link_name":"Junoon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junoon_(band)"}],"sub_title":"Nasheed","text":"Nasheeds are moral, religious recitations recited in various melodies by some Muslims of today without any musical instruments. However, some nasheed groups use percussion instruments, such as the daff. Singing moral songs of this type without instrumentation is considered permissible (halal) by many Muslims.Further information: Qawwali, Kafi, and Sufi rockSufi worship services are often called dhikr or zikr. See that article for further elaboration.The dhikr of South Asian Muslims is \"quietist\". The Sufi services best known in the West are the chanting and rhythmic dancing of the whirling dervishes or Mevlevi Sufis of Turkey.However, Sufis may also perform devotional songs in public, for the enjoyment and edification of listeners. The mood is religious, but the gathering is not a worship service.In Turkey, once the seat of the Ottoman Empire and the Caliphate, concerts of sacred song are called \"Mehfil-e-Sama' \" (or \"gathering of Sama'\"). Song forms include ilahi and nefe.In South Asia, especially Bangladesh, Pakistan and India, a widely known style of Sufi music is qawwali. A traditional qawwali programme would include:A hamd—a song in praise of Allah\nA na`at—a song in praise of Muhammad\nManqabats—songs in praise of the illustrious teachers of the Sufi brotherhood to which the musicians belong\nGhazals—songs of intoxication and yearning, which use the language of romantic love to express the soul's longing for union with the divine.Shi'a qawwali performances typically follow the naat with a manqabat in praise of Ali,\nand sometimes a marsiya, a lamentation over the death of much of Ali's family at the Battle of Karbala.The most well-known qawwali singer in modern times is Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan.Another traditional South Asian genre of Sufi music is the Kafi, which is more meditative and involves solo singing as opposed to the ensemble form seen in qawwali. The most widely known exponent of the Kafi is the Pakistani singer Abida Parveen.Sufi music has developed with the times. A Pakistani Sufi rock band, Junoon, was formed in the 1990s to bring a modern twist to suit the new younger generation. The band achieved wide popularity, in Pakistan as well as in the West.","title":"Types of Muslim devotional recitation and music"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ta'zieh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ta%27zieh"},{"link_name":"Imam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imam"},{"link_name":"Hussein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hussein"},{"link_name":"Shia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shia"},{"link_name":"Ashurah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashurah"},{"link_name":"Muharram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muharram"},{"link_name":"waYao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WaYao"},{"link_name":"Yao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yao_(ethnic_group_in_Africa)"},{"link_name":"Manzuma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manzuma"},{"link_name":"Madih nabawi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madih_nabawi"}],"sub_title":"Music for public religious celebrations","text":"Ta'zieh music—Ta'zieh is a passion play, part musical drama, part religious drama, rarely performed outside Iran. It depicts the martyrdom of Imam Hussein, venerated by Shia Muslims.\nAshurah music—performed during the Muharram mourning period, commemorating the deaths of Imam Hussein and his followers. (Shia)\nThikiri (from the Arabic word \"Dhikr\") which means remembrance of God—performed by the Qadiriyya Sufi orders of waYao or Yao people in East and Southern Africa (Tanzania, Mozambique, Malawi, Zimbabwe, and South Africa).\nManzuma—moral songs performed in Ethiopia.\nMadih nabawi—Arabic hymns praising Muhammad.","title":"Types of Muslim devotional recitation and music"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Arabic Maqam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_Maqam"},{"link_name":"Dastgah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dastgah"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Britannica-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Britannica-1"}],"text":"Arabic Maqam\nDastgahAccording to scholar Jacob M. Landau, in Islamic music, \"melodies are organized in terms of maqāmāt (singular maqām), or \"modes,\" characteristic melodic patterns with prescribed scales, preferential notes, typical melodic and rhythmic formulas, variety of intonations, and other conventional devices.\"[1]rhythmic modes are known as īqāʿāt (singular īqāʿ), and they have a \"cyclical patterns of strong and weak beats\".[1]","title":"Modes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Drums","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drums"},{"link_name":"daf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daf"},{"link_name":"zarb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonbak"},{"link_name":"rebana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebana"},{"link_name":"Gongs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gong"}],"text":"Although there are a wide variety of opinions on the permissibility of musical instruments, those who produce Islamic music with instruments often feature the following instruments:Traditional:Drums (daf, bendir, zarb, rebana, etc.)\nGongs","title":"Instruments"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Islamic jurisprudence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_jurisprudence"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Al-Shawkani-8-2"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IT-21-7-2006-9"},{"link_name":"Islamic Golden Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto2-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto1-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-5"}],"text":"Strictly speaking, the words 'Islamic religious music' present a contradiction in terms. The practice of orthodox Sunni and Shi'a Islam does not involve any activity recognized within Muslim cultures as 'music'. The melodious recitation of the Holy Qur'an and the call to prayer are central to Islam, but generic terms for music have never been applied to them. Instead, specialist designations have been used. However, a wide variety of religious and spiritual genres that use musical instruments exists, usually performed at various public and private assemblies outside the orthodox sphere.— Eckhard Neubauer, Veronica Doubleday, Islamic religious music, New Grove Dictionary of Music online[8]The question of permissibility of music in Islamic jurisprudence is historically disputed,[2] and with the advent of a whole new generation of Muslim musicians who try to blend their work and faith, the issue \"has taken on extra significance\".[9]Islamic art and music flourished during the Islamic Golden Age.[3][4][5]","title":"Differences of opinion over prohibition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Atif Aslam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atif_Aslam"},{"link_name":"Ahmad Hussain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_Hussain"},{"link_name":"Ahmed Bukhatir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmed_Bukhatir"},{"link_name":"Ahmet Özhan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmet_%C3%96zhan"},{"link_name":"Akagündüz Kutbay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akag%C3%BCnd%C3%BCz_Kutbay"},{"link_name":"Abu Ratib","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Ratib"},{"link_name":"Al-Andalus Ensemble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus_Ensemble"},{"link_name":"Dawud Wharnsby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dawud_Wharnsby"},{"link_name":"Haddad Alwi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haddad_Alwi"},{"link_name":"Syech bin Abdul Qodir Assegaf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syech_bin_Abdul_Qodir_Assegaf"},{"link_name":"Hamza Namira","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamza_Namira"},{"link_name":"Hamza Robertson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamza_Robertson"},{"link_name":"Imad Rami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imad_Rami"},{"link_name":"Junaid Jamshed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junaid_Jamshed"},{"link_name":"Maher Zain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maher_Zain"},{"link_name":"Mecca2Medina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mecca2Medina"},{"link_name":"Mesut Kurtis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesut_Kurtis"},{"link_name":"Muslim Belal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_Belal"},{"link_name":"Native Deen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Deen"},{"link_name":"Nazeel Azami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazeel_Azami"},{"link_name":"Raef","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raef_(singer)"},{"link_name":"Raihan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raihan"},{"link_name":"Sami Yusuf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sami_Yusuf"},{"link_name":"Yahya Hawwa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahya_Hawwa"},{"link_name":"Yusuf Islam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yusuf_Islam"},{"link_name":"Zain Bhikha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zain_Bhikha"},{"link_name":"Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nusrat_Fateh_Ali_Khan"},{"link_name":"Abida Parveen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abida_Parveen"},{"link_name":"Sabri Brothers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabri_Brothers"},{"link_name":"Munshi Raziuddin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munshi_Raziuddin"},{"link_name":"Fareed Ayaz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fareed_Ayaz"},{"link_name":"Alam Lohar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alam_Lohar"},{"link_name":"A. R. Rahman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._R._Rahman"},{"link_name":"Resul Pookutty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resul_Pookutty"},{"link_name":"Rohail Hyatt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rohail_Hyatt"}],"text":"Notable nasheed artists include:\nAtif Aslam – Pakistan\nAhmad Hussain – United Kingdom\nAhmed Bukhatir – United Arab Emirates\nAhmet Özhan – Turkey\nAkagündüz Kutbay – Turkey\nAbu Ratib – Syria\nAl-Andalus Ensemble – Spain\nDawud Wharnsby – Canada\nHaddad Alwi – Indonesia\nSyech bin Abdul Qodir Assegaf – Indonesia\nHamza Namira – Egypt\nHamza Robertson – United Kingdom\nImad Rami – Syria\nJunaid Jamshed – Pakistan\nMaher Zain – Sweden\nMecca2Medina – United Kingdom\nMesut Kurtis – United Kingdom\nMuslim Belal – United Kingdom\nNative Deen – United States\nNazeel Azami – United Kingdom\nRaef – United States\nRaihan – Malaysia\nSami Yusuf – United Kingdom\nYahya Hawwa – Syria\nYusuf Islam – United Kingdom\nZain Bhikha – South Africa\nNotable Sufi singers include:\n\nNusrat Fateh Ali Khan – Pakistan\nAbida Parveen – Pakistan\nSabri Brothers – Pakistan\nMunshi Raziuddin – India\nFareed Ayaz – Pakistan\nAlam Lohar – Pakistan\nNoted composers:\n\nA. R. Rahman – India\nResul Pookutty – India\nRohail Hyatt – Pakistan","title":"Contemporary Islamic music"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Islamic music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Islamic_music"},{"link_name":"Islamic music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Islamic_music"},{"link_name":"\"Islamic religious music\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000052787"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.52787","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1093%2Fgmo%2F9781561592630.article.52787"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-56159-263-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56159-263-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-905035-11-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-905035-11-9"},{"link_name":"Habib Hassan Touma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habib_Hassan_Touma"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-931340-88-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-931340-88-8"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-8143-2589-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8143-2589-0"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Islamic_art"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Islamic_art"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic_art"},{"link_name":"Islamic 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music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luri_music"},{"link_name":"Bahraini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Bahrain"},{"link_name":"Cypriot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Cyprus"},{"link_name":"Egyptian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Egypt"},{"link_name":"Coptic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_music"},{"link_name":"Emirati","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates"},{"link_name":"Iranian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Iran"},{"link_name":"Iraqi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Iraq"},{"link_name":"Israeli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Israel"},{"link_name":"Jordanian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Jordan"},{"link_name":"Kurdish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurdish_music"},{"link_name":"Kuwaiti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Kuwait"},{"link_name":"Lebanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Lebanon"},{"link_name":"Omani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Oman"},{"link_name":"Palestinian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Palestine"},{"link_name":"Qatari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Qatar"},{"link_name":"Saudi Arabian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Saudi_Arabia"},{"link_name":"Syrian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Syria"},{"link_name":"Turkish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Turkey"},{"link_name":"Yemeni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Yemen"},{"link_name":"Dance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Eastern_dance"},{"link_name":"Arab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_dance"},{"link_name":"Assyrian folk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assyrian_folk_dance"},{"link_name":"belly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belly_dance"},{"link_name":"Israeli folk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israeli_folk_dancing"},{"link_name":"Jewish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_dance"},{"link_name":"Kurdish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurdish_dance"},{"link_name":"Persian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_dance"},{"link_name":"Pontic Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontic_Greek_folk_dance"},{"link_name":"Turkish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_dance"},{"link_name":"Dastgah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dastgah"},{"link_name":"Fantezi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantezi"},{"link_name":"Iqa'","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhythm_in_Arabian_music"},{"link_name":"Kanto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanto_(music)"},{"link_name":"Khigga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khigga"},{"link_name":"Arabic maqam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_maqam"},{"link_name":"Iraqi maqam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraqi_maqam"},{"link_name":"Turkish makam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_makam"},{"link_name":"Usul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhythm_in_Turkish_music"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Religious_music"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Religious_music"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Religious_music"},{"link_name":"Religious music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_music"},{"link_name":"Buddhist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_music"},{"link_name":"Christian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_music"},{"link_name":"Hindu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_music"},{"link_name":"Islamic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Jewish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_Jewish_music"},{"link_name":"Native American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_music_of_North_America"},{"link_name":"Neopagan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neopagan_music"},{"link_name":"Rastafarian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rastafarian_music"},{"link_name":"Shinto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shinto_music"},{"link_name":"Sikh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikh_music"},{"link_name":"Taoist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoist_music"},{"link_name":"Zoroastrian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoroastrian_music"},{"link_name":"Authority control databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1482325#identifiers"},{"link_name":"FAST","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//id.worldcat.org/fast/979993/"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12148634b"},{"link_name":"BnF data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12148634b"},{"link_name":"Czech Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph819522&CON_LNG=ENG"}],"text":"Wikimedia Commons has media related to Islamic music.Wikiquote has quotations related to Islamic music.Neubauer, Eckhardt; Doubleday, Veronica (2001). \"Islamic religious music\". Grove Music online. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.52787. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. Retrieved 2021-04-12.\nJenkins, Jean and Olsen, Poul Rovsing (1976). Music and Musical Instruments in the World of Islam. World of Islam Festival. ISBN 0-905035-11-9.\nHabib Hassan Touma (1996). The Music of the Arabs, trans. Laurie Schwartz. Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press. ISBN 0-931340-88-8.\nShiloah, Amnon (1995). \"Music in the World of Islam: A Socio-cultural study.\" Wayne State University Press. Detroit. ISBN 0-8143-2589-0Links to related articles\nvteIslamic artArchitectureRegional styles\nAbbasid\nAyyubid\nAzerbaijani\nChinese\nFatimid\nHausa\nIndo-Islamic\nBengali\nDeccan\nQutb Shahi\nMughal\nIndonesian / Malaysian\nIranian (Khorasani, Isfahani, Vernacular)\nMamluk\nMoorish\nMudéjar\nOttoman\nSeljuk\nSomali\nSudano-Sahelian\nSwahili\nTatar\nTimurid\nUmayyad\nYemeni\nElements\nAblaq\nBanna'i\nIwan\nJali\nMashrabiya\nMihrab\nMinaret\nMocárabe\nMuqarnas\nSitara\nStucco decoration\nSee also Decoration\nArtsRegional styles\nBangladeshi\nPersian (Early, Qajar, Safavid)\nTurkish (Ottoman)\nCarpets\nGul\nKilim\nMotifs\nPersian\nTurkish\nPrayer\nPottery\nFritware\nHispano-Moresque\nİznik\nLustreware\nMina'i ware\nPersian\nChinese influence\nTextiles\nBatik\nDamask\nIkat\nEmbroidery\nSoumak\nSuzani\nWoodwork\nKhatam\nMinbar\nOther media\nMusic\nBrass\nDamascus steel\nEnamelled glass\nGlass\nHardstone carving\nIvory carving\nMosque lamp\nStained glass\nShabaka\nArts ofthe bookMiniatures\nArabic\nMughal\nOttoman\nPersian\nCalligraphy\nArabic\nDiwani\nIndo-Muslim\nKufic\nMuhaqqaq\nNaskh\nNastaʿlīq\nPersian\nSini\nTaʿlīq\nThuluth\nTughra\nOther arts\nMuraqqa\nHilya\nOttoman illumination\nDecoration\nArabesque\nGeometric patterns\nGirih (tiles)\nZellij\nSee also Calligraphy\nThe garden\nCharbagh\nMughal\nOttoman\nParadise\nPersian\nMuseums,collections\nBerlin\nCairo\nDoha\nGhazni\nIstanbul (Arts, Calligraphy Art)\nJerusalem (Islamic Museum, L. A. Mayer Institute)\nKuala Lumpur\nLondon (British Museum, V&A, Khalili Collection)\nLos Angeles\nMarrakech (Museum, Majorelle Garden)\nMelbourne\nParis (Arab World Institute, Louvre)\nSingapore\nToronto (Aga Khan)\nTripoli\nExhibitions\nEmpire of the Sultans\nHeaven on Earth: Art from Islamic Lands\nHajj: Journey to the Heart of Islam\nPrinciples,influences\nIslamic Art: Mirror of the Invisible World\nAniconism in Islam\nIndo-Saracenic Revival\nIslamic world contributions to Medieval Europe\nInfluences on Western art\nGrotesque\nMoresque\nMathematics and architecture\nMoorish Revival\nMudéjar\nOriental carpets in Renaissance painting\nPseudo-Kufic\nStilfragen\nTopkapı Scroll\n\nvteIslamic studiesArts\nArabesque\nArchitecture\nCalligraphy\nGardens\nGeometric pattern\nLiterature\nMusic\nPoetry\nPottery\nInfluences on Western art\nEconomics\nHistory\nAgency\nBanking\nCapitalism\nPoverty\nSocialism\nTrust\nUsury\nWelfare\nHistory\nTimeline\nHistoriography\nEarly social change\nEarly conquests\nGolden Age\nContributions to Medieval Europe\nReception in early modern Europe\nLaw and politics\nDemocracy\nconsensus\nconsultation\nFeminism\nJurisprudence\nuse of analogy\ndecision-making\nschools\nPeace\nQuietism\nSecularism\nEarly social change\nState\nPhilosophy\nEarly\nContemporary\nTheology\ndialectic\nEthics\nLogic\nAstrology\nEarly sociology\nsolidarity\nMedieval science\nTimeline\nAlchemy and chemistry\nAstronomy\ncosmology\nGeography and cartography\nInventions\nMathematics\nMedicine\nophthalmology\nPhysics\nPsychology\nOther fields\nArab Agricultural Revolution\nEducation\nIjazah\nelementary school\nSufi studies\nmysticism\ncosmology\nphilosophy\n\nvteMiddle Eastern musicBy style\nArabesque (Turkish)\nArabic (al-jeel, Bedouin, khaliji, samri, sawt)\nCoptic\nFolk (Assyrian, Iranian, Turkish)\nHip hop (Arabic, Egyptian, Iranian, Israeli (Jewish), Lebanese, Palestinian, Turkish)\nIranian classical\nJewish\nOttoman classical\nPop (Arabic, Iranian, Turkish)\nLuri music\nBy region\nBahraini\nCypriot\nEgyptian (Coptic)\nEmirati\nIranian\nIraqi\nIsraeli\nJordanian\nKurdish\nKuwaiti\nLebanese\nOmani\nPalestinian\nQatari\nSaudi Arabian\nSyrian\nTurkish\nYemeni\nRelated topics\nDance (Arab, Assyrian folk, belly, Israeli folk, Jewish, Kurdish, Persian, Pontic Greek, Turkish)\nDastgah\nFantezi\nIqa'\nKanto\nKhigga\nArabic maqam (Iraqi maqam), Turkish makam\nUsul\n\nvteReligious music\nBuddhist\nChristian\nHindu\nIslamic\nJewish\nNative American\nNeopagan\nRastafarian\nShinto\nSikh\nTaoist\nZoroastrianAuthority control databases International\nFAST\nNational\nFrance\nBnF data\nCzech Republic","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"A Musical Gathering – Ottoman, 18th century","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/A_Musical_Gathering_-_Ottoman%2C_18th_century.jpg/220px-A_Musical_Gathering_-_Ottoman%2C_18th_century.jpg"},{"image_text":"Somali oud player Nuruddin Ali Amaan","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Oudplyrsomhd3.png/200px-Oudplyrsomhd3.png"},{"image_text":"Qawwali in India","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Qawwal_Qutbi_Brothers.jpg/250px-Qawwal_Qutbi_Brothers.jpg"},{"image_text":"\"Al-Ushyaaq\" Arab-Indonesian Gambus musical ensemble in Jakarta, 1949","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Al-Usysyaaq_Gambus_Orchestra%2C_Jakarta.jpg/250px-Al-Usysyaaq_Gambus_Orchestra%2C_Jakarta.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Afghanistan National Institute of Music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistan_National_Institute_of_Music"},{"title":"Durood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durood"},{"title":"Hamd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamd"},{"title":"Islamic poetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_poetry"},{"title":"Mawlid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mawlid"},{"title":"Mehfil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehfil"},{"title":"Na'at","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Na%27at"},{"title":"Nasheed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasheed"},{"title":"Religious music in Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_music_in_Iran"},{"title":"Sufi poetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufi_poetry"},{"title":"Sufism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufism"},{"title":"Sufi music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufi_music"}]
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[{"reference":"Landau, Jacob M. \"Islamic Arts. Music\". Britannica. Retrieved 4 January 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islamic-arts/Music","url_text":"\"Islamic Arts. Music\""}]},{"reference":"Al-Shawkani, Muhammed. Nayl Al-Awtaar. Vol. 8.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Bhattacharyya, Prasanta; Ghosh, Tapan Kumar (December 14, 2016). Mapping out the Rushdie Republic: Some Recent Surveys. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4438-5562-4 – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=C-u2DQAAQBAJ&dq=music+flourish+islamic+golden+age&pg=PA173","url_text":"Mapping out the Rushdie Republic: Some Recent Surveys"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4438-5562-4","url_text":"978-1-4438-5562-4"}]},{"reference":"Bohlman, Philip V.; Werkman, Mary (June 7, 2013). Revival and Reconciliation: Sacred Music in the Making of European Modernity. Scarecrow Press, Chicago. ISBN 978-0-8108-8269-0 – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Sr3UaHYtfh8C&dq=music+flourished+islamic+golden+age&pg=PA13","url_text":"Revival and Reconciliation: Sacred Music in the Making of European Modernity"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-8269-0","url_text":"978-0-8108-8269-0"}]},{"reference":"LIFE Aladdin. Time Home Entertainment. May 24, 2019. ISBN 978-1-5478-4903-1 – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=P7ibDwAAQBAJ&dq=music+flourished+islamic+golden+age&pg=PT11","url_text":"LIFE Aladdin"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5478-4903-1","url_text":"978-1-5478-4903-1"}]},{"reference":"\"Afropop Worldwide | Feature: Africans in the Arabian (Persian) Gulf\".","urls":[{"url":"https://afropop.org/articles/feature-africans-in-the-arabian-persian-gulf","url_text":"\"Afropop Worldwide | Feature: Africans in the Arabian (Persian) Gulf\""}]},{"reference":"Neubauer, Eckhard; Doubleday, Veronica (2001). \"Islamic religious music\". Grove Music Online. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.52787. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. Retrieved 2021-04-12.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000052787","url_text":"\"Islamic religious music\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgmo%2F9781561592630.article.52787","url_text":"10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.52787"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56159-263-0","url_text":"978-1-56159-263-0"}]},{"reference":"\"Scholars and musicians hotly debate whether music is permissible or not\". Irish Times. 21 July 2006. Retrieved 27 August 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.irishtimes.com/news/scholars-and-musicians-hotly-debate-whether-music-is-permissible-or-not-1.1262467","url_text":"\"Scholars and musicians hotly debate whether music is permissible or not\""}]},{"reference":"Neubauer, Eckhardt; Doubleday, Veronica (2001). \"Islamic religious music\". Grove Music online. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.52787. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. Retrieved 2021-04-12.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000052787","url_text":"\"Islamic religious music\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgmo%2F9781561592630.article.52787","url_text":"10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.52787"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56159-263-0","url_text":"978-1-56159-263-0"}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islamic_music&action=edit§ion=","external_links_name":"adding to it"},{"Link":"https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islamic-arts/Music","external_links_name":"\"Islamic Arts. Music\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=C-u2DQAAQBAJ&dq=music+flourish+islamic+golden+age&pg=PA173","external_links_name":"Mapping out the Rushdie Republic: Some Recent Surveys"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Sr3UaHYtfh8C&dq=music+flourished+islamic+golden+age&pg=PA13","external_links_name":"Revival and Reconciliation: Sacred Music in the Making of European Modernity"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=P7ibDwAAQBAJ&dq=music+flourished+islamic+golden+age&pg=PT11","external_links_name":"LIFE Aladdin"},{"Link":"https://afropop.org/articles/feature-africans-in-the-arabian-persian-gulf","external_links_name":"\"Afropop Worldwide | Feature: Africans in the Arabian (Persian) Gulf\""},{"Link":"https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000052787","external_links_name":"\"Islamic religious music\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgmo%2F9781561592630.article.52787","external_links_name":"10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.52787"},{"Link":"https://www.irishtimes.com/news/scholars-and-musicians-hotly-debate-whether-music-is-permissible-or-not-1.1262467","external_links_name":"\"Scholars and musicians hotly debate whether music is permissible or not\""},{"Link":"https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000052787","external_links_name":"\"Islamic religious music\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgmo%2F9781561592630.article.52787","external_links_name":"10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.52787"},{"Link":"http://id.worldcat.org/fast/979993/","external_links_name":"FAST"},{"Link":"https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12148634b","external_links_name":"France"},{"Link":"https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12148634b","external_links_name":"BnF data"},{"Link":"https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph819522&CON_LNG=ENG","external_links_name":"Czech Republic"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutter_(boat)
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Cutter (boat)
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["1 Decked cutters of 18th and 19th centuries","2 Ship's boat","3 Sailing rig","4 Other Types","4.1 Rowing","4.2 Pilot","4.3 Customs services","5 See also","6 Notes","7 References","8 External links"]
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Type of boat
A gaff cutter, Kleine Freiheit, with a genoa jib set
USCGC Legare, an example of a US Coast Guard cutter
A cutter is a name for various types of watercraft. It can apply to the rig (sail plan) of a sailing vessel (but with regional differences in definition), to a governmental enforcement agency vessel (such as a coast guard or border force cutter), to a type of ship's boat which can be used under sail or oars, or, historically, to a type of fast-sailing vessel introduced in the 18th century, some of which were used as small warships.
As a sailing rig, a cutter is a single-masted boat, with two or more headsails. On the eastern side of the Atlantic, the two headsails on a single mast is the fullest extent of the modern definition. In U.S. waters, a greater level of complexity applies, with the placement of the mast and the rigging details of the bowsprit taken into account – so a boat with two headsails may be classed as a sloop.
Government agencies use the term "cutter" for vessels employed in patrolling their territorial waters and other enforcement activities. This terminology is derived from the sailing cutters which had this sort of role from the 18th century to the end of the 19th century. (See below.) Whilst the details vary from country to country, generally these are small ships that can remain at sea for extended periods and in all usual weather conditions. Many, but not all, are armed. Uses include control of a country's borders and preventing smuggling.
Cutters as ship's boats came into use in the early 18th century (dating which roughly coincides with the decked sailing vessels described below). These were clinker-built open boats which were fitted for propulsion by both oar and sail. They were more optimised for sailing than the barges and pinnaces that were types of ship's boat used in the Royal Navy – one distinctive resulting feature of this was the washstrake added to increase the freeboard. It was pierced with rowlock cut-outs for the oars, so that the thwarts did not need to be set unusually high to achieve the right geometry for efficient use.: 33
Cutters, as decked sailing vessels designed for speed, came into use in the early part of the 18th century. When first introduced, the term applied largely to the hull form, in the same way that clipper was used almost a hundred years later. Some of these 18th and 19th century examples were rigged as ketches or brigs. However, the typical rig, especially in Naval or revenue protection use, was a single-masted rig setting a huge amount of sail. Square sails were set, as well as a full complement of fore and aft sails. In civilian use, cutters were mostly involved in smuggling. The navy and coastguard therefore also used cutters in an attempt to catch those operating illegally.: 119–112
Decked cutters of 18th and 19th centuries
The Royal Navy cutter Nimble in chase of a French cutter
The term cutter appeared in the early 18th century as a description of a hull type. These vessels were designed for speed and the name was used in a similar way to clipper in the next century. The concept of hull type was perpetuated by the term "cutter brig" which was used over the period circa 1781-1807 for those rigged as brigs. "Cutter built" was a description applied to a hull of this type and designed for speed. More generally, the unmodified word "cutter" soon became associated with a single-masted rig.: 26–30
Fast vessels were often used for illegal purposes, such as smuggling, or by the authorities trying to prevent this illegality. Therefore, cutters were used for both. The Royal Navy bought and had built a large number for use in controlling smuggling, as "advice boats" (carrying dispatches), or against privateers.: 56
The characteristic cutter hull shape was wide, many had a length to breadth ratio of 3 to 1. It had a lot of deadrise and fine lines. A huge amount of sail could be set on these beamy hulls. The rig became standardised as having one mast, a gaff-rigged mainsail, square sails and several headsails – together with a full range of extra light weather sails. The mainsail had a boom that extended beyond the stern. Square sails consisted of a course, topsail and topgallant. In earlier examples (before 1800) the topsail's foot had a large amount of roach and was sheeted to a separate yard that was set below the main yard (which carried the course). The headsails were a staysail, set on the forestay (which fastened to the stemhead), a jib, set flying to a traveller on the bowsprit and, in most cases, a flying jib (alternatively termed a jib-topsail) also set flying, but to a higher point on the mast. A cutter has a running bowsprit, which can be brought inboard when not needed, such as in rough weather or in harbour. The bowsprit was usually of great length, sometimes longer than the hull. The standard fair weather sails consisted of a ringtail to the mainsail and studding sails to the square sails. It was not unknown for cutters to use a removable mizzen mast for use when reaching, setting a lugsail. Since the boom of the mainsail overhung the stern, the mast would have to be removed to tack or gybe.: 26-30
The dimensions of an 18th-century cutter purchased by the Royal Navy in 1763, and roughly in the middle of the size range of the batch of 30 bought that year (HMS Fly) are: length on deck 47 feet 6 inches (14.48 m), beam 20 feet 10.25 inches (6.3564 m), measuring just over 78 tons bm. Smuggling cutters ranged from 30 tons (captured in 1747) to 140 tons. The Revenue cutters increased in size to match the vessels they attempted to catch – Repulse, of 210 tons was built in 1778. A determining factor on size was the number of crew needed to handle the large gaff mainsail with its long boom. Larger cutters purchased by the Royal Navy were sometimes converted to brigs to make them easier to handle, but still utilising the fast hull.: 26-29 : 120-123 : ch 9
Ship's boat
A cutter secured to a boat boom, ready for use, alongside an anchored battleship during the First World WarAt about the same time that the decked, fast-sailing cutters of the 18th century appeared, the term was also applied to a new class of ship's boat. These were clinker-built open boats, optimised for sailing but capable under oars. They had finer lines than the boats of that time (which had more rounded bows) and a transom stern. A distinctive feature was that the washstrake had cut-outs (called rowlocks) in which the oars were worked, unlike most boats of the period, that used thole pins as the pivot point for the oars. This allowed a higher freeboard, which was helpful if sailing – when the cut-outs were filled with wooden shutters (often mis-called poppets) to keep the water out. The alternative, if the correct geometry for an efficient rowing position was adopted, was to position the thwarts awkwardly high.: 32–33, 65
Like some other types of ship's boats used in the Royal Navy, the cutter appears to have originated in Deal. Some Navy Board correspondence of 1712 concerns disapproval of the captain of HMS Rochester for buying a cutter of about 20 feet (6.1 m) in length as a replacement for her pinnace. In 1722, another ship had a cutter issued for a voyage to India, and by 1740 substantial numbers of cutters were being bought from Deal boatbuilders to equip Navy ships. The size of these boats varied from 15 to 20 feet (4.6 to 6.1 m) in length. : 32–33
An 1880 sail plan for a 32 foot Royal Navy cutter.The 1740 purchases coincided with a decision to increase the number of boats carried by warships. During the Seven Years' War cutters were found particularly useful for cruising ships, being seaworthy and useful for boarding. However, they were more susceptible to damage than the heavier boats that they replaced and much less capable of carrying heavy weights, such as anchors and water casks.: 32-34, 36-37 The range of sizes available steadily increased. By 1817 the cutters issued came in 17 different lengths, from 12 to 34 feet (3.7 to 10.4 m).: 63 This big variety was reduced when the Royal Navy's warships moved to steam propulsion. Since drinking water could now be distilled on board, ships no longer needed to have the largest boats that they could carry to maximise the amount of water collected on each trip. The standard-issue cutters from 1877 to 1900 came in 11 different lengths, ranging from 16 to 34 feet (4.9 to 10.4 m). This was cut to 5 sizes from 26 to 34 feet (7.9 to 10.4 m) in 1914.: 70–71
Plans of a 25 or 26 foot cutter, dated 1896, with sketch plan of sailing rig. There is provision for 10 oars, double-banked
The sailing rig of the cutters used as ship's boats was usually two masted. In 1761, the larger Deal-built cutters had spritsails set on these masts, soon transitioning to a dipping lug fore-sail and a sprit mizzen. For much of the 19th century, and into the 20th, cutters were rigged with a dipping lug on the foremast and a standing lug on the mizzen. This made them similar to many of the luggers worked from the beaches and harbours of Britain. The sail plan illustration here (1880 Sail Plan) even replicates the civilian lugger terminology of having a fore and mizzen mast, and not using the term "main mast". A variation on this rig, seen for example in 1887, was to have two dipping lugs.: 91–96, 112
The number of oars pulled varied with the size of the boat. A schedule of ship's boats of 1886 shows 34 to 30 feet (10.4 to 9.1 m) cutters pulling 12 oars, 28 feet (8.5 m), 10 oars, 26 to 20 feet (7.9 to 6.1 m), 8 oars and the two smallest sizes of 18 and 16 feet (5.5 and 4.9 m), 6 oars. The smaller boats could be single banked whilst the larger and later examples were generally double-banked. For transporting large numbers of men, in moderate weather conditions, a 34 ft cutter could carry a total of 66 men, a 26 ft cutter, 36 men and a 20 ft cutter, 21 men.: 87
Steam powered ship's boats saw a slow introduction to the Royal Navy from 1864. By 1877, three types were in use: steam launches, picket boats and steam cutters. However, right up to the time of the First World War, the majority of the boats in use continued to be propelled solely by sail and oar.: 106 The Royal Navy still has some cutters that can be worked under sail or oar.: 54
Sailing rig
In the simpler definition, the sailing rig called "cutter" has a single mast with fore and aft sails which include more than one headsail. The mainsail (set abaft, or behind the mast) could be gaff, Bermuda, standing lug or gunter rigged. A more complex definition may be applied in American waters, where a boat with two headsails would be termed a sloop if the mast has a more forward position and the bowsprit is permanently rigged. An example of this is the Friendship Sloop. A traditional cutter, by contrast, has a running bowsprit and the jib is set flying on a traveller that is hauled out to the end of the bowsprit. In a vessel such as a Bristol Channel Pilot Cutter, a storm jib might be set on a reefed bowsprit, with the bowsprit partially run in from its most fully extended position.: 54–55
Other Types
Rowing
Cutter race at Sunbury Amateur Regatta
The watermen of London used similar boats in the 18th century often decorated as depicted in historical prints and pictures of the River Thames in the 17th and 18th centuries. The modern waterman's cutter is based on drawings of these boats. They are 34 feet (10 m) long with a beam of 4 ft 6 in (1.37 m). They can have up to six oarsmen either rowing or sculling and can carry a cox and passengers. The organisers of the Great River Race developed the modern version in the 1980s and now many of the fleet of 24 compete annually in this "Marathon of the River". Watermen's cutters also compete annually in the Port of London Challenge, and the Port Admirals' Challenge. Cutter races are also to be found at various town rowing and skiffing regattas. In addition the cutters perform the role of ceremonial Livery Barges with the canopies and armorial flags flying on special occasions.
Cutters have been used for record-breaking attempts and crews have achieved record times for sculling the English Channel (2 h 42 min) in 1996 and for sculling non-stop from London to Paris (4 days 15 min) in 1999.
Pilot
Wooden pilot cutter Lizzie May under sail in Brest, France
The pilot cutter developed from the need for a fast boat to take maritime pilots from harbour to incoming large trading vessels.
As most early pilots were local fisherman who undertook both jobs, although licensed by the harbour to operate within their jurisdiction, pilots were generally self-employed, and the quickest transport meant greater income. As their fishing boats were heavy working boats, and filled with fishing equipment, they needed a new type of boat; early boats were developed from single masted fishing cutter designs and twin masted yawls, and latterly into the specialist pilot cutter.
The natural dangers of the Bristol Channel brought about over many years the development of the specialist Bristol Channel Pilot Cutter. According to records from Pill, Somerset now housed in the Bristol Museum, the first official Bristol Channel pilot was barge master George James Ray, appointed by the Corporation of Bristol in May 1497 to pilot John Cabot's Matthew from Bristol harbour to the open sea beyond. In 1837 Pilot George Ray guided Brunel's SS Great Western, and in 1844 William Ray piloted the larger SS Great Britain on her maiden voyage.
Customs services
The term cutter is also used for any seaworthy vessel used in the law enforcement duties of the United Kingdom's Border Force, the United States Coast Guard (because of its descent from the Revenue Cutter Service) or the customs services of other countries.
In the United States, the early Revenue Cutter Service operated customs cutters that were commonly schooners or brigs. In Britain, they were usually rigged as defined under Sailing (above). The British Board of Customs also used other vessels as hulks, which were moored in places such as tidal creeks. Customs officers worked from the hulks in smaller boats.
In the UK, the Border Force (successor to the UK Border Agency and HM Customs and Excise) currently operates a fleet of 42 m corvette-type vessels throughout UK territorial waters as border cutters, inspecting vessels for illicit cargoes.
"High Endurance Cutter" USCGC Hamilton
German Fishcutter, Jachtwerft, Köpenick, Berlin, 1950
Dutch Caribbean Coast Guard cutter Jaguar
See also
Bristol Channel Pilot Cutter
Clipper
Notes
^ A headsail is a sail set forward (in front) of the mast. It is triangular in shape and the luff (front) may be hanked (fastened) to a stay that supports the mast, or it may be set flying (not attached to any stay). Where two headsails are set, the most forward one is called a jib, and the one nearer the mast is a staysail. A jib topsail may be set as a third sail, positioned above the jib and hoisted to a higher point, such as on a topmast.
^ The roach in a sail is a curve cut into an edge. In this instance, it is a concave curve in the foot, or lower edge, of the square topsail. This allows the sail to set clear of the forestays, yet still have a large vertical extent along the leeches (the vertical edges of a square sail).: 238
^ The Royal Navy later introduced rowlocks cut into the washstrake in other types of boats, so this is not a reliable method of identifying the type of boat in, say, a photograph
^ A poppet is the vertical piece of timber supporting the washstrake in a boat. The name was commonly mis-used for the neighbouring piece of wood, the shutter that was used to close a rowlock to keep water out.: 215–217
^ The only common example of a Royal Navy ship's boat that had the sailing rig termed "cutter" was the longboat.: 92–93
^ Many British luggers of the 19th century originally had 3 masts: fore, main and mizzen, but during the century, virtually all abandoned the main mast and simply set bigger sails on the foremast and mizzen. It is suggested that this gave more clear space for working fishing nets, handling anchors and cables, etc.
^ "Running" in this context means it is moveable during the normal operation of the boat – just as a halyard is running rigging and a shroud is standing rigging
^ A sail, especially a jib, is set "flying" when it is not hanked to a stay but instead relies on the tension of the halyard to keep the luff taut
References
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cutters.
^ a b c d e f g h i j May, W. E. (2003). The Boats of Men-of-war (Rev. and expanded ed.). London: Caxton Editions. ISBN 978-1840674316.
^ a b Leather, John (1970). Gaff Rig. London: Adlard Coles Limited. ISBN 0-229-97489-9.
^ a b c MacGregor, David R (1988). Fast Sailing Ships, their design and construction, 1775-1875 (Second ed.). London: Conway Maritime Press. ISBN 0-87021895-6.
^ a b c Bennett, Jenny (2005). Sailing Rigs, an Illustrated Guide. London: Chatham Publishing. ISBN 1-86176-243-7.
^ Mayne, Richard (2000). The language of sailing. Chicago, Ill.: Fitzroy Dearborn. ISBN 978-1-579-58278-4.
^ Winfield, Rif (2007). British warships in the age of sail, 1714-1792 : design, construction, careers and fates. St. Paul, Minn.: Seaforth Pub. / MBI Pub. Co. ISBN 9781-844157006.
^ Admiralty Manual of Seamanship (1941 ed.). London: HMSO. 1937.
^ Leather, John (1979). Spritsails and Lugsails (1989 reissue ed.). Camden, Maine: International Marine Publishing Company. ISBN 0877429987.
^ "F". Practical Boat Owner. 11 November 2014. Retrieved 25 February 2022.
^ Thames Traditional Rowing Association
^ Guinness World Records
^ "History of Pilot Cutters". Annabel J. Retrieved 2009-06-04.
External links
U. S. Coast Guard Historian's Office
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It can apply to the rig (sail plan) of a sailing vessel (but with regional differences in definition), to a governmental enforcement agency vessel (such as a coast guard or border force cutter), to a type of ship's boat which can be used under sail or oars, or, historically, to a type of fast-sailing vessel introduced in the 18th century, some of which were used as small warships.As a sailing rig, a cutter is a single-masted boat, with two or more headsails.[a] On the eastern side of the Atlantic, the two headsails on a single mast is the fullest extent of the modern definition. In U.S. waters, a greater level of complexity applies, with the placement of the mast and the rigging details of the bowsprit taken into account – so a boat with two headsails may be classed as a sloop.Government agencies use the term \"cutter\" for vessels employed in patrolling their territorial waters and other enforcement activities. This terminology is derived from the sailing cutters which had this sort of role from the 18th century to the end of the 19th century. (See below.) Whilst the details vary from country to country, generally these are small ships that can remain at sea for extended periods and in all usual weather conditions. Many, but not all, are armed. Uses include control of a country's borders and preventing smuggling.Cutters as ship's boats came into use in the early 18th century (dating which roughly coincides with the decked sailing vessels described below). These were clinker-built open boats which were fitted for propulsion by both oar and sail. They were more optimised for sailing than the barges and pinnaces that were types of ship's boat used in the Royal Navy – one distinctive resulting feature of this was the washstrake added to increase the freeboard. It was pierced with rowlock cut-outs for the oars, so that the thwarts did not need to be set unusually high to achieve the right geometry for efficient use.[1]: 33Cutters, as decked sailing vessels designed for speed, came into use in the early part of the 18th century. When first introduced, the term applied largely to the hull form, in the same way that clipper was used almost a hundred years later. Some of these 18th and 19th century examples were rigged as ketches or brigs. However, the typical rig, especially in Naval or revenue protection use, was a single-masted rig setting a huge amount of sail. Square sails were set, as well as a full complement of fore and aft sails. In civilian use, cutters were mostly involved in smuggling. The navy and coastguard therefore also used cutters in an attempt to catch those operating illegally.[2]: 119–112","title":"Cutter (boat)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Nimble_cutter.jpg"},{"link_name":"clipper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clipper"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MacGregor_1988-4"},{"link_name":"privateers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privateer"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bennett_2005-5"},{"link_name":"beamy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beam_(nautical)"},{"link_name":"gaff-rigged","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaff_rig"},{"link_name":"mainsail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainsail"},{"link_name":"course","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Course_(sail)"},{"link_name":"topsail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topsail"},{"link_name":"topgallant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topgallant_sail"},{"link_name":"roach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roach_(sail)"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"staysail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staysail"},{"link_name":"forestay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forestay"},{"link_name":"jib","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jib"},{"link_name":"bowsprit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bowsprit"},{"link_name":"flying jib","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_jib"},{"link_name":"ringtail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ringtail_(sail)"},{"link_name":"studding sails","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Studding_sail"},{"link_name":"reaching","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaching_(sailing)"},{"link_name":"lugsail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lugsail"},{"link_name":"tack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tack_(sailing)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MacGregor_1988-4"},{"link_name":"HMS Fly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=HMS_Fly_(1763)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"bm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Builder%27s_Old_Measurement"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MacGregor_1988-4"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Leather_1970-3"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Winfield_2007-8"}],"text":"The Royal Navy cutter Nimble in chase of a French cutterThe term cutter appeared in the early 18th century as a description of a hull type. These vessels were designed for speed and the name was used in a similar way to clipper in the next century. The concept of hull type was perpetuated by the term \"cutter brig\" which was used over the period circa 1781-1807 for those rigged as brigs. \"Cutter built\" was a description applied to a hull of this type and designed for speed. More generally, the unmodified word \"cutter\" soon became associated with a single-masted rig.[3]: 26–30Fast vessels were often used for illegal purposes, such as smuggling, or by the authorities trying to prevent this illegality. Therefore, cutters were used for both. The Royal Navy bought and had built a large number for use in controlling smuggling, as \"advice boats\" (carrying dispatches), or against privateers.[4]: 56The characteristic cutter hull shape was wide, many had a length to breadth ratio of 3 to 1. It had a lot of deadrise and fine lines. A huge amount of sail could be set on these beamy hulls. The rig became standardised as having one mast, a gaff-rigged mainsail, square sails and several headsails – together with a full range of extra light weather sails. The mainsail had a boom that extended beyond the stern. Square sails consisted of a course, topsail and topgallant. In earlier examples (before 1800) the topsail's foot had a large amount of roach and was sheeted to a separate yard that was set below the main yard (which carried the course).[b] The headsails were a staysail, set on the forestay (which fastened to the stemhead), a jib, set flying to a traveller on the bowsprit and, in most cases, a flying jib (alternatively termed a jib-topsail) also set flying, but to a higher point on the mast. A cutter has a running bowsprit, which can be brought inboard when not needed, such as in rough weather or in harbour. The bowsprit was usually of great length, sometimes longer than the hull. The standard fair weather sails consisted of a ringtail to the mainsail and studding sails to the square sails. It was not unknown for cutters to use a removable mizzen mast for use when reaching, setting a lugsail. Since the boom of the mainsail overhung the stern, the mast would have to be removed to tack or gybe.[3]: 26-30The dimensions of an 18th-century cutter purchased by the Royal Navy in 1763, and roughly in the middle of the size range of the batch of 30 bought that year (HMS Fly) are: length on deck 47 feet 6 inches (14.48 m), beam 20 feet 10.25 inches (6.3564 m), measuring just over 78 tons bm. Smuggling cutters ranged from 30 tons (captured in 1747) to 140 tons. The Revenue cutters increased in size to match the vessels they attempted to catch – Repulse, of 210 tons was built in 1778. A determining factor on size was the number of crew needed to handle the large gaff mainsail with its long boom. Larger cutters purchased by the Royal Navy were sometimes converted to brigs to make them easier to handle, but still utilising the fast hull.[3]: 26-29 [2]: 120-123 [6]: ch 9","title":"Decked cutters of 18th and 19th centuries"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:N16628_Cutter_RMG.jpg"},{"link_name":"ship's boat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ship%27s_boat"},{"link_name":"clinker-built","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinker_(boat_building)"},{"link_name":"washstrake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_nautical_terms_(M-Z)#washstrake"},{"link_name":"rowlocks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rowlock"},{"link_name":"thole pins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_nautical_terms_(M-Z)#thole_pin"},{"link_name":"[c]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[d]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"thwarts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thwart"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-May_1999-2"},{"link_name":"Deal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deal,_Kent"},{"link_name":"HMS Rochester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Rochester_(1693)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-May_1999-2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CUTTER,_32FT_OUTSIDE_AIR_CASED_RMG_J2170.png"},{"link_name":"Seven Years' War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-May_1999-2"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-May_1999-2"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-May_1999-2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CUTTER,_28FT_RMG_J2097.png"},{"link_name":"[e]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"spritsails","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spritsail"},{"link_name":"luggers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lugger"},{"link_name":"[f]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-May_1999-2"},{"link_name":"double-banked","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_nautical_terms_(A-L)#double-banked"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-May_1999-2"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-May_1999-2"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bennett_2005-5"}],"text":"A cutter secured to a boat boom, ready for use, alongside an anchored battleship during the First World WarAt about the same time that the decked, fast-sailing cutters of the 18th century appeared, the term was also applied to a new class of ship's boat. These were clinker-built open boats, optimised for sailing but capable under oars. They had finer lines than the boats of that time (which had more rounded bows) and a transom stern. A distinctive feature was that the washstrake had cut-outs (called rowlocks) in which the oars were worked, unlike most boats of the period, that used thole pins as the pivot point for the oars.[c] This allowed a higher freeboard, which was helpful if sailing – when the cut-outs were filled with wooden shutters (often mis-called poppets[d]) to keep the water out. The alternative, if the correct geometry for an efficient rowing position was adopted, was to position the thwarts awkwardly high.[1]: 32–33, 65Like some other types of ship's boats used in the Royal Navy, the cutter appears to have originated in Deal. Some Navy Board correspondence of 1712 concerns disapproval of the captain of HMS Rochester for buying a cutter of about 20 feet (6.1 m) in length as a replacement for her pinnace. In 1722, another ship had a cutter issued for a voyage to India, and by 1740 substantial numbers of cutters were being bought from Deal boatbuilders to equip Navy ships. The size of these boats varied from 15 to 20 feet (4.6 to 6.1 m) in length. [1]: 32–33An 1880 sail plan for a 32 foot Royal Navy cutter.The 1740 purchases coincided with a decision to increase the number of boats carried by warships. During the Seven Years' War cutters were found particularly useful for cruising ships, being seaworthy and useful for boarding. However, they were more susceptible to damage than the heavier boats that they replaced and much less capable of carrying heavy weights, such as anchors and water casks.[1]: 32-34, 36-37 The range of sizes available steadily increased. By 1817 the cutters issued came in 17 different lengths, from 12 to 34 feet (3.7 to 10.4 m).[1]: 63 This big variety was reduced when the Royal Navy's warships moved to steam propulsion. Since drinking water could now be distilled on board, ships no longer needed to have the largest boats that they could carry to maximise the amount of water collected on each trip. The standard-issue cutters from 1877 to 1900 came in 11 different lengths, ranging from 16 to 34 feet (4.9 to 10.4 m). This was cut to 5 sizes from 26 to 34 feet (7.9 to 10.4 m) in 1914.[1]: 70–71Plans of a 25 or 26 foot cutter, dated 1896, with sketch plan of sailing rig. There is provision for 10 oars, double-bankedThe sailing rig of the cutters used as ship's boats was usually two masted.[e] In 1761, the larger Deal-built cutters had spritsails set on these masts, soon transitioning to a dipping lug fore-sail and a sprit mizzen. For much of the 19th century, and into the 20th, cutters were rigged with a dipping lug on the foremast and a standing lug on the mizzen. This made them similar to many of the luggers worked from the beaches and harbours of Britain. The sail plan illustration here (1880 Sail Plan) even replicates the civilian lugger terminology of having a fore and mizzen mast, and not using the term \"main mast\".[f] A variation on this rig, seen for example in 1887, was to have two dipping lugs.[1]: 91–96, 112The number of oars pulled varied with the size of the boat. A schedule of ship's boats of 1886 shows 34 to 30 feet (10.4 to 9.1 m) cutters pulling 12 oars, 28 feet (8.5 m), 10 oars, 26 to 20 feet (7.9 to 6.1 m), 8 oars and the two smallest sizes of 18 and 16 feet (5.5 and 4.9 m), 6 oars. The smaller boats could be single banked whilst the larger and later examples were generally double-banked. For transporting large numbers of men, in moderate weather conditions, a 34 ft cutter could carry a total of 66 men, a 26 ft cutter, 36 men and a 20 ft cutter, 21 men.[1]: 87Steam powered ship's boats saw a slow introduction to the Royal Navy from 1864. By 1877, three types were in use: steam launches, picket boats and steam cutters. However, right up to the time of the First World War, the majority of the boats in use continued to be propelled solely by sail and oar.[1]: 106 The Royal Navy still has some cutters that can be worked under sail or oar.[4]: 54","title":"Ship's boat"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"fore and aft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fore-and-aft_rig"},{"link_name":"headsail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_nautical_terms_(A-L)#headsail"},{"link_name":"gaff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaff_rig"},{"link_name":"Bermuda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bermuda_rig"},{"link_name":"standing lug","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lug_sail"},{"link_name":"gunter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunter_rig"},{"link_name":"Friendship Sloop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friendship_Sloop"},{"link_name":"[g]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[h]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Bristol Channel Pilot Cutter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol_Channel_Pilot_Cutter"},{"link_name":"storm jib","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storm_jib"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bennett_2005-5"}],"text":"In the simpler definition, the sailing rig called \"cutter\" has a single mast with fore and aft sails which include more than one headsail. The mainsail (set abaft, or behind the mast) could be gaff, Bermuda, standing lug or gunter rigged. A more complex definition may be applied in American waters, where a boat with two headsails would be termed a sloop if the mast has a more forward position and the bowsprit is permanently rigged. An example of this is the Friendship Sloop. A traditional cutter, by contrast, has a running[g] bowsprit and the jib is set flying[h] on a traveller that is hauled out to the end of the bowsprit. In a vessel such as a Bristol Channel Pilot Cutter, a storm jib might be set on a reefed bowsprit, with the bowsprit partially run in from its most fully extended position.[4]: 54–55","title":"Sailing rig"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Other Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CutterRace01.JPG"},{"link_name":"Sunbury Amateur Regatta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunbury_Amateur_Regatta"},{"link_name":"watermen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watermen"},{"link_name":"London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London"},{"link_name":"River Thames","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Thames"},{"link_name":"cox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coxswain"},{"link_name":"Great River Race","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_River_Race"},{"link_name":"Port of London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_of_London"},{"link_name":"skiffing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skiffing"},{"link_name":"regattas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regattas"},{"link_name":"Livery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livery_Company"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"sculling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sculling"},{"link_name":"English Channel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Channel"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"sub_title":"Rowing","text":"Cutter race at Sunbury Amateur RegattaThe watermen of London used similar boats in the 18th century often decorated as depicted in historical prints and pictures of the River Thames in the 17th and 18th centuries. The modern waterman's cutter is based on drawings of these boats. They are 34 feet (10 m) long with a beam of 4 ft 6 in (1.37 m). They can have up to six oarsmen either rowing or sculling and can carry a cox and passengers. The organisers of the Great River Race developed the modern version in the 1980s and now many of the fleet of 24 compete annually in this \"Marathon of the River\". Watermen's cutters also compete annually in the Port of London Challenge, and the Port Admirals' Challenge. Cutter races are also to be found at various town rowing and skiffing regattas. In addition the cutters perform the role of ceremonial Livery Barges with the canopies and armorial flags flying on special occasions.[10]Cutters have been used for record-breaking attempts and crews have achieved record times for sculling the English Channel (2 h 42 min) in 1996 and for sculling non-stop from London to Paris (4 days 15 min) in 1999.[11]","title":"Other Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lizzie_May_au_Brest_2008.jpg"},{"link_name":"Brest, France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brest,_France"},{"link_name":"maritime pilots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maritime_pilot"},{"link_name":"harbour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harbour"},{"link_name":"fisherman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisherman"},{"link_name":"jurisdiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurisdiction"},{"link_name":"fishing boats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing_boat"},{"link_name":"yawls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yawl"},{"link_name":"Bristol Channel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol_Channel"},{"link_name":"Bristol Channel Pilot Cutter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol_Channel_Pilot_Cutter"},{"link_name":"Pill, Somerset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pill,_Somerset"},{"link_name":"Bristol Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol_Museum"},{"link_name":"John Cabot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Cabot"},{"link_name":"Matthew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_(1497_ship)"},{"link_name":"Bristol harbour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol_harbour"},{"link_name":"Brunel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brunel"},{"link_name":"SS Great Western","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_Great_Western"},{"link_name":"SS Great Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_Great_Britain"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"sub_title":"Pilot","text":"Wooden pilot cutter Lizzie May under sail in Brest, FranceThe pilot cutter developed from the need for a fast boat to take maritime pilots from harbour to incoming large trading vessels.As most early pilots were local fisherman who undertook both jobs, although licensed by the harbour to operate within their jurisdiction, pilots were generally self-employed, and the quickest transport meant greater income. As their fishing boats were heavy working boats, and filled with fishing equipment, they needed a new type of boat; early boats were developed from single masted fishing cutter designs and twin masted yawls, and latterly into the specialist pilot cutter.The natural dangers of the Bristol Channel brought about over many years the development of the specialist Bristol Channel Pilot Cutter. According to records from Pill, Somerset now housed in the Bristol Museum, the first official Bristol Channel pilot was barge master George James Ray, appointed by the Corporation of Bristol in May 1497 to pilot John Cabot's Matthew from Bristol harbour to the open sea beyond. In 1837 Pilot George Ray guided Brunel's SS Great Western, and in 1844 William Ray piloted the larger SS Great Britain on her maiden voyage.[12]","title":"Other Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Border Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Border_Force"},{"link_name":"United States Coast Guard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard"},{"link_name":"Revenue Cutter Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revenue_Cutter_Service"},{"link_name":"Revenue Cutter Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Revenue_Cutter_Service"},{"link_name":"schooners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schooner"},{"link_name":"brigs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brig"},{"link_name":"above","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Sailing"},{"link_name":"Board of Customs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HM_Customs_and_Excise#Customs"},{"link_name":"hulks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hulk_(ship)"},{"link_name":"creeks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creek_(tidal)"},{"link_name":"Border Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Border_Force"},{"link_name":"UK Border Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Border_Agency"},{"link_name":"HM Customs and Excise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HM_Customs_and_Excise"},{"link_name":"corvette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corvette#Modern_corvettes"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:USCGC_Hamilton_(WHEC-715).jpg"},{"link_name":"USCGC Hamilton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USCGC_Hamilton_(WHEC-715)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-08328-0004,_Berlin,_Jachtwerft_Berlin,_Fischkutter.jpg"},{"link_name":"Köpenick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6penick"},{"link_name":"Berlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Stan_Patrol_P810_Jaguar_Dutch_Caribbean_Coastguard.jpg"},{"link_name":"Dutch Caribbean Coast Guard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_Caribbean_Coast_Guard"}],"sub_title":"Customs services","text":"The term cutter is also used for any seaworthy vessel used in the law enforcement duties of the United Kingdom's Border Force, the United States Coast Guard (because of its descent from the Revenue Cutter Service) or the customs services of other countries.In the United States, the early Revenue Cutter Service operated customs cutters that were commonly schooners or brigs. In Britain, they were usually rigged as defined under Sailing (above). The British Board of Customs also used other vessels as hulks, which were moored in places such as tidal creeks. Customs officers worked from the hulks in smaller boats.In the UK, the Border Force (successor to the UK Border Agency and HM Customs and Excise) currently operates a fleet of 42 m corvette-type vessels throughout UK territorial waters as border cutters, inspecting vessels for illicit cargoes.\"High Endurance Cutter\" USCGC Hamilton\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tGerman Fishcutter, Jachtwerft, Köpenick, Berlin, 1950\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tDutch Caribbean Coast Guard cutter Jaguar","title":"Other Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mayne_2000-6"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Admiralty_1937-10"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-12"},{"link_name":"longboat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longboat"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-May_1999-2"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-14"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Leather_1989-13"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-15"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-17"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PBO-16"}],"text":"^ A headsail is a sail set forward (in front) of the mast. It is triangular in shape and the luff (front) may be hanked (fastened) to a stay that supports the mast, or it may be set flying (not attached to any stay). Where two headsails are set, the most forward one is called a jib, and the one nearer the mast is a staysail. A jib topsail may be set as a third sail, positioned above the jib and hoisted to a higher point, such as on a topmast.\n\n^ The roach in a sail is a curve cut into an edge. In this instance, it is a concave curve in the foot, or lower edge, of the square topsail. This allows the sail to set clear of the forestays, yet still have a large vertical extent along the leeches (the vertical edges of a square sail).[5]: 238 \n\n^ The Royal Navy later introduced rowlocks cut into the washstrake in other types of boats, so this is not a reliable method of identifying the type of boat in, say, a photograph\n\n^ A poppet is the vertical piece of timber supporting the washstrake in a boat. The name was commonly mis-used for the neighbouring piece of wood, the shutter that was used to close a rowlock to keep water out.[7]: 215–217 \n\n^ The only common example of a Royal Navy ship's boat that had the sailing rig termed \"cutter\" was the longboat.[1]: 92–93 \n\n^ Many British luggers of the 19th century originally had 3 masts: fore, main and mizzen, but during the century, virtually all abandoned the main mast and simply set bigger sails on the foremast and mizzen. It is suggested that this gave more clear space for working fishing nets, handling anchors and cables, etc.[8]\n\n^ \"Running\" in this context means it is moveable during the normal operation of the boat – just as a halyard is running rigging and a shroud is standing rigging\n\n^ A sail, especially a jib, is set \"flying\" when it is not hanked to a stay but instead relies on the tension of the halyard to keep the luff taut[9]","title":"Notes"}]
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[{"image_text":"A gaff cutter, Kleine Freiheit, with a genoa jib set","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Freiheitu.jpg/220px-Freiheitu.jpg"},{"image_text":"USCGC Legare, an example of a US Coast Guard cutter","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/USCGC_Legare.jpg/220px-USCGC_Legare.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Royal Navy cutter Nimble in chase of a French cutter","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/The_Nimble_cutter.jpg/220px-The_Nimble_cutter.jpg"},{"image_text":"A cutter secured to a boat boom, ready for use, alongside an anchored battleship during the First World War","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/N16628_Cutter_RMG.jpg/220px-N16628_Cutter_RMG.jpg"},{"image_text":"An 1880 sail plan for a 32 foot Royal Navy cutter.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/CUTTER%2C_32FT_OUTSIDE_AIR_CASED_RMG_J2170.png/220px-CUTTER%2C_32FT_OUTSIDE_AIR_CASED_RMG_J2170.png"},{"image_text":"Plans of a 25 or 26 foot cutter, dated 1896, with sketch plan of sailing rig. There is provision for 10 oars, double-banked","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/CUTTER%2C_28FT_RMG_J2097.png/220px-CUTTER%2C_28FT_RMG_J2097.png"},{"image_text":"Cutter race at Sunbury Amateur Regatta","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/CutterRace01.JPG/220px-CutterRace01.JPG"},{"image_text":"Wooden pilot cutter Lizzie May under sail in Brest, France","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Lizzie_May_au_Brest_2008.jpg/220px-Lizzie_May_au_Brest_2008.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Bristol Channel Pilot Cutter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol_Channel_Pilot_Cutter"},{"title":"Clipper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clipper"}]
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[{"reference":"May, W. E. (2003). The Boats of Men-of-war (Rev. and expanded ed.). London: Caxton Editions. ISBN 978-1840674316.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1840674316","url_text":"978-1840674316"}]},{"reference":"Leather, John (1970). Gaff Rig. London: Adlard Coles Limited. ISBN 0-229-97489-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-229-97489-9","url_text":"0-229-97489-9"}]},{"reference":"MacGregor, David R (1988). Fast Sailing Ships, their design and construction, 1775-1875 (Second ed.). London: Conway Maritime Press. ISBN 0-87021895-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87021895-6","url_text":"0-87021895-6"}]},{"reference":"Bennett, Jenny (2005). Sailing Rigs, an Illustrated Guide. London: Chatham Publishing. ISBN 1-86176-243-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-86176-243-7","url_text":"1-86176-243-7"}]},{"reference":"Mayne, Richard (2000). The language of sailing. Chicago, Ill.: Fitzroy Dearborn. ISBN 978-1-579-58278-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-579-58278-4","url_text":"978-1-579-58278-4"}]},{"reference":"Winfield, Rif (2007). British warships in the age of sail, 1714-1792 : design, construction, careers and fates. St. Paul, Minn.: Seaforth Pub. / MBI Pub. Co. ISBN 9781-844157006.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781-844157006","url_text":"9781-844157006"}]},{"reference":"Admiralty Manual of Seamanship (1941 ed.). London: HMSO. 1937.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Leather, John (1979). Spritsails and Lugsails (1989 reissue ed.). Camden, Maine: International Marine Publishing Company. ISBN 0877429987.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0877429987","url_text":"0877429987"}]},{"reference":"\"F\". Practical Boat Owner. 11 November 2014. Retrieved 25 February 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pbo.co.uk/nautical-almanac/glossary-of-nautical-terms/f-16182","url_text":"\"F\""}]},{"reference":"\"History of Pilot Cutters\". Annabel J. Retrieved 2009-06-04.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.annabel-j.co.uk/55ft-bristol-pilot-cutter/history-of-annabel-j","url_text":"\"History of Pilot Cutters\""}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://www.pbo.co.uk/nautical-almanac/glossary-of-nautical-terms/f-16182","external_links_name":"\"F\""},{"Link":"http://www.traditionalrowing.com/","external_links_name":"Thames Traditional Rowing Association"},{"Link":"http://www.annabel-j.co.uk/55ft-bristol-pilot-cutter/history-of-annabel-j","external_links_name":"\"History of Pilot Cutters\""},{"Link":"http://www.uscg.mil/history/cutterindex.asp","external_links_name":"U. S. Coast Guard Historian's Office"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/4203437-1","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"http://kulturnav.org/efdd0038-3900-43ab-8477-1a68f1d236ed","external_links_name":"KulturNav"},{"Link":"https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10674844","external_links_name":"NARA"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utah_Phillips
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Utah Phillips
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["1 Early years","2 Career","3 Later years and death","4 Personal papers","5 Discography","6 References","7 External links"]
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American labor organizer, folk singer, and poet (1935–2008)
Utah PhillipsUtah Phillips, 2006Background informationBirth nameBruce Duncan PhillipsBorn(1935-05-15)May 15, 1935Cleveland, OhioDiedMay 23, 2008(2008-05-23) (aged 73)Nevada City, CaliforniaGenresFolk musicOccupation(s)Songwriter, performer, raconteurWebsitethelongmemory.comMusical artist
Bruce Duncan "Utah" Phillips (May 15, 1935 – May 23, 2008) was an American labor organizer, folk singer, storyteller and poet. He described the struggles of labor unions and the power of direct action, self-identifying as an anarchist. He often promoted the Industrial Workers of the World in his music, actions, and words.
Early years
Phillips was born in Cleveland to Edwin Deroger Phillips and Frances Kathleen Coates. His father, Edwin Phillips, was a labor organizer, and his parents' activism influenced much of his life's work. Phillips was a card-carrying member of the Industrial Workers of the World (Wobblies), which were headquartered in Chicago. His parents divorced and his mother remarried. Phillips was adopted at the age of five by his stepfather, Syd Cohen, who managed the Hippodrome Theater in Cleveland, one of the last vaudeville houses in the city. Cohen moved the family to Salt Lake City, Utah, where he managed the Lyric Theater, another vaudeville house. Phillips attributes his early exposure to vaudeville through his stepfather as being an important influence on his later career.
Phillips attended East High School in Salt Lake City, where he was involved in the arts and plays. He served in the United States Army for three years in the 1950s. Witnessing the devastation of post-war Korea greatly influenced his social and political thinking. After discharge from the army, Phillips rode the railroads, and wrote songs.
Career
While riding the rails and tramping around the west, Phillips returned to Salt Lake City, where he met Ammon Hennacy from the Catholic Worker Movement. He gave credit to Hennacy for saving him from a life of drifting to one dedicated to using his gifts and talents toward activism and public service. Phillips assisted him in establishing a mission house of hospitality named after the activist Joe Hill. Phillips worked at the Joe Hill House for the next eight years, then ran for the U.S. Senate as a candidate of Utah's Peace and Freedom Party in 1968. He received 2,019 votes (0.5%) in an election won by Republican Wallace F. Bennett. He also ran for president of the United States in 1976 for the Do-Nothing Party.
He adopted the name U. Utah Phillips in keeping with the hobo tradition of adopting a moniker that included an initial and the state of origin, and in emulation of country vocalist T. Texas Tyler.
Phillips met folk singer Rosalie Sorrels in the early 1950s, and remained a close friend of hers. Sorrels started playing the songs that Phillips wrote, and through her his music began to spread. After leaving Utah in the late 1960s, he went to Saratoga Springs, New York, where he was befriended by the folk community at the Caffè Lena coffee house. He became a staple performer there for a decade, and would return throughout his career.
Phillips speaking at the Haymarket Martyrs' Monument at Waldheim Cemetery, Forest Park (outside Chicago) in May 1986 during ceremonies commemorating the 100th anniversary of the Haymarket affair.
Phillips was a member of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW or Wobblies). His views of unions and politics were shaped by his parents, especially his mother who was a labor organizer for the CIO. But Phillips was more of a Christian anarchist and a pacifist, so found the modern-day Wobblies to be the perfect fit for him, an iconoclast and artist. In recent years, perhaps no single person did more to spread the Wobbly gospel than Phillips, whose countless concerts were, in effect, organizing meetings for the cause of labor, unions, anarchism, pacifism, and the Wobblies. He was a tremendous interpreter of classic Wobbly tunes including "Hallelujah, I'm a Bum," "The Preacher and the Slave," and "Bread and Roses."
An avid trainhopper, Phillips recorded several albums of music related to the railroads, especially the era of steam locomotives. His 1973 album, Good Though!, is an example, and contains such songs as "Daddy, What's a Train?" and "Queen of the Rails" as well as what may be his most famous composition, "Moose Turd Pie" wherein he tells a tall tale of his work as a gandy dancer repairing track in the Southwestern United States desert.
In 1991 Phillips recorded, in one take, an album of song, poetry and short stories entitled I've Got To Know, inspired by his anger at the first Gulf War. The album includes "Enola Gay," his first composition written about the United States' atomic attack on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
Phillips was a mentor to folk singer Kate Wolf. In 1998, he was the first recipient of the Kate Wolf Memorial Award from the World Folk Music Association. He recorded songs and stories with Rosalie Sorrels on a CD called The Long Memory (1996), originally a college project "Worker's Doxology" for 1992 'cold-drill Magazine' Boise State University. His admirer, Ani DiFranco, recorded two CDs, The Past Didn't Go Anywhere (1996) and Fellow Workers (1999), with him. He was nominated for a Grammy Award for his work with DiFranco. His "Green Rolling Hills" was made into a country hit by Emmylou Harris, and "The Goodnight-Loving Trail" became a classic as well, being recorded by Ian Tyson, Tom Waits, and others.
Later years and death
Though known primarily for his work as a concert performer and labor organizer, Phillips also worked as an archivist, dishwasher, and warehouse-man.
Phillips was a member of various socio-political organizations and groups throughout his life. A strong supporter of labor struggles, he was a member of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), the International Union of Mine, Mill, and Smelter Workers (Mine Mill), and the Travelling Musician's Union AFM Local 1000. In solidarity with the poor, he was also an honorary member of Dignity Village, a homeless community. A pacifist, he was a member of Veterans for Peace and the Peace Center of Nevada County.
In his personal life, Phillips enjoyed varied hobbies and interests. These included Egyptology; amateur chemistry; linguistics; history (Asian, African, Mormon and world); futhark; debate; and poetry. He also enjoyed culinary hobbies, such as pickling, cooking and gardening.
He married Joanna Robinson on July 31, 1989, in Nevada City.
Acetate stencil commemorating Phillips
Phillips became an elder statesman for the folk music community, and a keeper of stories and songs that might otherwise have passed into obscurity. He was also a member of the great Traveling Nation, the community of hobos and railroad bums that populates the Midwest United States along the rail lines, and was an important keeper of their history and culture. He also became an honorary member of numerous folk societies in the US and Canada.
When Kate Wolf grew ill and was forced to cancel concerts, she asked Phillips to fill in. Suffering from an ailment which makes it more difficult to play guitar, Phillips hesitated, citing his declining guitar ability. "Nobody ever came just to hear you play," she said. Phillips told this story as a way of explaining how his style over the years became increasingly based on storytelling instead of just songs. He was a gifted storyteller and monologist, and his concerts generally had an even mix of spoken word and sung content. He attributed much of his success to his personality. "It is better to be likeable than talented," he often said, self-deprecatingly.
From 1997 to 2001, Phillips hosted his own weekly radio show, Loafer's Glory: The Hobo Jungle of the Mind, originating on KVMR and nationally syndicated. The show was suspended after 100 episodes due to lack of funding.
Phillips lived in Nevada City, California, for 21 years where he worked on the start-up of the Hospitality House, a homeless shelter, and the Peace and Justice Center. "It's my town. Nevada City is a primary seed-bed for community organizing."
In August 2007, Phillips announced that he would undergo catheter ablation to address his heart problems. Later that autumn, Phillips announced that due to health problems he could no longer tour. By January 2008, he decided against a heart transplant.
Phillips died May 23, 2008, in Nevada City, California, from complications of heart disease, eight days after his 73rd birthday, and is buried in Forest View Cemetery in Nevada City.
Personal papers
Archival materials related to Phillips' personal and professional life are open for research at the Walter P. Reuther Library in Detroit, Michigan. The papers include correspondence, interviews, writings, notes, contracts, flyers, publications, articles, clippings, photographs, audiovisual recordings, and other materials.
Discography
Solo albums
1961 Nobody Knows Me (Prestige)
1973 Good Though! (Philo)
1975 El Capitan (Philo)
1980 All Used Up: A Scrapbook (Philo)
1983 We Have Fed You All a Thousand Years (Philo)
1989 The Old Guy (Makin' Jam, Etc.)
1992 I've Got to Know (Alcazar) (reissued 2003 by AK Press)
1996 The Past Didn't Go Anywhere – with Ani Difranco (Righteous Babe Records)
1999 Fellow Workers – with Ani Difranco (Righteous Babe)
1997 Loafer's Glory – with Mark Ross (Red House Records)
1997 The Telling Takes Me Home (includes tracks from El Capitan and All Used Up) (Philo/Rounder)
1999 The Moscow Hold (Red House)
2000 Making Speech Free (Free Dirt Records)
2005 Starlight on the Rails: A Songbook (4-cd Compilation) (AK Press/Daemon/Free Dirt)
Other albums
1985 Don't Mourn – Organize!: Songs of Labor Songwriter Joe Hill – Various Artists (Smithsonian Folkways)
1992 Rebel Voices: Songs of the Industrial Workers of the World – Various Artists (Flying Fish)
1996 The Long Memory – Utah Phillips and Rosalie Sorrels (Red House)
1997 Heart Songs: The Old Time Country Songs of Utah Phillips – Jody Stecher and Kate Brislin (Rounder)
1997 Legends of Folk – Utah Phillips, Ramblin' Jack Elliot and Spider John Koerner (Red House)
2001 The Rose Tattoo Live – Trains, Tramps And Traditions The Rose Tattoo (Cookie Man Music)
2008 May Day at the Pabst – Utah Philips, Larry Penn, recorded live in Milwaukee in 2006 (Cookie Man Music)
2008 Strangers in Another Country: The Songs of Bruce "Utah" Phillips – Rosalie Sorrels (Red House)
2009 Singing Through the Hard Times: A Tribute to Utah Phillips – Various Artists (Righteous Babe)
2011 Long Gone: Utah Remembers Bruce "Utah" Phillips – Various Artists from the Region of Utah, USA. (Waterbug Records)
References
^ a b "Utah Phillips Has Left the Stage" Archived August 21, 2008, at the Wayback Machine, KVMR, Nevada City, California, May 24, 2008. Retrieved 24 May 2008.
^ "Voting For the First Time". Retrieved December 27, 2007. I'm an anarchist and I've been an anarchist many, many years.
^ Phillips, Utah. clownzen.com Archived December 18, 2013, at the Wayback Machine June 2002 interview. Retrieved December 7, 2013.
^ a b "Folk Revival in Salt Lake City?", folkworks.org. Retrieved 7 December 2013
^ a b c d Pelline, Jeff; Butler, Pat (May 26, 2008). "From hobo to fame". The Union. Archived from the original on May 30, 2008. Retrieved April 14, 2018.
^ Rattler, Fast. "Utah Phillips on the Catholic Worker, Polarization, and Songwriting". Archived from the original (interview) on December 12, 2007. Retrieved March 1, 2008.
^ Crane, Carolyn. "Interview with Utah Phillips". Archived from the original (interview, Z Magazine) on January 20, 2008. Retrieved March 1, 2008.
^ Hawthorn, Tom. "Unapologetic Wobbly folk singer found a second home in Canada". The Globe and Mail. Retrieved June 16, 2008.
^ Direct quotation from his biography in The Washington Post, May 30, 2008.
^ Phillips, Bruce. "Moose Turd Pie". Archived from the original (mp3) on June 13, 2007. Retrieved January 12, 2008.
^ Noble, Richard E. (2009). Number #1 : the story of the original Highwaymen. Denver: Outskirts Press. p. 265. ISBN 9781432738099. OCLC 426388468.
^ Merritt, Stephanie (April 28, 2001). "Life Support". The Guardian.
^ a b c d e "Bruce Phillips". The Union. May 29, 2008. Retrieved June 7, 2008.
^ Russell, Tony (June 24, 2008). "Utah Phillips: Folksinger, songwriter and bard of the last days of the US railroad". The Guardian. London. Retrieved December 29, 2009.
^ Phillips, U.Utah. "The Latest From FW Utah Phillips" (announcement). Retrieved February 24, 2008.
^ Phillips, Utah. "Retirement Announcement". Archived from the original (mp3) on February 27, 2008. Retrieved March 1, 2008.
^ Pillen, Dallas. "Collection Spotlight: The Utah Phillips Papers". Walter P. Reuther Library. Wayne State University. Retrieved December 22, 2014.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Utah Phillips.
Wikiquote has quotations related to Utah Phillips.
Folksinger, Storyteller, Railroad Tramp Utah Phillips Dead at 73 – Picture gallery and official obituary provided by family.
Biography from the 1997 Folk Alliance Lifetime Achievement Awards
Summer 2005 Interview in "Unlikely Stories"
Simon, Scott (May 31, 2008). "Remembering Utah Phillips". Weekend Edition. NPR. (Radio broadcast)
The “Golden Voice of the Great Southwest”, Utah Phillips memorial page on Democracy Now!
cover performance of "All Used Up" by Suzanne Langille in London, May 14, 2011 on YouTube.
Utah Phillips at IMDb
Authority control databases International
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His father, Edwin Phillips, was a labor organizer, and his parents' activism influenced much of his life's work. Phillips was a card-carrying member of the Industrial Workers of the World (Wobblies), which were headquartered in Chicago. His parents divorced and his mother remarried. Phillips was adopted at the age of five by his stepfather, Syd Cohen, who managed the Hippodrome Theater in Cleveland, one of the last vaudeville houses in the city. Cohen moved the family to Salt Lake City, Utah, where he managed the Lyric Theater, another vaudeville house. Phillips attributes his early exposure to vaudeville through his stepfather as being an important influence on his later career.[3]Phillips attended East High School in Salt Lake City, where he was involved in the arts and plays.[4] He served in the United States Army for three years in the 1950s. Witnessing the devastation of post-war Korea greatly influenced his social and political thinking. 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Bennett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallace_F._Bennett"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"hobo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobo"},{"link_name":"T. Texas Tyler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T._Texas_Tyler"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Rosalie Sorrels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosalie_Sorrels"},{"link_name":"Saratoga Springs, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saratoga_Springs,_New_York"},{"link_name":"Caffè Lena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caff%C3%A8_Lena"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HayMarket100a.jpg"},{"link_name":"Haymarket Martyrs' Monument","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haymarket_Martyrs%27_Monument"},{"link_name":"Waldheim Cemetery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forest_Home_Cemetery_(Forest_Park)"},{"link_name":"Haymarket affair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haymarket_affair"},{"link_name":"Industrial Workers of the World (IWW or Wobblies)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Workers_of_the_World"},{"link_name":"Christian anarchist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_anarchism"},{"link_name":"pacifist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacifism"},{"link_name":"Wobbly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Workers_of_the_World"},{"link_name":"Hallelujah, I'm a Bum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hallelujah,_I%27m_a_Bum"},{"link_name":"The Preacher and the Slave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Preacher_and_the_Slave"},{"link_name":"Bread and Roses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bread_and_Roses"},{"link_name":"trainhopper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freighthopping"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"tall tale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tall_tale"},{"link_name":"gandy dancer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gandy_dancer"},{"link_name":"Gulf War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_War"},{"link_name":"Hiroshima and Nagasaki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki"},{"link_name":"Kate Wolf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kate_Wolf"},{"link_name":"World Folk Music Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Folk_Music_Association"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-noble-11"},{"link_name":"Rosalie Sorrels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosalie_Sorrels"},{"link_name":"Ani DiFranco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ani_DiFranco"},{"link_name":"The Past Didn't Go Anywhere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Past_Didn%27t_Go_Anywhere"},{"link_name":"Fellow Workers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellow_Workers"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Grammy Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award"},{"link_name":"Emmylou Harris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmylou_Harris"},{"link_name":"The Goodnight-Loving Trail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goodnight-Loving_Trail_(song)"},{"link_name":"Ian Tyson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Tyson"},{"link_name":"Tom Waits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Waits"}],"text":"While riding the rails and tramping around the west, Phillips returned to Salt Lake City, where he met Ammon Hennacy from the Catholic Worker Movement. He gave credit to Hennacy for saving him from a life of drifting to one dedicated to using his gifts and talents toward activism and public service.[4] Phillips assisted him in establishing a mission house of hospitality named after the activist Joe Hill.[6][7] Phillips worked at the Joe Hill House for the next eight years, then ran for the U.S. Senate as a candidate of Utah's Peace and Freedom Party in 1968. He received 2,019 votes (0.5%) in an election won by Republican Wallace F. Bennett. He also ran for president of the United States in 1976 for the Do-Nothing Party.[8]He adopted the name U. Utah Phillips in keeping with the hobo tradition of adopting a moniker that included an initial and the state of origin, and in emulation of country vocalist T. Texas Tyler.[9]Phillips met folk singer Rosalie Sorrels in the early 1950s, and remained a close friend of hers. Sorrels started playing the songs that Phillips wrote, and through her his music began to spread. After leaving Utah in the late 1960s, he went to Saratoga Springs, New York, where he was befriended by the folk community at the Caffè Lena coffee house. He became a staple performer there for a decade, and would return throughout his career.Phillips speaking at the Haymarket Martyrs' Monument at Waldheim Cemetery, Forest Park (outside Chicago) in May 1986 during ceremonies commemorating the 100th anniversary of the Haymarket affair.Phillips was a member of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW or Wobblies). His views of unions and politics were shaped by his parents, especially his mother who was a labor organizer for the CIO. But Phillips was more of a Christian anarchist and a pacifist, so found the modern-day Wobblies to be the perfect fit for him, an iconoclast and artist. In recent years, perhaps no single person did more to spread the Wobbly gospel than Phillips, whose countless concerts were, in effect, organizing meetings for the cause of labor, unions, anarchism, pacifism, and the Wobblies. He was a tremendous interpreter of classic Wobbly tunes including \"Hallelujah, I'm a Bum,\" \"The Preacher and the Slave,\" and \"Bread and Roses.\"An avid trainhopper, Phillips recorded several albums of music related to the railroads, especially the era of steam locomotives. His 1973 album, Good Though!, is an example, and contains such songs as \"Daddy, What's a Train?\" and \"Queen of the Rails\" as well as what may be his most famous composition, \"Moose Turd Pie\"[10] wherein he tells a tall tale of his work as a gandy dancer repairing track in the Southwestern United States desert.In 1991 Phillips recorded, in one take, an album of song, poetry and short stories entitled I've Got To Know, inspired by his anger at the first Gulf War. The album includes \"Enola Gay,\" his first composition written about the United States' atomic attack on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.Phillips was a mentor to folk singer Kate Wolf. In 1998, he was the first recipient of the Kate Wolf Memorial Award from the World Folk Music Association.[11] He recorded songs and stories with Rosalie Sorrels on a CD called The Long Memory (1996), originally a college project \"Worker's Doxology\" for 1992 'cold-drill Magazine' Boise State University. His admirer, Ani DiFranco, recorded two CDs, The Past Didn't Go Anywhere (1996) and Fellow Workers (1999), with him.[12] He was nominated for a Grammy Award for his work with DiFranco. His \"Green Rolling Hills\" was made into a country hit by Emmylou Harris, and \"The Goodnight-Loving Trail\" became a classic as well, being recorded by Ian Tyson, Tom Waits, and others.","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-obituary-13"},{"link_name":"Industrial Workers of the World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Workers_of_the_World"},{"link_name":"International Union of Mine, Mill, and Smelter Workers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Federation_of_Miners"},{"link_name":"Travelling Musician's Union AFM Local 1000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Travelling_Musician%27s_Union_AFM_Local_1000&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Dignity Village","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dignity_Village"},{"link_name":"Veterans for Peace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veterans_for_Peace"},{"link_name":"Peace Center of Nevada County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peace_Center_of_Nevada_County&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-obituary-13"},{"link_name":"Egyptology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptology"},{"link_name":"chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistry"},{"link_name":"linguistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics"},{"link_name":"Asian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Asia"},{"link_name":"African","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Africa"},{"link_name":"Mormon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Latter_Day_Saint_movement"},{"link_name":"world","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_history_(field)"},{"link_name":"futhark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runes"},{"link_name":"debate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debate"},{"link_name":"pickling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pickling"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-obituary-13"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-obituary-13"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Utah_Phillips_death_note.png"},{"link_name":"Traveling Nation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Traveling_Nation&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-obituary-13"},{"link_name":"KVMR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KVMR"},{"link_name":"Nevada City, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nevada_City,_California"},{"link_name":"Hospitality House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_hospitality"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-theunion-5"},{"link_name":"catheter ablation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catheter_ablation"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"heart transplant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart_transplantation"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-theunion-5"},{"link_name":"Nevada City, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nevada_City,_California"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kvmr-1"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-theunion-5"}],"text":"Though known primarily for his work as a concert performer and labor organizer, Phillips also worked as an archivist, dishwasher, and warehouse-man.[13]Phillips was a member of various socio-political organizations and groups throughout his life. A strong supporter of labor struggles, he was a member of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), the International Union of Mine, Mill, and Smelter Workers (Mine Mill), and the Travelling Musician's Union AFM Local 1000. In solidarity with the poor, he was also an honorary member of Dignity Village, a homeless community. A pacifist, he was a member of Veterans for Peace and the Peace Center of Nevada County.[13]In his personal life, Phillips enjoyed varied hobbies and interests. These included Egyptology; amateur chemistry; linguistics; history (Asian, African, Mormon and world); futhark; debate; and poetry. He also enjoyed culinary hobbies, such as pickling, cooking and gardening.[13]He married Joanna Robinson on July 31, 1989, in Nevada City.[13]Acetate stencil commemorating PhillipsPhillips became an elder statesman for the folk music community, and a keeper of stories and songs that might otherwise have passed into obscurity. He was also a member of the great Traveling Nation, the community of hobos and railroad bums that populates the Midwest United States along the rail lines, and was an important keeper of their history and culture. He also became an honorary member of numerous folk societies in the US and Canada.[13]When Kate Wolf grew ill and was forced to cancel concerts, she asked Phillips to fill in. Suffering from an ailment which makes it more difficult to play guitar, Phillips hesitated, citing his declining guitar ability. \"Nobody ever came just to hear you play,\" she said. Phillips told this story as a way of explaining how his style over the years became increasingly based on storytelling instead of just songs. He was a gifted storyteller and monologist, and his concerts generally had an even mix of spoken word and sung content. He attributed much of his success to his personality. \"It is better to be likeable than talented,\" he often said, self-deprecatingly.From 1997 to 2001, Phillips hosted his own weekly radio show, Loafer's Glory: The Hobo Jungle of the Mind, originating on KVMR and nationally syndicated. The show was suspended after 100 episodes due to lack of funding.Phillips lived in Nevada City, California, for 21 years where he worked on the start-up of the Hospitality House, a homeless shelter,[14] and the Peace and Justice Center. \"It's my town. Nevada City is a primary seed-bed for community organizing.\"[5]In August 2007, Phillips announced that he would undergo catheter ablation to address his heart problems.[15] Later that autumn, Phillips announced that due to health problems he could no longer tour.[16] By January 2008, he decided against a heart transplant.[5]Phillips died May 23, 2008, in Nevada City, California, from complications of heart disease, eight days after his 73rd birthday,[1] and is buried in Forest View Cemetery in Nevada City.[5]","title":"Later years and death"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Walter P. Reuther Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_P._Reuther_Library"},{"link_name":"Detroit, Michigan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detroit"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"text":"Archival materials related to Phillips' personal and professional life are open for research at the Walter P. Reuther Library in Detroit, Michigan. The papers include correspondence, interviews, writings, notes, contracts, flyers, publications, articles, clippings, photographs, audiovisual recordings, and other materials.[17]","title":"Personal papers"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Discography"}]
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[{"image_text":"Phillips speaking at the Haymarket Martyrs' Monument at Waldheim Cemetery, Forest Park (outside Chicago) in May 1986 during ceremonies commemorating the 100th anniversary of the Haymarket affair.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/HayMarket100a.jpg/220px-HayMarket100a.jpg"},{"image_text":"Acetate stencil commemorating Phillips","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Utah_Phillips_death_note.png/220px-Utah_Phillips_death_note.png"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Voting For the First Time\". Retrieved December 27, 2007. I'm an anarchist and I've been an anarchist many, many years.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.thenation.com/doc/20041025/crane","url_text":"\"Voting For the First Time\""}]},{"reference":"Pelline, Jeff; Butler, Pat (May 26, 2008). \"From hobo to fame\". The Union. Archived from the original on May 30, 2008. Retrieved April 14, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080530183331/http://www.theunion.com/article/20080526/NEWS/88594631","url_text":"\"From hobo to fame\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Union_(newspaper)","url_text":"The Union"},{"url":"http://theunion.com/article/20080526/NEWS/88594631","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Rattler, Fast. \"Utah Phillips on the Catholic Worker, Polarization, and Songwriting\". Archived from the original (interview) on December 12, 2007. Retrieved March 1, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071212051908/http://www.olywip.org/site/page/article/2006/02/01.html","url_text":"\"Utah Phillips on the Catholic Worker, Polarization, and Songwriting\""},{"url":"http://www.olywip.org/site/page/article/2006/02/01.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Crane, Carolyn. \"Interview with Utah Phillips\". Archived from the original (interview, Z Magazine) on January 20, 2008. Retrieved March 1, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080120080529/http://zmagsite.zmag.org:80/JulAug2004/crane0804.html","url_text":"\"Interview with Utah Phillips\""},{"url":"http://zmagsite.zmag.org/JulAug2004/crane0804.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Hawthorn, Tom. \"Unapologetic Wobbly folk singer found a second home in Canada\". The Globe and Mail. Retrieved June 16, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theglobeandmail.com/incoming/unapologetic-wobbly-folk-singer-found-a-second-home-in-canada/article17987785/?service=print","url_text":"\"Unapologetic Wobbly folk singer found a second home in Canada\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Globe_and_Mail","url_text":"The Globe and Mail"}]},{"reference":"Phillips, Bruce. \"Moose Turd Pie\". Archived from the original (mp3) on June 13, 2007. Retrieved January 12, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070613095956/http://www.utahphillips.org/stuff/mooseturdpie.mp3","url_text":"\"Moose Turd Pie\""},{"url":"http://www.utahphillips.org/stuff/mooseturdpie.mp3","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Noble, Richard E. (2009). Number #1 : the story of the original Highwaymen. Denver: Outskirts Press. p. 265. ISBN 9781432738099. OCLC 426388468.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781432738099","url_text":"9781432738099"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/426388468","url_text":"426388468"}]},{"reference":"Merritt, Stephanie (April 28, 2001). \"Life Support\". The Guardian.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/theobserver/2001/apr/22/features.magazine47","url_text":"\"Life Support\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian","url_text":"The Guardian"}]},{"reference":"\"Bruce Phillips\". The Union. May 29, 2008. Retrieved June 7, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.theunion.com/article/20080529/OBITUARIES/482688530/1046&parentprofile=1058","url_text":"\"Bruce Phillips\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Union_(newspaper)","url_text":"The Union"}]},{"reference":"Russell, Tony (June 24, 2008). \"Utah Phillips: Folksinger, songwriter and bard of the last days of the US railroad\". The Guardian. London. Retrieved December 29, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/music/2008/jun/24/obituaries.culture","url_text":"\"Utah Phillips: Folksinger, songwriter and bard of the last days of the US railroad\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian","url_text":"The Guardian"}]},{"reference":"Phillips, U.Utah. \"The Latest From FW Utah Phillips\" (announcement). Retrieved February 24, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.iww.org/en/node/3587","url_text":"\"The Latest From FW Utah Phillips\""}]},{"reference":"Phillips, Utah. \"Retirement Announcement\". Archived from the original (mp3) on February 27, 2008. Retrieved March 1, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080227205154/http://www.utahphillips.org/podcast/utah20071011.mp3","url_text":"\"Retirement Announcement\""},{"url":"http://www.utahphillips.org/podcast/utah20071011.mp3","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Pillen, Dallas. \"Collection Spotlight: The Utah Phillips Papers\". Walter P. Reuther Library. Wayne State University. Retrieved December 22, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://reuther.wayne.edu/node/12357","url_text":"\"Collection Spotlight: The Utah Phillips Papers\""}]},{"reference":"Simon, Scott (May 31, 2008). \"Remembering Utah Phillips\". Weekend Edition. NPR.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott_Simon","url_text":"Simon, Scott"},{"url":"https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=91028141","url_text":"\"Remembering Utah Phillips\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weekend_Edition","url_text":"Weekend Edition"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Public_Radio","url_text":"NPR"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%27s_Super_League
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Women's Super League
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["1 History","2 Competition structure","3 Clubs","4 Players","5 Champions","5.1 By season","5.2 By team","6 Records","6.1 Most appearances","6.2 Top scorers","7 Hall of Fame","8 Finances","8.1 Sponsorship","8.2 Investment from Premier League clubs","8.3 Declined investments","9 Broadcasting","9.1 In the United Kingdom and Ireland","9.2 International","10 See also","11 References","12 External links"]
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Association football league in England
This article is about the association football league in England. For other uses, see Women's Super League (disambiguation).
Football leagueWomen's Super LeagueFoundedMarch 2010; 14 years ago (2010-03)First season2011CountryEnglandConfederationUEFANumber of teams12Level on pyramid1Relegation toWomen's ChampionshipDomestic cup(s)Women's FA CupLeague cup(s)FA Women's League CupInternational cup(s)UEFA Champions LeagueCurrent championsChelsea (7th title) (2023–24)Most championshipsChelsea (7 titles)Most appearancesSophie Ingle (192)Top goalscorerVivianne Miedema (80)TV partnersSky SportsBBC Sportsee broadcasting for internationalWebsitewomensleagues.thefa.comCurrent: 2024–25 Women's Super League
The Women's Super League (WSL), known as the Barclays Women's Super League (BWSL) for sponsorship reasons, is the highest league of women's football in England. Established in 2010, it is run by the Football Association and features twelve fully professional teams. The league replaced the FA Women's Premier League National Division as the highest level of women's football in England, with eight teams competing in the inaugural 2011 season. In the WSL's first two seasons, there was no relegation from the division.
The WSL discarded the winter football season for six years, between 2011 and 2016, playing through the summer instead (from March until October). Since 2017–18, the WSL has operated as a winter league running from September to May, as was traditional before 2011. From 2014 to 2017–18, the Women's Super League consisted of two divisions – FA WSL 1 and FA WSL 2 – and brought a promotion and relegation system to the WSL. Ahead of the 2018–19 season, the second division was renamed the FA Women's Championship.
In November 2023, it was announced that all 24 Women's Super League and Women's Championship clubs had unanimously agreed to form a new organisation, named NewCo, to run the women's professional game in England, taking over from the FA. The WSL champions, runners-up and third-placed team qualify for the UEFA Women's Champions League the following season. The current Women's Super League champions are Chelsea, who won their record-extending seventh title in the 2023–24 season, as well as their fifth consecutive title in a row.
History
The FA WSL was due to start in 2010 to replace the FA Women's Premier League National Division as the top level of women's football in England but was deferred for a year due to the global economic downturn. Sixteen clubs applied for 8 places in the inaugural season of the league: Arsenal, Barnet, Birmingham City, Bristol Academy, Chelsea, Colchester United, Doncaster Rovers Belles, Everton, Leeds Carnegie, Leicester City, Lincoln Ladies, Liverpool, Millwall Lionesses, Newcastle United, Nottingham Forest, and Sunderland. Leeds Carnegie later withdrew their application. Women's Premier League clubs Blackburn Rovers and Watford declined to apply. FA Chief Executive Ian Watmore described the creation of the league as a "top priority" in February 2010.
The inaugural WSL season kicked off on 13 April 2011 — at Imperial Fields, Chelsea's home ground — with a match between Chelsea and Arsenal, which Chelsea lost 1–0.
Arsenal v Notts County in 2014
For the 2014 season, a second division was created named FA WSL 2, with nine teams and one team being relegated from the WSL 1. WSL 1 remained as eight teams, with the WSL 2 having ten teams. The new WSL 1 licence was awarded to Manchester City. Doncaster Rovers Belles were relegated to the WSL 2. They appealed against their demotion but were unsuccessful.
In December 2014, the FA WSL announced a two-year plan to expand the WSL 1 from an eight to a ten-team league. Two teams were promoted from the WSL 2 at the end of the 2015 season, while one team was relegated to the WSL 2 with the same happening at the end of the 2016 season. Also, for the first time, a team from the FA Women's Premier League earned a promotion to WSL 2, effectively connecting the WSL to the rest of the English women's football pyramid.
The FA announced in July 2016 that the league would move from a summer league format to a winter league, in line with the traditional football calendar in England, with matches played from September to May the following year. A shortened bridging season took place, branded as the FA WSL Spring Series, with teams playing each other once from February to May 2017.
Following the 2017–18 FA WSL season, WSL 1 was renamed back to the FA Women's Super League, becoming a fully professional league for the first time, with eleven teams for the 2018–19 season. Teams had to re-apply for their licence to earn their place in the league, requiring clubs to offer their players a minimum 16-hour a week contract and to form a youth academy as compulsory for the new licence criteria. Sunderland was moved down to tier 3 in the women's football pyramid after not receiving a licence whilst Brighton & Hove Albion and West Ham United were added to the league.
The league was extended to twelve teams for the 2019–20 season, with Yeovil Town relegated after going into administration and being replaced by Manchester United and Tottenham Hotspur, who gained promotion from the Championship.
In May 2020, the league was curtailed by the COVID-19 pandemic. Chelsea were declared champions of the season based on a points-per-game average.
At the conclusion of the 2020–21 season, four first-team managers resigned from their positions at WSL clubs Birmingham, Manchester United, Arsenal, and Aston Villa. Birmingham's outgoing manager Carla Ward questioned the commitment of some of the clubs involved in WSL, whilst Manchester United's outgoing manager Casey Stoney allegedly quit because of unresolved issues surrounding lack of training facilities and other infrastructure.
In November 2023, it was announced that all 24 Women's Super League and Women's Championship clubs had unanimously agreed to form a new organisation to run the women's professional game in England, taking over from the FA. The organization is called NewCo, and Nikki Doucet has been named CEO.
Competition structure
Season(s)
Teams
2011–2015
8
2016–2017
9
2017–18
10
2018–19
11
2019–20 onward
12
The FA Women's Super League currently consists of twelve clubs. Initially the league was described as professional, with the top four players on each team being paid an annual salary in excess of £20,000. However, in November 2010 it was confirmed that the WSL would be semi-professional, with only a "handful" of top players full-time. Clubs' annual wage bills were expected to be approximately one-tenth of those in the now-defunct American Women's Professional Soccer.
The 2011 season included a mid-season break from 12 May 2011, to allow for the 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup. The season then resumed in early July, finishing in August 2011.
After the league fixtures, the teams compete for a knock-out cup competition, the FA WSL Continental Cup. For the 2014 season, the teams were placed into three regional groups of six. The group winners and best-performing runners-up all advanced to a knockout semi-final. Since the 2015 season, the WSL Continental Cup have been played simultaneously with the league season.
Following a review, the FA announced in September 2017 that a restructuring of the league and its licensing criteria would follow from the 2017–18 season with a goal of a fully professional top division of between 8 and 14 teams and a second division of up to 12 semi-professional teams. For the 2018–19 season, the league became fully professional.
Clubs
The following twelve clubs competed in the 2023–24 season:
Team
Location
Ground
Capacity
2022–23 position
Arsenal
Borehamwood
Meadow Park
4,502
3rd
Aston Villa
Walsall
Bescot Stadium
11,000
5th
Brighton & Hove Albion
Crawley
Broadfield Stadium
6,134
11th
Bristol City
Bristol
Ashton Gate Stadium
27,000
WC, 1st
Chelsea
Kingston upon Thames
Kingsmeadow
4,850
1st
Everton
Liverpool
Walton Hall Park
2,200
6th
Leicester City
Leicester
King Power Stadium
32,261
10th
Liverpool
Birkenhead
Prenton Park
16,587
7th
Manchester City
Manchester
Academy Stadium
7,000
4th
Manchester United
Leigh
Leigh Sports Village
12,000
2nd
Tottenham Hotspur
Leyton
Brisbane Road
9,271
9th
West Ham United
Dagenham
Victoria Road
6,078
8th
Players
Arsenal's Ellen White (L) and Steph Houghton (R) with the WSL trophy
In the first season of the WSL clubs were subject to a squad cap of 20 players. This proved unpopular with both managers and players. Ahead of the 2012 season, the rule was reviewed and the cap increased to 23 players. Players from outside the European Union, like their male counterparts, are subject to Home Office work permit regulations.
The FA said in April 2012 that the salary rule of allowing only four players per team to earn over £20,000 and that all clubs are paid £70,000 per season from a Club Development Fund should limit any financial "imbalance" between clubs. However, the introduction of a genuine salary cap remained under consideration for 2013 and beyond. Doncaster manager John Buckley revealed that his club lost Rachel Williams and other players to Birmingham City because he was working to a budget eight times smaller than that enjoyed by Birmingham.
When the 2012 WPS season was cancelled in the United States, Lincoln Ladies manager Glen Harris said that the next destination of that league's British players would be decided by "pounds, shillings and pence." Ultimately Kelly Smith, Alex Scott and Gemma Davison all joined Arsenal, while Ifeoma Dieke and Anita Asante joined the Swedish Damallsvenskan in preference to the WSL.
On 20 May 2023, Reading manager Kelly Chambers noted that the team — the only WSL club not affiliated with a men's Premier League club – struggled to compete with a smaller budget for wages than women's sides with Premier League backing. She cited the £250,000 fee paid by Tottenham Hotspur for Bethany England, while some Reading staff were required to work multiple roles from lack of investment by its affiliated men's side in the EFL Championship.
Champions
See also: List of English women's football championsTrophy since the 2018–19 rebranding
By season
Teams in just bold indicate doubles with the Women's FA Cup. Teams in bold and in italics indicate trebles with the Women's FA Cup and FA Women's League Cup.
Year
Winners
Runners-up
Third place
Top goalscorer
Player
Goals
2011
Arsenal
Birmingham City
Everton
Rachel Williams (Birmingham City)
14
2012
Arsenal
Birmingham City
Everton
Kim Little (Arsenal)
11
2013
Liverpool
Bristol Academy
Arsenal
Natasha Dowie (Liverpool)
13
2014
Liverpool
Chelsea
Birmingham City
Karen Carney (Birmingham City)
8
2015
Chelsea
Manchester City
Arsenal
Beth Mead (Sunderland)
12
2016
Manchester City
Chelsea
Arsenal
Eniola Aluko (Chelsea)
9
2017 (Spring Series)
Chelsea
Manchester City
Arsenal
Fran Kirby (Chelsea)
6
2017–18
Chelsea
Manchester City
Arsenal
Ellen White (Birmingham City)
15
2018–19
Arsenal
Manchester City
Chelsea
Vivianne Miedema (Arsenal)
22
2019–20
Chelsea
Manchester City
Arsenal
Vivianne Miedema (Arsenal)
16
2020–21
Chelsea
Manchester City
Arsenal
Sam Kerr (Chelsea)
21
2021–22
Chelsea
Arsenal
Manchester City
Sam Kerr (Chelsea)
20
2022–23
Chelsea
Manchester United
Arsenal
Rachel Daly (Aston Villa)
22
2023–24
Chelsea
Manchester City
Arsenal
Khadija Shaw (Manchester City)
21
By team
Club
Winners
Runners-up
Years won
Years runners-up
Chelsea
7
2
2015, 2017–18, 2019–20, 2020–21, 2021–22, 2022–23, 2023–24
2014, 2016
Arsenal
3
1
2011, 2012, 2018–19
2021–22
Liverpool
2
0
2013, 2014
Manchester City
1
6
2016
2015, 2017–18, 2018–19, 2019–20, 2020–21, 2023–24
Birmingham City
0
2
2011, 2012
Bristol Academy
0
1
2013
Manchester United
0
1
2022–23
Notes
^ The FA WSL Spring Series was an interim edition and is not recognised as an official title as it has not been played throughout the whole season.
^ Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the season ended early and the league was decided on a points-per-game basis.
Records
Main article: Women's Super League records and statistics
As of 18 May 2024. All current WSL players are in bold.
Most appearances
Rank
Player
Apps
Position
First app
Last app
Ref.
1
Sophie Ingle
192
Midfielder
2012
2023–24
2
Jordan Nobbs
190
Midfielder
2011
2023–24
3
Mary Earps
189
Goalkeeper
2011
2023–24
4
Kerys Harrop
183
Defender
2011
2022–23
Laura Coombs
183
Midfielder
2011
2023–24
6
Kate Longhurst
182
Midfielder
2011
2022–23
7
Millie Bright
181
Defender
2011
2023–24
8
Gemma Bonner
178
Defender
2011
2023–24
9
Gilly Flaherty
177
Defender
2011
2022–23
Steph Houghton
177
Defender
2011
2023–24
Top scorers
Rank
Player
Goals
Apps
Ratio
Position
First goal
Last goal
Ref.
1
Vivianne Miedema
80
106
0.75
Forward
2017–18
2023–24
2
Bethany England
74
162
0.46
Forward
2012
2023–24
3
Fran Kirby
63
114
0.55
Forward
2015
2023–24
Beth Mead
63
155
0.41
Forward
2015
2023–24
5
Nikita Parris
62
169
0.37
Forward
2013
2023–24
6
Ellen White
61
144
0.42
Forward
2011
2021–22
7
Sam Kerr
58
75
0.77
Forward
2019–20
2023–24
Jordan Nobbs
58
190
0.31
Midfielder
2011
2023–24
9
Kim Little
55
141
0.39
Midfielder
2011
2023–24
10
Khadija Shaw
50
57
0.88
Forward
2021–22
2023–24
Rachel Williams
50
173
0.29
Forward
2011
2023–24
Hall of Fame
Further information: FA WSL Hall of Fame
In September 2021, the Women's Super League announced the first inductees into the Barclays FA WSL Hall of Fame, recognising significant individuals who have contributed to the growth of the women's game in England and the WSL.
Finances
Sponsorship
As of 30 November 2022, the WSL's total annual sponsorship revenue was estimated to be about $14.72 million.
In March 2019, the Women's Super League agreed a multi-million sponsorship deal with British bank Barclays from the start of the 2019–20 season. The three-year sponsorship deal is reported to be in excess of £10 million with a prize money pot of £500,000 for the league champions for the first time. The FA described the deal as "the biggest ever investment in UK women's sport by a brand". Barclays renewed the sponsorship with an additional three-year deal on 15 December 2021, doubled its rights fee, and extended its sponsorship to the FA Women's Championship.
The league's lead sponsor from 2012 to 2019 was Continental Tyres. Continental sponsored the FA's new commercial programme from 2014 to 2018 including the England women's national football team, FA Women's Cup and the FA WSL Continental Cup in addition to the WSL. During the 2011 season, Yorkshire Building Society was also a sponsorship partner along with Continental.
Most shirt sponsorships for women's sides affiliated with men's clubs are bundled and not sold or valued separately.
Investment from Premier League clubs
In the 2022–23 season, 11 of the WSL's 12 teams were affiliates of men's Premier League clubs, with the only exception being Reading, who were affiliated with a lower-tier men's side. Arsenal, Chelsea, Liverpool, Manchester City, Manchester United, and Tottenham Hotspur combined had spent a total of £123.6 million on their women's sides from the league's founding in 2011 to the 2022–23 season. A report in The Telegraph compared this spending to the £186 million those clubs' spent on agents' fees for men's player transactions from 1 February 2022 to 31 January 2023. Those clubs spent £33 million on their women's sides over the same period.
Declined investments
In July 2022, The FA declined a £150 million offer from an unnamed private equity firm to purchase the league. Baroness Sue Campbell had noted that The FA had refused other private equity offers.
Broadcasting
As of 2021, matches are broadcast and streamed in the United Kingdom and Ireland via The FA Player, Sky Sports, and the BBC (UK only). Internationally, select matches are broadcast in at least twelve countries, including Australia, Canada, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Finland, Germany, Italy, Mexico, New Zealand, Norway, and Sweden, and the United States.
In the United Kingdom and Ireland
Since 2017–18, many FA WSL games have been broadcast on television by BT Sport, online and red-button by the BBC (UK only), and via the league's Facebook page. BBC Sport has continued to air one game a weekend digitally via their iPlayer service and website, while subscription channel Sky Sports also holds the rights to televise a selection of matches.
Since the 2019–20 season, league matches have been streamed via The FA Player, as well as some FA Women's Championship games, highlights from the Women's FA Cup, FA Women's League Cup and international England games. Some games in The FA Player are excluded, such as those broadcast on BT Sport in the UK and Ireland due to licensing rights.
In March 2021, the FA WSL announced a new record-breaking three-year domestic television rights deal with Sky Sports and BBC, beginning with the 2021–22 season. Sky would broadcast 44 matches per season with a further 22 matches shown on BBC platforms including a minimum of 18 on BBC One or Two. All other fixtures would remain available to stream for free on The FA Player, the governing body's own over OTT service. Believed to be worth around £8 million a season, it is the biggest broadcast deal of any professional women's football league in the world and marked the first time that the WSL's rights had been sold separately from the men's game.
Previously, FA women's competitions were broadcast on ESPN from 2009 to 2013 as part of a four-year broadcast rights deal. Six live matches were broadcast in 2011 in addition to weekly highlights, with ten games expected to be shown in 2012. ESPN broadcast the opening game of the WSL between Chelsea and Arsenal at Imperial Fields on 13 April 2011, a game Arsenal won 1–0 with a first half goal by Gilly Flaherty. The second televised game took place on 12 May 2011 as Doncaster Belles lost 1–0 to Everton Ladies at the Keepmoat Stadium, Doncaster.
In 2013, BBC Two broadcast four WSL programmes during the 2013–14 season. Each programme featured goal round-ups, highlights, features and previews of England's World Cup qualifiers.
International
For countries without broadcast rights, all WSL matches are available on The FA Player.
Country
Broadcaster
Albania
DAZN
Azerbaijan
Belarus
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bulgaria
Croatia
Cyprus
Georgia
Greece
Hungary
Italy
Japan
Kazakhstan
Kosovo
Kyrgyzstan
Malta
Moldova
Montenegro
North Macedonia
Romania
Serbia
Slovenia
Spain
Tajikistan
Turkey
Turkmenistan
Ukraine
Uzbekistan
Australia
Optus Sport
Brazil
ESPN
Canada
Sportsnet
Germany
Sky Sport
New Zealand
Spark Sport
United States
CBS Sports NetworkParamount+
See also
List of FA WSL clubs
Portals: Women's association football Sports England Association football
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^ "DAZN to broadcast English FA Women's Super League, Women's FA Cup in Spain, Italy and Japan". DAZN. Retrieved 29 September 2022.
^ "Watch live on the DAZN Women's Football YouTube channel in Italy, Japan, Albania, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Bulgaria, Greece & Cyprus, Hungary, Malta, Romania, Serbia, Slovenia, Croatia, Montenegro, Bosnia & Herzegovina, North-Macedonia, Kosovo and Turkey". DAZN Football. 21 January 2024. Retrieved 21 January 2024 – via Twitter.
^ Optus, Singtel. "optus sport kicks off new investment in women's football". optus.com.au. Retrieved 24 November 2019.
^ Vaquer, Gabriel. "Disney fecha com ligas de futebol feminino da Europa para ESPN, Fox Sports e Star+". noticiasdatv. Retrieved 14 September 2022.
^ "Sportsnet signs two-year deal to broadcast FA Women's Super League". Sportsnet.ca. Retrieved 22 July 2022.
^ Jones, Rory (30 March 2022). "Women's Super League lands Sky Deutschland rights deal". SportsPro. Retrieved 15 January 2023.
^ "Spark deal struck". The FA. 10 December 2020.
^ "Women's Super League to air on CBS Sports Network and Paramount+ beginning summer of 2022". CBSSports.com. Retrieved 22 July 2022.
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Women's Super League (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%27s_Super_League_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"women's football in England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%27s_football_in_England"},{"link_name":"the Football Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Football_Association"},{"link_name":"FA Women's Premier League National Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FA_Women%27s_Premier_League_National_Division"},{"link_name":"inaugural 2011 season","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_FA_WSL"},{"link_name":"2017–18","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017%E2%80%9318_FA_WSL"},{"link_name":"FA WSL 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FA_Women%27s_Championship"},{"link_name":"FA Women's Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FA_Women%27s_Championship"},{"link_name":"UEFA Women's Champions League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UEFA_Women%27s_Champions_League"},{"link_name":"Chelsea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chelsea_F.C._Women"},{"link_name":"2023–24","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2023%E2%80%9324_Women%27s_Super_League"}],"text":"This article is about the association football league in England. For other uses, see Women's Super League (disambiguation).Football leagueThe Women's Super League (WSL), known as the Barclays Women's Super League (BWSL) for sponsorship reasons, is the highest league of women's football in England. Established in 2010, it is run by the Football Association and features twelve fully professional teams. The league replaced the FA Women's Premier League National Division as the highest level of women's football in England, with eight teams competing in the inaugural 2011 season. In the WSL's first two seasons, there was no relegation from the division.The WSL discarded the winter football season for six years, between 2011 and 2016, playing through the summer instead (from March until October). Since 2017–18, the WSL has operated as a winter league running from September to May, as was traditional before 2011. From 2014 to 2017–18, the Women's Super League consisted of two divisions – FA WSL 1 and FA WSL 2 – and brought a promotion and relegation system to the WSL. Ahead of the 2018–19 season, the second division was renamed the FA Women's Championship.In November 2023, it was announced that all 24 Women's Super League and Women's Championship clubs had unanimously agreed to form a new organisation, named NewCo, to run the women's professional game in England, taking over from the FA. The WSL champions, runners-up and third-placed team qualify for the UEFA Women's Champions League the following season. The current Women's Super League champions are Chelsea, who won their record-extending seventh title in the 2023–24 season, as well as their fifth consecutive title in a row.","title":"Women's Super League"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"FA Women's Premier League National Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FA_Women%27s_Premier_League_National_Division"},{"link_name":"global economic downturn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Recession"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Arsenal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsenal_W.F.C."},{"link_name":"Barnet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Bees"},{"link_name":"Birmingham City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham_City_L.F.C."},{"link_name":"Bristol Academy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol_City_W.F.C."},{"link_name":"Chelsea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chelsea_F.C._Women"},{"link_name":"Colchester United","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colchester_United_L.F.C."},{"link_name":"Doncaster Rovers Belles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doncaster_Rovers_Belles_L.F.C."},{"link_name":"Everton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Everton_L.F.C."},{"link_name":"Leeds Carnegie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leeds_United_L.F.C."},{"link_name":"Leicester City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leicester_City_W.F.C."},{"link_name":"Lincoln Ladies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notts_County_Ladies_F.C."},{"link_name":"Liverpool","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liverpool_F.C._Women"},{"link_name":"Millwall Lionesses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millwall_Lionesses_L.F.C."},{"link_name":"Newcastle United","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newcastle_United_W.F.C."},{"link_name":"Nottingham Forest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nottingham_Forest_L.F.C."},{"link_name":"Sunderland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunderland_A.F.C._Ladies"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Blackburn Rovers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackburn_Rovers_L.F.C."},{"link_name":"Watford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watford_L.F.C."},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Ian Watmore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Watmore"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"inaugural WSL season","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_FA_WSL"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rachel_Yankey_Rachel_Corsie_Arsenal_Ladies_Vs_Notts_County_(18425487161).jpg"},{"link_name":"FA WSL 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FA_Women%27s_Championship"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Manchester City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester_City_W.F.C."},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"English women's football pyramid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%27s_football_in_England#Pyramid"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"FA WSL Spring Series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FA_WSL_Spring_Series"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FAWinterAnnouncement-15"},{"link_name":"2017–18 FA WSL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017%E2%80%9318_FA_WSL"},{"link_name":"2018–19 season","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_FA_WSL"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2018Guardian-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Brighton & Hove Albion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brighton_%26_Hove_Albion_W.F.C."},{"link_name":"West Ham United","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Ham_United_F.C._Women"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"2019–20 season","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019%E2%80%9320_FA_WSL"},{"link_name":"Yeovil Town","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeovil_Town_L.F.C."},{"link_name":"Manchester United","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester_United_W.F.C."},{"link_name":"Tottenham Hotspur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tottenham_Hotspur_L.F.C."},{"link_name":"Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FA_Women%27s_Championship"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"2020–21 season","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020%E2%80%9321_FA_WSL"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Casey Stoney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casey_Stoney"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"text":"The FA WSL was due to start in 2010 to replace the FA Women's Premier League National Division as the top level of women's football in England but was deferred for a year due to the global economic downturn.[1] Sixteen clubs applied for 8 places in the inaugural season of the league: Arsenal, Barnet, Birmingham City, Bristol Academy, Chelsea, Colchester United, Doncaster Rovers Belles, Everton, Leeds Carnegie, Leicester City, Lincoln Ladies, Liverpool, Millwall Lionesses, Newcastle United, Nottingham Forest, and Sunderland.[2] Leeds Carnegie later withdrew their application.[3] Women's Premier League clubs Blackburn Rovers and Watford declined to apply.[4] FA Chief Executive Ian Watmore described the creation of the league as a \"top priority\" in February 2010.[5]The inaugural WSL season kicked off on 13 April 2011 — at Imperial Fields, Chelsea's home ground — with a match between Chelsea and Arsenal, which Chelsea lost 1–0.[6]Arsenal v Notts County in 2014For the 2014 season, a second division was created named FA WSL 2, with nine teams and one team being relegated from the WSL 1. WSL 1 remained as eight teams, with the WSL 2 having ten teams.[7][8][9][10] The new WSL 1 licence was awarded to Manchester City. Doncaster Rovers Belles were relegated to the WSL 2. They appealed against their demotion but were unsuccessful.[11]In December 2014, the FA WSL announced a two-year plan to expand the WSL 1 from an eight to a ten-team league. Two teams were promoted from the WSL 2 at the end of the 2015 season, while one team was relegated to the WSL 2 with the same happening at the end of the 2016 season.[12][13] Also, for the first time, a team from the FA Women's Premier League earned a promotion to WSL 2, effectively connecting the WSL to the rest of the English women's football pyramid.[14]The FA announced in July 2016 that the league would move from a summer league format to a winter league, in line with the traditional football calendar in England, with matches played from September to May the following year. A shortened bridging season took place, branded as the FA WSL Spring Series, with teams playing each other once from February to May 2017.[15]Following the 2017–18 FA WSL season, WSL 1 was renamed back to the FA Women's Super League, becoming a fully professional league for the first time, with eleven teams for the 2018–19 season.[16][17] Teams had to re-apply for their licence to earn their place in the league, requiring clubs to offer their players a minimum 16-hour a week contract and to form a youth academy as compulsory for the new licence criteria. Sunderland was moved down to tier 3 in the women's football pyramid after not receiving a licence whilst Brighton & Hove Albion and West Ham United were added to the league.[18]The league was extended to twelve teams for the 2019–20 season, with Yeovil Town relegated after going into administration and being replaced by Manchester United and Tottenham Hotspur, who gained promotion from the Championship.[19]In May 2020, the league was curtailed by the COVID-19 pandemic. Chelsea were declared champions of the season based on a points-per-game average.[20]At the conclusion of the 2020–21 season, four first-team managers resigned from their positions at WSL clubs Birmingham, Manchester United, Arsenal, and Aston Villa. Birmingham's outgoing manager Carla Ward questioned the commitment of some of the clubs involved in WSL,[21] whilst Manchester United's outgoing manager Casey Stoney allegedly quit because of unresolved issues surrounding lack of training facilities and other infrastructure.[22]In November 2023, it was announced that all 24 Women's Super League and Women's Championship clubs had unanimously agreed to form a new organisation to run the women's professional game in England, taking over from the FA. The organization is called NewCo, and Nikki Doucet has been named CEO.[23][24]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"semi-professional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-professional"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-meltdown-26"},{"link_name":"Women's Professional Soccer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%27s_Professional_Soccer"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-meltdown-26"},{"link_name":"2011 FIFA Women's World Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_FIFA_Women%27s_World_Cup"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uefa-27"},{"link_name":"FA WSL Continental Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FA_WSL_Continental_Cup"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"2014 season","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_FA_WSL#League_Cup"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"2015 season","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_FA_WSL#WSL_Cup"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1718_restructure-30"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2018Guardian-16"}],"text":"The FA Women's Super League currently consists of twelve clubs. Initially the league was described as professional, with the top four players on each team being paid an annual salary in excess of £20,000.[25] However, in November 2010 it was confirmed that the WSL would be semi-professional, with only a \"handful\" of top players full-time.[26] Clubs' annual wage bills were expected to be approximately one-tenth of those in the now-defunct American Women's Professional Soccer.[26]The 2011 season included a mid-season break from 12 May 2011, to allow for the 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup. The season then resumed in early July, finishing in August 2011.[27]After the league fixtures, the teams compete for a knock-out cup competition, the FA WSL Continental Cup.[28] For the 2014 season, the teams were placed into three regional groups of six. The group winners and best-performing runners-up all advanced to a knockout semi-final.[29] Since the 2015 season, the WSL Continental Cup have been played simultaneously with the league season.Following a review, the FA announced in September 2017 that a restructuring of the league and its licensing criteria would follow from the 2017–18 season with a goal of a fully professional top division of between 8 and 14 teams and a second division of up to 12 semi-professional teams.[30] For the 2018–19 season, the league became fully professional.[16]","title":"Competition structure"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"The following twelve clubs competed in the 2023–24 season:","title":"Clubs"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ellen_White_and_Steph_Houghton_(cropped).JPG"},{"link_name":"Arsenal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsenal_W.F.C."},{"link_name":"Ellen White","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellen_White_(footballer)"},{"link_name":"Steph Houghton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steph_Houghton"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"European Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union"},{"link_name":"Home Office","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_Office"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-faqfifteen-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-faqtwentyone-35"},{"link_name":"salary cap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salary_cap"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-faqfifteen-34"},{"link_name":"John Buckley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Buckley_(footballer,_born_1962)"},{"link_name":"Rachel Williams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachel_Williams_(footballer)"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"Kelly Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelly_Smith"},{"link_name":"Alex Scott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex_Scott_(footballer_born_1984)"},{"link_name":"Gemma Davison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemma_Davison"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Ifeoma Dieke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ifeoma_Dieke"},{"link_name":"Anita Asante","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anita_Asante"},{"link_name":"Damallsvenskan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damallsvenskan"},{"link_name":"Reading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reading_F.C._Women"},{"link_name":"Kelly Chambers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelly_Chambers_(footballer)"},{"link_name":"Premier League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premier_League"},{"link_name":"Tottenham Hotspur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tottenham_Hotspur_F.C._Women"},{"link_name":"Bethany England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethany_England"},{"link_name":"EFL Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EFL_Championship"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chambers-40"}],"text":"Arsenal's Ellen White (L) and Steph Houghton (R) with the WSL trophyIn the first season of the WSL clubs were subject to a squad cap of 20 players. This proved unpopular with both managers and players.[31][32] Ahead of the 2012 season, the rule was reviewed and the cap increased to 23 players.[33] Players from outside the European Union, like their male counterparts, are subject to Home Office work permit regulations.[34]The FA said in April 2012 that the salary rule of allowing only four players per team to earn over £20,000 and that all clubs are paid £70,000 per season from a Club Development Fund should limit any financial \"imbalance\" between clubs.[35] However, the introduction of a genuine salary cap remained under consideration for 2013 and beyond.[34] Doncaster manager John Buckley revealed that his club lost Rachel Williams and other players to Birmingham City because he was working to a budget eight times smaller than that enjoyed by Birmingham.[36]When the 2012 WPS season was cancelled in the United States, Lincoln Ladies manager Glen Harris said that the next destination of that league's British players would be decided by \"pounds, shillings and pence.\"[37] Ultimately Kelly Smith, Alex Scott and Gemma Davison all joined Arsenal,[38][39] while Ifeoma Dieke and Anita Asante joined the Swedish Damallsvenskan in preference to the WSL.On 20 May 2023, Reading manager Kelly Chambers noted that the team — the only WSL club not affiliated with a men's Premier League club – struggled to compete with a smaller budget for wages than women's sides with Premier League backing. She cited the £250,000 fee paid by Tottenham Hotspur for Bethany England, while some Reading staff were required to work multiple roles from lack of investment by its affiliated men's side in the EFL Championship.[40]","title":"Players"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of English women's football champions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_English_women%27s_football_champions"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arsenal_WFC_v_Manchester_City_WFC,_11_May_2019_(01).jpg"}],"text":"See also: List of English women's football championsTrophy since the 2018–19 rebranding","title":"Champions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"doubles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_(association_football)"},{"link_name":"Women's FA Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%27s_FA_Cup"},{"link_name":"trebles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treble_(association_football)"},{"link_name":"FA Women's League Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FA_Women%27s_League_Cup"}],"sub_title":"By season","text":"Teams in just bold indicate doubles with the Women's FA Cup. Teams in bold and in italics indicate trebles with the Women's FA Cup and FA Women's League Cup.","title":"Champions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-spring_44-0"},{"link_name":"FA WSL Spring Series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FA_WSL_Spring_Series"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-PPG_45-0"},{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic"}],"sub_title":"By team","text":"Notes^ The FA WSL Spring Series was an interim edition and is not recognised as an official title as it has not been played throughout the whole season.[41][42][43]\n\n^ Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the season ended early and the league was decided on a points-per-game basis.","title":"Champions"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"As of 18 May 2024. All current WSL players are in bold.","title":"Records"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Most appearances","title":"Records"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Top scorers","title":"Records"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"FA WSL Hall of Fame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FA_WSL_Hall_of_Fame"},{"link_name":"FA WSL Hall of Fame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FA_WSL_Hall_of_Fame"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"}],"text":"Further information: FA WSL Hall of FameIn September 2021, the Women's Super League announced the first inductees into the Barclays FA WSL Hall of Fame, recognising significant individuals who have contributed to the growth of the women's game in England and the WSL.[65]","title":"Hall of Fame"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Finances"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Women%27s_Super_League&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"Barclays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barclays"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"FA Women's Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FA_Women%27s_Championship"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"England women's national football team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England_women%27s_national_football_team"},{"link_name":"FA Women's Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FA_Women%27s_Cup"},{"link_name":"FA WSL Continental Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FA_WSL_Continental_Cup"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"Yorkshire Building Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yorkshire_Building_Society"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Two_WSL_partners_announced-74"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-meltdown-26"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bbc-pay-75"}],"sub_title":"Sponsorship","text":"As of 30 November 2022[update], the WSL's total annual sponsorship revenue was estimated to be about $14.72 million.[66]In March 2019, the Women's Super League agreed a multi-million sponsorship deal with British bank Barclays from the start of the 2019–20 season. The three-year sponsorship deal is reported to be in excess of £10 million with a prize money pot of £500,000 for the league champions for the first time. The FA described the deal as \"the biggest ever investment in UK women's sport by a brand\".[67] Barclays renewed the sponsorship with an additional three-year deal on 15 December 2021, doubled its rights fee, and extended its sponsorship to the FA Women's Championship.[68][69]The league's lead sponsor from 2012 to 2019 was Continental Tyres. Continental sponsored the FA's new commercial programme from 2014 to 2018 including the England women's national football team, FA Women's Cup and the FA WSL Continental Cup in addition to the WSL.[70][71] During the 2011 season, Yorkshire Building Society was also a sponsorship partner along with Continental.[72][26]Most shirt sponsorships for women's sides affiliated with men's clubs are bundled and not sold or valued separately.[73]","title":"Finances"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Premier League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premier_League"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"Reading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reading_F.C._Women"},{"link_name":"lower-tier men's side","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reading_F.C."},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chambers-40"},{"link_name":"Arsenal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsenal_W.F.C."},{"link_name":"Chelsea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chelsea_F.C._Women"},{"link_name":"Liverpool","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liverpool_F.C._Women"},{"link_name":"Manchester City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester_City_W.F.C."},{"link_name":"Manchester United","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester_United_W.F.C."},{"link_name":"Tottenham Hotspur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tottenham_Hotspur_F.C._Women"},{"link_name":"The Telegraph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph"},{"link_name":"agents'","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports_agent"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"}],"sub_title":"Investment from Premier League clubs","text":"In the 2022–23 season, 11 of the WSL's 12 teams were affiliates of men's Premier League clubs,[74] with the only exception being Reading, who were affiliated with a lower-tier men's side.[40] Arsenal, Chelsea, Liverpool, Manchester City, Manchester United, and Tottenham Hotspur combined had spent a total of £123.6 million on their women's sides from the league's founding in 2011 to the 2022–23 season. A report in The Telegraph compared this spending to the £186 million those clubs' spent on agents' fees for men's player transactions from 1 February 2022 to 31 January 2023. Those clubs spent £33 million on their women's sides over the same period.[75]","title":"Finances"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"}],"sub_title":"Declined investments","text":"In July 2022, The FA declined a £150 million offer from an unnamed private equity firm to purchase the league. Baroness Sue Campbell had noted that The FA had refused other private equity offers.[76]","title":"Finances"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Women%27s_Super_League&action=edit"},{"link_name":"Sky Sports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sky_Sports"},{"link_name":"BBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC"}],"text":"As of 2021[update], matches are broadcast and streamed in the United Kingdom and Ireland via The FA Player, Sky Sports, and the BBC (UK only). Internationally, select matches are broadcast in at least twelve countries, including Australia, Canada, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Finland, Germany, Italy, Mexico, New Zealand, Norway, and Sweden, and the United States.","title":"Broadcasting"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"BT Sport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BT_Sport"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"BBC Sport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Sport"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"FA Women's Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FA_Women%27s_Championship"},{"link_name":"Women's FA Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%27s_FA_Cup"},{"link_name":"FA Women's League Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FA_Women%27s_League_Cup"},{"link_name":"England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England_women%27s_national_football_team"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-broadcast-85"},{"link_name":"OTT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Over-the-top_media_service"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"ESPN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESPN_(UK)#Women.E2.80.99s_Super_League"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uefa-27"},{"link_name":"needs update","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items"},{"link_name":"Imperial Fields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Fields"},{"link_name":"Gilly Flaherty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilly_Flaherty"},{"link_name":"Keepmoat Stadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keepmoat_Stadium"},{"link_name":"Doncaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doncaster"},{"link_name":"BBC Two","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Two"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"}],"sub_title":"In the United Kingdom and Ireland","text":"Since 2017–18, many FA WSL games have been broadcast on television by BT Sport, online and red-button by the BBC (UK only), and via the league's Facebook page.[77] BBC Sport has continued to air one game a weekend digitally via their iPlayer service and website,[78] while subscription channel Sky Sports also holds the rights to televise a selection of matches.[79][80]Since the 2019–20 season, league matches have been streamed via The FA Player, as well as some FA Women's Championship games, highlights from the Women's FA Cup, FA Women's League Cup and international England games.[81][82] Some games in The FA Player are excluded, such as those broadcast on BT Sport in the UK and Ireland due to licensing rights.[83]In March 2021, the FA WSL announced a new record-breaking three-year domestic television rights deal with Sky Sports and BBC, beginning with the 2021–22 season. Sky would broadcast 44 matches per season with a further 22 matches shown on BBC platforms including a minimum of 18 on BBC One or Two. All other fixtures would remain available to stream for free on The FA Player, the governing body's own over OTT service.[84] Believed to be worth around £8 million a season, it is the biggest broadcast deal of any professional women's football league in the world and marked the first time that the WSL's rights had been sold separately from the men's game.[85]Previously, FA women's competitions were broadcast on ESPN from 2009 to 2013 as part of a four-year broadcast rights deal.[86] Six live matches were broadcast in 2011 in addition to weekly highlights, with ten games expected to be shown in 2012.[27][needs update] ESPN broadcast the opening game of the WSL between Chelsea and Arsenal at Imperial Fields on 13 April 2011, a game Arsenal won 1–0 with a first half goal by Gilly Flaherty. The second televised game took place on 12 May 2011 as Doncaster Belles lost 1–0 to Everton Ladies at the Keepmoat Stadium, Doncaster.In 2013, BBC Two broadcast four WSL programmes during the 2013–14 season. Each programme featured goal round-ups, highlights, features and previews of England's World Cup qualifiers.[87]","title":"Broadcasting"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"}],"sub_title":"International","text":"For countries without broadcast rights, all WSL matches are available on The FA Player.[88]","title":"Broadcasting"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Arsenal v Notts County in 2014","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Rachel_Yankey_Rachel_Corsie_Arsenal_Ladies_Vs_Notts_County_%2818425487161%29.jpg/300px-Rachel_Yankey_Rachel_Corsie_Arsenal_Ladies_Vs_Notts_County_%2818425487161%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Arsenal's Ellen White (L) and Steph Houghton (R) with the WSL trophy","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Ellen_White_and_Steph_Houghton_%28cropped%29.JPG/200px-Ellen_White_and_Steph_Houghton_%28cropped%29.JPG"},{"image_text":"Trophy since the 2018–19 rebranding","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Arsenal_WFC_v_Manchester_City_WFC%2C_11_May_2019_%2801%29.jpg/200px-Arsenal_WFC_v_Manchester_City_WFC%2C_11_May_2019_%2801%29.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"List of FA WSL clubs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_FA_WSL_clubs"},{"title":"Portals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Womens-soccer-icon.png"},{"title":"Women's association football","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Women%27s_association_football"},{"title":"Sports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Sports"},{"title":"England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:England"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Soccer_ball.svg"},{"title":"Association football","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Association_football"}]
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[{"reference":"Leighton, Tony (6 April 2009). \"Anger at delay of women's summer Super League\". The Guardian. Retrieved 8 March 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/football/2009/apr/06/womens-football-super-league-fa","url_text":"\"Anger at delay of women's summer Super League\""}]},{"reference":"\"Super League's Sixteen Applicants\". Shekicks. 7 January 2010. Archived from the original on 24 March 2010. Retrieved 8 March 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100324085639/http://www.shekicks.net/news/view/38","url_text":"\"Super League's Sixteen Applicants\""},{"url":"http://www.shekicks.net/news/view/38","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Tony Leighton (25 January 2010). \"Leeds Carnegie could fold after ending Super League interest\". The Guardian. Retrieved 8 March 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/football/2010/jan/25/leeds-carnegie-fa-super-league","url_text":"\"Leeds Carnegie could fold after ending Super League interest\""}]},{"reference":"\"Rovers decide against Super League\". Blackburn Rovers. 20 January 2010. Archived from the original on 29 March 2012. Retrieved 8 March 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120329034057/http://www.rovers.co.uk/page/LadiesNews/0%2C%2C10303~1938465%2C00.html","url_text":"\"Rovers decide against Super League\""},{"url":"http://www.rovers.co.uk/page/LadiesNews/0,,10303~1938465,00.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Watmore outlines top priorities\". The Football Association. 22 February 2010. Retrieved 8 March 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.thefa.com/TheFA/NewsAndFeatures/2010/WatmoreManagementTeam.aspx","url_text":"\"Watmore outlines top priorities\""}]},{"reference":"\"Whole new ball game: How Chelsea Women kicked off WSL era 10 years ago today\". chelseafc.com. 13 April 2021. Archived from the original on 16 May 2021. Retrieved 16 May 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.chelseafc.com/en/news/2021/04/13/whole-new-ball-game--how-chelsea-women-kicked-off-wsl-era-10-yea","url_text":"\"Whole new ball game: How Chelsea Women kicked off WSL era 10 years ago today\""},{"url":"https://archive.today/20210516165657/https://www.chelseafc.com/en/news/2021/04/13/whole-new-ball-game--how-chelsea-women-kicked-off-wsl-era-10-yea","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"FA WSL 2014: Applications\". The Football Association. Retrieved 27 May 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.thefa.com/News/2012/dec/fa-wsl-applications-2014.aspx","url_text":"\"FA WSL 2014: Applications\""}]},{"reference":"\"FA WSL 2014-2018 brochure\". The Football Association. Retrieved 1 March 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.thefa.com/News/2012/dec/~/media/C59A214D19F44A42AD0475172F422B41.ashx","url_text":"\"FA WSL 2014-2018 brochure\""}]},{"reference":"\"The FA WSL Club Development Plan\". The Football Association. Retrieved 27 May 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.thefa.com/News/2012/dec/~/media/D8A111434B7D4BC0AAEAF9311328E138.ashx","url_text":"\"The FA WSL Club Development Plan\""}]},{"reference":"\"Clubs bid for WSL spot\". The Football Association. Retrieved 27 May 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.thefa.com/News/fawsl/2013/mar/fawsl-club-bids-2014","url_text":"\"Clubs bid for WSL spot\""}]},{"reference":"Baber, Mark. \"Doncaster Belles lose appeal over demotion from Women's Super League\". Inside World Football. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 17 April 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160304041935/http://www.insideworldfootball.com/world-football/europe/12809-doncaster-belles-lose-appeal-over-demotion-from-women-s-super-league","url_text":"\"Doncaster Belles lose appeal over demotion from Women's Super League\""},{"url":"http://www.insideworldfootball.com/world-football/europe/12809-doncaster-belles-lose-appeal-over-demotion-from-women-s-super-league","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"FA WSL 2 promotion announcement\". Faws1.com. Retrieved 18 December 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.fawsl.com/news/fa_wsl_2_promotion_announcement.html","url_text":"\"FA WSL 2 promotion announcement\""}]},{"reference":"\"Women's Super League to be expanded from 2015\". BBC Sport. Retrieved 18 December 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/30298483","url_text":"\"Women's Super League to be expanded from 2015\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sheffield FC beat Portsmouth in Women's Premier League play-off\". BBC. 24 May 2015. Retrieved 29 July 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.com/sport/0/football/32867783","url_text":"\"Sheffield FC beat Portsmouth in Women's Premier League play-off\""}]},{"reference":"\"FA Women's Super League to move to new calendar in 2017\". The FA Women's Super League. The Football Association. 12 July 2016. Retrieved 12 July 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.fawsl.com/news/fa_womens_super_league_to_move_to_new_calendar_in_2017.html","url_text":"\"FA Women's Super League to move to new calendar in 2017\""}]},{"reference":"Louise Taylor (28 May 2018). \"West Ham the big winners, Sunderland key losers in women's football revamp\". The Guardian. Retrieved 29 May 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/football/2018/may/28/west-ham-winners-sunderland-losers-womens-football-super-league","url_text":"\"West Ham the big winners, Sunderland key losers in women's football revamp\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian","url_text":"The Guardian"}]},{"reference":"\"New look revealed for FA Women's Super League\". fawsl.com. The Football Association. 6 June 2018. Retrieved 7 June 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.fawsl.com/news/new_look_revealed_for_fa_womens_super_league.html#v3vGVjqY6MRsiCSS.97","url_text":"\"New look revealed for FA Women's Super League\""}]},{"reference":"\"Women's Super League: New full-time, professional era - all you need to know\". 9 September 2018. Retrieved 27 March 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/45355268","url_text":"\"Women's Super League: New full-time, professional era - all you need to know\""}]},{"reference":"\"Delightful Dozen\". 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Retrieved 21 January 2024 – via Twitter.","urls":[{"url":"https://twitter.com/DAZNFootball/status/1749046726965514266","url_text":"\"Watch live on the DAZN Women's Football YouTube channel in Italy, Japan, Albania, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Bulgaria, Greece & Cyprus, Hungary, Malta, Romania, Serbia, Slovenia, Croatia, Montenegro, Bosnia & Herzegovina, North-Macedonia, Kosovo and Turkey\""}]},{"reference":"Optus, Singtel. \"optus sport kicks off new investment in women's football\". optus.com.au. Retrieved 24 November 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.optus.com.au/about/media-centre/media-releases/2019/11/optus-sport-kicks-off-new-investment-in-womens-football","url_text":"\"optus sport kicks off new investment in women's football\""}]},{"reference":"Vaquer, Gabriel. \"Disney fecha com ligas de futebol feminino da Europa para ESPN, Fox Sports e Star+\". noticiasdatv. 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Retrieved 15 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sportspromedia.com/news/wsl-sky-deutschland-tv-broadcast-rights-womens-soccer-germany-dach/?zephr_sso_ott=EFACxz","url_text":"\"Women's Super League lands Sky Deutschland rights deal\""}]},{"reference":"\"Spark deal struck\". The FA. 10 December 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://womenscompetitions.thefa.com/en/Article/FA-WSL-broadcast-deal-in-new-zealand-with-Spark-111220","url_text":"\"Spark deal struck\""}]},{"reference":"\"Women's Super League to air on CBS Sports Network and Paramount+ beginning summer of 2022\". CBSSports.com. Retrieved 22 July 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cbssports.com/soccer/news/womens-super-league-to-air-on-cbs-sports-network-and-paramount-beginning-summer-of-2022/","url_text":"\"Women's Super League to air on CBS Sports Network and Paramount+ beginning summer of 2022\""}]}]
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Flaherty – Profile with news, career statistics and history – Soccerway\""},{"Link":"https://footystats.org/players/england/stephanie-houghton","external_links_name":"\"Stephanie Houghton – Goals & Stats | FootyStats\""},{"Link":"https://footystats.org/players/netherlands/vivianne-miedema","external_links_name":"\"Vivianne Miedema – Goals, Assists & Stats | FootyStats\""},{"Link":"https://footystats.org/players/england/bethany-england","external_links_name":"\"Bethany England – Goals, Assists & Stats | FootyStats\""},{"Link":"https://footystats.org/players/england/francesca-kirby","external_links_name":"\"Francesca Kirby – Goals, Assists & Stats | FootyStats\""},{"Link":"https://int.soccerway.com/players/bethany--mead/175747/","external_links_name":"\"England – B. 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Shaw – Profile with news, career statistics and history – Soccerway\""},{"Link":"https://int.soccerway.com/players/rachel-williams/59323/","external_links_name":"\"England – R. 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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnegie_Medal_(literary_award)
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Carnegie Medal (literary award)
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["1 2023 rendition","2 History","3 Process","4 Winners","5 Carnegie of Carnegies","6 Honorees","6.1 1930s","6.2 1940s","6.3 1950s","6.4 1960s","6.5 1970s","6.6 1980s","6.7 1990s","6.8 2000s","6.9 2010s","6.10 2020s","7 Repeat honorees","8 Multiple award recipients","9 See also","10 Notes","11 References","11.1 Citations","12 External links"]
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Annual award for writing a children's book published in the UK
Not to be confused with Andrew Carnegie Medals for Excellence in Fiction and Nonfiction.
The Carnegie Medal for WritingAwarded forOutstanding new English-language book for children or young adultsSponsored byYotoReward(s)£5,000First awarded1936; 88 years ago (1936)Last awardedActiveWebsiteyotocarnegies.co.uk
The Carnegie Medal for Writing, established in 1936, is a British literary award that annually recognises one outstanding new English-language book for children or young adults. It is conferred upon the author by the Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals (CILIP), who calls it "the UK's oldest and most prestigious book award for children's writing". CILIP is currently partnered with the audio technology company Yoto in connection with the award.
Nominated books must be written in English and first published in the UK during the preceding school year (September to August). Until 1969, the award was limited to books by British authors first published in England. The first non-British medalist was Australian author Ivan Southall for Josh (1972). The original rules also prohibited winning authors from future consideration. The first author to win a second Carnegie Medal was Peter Dickinson in 1981, who won consecutively for Tulku and City of Gold. As of 2018, eight authors had received the Medal more than once.
The winner is awarded a gold medal and £500 worth of books donated to the winner's chosen library. In addition, since 2016 the winner has received a £5,000 cash prize from the Colin Mears bequest.
2023 rendition
Manon Steffan Ros won the 2023 Carnegie Medal for The Blue Book of Nebo, the first time a translation had won the award. The Blue Book of Nebo is a novel told in dual narrative by a boy and his mother navigating a post-apocalyptic world. Translated from Welsh, it depicts Welsh identity and culture.
There were seven books on the 2023 shortlist:
Katya Balen, The Light in Everything (Bloomsbury)
Sita Brahmachari, When Shadows Fall (Little Tiger)
Jessie Burton, Medusa (Bloomsbury)
Louise Finch, The Eternal Return of Clara Hart (Little Island)
Patrice Lawrence, Needle (Barrington Stoke)
Manon Steffan Ros, The Blue Book of Nebo (Firefly Press)
Ruta Sepetys, I Must Betray You (Hodder) Winner of the Shadowers choice
Recommended ages have ranged from 8+ to 14+ for books on the shortlist since 2001.
History
The Medal is named after the Scottish-born American philanthropist Andrew Carnegie (1835–1919), who founded more than 2,800 libraries in the English-speaking world, including at least one in more than half of British library authorities. It was established in 1936 by the British Library Association, to celebrate the centenary of Carnegie's birth and inaugurated in 1937 with the award to Arthur Ransome for Pigeon Post (1936) and the identification of two 'commended' books. The first Medal was dated 1936, but since 2007, it has been dated by its year of presentation, which is now one or two years after publication.
In 1955, the Kate Greenaway Medal was established as a companion to the Carnegie Medal. The Kate Greenaway Medal recognises "distinguished illustration in a book for children".
Both awards were established and administered by the Library Association, until it was succeeded by CILIP in 2002. In 2022, the award was officially renamed to the Carnegie Medal for Illustration.
As of 2023, the award is organized by CILIP and sponsored by Yoto, Scholastic, and the Authors' Licensing and Collecting Society.
Process
CILIP members may nominate books each September and October, with the full list of valid nominations published in November. The longlist, chosen by the judges from the nominated books, is published in February. The judging panel comprises 12 children's librarians, all of whom are members of CILIP's Youth Libraries Group (YLG). The shortlist is announced in March and the winner in June.
Titles must be English-language works first published in the UK during the preceding year (1 September to 31 August). According to CILIP, "all categories of books, including poetry, non-fiction and graphic novels, in print or ebook format, for children and young people are eligible". Multiple-author anthologies are excluded; however, co-authored single works are eligible.
Young people from across the UK take part in shadowing groups organised by secondary schools and public libraries, to read and discuss the shortlisted books.
CILIP instructs the judging panel to consider plot, characterisation, and style "where appropriate". Furthermore, it states that "the book that wins the Carnegie Medal should be a book of outstanding literary quality. The whole work should provide pleasure, not merely from the surface enjoyment of a good read, but also the deeper subconscious satisfaction of having gone through a vicarious, but at the time of reading, a real experience that is retained afterwards".
A diversity review in 2018 led to changes in the nomination and judging process to promote better representation of ethnic minority authors and books.
Winners
As of 2022, 83 Medals have been awarded over 86 years, spanning the period from 1936 to 2021. No eligible book published in 1943, 1945, or 1966 was considered suitable by the judging panel.
From 2007 onward, the medals are dated by the year of presentation. Prior to this, they were dated by the calendar year of their British publication.
Forty-one winning books were illustrated in their first editions, including every one during the first three decades. Six from 1936 to 1953 were illustrated or co-illustrated by their authors; none since then.
Carnegie Medal winners
Year
Author
Title
Publisher
Ref.
1936
Arthur Ransome
Pigeon Post
Jonathan Cape
1937
Eve Garnett
The Family from One End Street
Frederick Muller
1938
Noel Streatfeild
The Circus Is Coming
J. M. Dent
1939
Eleanor Doorly
The Radium Woman
Heinemann
1940
Kitty Barne
Visitors from London
J. M. Dent
1941
Mary Treadgold
We Couldn't Leave Dinah
Jonathan Cape
1942
BB
The Little Grey Men
Eyre & Spottiswoode
1943
—Prize withheld as no book considered suitable
1944
Eric Linklater
The Wind on the Moon
Macmillan
1945
—Prize withheld as no book considered suitable
1946
Elizabeth Goudge
The Little White Horse
University of London
1947
Walter de la Mare
Collected Stories for Children
Faber
1948
Richard Armstrong
Sea Change
J. M. Dent
1949
Agnes Allen illus. Agnes and Jack Allen
The Story of Your Home
1950
Elfrida Vipont
The Lark on the Wing
Oxford University Press
1951
Cynthia Harnett illus. by the author
The Wool-Pack
Methuen
1952
Mary Norton
The Borrowers
J. M. Dent
1953
Edward Osmond illus. by the author
A Valley Grows Up
Oxford University Press
1954
Ronald Welch (Felton Ronald Oliver)
Knight Crusader
Oxford University Press
1955
Eleanor Farjeon
The Little Bookroom
Oxford University Press
1956
C. S. Lewis
The Last Battle
The Bodley Head
1957
William Mayne
A Grass Rope
Oxford University Press
1958
Philippa Pearce
Tom's Midnight Garden
Oxford University Press
1959
Rosemary Sutcliff
The Lantern Bearers
Oxford University Press
1960
Ian Wolfran Cornwall illus. Marjorie Maitland Howard
The Making of Man
Phoenix House
1961
Lucy M. Boston
A Stranger at Green Knowe
Faber
1962
Pauline Clarke
The Twelve and the Genii
Faber
1963
Hester Burton
Time of Trial
Oxford University Press
1964
Sheena Porter
Nordy Bank
Oxford University Press
1965
Philip Turner
The Grange at High Force
Oxford University Press
1966
— Prize withheld as no book considered suitable
1967
Alan Garner
The Owl Service
Collins
1968
Rosemary Harris
The Moon in the Cloud
Faber
1969
K. M. Peyton
The Edge of the Cloud
Oxford University Press
1970
Leon Garfield and Edward Blishenillustrated by Charles Keeping
The God Beneath the Sea
Longman
1971
Ivan Southall
Josh
Angus & Robertson
1972
Richard Adams
Watership Down
Rex Collings
1973
Penelope Lively
The Ghost of Thomas Kempe
Heinemann
1974
Mollie Hunter
The Stronghold
Hamish Hamilton
1975
Robert Westall
The Machine Gunners
Macmillan
1976
Jan Mark
Thunder and Lightnings
Kestrel
1977
Gene Kemp
The Turbulent Term of Tyke Tiler
Faber
1978
David Rees
The Exeter Blitz
Hamish Hamilton
1979
Peter Dickinson
Tulku
Gollancz
1980
Peter Dickinson illus. Michael Foreman
City of Gold and other stories from the Old Testament
Gollancz
1981
Robert Westall
The Scarecrows
Chatto & Windus
1982
Margaret Mahy
The Haunting
J. M. Dent
1983
Jan Mark
Handles
Kestrel
1984
Margaret Mahy
The Changeover
J. M. Dent
1985
Kevin Crossley-Holland illus. Alan Marks
Storm
Heinemann
1986
Berlie Doherty
Granny Was a Buffer Girl
Methuen
1987
Susan Price
The Ghost Drum
Faber
1988
Geraldine McCaughrean
A Pack of Lies
Oxford University Press
1989
Anne Fine
Goggle-Eyes
Hamish Hamilton
1990
Gillian Cross
Wolf
Oxford University Press
1991
Berlie Doherty
Dear Nobody
Hamish Hamilton
1992
Anne Fine
Flour Babies
Hamish Hamilton
1993
Robert Swindells
Stone Cold
Hamish Hamilton
1994
Theresa Breslin
Whispers in the Graveyard
Methuen
1995
Philip Pullman
Northern Lights
Scholastic
1996
Melvin Burgess
Junk
Andersen Press
1997
Tim Bowler
River Boy
Oxford University Press
1998
David Almond illus. Adam Fisher
Skellig
Hodder & Stoughton
1999
Aidan Chambers
Postcards from No Man's Land
The Bodley Head
2000
Beverley Naidoo
The Other Side of Truth
Puffin
2001
Terry Pratchett
The Amazing Maurice and his Educated Rodents
Doubleday
2002
Sharon Creech
Ruby Holler
Bloomsbury
2003
Jennifer Donnelly
A Gathering Light
Bloomsbury
2004
Frank Cottrell Boyce
Millions
Macmillan
2005
Mal Peet
Tamar
Walker Books
2006 The award date is the year of publication before 2006, the year of presentation after 2006.
2007
Meg Rosoff
Just in Case
Penguin
2008
Philip Reeve
Here Lies Arthur
Scholastic
2009
Siobhan Dowd
Bog Child
David Fickling
2010
Neil Gaiman two illustrators
The Graveyard Book
Bloomsbury
2011
Patrick Ness
Monsters of Men
Walker Books
2012
Patrick Ness illustrated by Jim Kay
A Monster Calls
Walker Books
2013
Sally Gardner
Maggot Moon
Hot Key Books
2014
Kevin Brooks
The Bunker Diary
Penguin Books
2015
Tanya Landman
Buffalo Soldier
Walker Books
2016
Sarah Crossan
One
Bloomsbury Children's
2017
Ruta Sepetys
Salt to the Sea
Penguin Books
2018
Geraldine McCaughrean illustrated by Jane Milloy
Where the World Ends
Usborne Publishing
2019
Elizabeth Acevedo
The Poet X
HarperTeen
2020
Anthony McGowan
Lark
Barrington Stoke
2021
Jason Reynolds
Look Both Ways
Knights Of
2022
Katya Balen
October, October
Bloomsbury
2023
Manon Steffan Ros
The Blue Book of Nebo
Firefly Press
Carnegie of Carnegies
To commemorate the 70th anniversary of the Carnegie Medal in 2007, CILIP created a 'Living Archive' on the Carnegie Medal website with information about each of the winning books and conducted a poll to identify the nation's favourite Carnegie Medal winner, to be named the "Carnegie of Carnegies". The winner, announced on 21 June 2007 at the British Library, was Northern Lights by Philip Pullman (1995). It was the expected winner, garnering 40% of the votes in the UK, and 36% worldwide.
70th Anniversary Top Ten
David Almond, Skellig, (Hodder, 1998)
Melvin Burgess, Junk, (Penguin, 1996)
Kevin Crossley-Holland, Storm, (Egmont, 1985)
Jennifer Donnelly, A Gathering Light, (Bloomsbury, 2003)
Alan Garner, The Owl Service, (HarperCollins, 1967)
Eve Garnett, The Family from One End Street, (Penguin, 1937)
Mary Norton, The Borrowers, (Penguin, 1952)
Philippa Pearce, Tom's Midnight Garden, (Oxford, 1958)
Philip Pullman, Northern Lights, (Scholastic, 1995)
Robert Westall, The Machine Gunners, (Macmillan, 1975)
Northern Lights, with 40% of the public vote, was followed by 16% for Tom's Midnight Garden by Philippa Pearce and 8% for Skellig by David Almond. As those three books had won the 70-year-old Medal in its year 60, year 23, and year 63, some commentary observed that Tom's Midnight Garden had passed a test of time that the others had not yet faced.
Honorees
Prior to 2007, the award year matched books' year of publication with selection announced and medals presented early the following year.
1930s
Medal winners and commended titles, 1936-1939
Year
Author
Title
Publisher
Result
Ref.
1936
Arthur Ransome
Pigeon Post
Jonathan Cape
Winner
Howard Spring
Sampson's Circus
Commended
Noel Streatfeild
Ballet Shoes
Commended
1937
Eve Garnett
The Family from One End Street
Frederick Muller
Winner
1938
Noel Streatfeild
The Circus Is Coming
J. M. Dent
Winner
1939
Eleanor Doorly
The Radium Woman
Heinemann
Winner
1940s
Medal winners and commended titles, 1940-1949
Year
Author
Title
Publisher
Result
Ref.
1940
Kitty Barne
Visitors from London
J. M. Dent
Winner
1941
Mary Treadgold
We Couldn't Leave Dinah
Jonathan Cape
Winner
1942
BB
The Little Grey Men
Eyre & Spottiswoode
Winner
1943
Prize withheld as no book considered suitable
1944
Eric Linklater
The Wind on the Moon
Macmillan
Winner
1945
Prize withheld as no book considered suitable
1946
Elizabeth Goudge
The Little White Horse
University of London
Winner
1947
Walter de la Mare
Collected Stories for Children
Faber & Faber
Winner
1948
Richard Armstrong
Sea Change
J. M. Dent
Winner
1949
Agnes Allen, illus. Agnes and Jack Allen
The Story of Your Home
Faber & Faber
Winner
1950s
Medal winners and commended titles, 1950-1959
Year
Author
Title
Publisher
Result
Ref.
1950
Elfrida Vipont
The Lark on the Wing
Oxford University Press
Winner
1951
Cynthia Harnett
The Wool-Pack
Methuen Publishing
Winner
1952
Mary Norton
The Borrowers
J. M. Dent
Winner
1953
Edward Osmond
A Valley Grows Up
Oxford University Press
Winner
1954
Ronald Welch
Knight Crusader
Oxford University Press
Winner
Harold Jones and Kathleen Lines
Lavender's Blue: A Book of Nursery Rhymes
Special commendation
Lucy M. Boston
Children of Green Knowe
Commended
Nicholas Stuart Gray
Over the Hills to Fabylon
Commended
C. S. Lewis
The Horse and His Boy
Commended
Barbara Leonie Picard
The Lady of the Linden Tree
Commended
James Reeves
English Fables and Fairy Stories
Commended
Rosemary Sutcliff
The Eagle of the Ninth
Commended
1955
Eleanor Farjeon
The Little Bookroom
Oxford University Press
Winner
Lancelot Hogben
Man Must Measure: The Wonderful World of Mathematics
Commended
Margaret Jowett
Candidate for Fame
Commended
Jo Manton
The Story of Albert Schweitzer
Commended
William Mayne
A Swarm in May
Commended
A. Philippa Pearce
Minnow on the Say
Commended
1956
C. S. Lewis
The Last Battle
The Bodley Head
Winner
Rumer Godden
The Fairy Doll
Commended
William Mayne
Choristers' Cake
Commended
William Mayne
The Member for the Marsh
Commended
Barbara Leonie Picard
Ransom for a Knight
Commended
Ian Serraillier
The Silver Sword
Commended
Rosemary Sutcliff
The Shield Ring
Commended
1957
William Mayne
A Grass Rope
Oxford University Press
Winner
Gillian Avery
The Warden's Niece
Commended
Anne Barrett
Sogberd's Grove
Commended
Antonia Forest
Falconer's Lure
Commended
William Mayne
The Blue Boat
Commended
Katharine Savage
The Story of the Second World War
Commended
Rosemary Sutcliff
The Silver Branch
Commended
1958
Philippa Pearce
Tom's Midnight Garden
Oxford University Press
Winner
Lucy M. Boston
The Chimneys of Green Knowe
Commended
Rosemary Sutcliff
Warrior Scarlet
Commended
1959
Rosemary Sutcliff
The Lantern Bearers
Oxford University Press
Winner
Cynthia Harnett
The Load of Unicorn
Commended
Mary Norton
The Borrowers Afloat
Commended
Margery Sharp
The Rescuers
Commended
John Verney
Friday's Tunnel
Commended
Andres Young
Quiet as Moss: 36 Poems
Commended
1960s
Medal winners and commended titles, 1960-1969
Year
Author
Title
Publisher
Result
Ref.
1960
Ian Wolfran Cornwall, illus. by Marjorie Maitland Howard
The Making of Man
Phoenix House
Winner
Hester Burton
The Great Gale
Commended
Robert Graves
The Penny Fiddle
Commended
Frederick Grice
The Bonny Pit Laddie
Commended
Mary K. Harris
Seraphina
Commended
Ian Serraillier
The Ivory Horn
Commended
1961
Lucy M. Boston
A Stranger at Green Knowe
Faber & Faber
Winner
Antonia Forest
Peter's Room
Commended
Rumer Godden
Miss Happiness and Miss Flower
Commended
James Reeves
Ragged Robin
Commended
John Verney
February's Road
Commended
1962
Pauline Clarke
The Twelve and the Genii
Faber & Faber
Winner
Gillian Avery
The Greatest Gresham
Commended
Hester Burton
Castors Away
Commended
Samuel E. Ellacott
Armour and Blade
Commended
Penelope Farmer
The Summer Birds
Commended
Jo Manton
The Story of John Keats
Commended
K. M. Peyton
Windfall
Commended
1963
Hester Burton
Time of Trial
Oxford University Press
Winner
Eric Allan
The Latchkey Children
Commended
Ralph Arnold
Kings, Bishops, Knights, and Pawns: Life in a Feudal Society
Commended
Margaret J. Baker
Castaway Christmas
Commended
Antonia Forest
The Thursday Kidnapping
Commended
John Rowe Townsend
Hell's Edge
Commended
1964
Sheena Porter
Nordy Bank
Oxford University Press
Winner
Eric S. de Mare
London's Riverside
Commended
Jenny Grace Fyson
The Three Brothers of Ur
Commended
C. Walter Hodges
Namesake
Commended
K. M. Peyton
The Maplin Bird
Commended
1965
Philip Turner
The Grange at High Force
Oxford University Press
Winner
Alan Garner
Elidor
Commended
Jenny Grace Fyson
The Journey of the Eldest Son
Commended
Mary K. Harris
The Bus Girls
Commended
C. Headington
The Orchestra and Its Instruments
Commended
K. M. Peyton
The Plan for Birdmarsh
Commended
Barbara Leonie Picard
One is One
Commended
1966
Prize withheld as no book considered suitable
Norman Denny and Josephine Filmer-Sankey
The Bayeux Tapestry: The Story of the Norman Conquest, 1066
Highly commended
Helen Griffith
The Wild Horse of Santander
Commended
K. M. Peyton
Thunder in the Sky
Commended
Morna Stuart
Marassa and Midnight
Commended
1967
Alan Garner
The Owl Service
Collins
Winner
Henry Treece
The Dream Time
Highly commended
Helen Cresswell
The Piemakers
Commended
Leon Garfield
Smith
Commended
K. M. Peyton
Flambards
Commended
1968
Rosemary Harris
The Moon in the Cloud
Faber & Faber
Winner
Joan Aiken
The Whispering Mountain
Commended
Margaret Balderson
When Jays Fly to Barbmo
Commended
Leon Garfield
Black Jack
Commended
1969
K. M. Peyton
The Edge of the Cloud
Oxford University Press
Winner
Helen Cresswell
The Night Watchman
Commended
K. M. Peyton
Flambards in Summer
Commended
John Rowe Townsend
The Intruder
Commended
1970s
Medal winners and commended titles, 1970-1979
Year
Author
Title
Publisher
Result
Ref.
1970
Leon Garfield and Edward Blishen, illus. by Charles Keeping
The God Beneath the Sea
Longman
Winner
Peter Dickinson
The Devil's Children
Commended
Leon Garfield
The Drummer Boy
Commended
William Mayne
Ravensgill
Commended
1971
Ivan Southall
Josh
Angus & Robertson
Winner
Gillian Avery
A Likely Lad
Commended
Helen Cresswell
Up the Pier
Commended
Rosemary Sutcliff
Tristan and Iseult
Commended
1972
Richard Adams
Watership Down
Rex Collings
Winner
Peter Dickinson
The Dancing Bear
Commended
Emma Smith
No Way of Telling
Commended
1973
Penelope Lively
The Ghost of Thomas Kempe
Heinemann
Winner
Nina Bawden
Carrie's War
Commended
Susan Cooper
The Dark Is Rising
Commended
Helen Cresswell
The Bongleweed
Commended
1974
Mollie Hunter
The Stronghold
Hamish Hamilton
Winner
Ian Ribbons
The Battle of Gettysburg, 1–3 July 1963
Oxford University Press
Highly commended
Winifred Cawley
Gran at Coalgate
Commended
Jill Paton Walsh
The Emperor's Winding Sheet
Commended
1975
Robert Westall
The Machine Gunners
Macmillan
Winner
Susan Cooper
The Grey King
Commended
Diana Wynne Jones
Dogsbody
Commended
1976
Jan Mark
Thunder and Lightnings
Kestrel
Winner
Peter Dickinson
The Blue Hawk
Commended
1977
Gene Kemp
The Turbulent Term of Tyke Tiler
Faber & Faber
Winner
Peter Carter
Under Goliath
Commended
Diana Wynne Jones
Charmed Life
Commended
Philippa Pearce
The Shadow-Cage and Other Tales of the Supernatural
Commended
1978
David Rees
The Exeter Blitz
Hamish Hamilton
Winner
1979
Peter Dickinson
Tulku
Gollancz
Winner
Sheila Sancha
The Castle Story
Highly commended
Bernard Ashley
A Wild Kind of Justice
Commended
Philippa Pearce
The Battle of Bubble and Squeak
Commended
Robert Westall
The Devil on the Road
Commended
1980s
Medal winners and commended titles, 1980-1989
Year
Author
Title
Publisher
Result
Ref.
1980
Peter Dickinson, illus. by Michael Foreman
City of Gold and other stories from the Old Testament
Gollancz
Winner
Jan Mark
Nothing To Be Afraid Of
Highly commended
John Branfield
The Fox in Winter
Commended
Jan Needle
A Sense of Shame
Commended
1981
Robert Westall
The Scarecrows
Chatto & Windus
Winner
Jane Gardam
The Hollow Land
Highly commended
Jane Gardam
Bridget and William
Commended
Michelle Magorian
Goodnight Mister Tom
Commended
1982
Margaret Mahy
The Haunting
J. M. Dent
Winner
Gillian Cross
The Dark Behind the Curtain
Highly commended
Tim Kennemore
Wall of Words
Commended
1983
Jan Mark
Handles
Kestrel
Winner
James Watson
Talking in Whispers
Highly commended
Philippa Pearce
The Way to Sattin Shore
Commended
Patricia Wrightson
A Little Fear
Commended
1984
Margaret Mahy
The Changeover
J. M. Dent
Winner
Robert Swindells
Brother in the Land
Oxford University Press
Highly commended
1985
Kevin Crossley-Holland, illus. Alan Marks
Storm
Heinemann
Winner
Janni Howker
Nature of the Beast
Highly commended
1986
Berlie Doherty
Granny Was a Buffer Girl
Methuen Publishing
Winner
Janni Howker
Isaac Campion
Highly commended
Bernard Ashley
Running Scared
Commended
Gillian Cross
Chartbreaker
Commended
Andrew Taylor
Coal House
Commended
1987
Susan Price
The Ghost Drum
Faber & Faber
Winner
Margaret Mahy
Memory
Highly commended
Eileen Dunlop
The House on the Hill
Commended
Monica Furlong
Wise Child
Commended
Michael Morpurgo
Kings of the Cloud Forest
Commended
1988
Geraldine McCaughrean
A Pack of Lies
Oxford University Press
Winner
Gillian Cross
A Map of Nowhere
Highly commended
Peter Dickinson
Eva
Gollancz
Highly commended
Elizabeth Laird
Red Sky in the Morning
Highly commended
Vivien Alcock
The Monster Garden
Commended
Judy Allen
Awaiting Developments
Commended
Diana Wynne Jones
The Lives of Christopher Chant
Commended
1989
Anne Fine
Goggle-Eyes
Hamish Hamilton
Winner
Anne Fine, illus. by Philippe Dupasquier
Bill's New Frock
Egmont
Highly commended
Carole Lloyd
The Charlie Barber Treatment
Highly commended
Vivien Alcock
The Trial of Anna Cotman
Commended
1990s
Medal winners and commended titles, 1990-1999
Year
Author
Title
Publisher
Result
Ref.
1990
Gillian Cross
Wolf
Oxford University Press
Winner
Melvin Burgess
The Cry of the Wolf
Andersen Press
Highly commended
Robert Westall
The Kingdom by the Sea
Highly commended
Theresa Tomlinson
Riding the Waves
Commended
1991
Berlie Doherty
Dear Nobody
Hamish Hamilton
Winner
Jacqueline Wilson, illus. by Nick Sharratt
The Story of Tracy Beaker
Doubleday
Highly commended
Annie Dalton
Real Tilly Beany
Commended
Garry Kilworth
The Drowners
Commended
1992
Anne Fine
Flour Babies
Hamish Hamilton
Winner
Robert Westall
Gulf
Highly commended
Peter Dickinson
A Bone from a Dry Sea
Commended
Gillian Cross
The Great Elephant Chase
Commended
1993
Robert Swindells
Stone Cold
Hamish Hamilton
Winner
Melvin Burgess
The Baby and Fly Pie
Highly commended
Jenny Nimmo
The Stone Mouse
Highly commended
Anne Merrick
Someone Came Knocking
Commended
1994
Theresa Breslin
Whispers in the Graveyard
Methuen Young Books
Winner
Berlie Doherty
Willa And Old Miss Annie
Highly commended
Lesley Howarth
Maphead
Highly commended
1995
Philip Pullman
Northern Lights
Scholastic Point
Winner
Jacqueline Wilson
Double Act
Highly commended
Susan Gates
Raider
Commended
1996
Melvin Burgess
Junk
Andersen Press
Winner
Anne Fine
The Tulip Touch
Highly commended
Terry Pratchett
Johnny and the Bomb
Commended
1997
Tim Bowler
River Boy
Oxford University Press
Winner
Henrietta Branford
Fire, Bed, and Bone
Highly commended
J. K. Rowling
Harry Potter And The Philosopher's Stone
Commended
1998
David Almond
Skellig
Hodder Children's Books
Winner
1999
Aidan Chambers
Postcards from No Man's Land
The Bodley Head
Winner
2000s
Beginning in 2003, commendations were not presented, only short and longlists; only the shortlists are presented below.
Medal honorees, 2000-2009
Year
Author
Title
Publisher
Age
Result
Ref.
2000
Beverley Naidoo
The Other Side of Truth
Puffin Books
Winner
Adèle Geras
Troy
Highly commended
Philip Pullman
The Amber Spyglass
Highly commended
Melvin Burgess
The Ghost Behind The Wall
Commended
2001
Terry Pratchett
The Amazing Maurice and His Educated Rodents
Doubleday
Winner
Geraldine McCaughrean
Stop The Train
Highly commended
Sharon Creech
Love That Dog
Commended
2002
Sharon Creech
Ruby Holler
HarperCollins
Winner
Anne Fine
Up On Cloud Nine
Highly commended
2003
Jennifer Donnelly
A Gathering Light
Bloomsbury
12+
Winner
David Almond
The Fire-Eaters
Hooder
10+
Shortlist
Mark Haddon
The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time
David Fickling
12+
Shortlist
Elizabeth Laird
The Garbage King
Macmillan
10+
Shortlist
Michael Morpurgo
Private Peaceful
Collins Publishers
10+
Shortlist
Linda Newbery
Sisterland
David Fickling
13+
Shortlist
2004
Frank Cottrell-Boyce
Millions
Macmillan
9+
Winner
Anne Cassidy
Looking for JJ
Scholastic
13+
Shortlist
Gennifer Choldenko
Al Capone Does My Shirts
Bloomsbury
11+
Shortlist
Sharon Creech
Heartbeat
Bloomsbury
10+
Shortlist
Eva Ibbotson
The Star of Kazan
Macmillan
10+
Shortlist
Philip Pullman
The Scarecrow and His Servant
Doubleday
8+
Shortlist
2005
Mal Peet
Tamar
Walker Books
14+
Winner
David Almond
Clay
Hooder
11+
Shortlist
Frank Cottrell-Boyce
Framed
Macmillan
9+
Shortlist
Jan Mark
Turbulence
Hooder
12+
Shortlist
Geraldine McCaughrean
The White Darkness
Oxford University Press
12+
Shortlist
2007
Meg Rosoff
Just in Case
Penguin
14+
Winner
Kevin Brooks
The Road of the Dead
The Chicken House
14+
Shortlist
Siobhan Dowd
A Swift Pure Cry
David Fickling
13+
Shortlist
Anne Fine
The Road of Bones
Doubleday
12+
Shortlist
Ally Kennen
Beast
Marion Lloyd
12+
Shortlist
Marcus Sedgwick
My Swordhand is Singing
Orion
10+
Shortlist
2008
Philip Reeve
Here Lies Arthur
Scholastic
12+
Winner
Kevin Crossley-Holland
Gatty's Tale
Orion
10+
Shortlist
Linzi Glass
Ruby Red
Penguin
12+
Shortlist
Elizabeth Laird
Crusade
Macmillan
10+
Shortlist
Tanya Landman
Apache: Girl Warrior
Walker
12+
Shortlist
Meg Rosoff
What I Was
Penguin
12+
Shortlist
Jenny Valentine
Finding Violet Park
HarperCollins
12+
Shortlist
2009
Siobhan Dowd
Bog Child
David Fickling
12+
Winner
Kevin Brooks
Black Rabbit Summer
Puffin
14+
Shortlist
Eoin Colfer
Airman
Puffin
9+
Shortlist
Frank Cottrell-Boyce
Cosmic
Macmillan
8+
Shortlist
Keith Gray
Ostrich Boys
Definitions
12+
Shortlist
Patrick Ness
The Knife of Never Letting Go
Walker
14+
Shortlist
Kate Thompson
Creature of the Night
Bodley Head
14+
Shortlist
2010s
Medal winners and Shortlists, 2010-2019
Year
Author
Title
Publisher
Age
Result
Ref.
2010
Neil Gaiman, illus. by Dave McKean and Chris Riddell
The Graveyard Book
Bloomsbury
9+
Winner
Laurie Halse Anderson
Chains
Bloomsbury
11+
Shortlist
Helen Grant
The Vanishing of Katharina Linden
Penguin
14+
Shortlist
Julie Hearn
Rowan the Strange
Oxford University Press
12+
Shortlist
Patrick Ness
The Ask and the Answer
Walker
14+
Shortlist
Terry Pratchett
Nation
Doubleday
11+
Shortlist
Philip Reeve
Fever Crumb
Scholastic
9+
Shortlist
Marcus Sedgwick
Revolver
Orion
12+
Shortlist
2011
Patrick Ness
Monsters of Men
Walker
14+
Winner
Theresa Breslin
Prisoner of the Inquisition
Doubleday
12+
Shortlist
Geraldine McCaughrean
The Death-Defying Pepper Roux
Oxford University Press
10+
Shortlist
Meg Rosoff
The Bride's Farewell
Puffin
12+
Shortlist
Marcus Sedgwick
White Crow
Orion
12+
Shortlist
Jason Wallace
Out of Shadows
Andersen Press
14+
Shortlist
2012
Patrick Ness
A Monster Calls
Walker
9+
Winner
David Almond
My Name is Mina
Hodder
9+
Shortlist
Lissa Evans
Small Change for Stuart
Doubleday
8+
Shortlist
Sonya Hartnett
The Midnight Zoo
Walker
9+
Shortlist
Ali Lewis
Everybody Jam
Andersen Press
12+
Shortlist
Andy Mulligan
Trash
David Fickling Books
12+
Shortlist
Annabel Pitcher
My Sister Lives on the Mantelpiece
Orion
10+
Shortlist
Ruta Sepetys
Between Shades of Grey
Puffin
12+
Shortlist
2013
Sally Gardner
Maggot Moon
Hot Key Books
11+
Winner
Sarah Crossan
The Weight of Water
Bloomsbury
9+
Shortlist
Roddy Doyle
A Greyhound of a Girl
Marion Lloyd Books
9+
Shortlist
Nick Lake
In Darkness
Bloomsbury
13+
Shortlist
R. J. Palacio
Wonder
Bodley Head
10+
Shortlist
Marcus Sedgwick
Midwinterblood
Indigo
11+
Shortlist
Dave Shelton
A Boy and a Bear in a Boat
David Fickling Books
8+
Shortlist
Elizabeth Wein
Code Name Verity
Electric Monkey
13+
Shortlist
2014
Kevin Brooks
The Bunker Diary
Puffin
14+
Winner
Julie Berry
All the Truth That's in Me
Templar
14+
Shortlist
Rachel Campbell-Johnston
The Child's Elephant
David Fickling Books
11+
Shortlist
Susan Cooper
Ghost Hawk
Bodley Head
11+
Shortlist
Anne Fine
Blood Family
Doubleday
14+
Shortlist
Katherine Rundell
Rooftoppers
Faber & Faber
11+
Shortlist
Rebecca Stead
Liar & Spy
Andersen Press
9+
Shortlist
William Sutcliffe
The Wall
Bloomsbury
11+
Shortlist
2015
Tanya Landman
Buffalo Soldier
Walker
14+
Winner
Brian Conaghan
When Mr Dog Bites
Bloomsbury
14+
Shortlist
Sarah Crossan
Apple and Rain
Bloomsbury
11+
Shortlist
Sally Gardner
Tinder
Orion
11+
Shortlist
Frances Hardinge
Cuckoo Song
Macmillan
11+
Shortlist
Elizabeth Laird
The Fastest Boy in the World
Macmillan
9+
Shortlist
Geraldine McCaughrean
The Middle of Nowhere
Usborne
11+
Shortlist
Patrick Ness
More Than This
Walker
14+
Shortlist
2016
Sarah Crossan
One
Bloomsbury
Winner
Frances Hardinge
The Lie Tree
Macmillan
Shortlist
Nick Lake
There Will Be Lies
Bloomsbury
Shortlist
Patrick Ness
The Rest of Us Just Live Here
Walker
Shortlist
Kate Saunders
Five Children on the Western Front
Faber & Faber
Shortlist
Marcus Sedgwick
The Ghosts of Heaven
Indigo
Shortlist
Robin Talley
Lies We Tell Ourselves
HarperCollins
Shortlist
Jenny Valentine
Fire Colour One
HarperCollins
Shortlist
2017
Ruta Sepetys
Salt to the Sea
Puffin
Winner
Frank Cottrell-Boyce
Sputnik's Guide to Life on Earth
Pan Macmillan
Shortlist
Zana Fraillon
The Bone Sparrow
Orion Children's Books
Shortlist
Bonnie-Sue Hitchcock
The Smell of Other People's Houses
Faber & Faber
Shortlist
Glenda Millard
The Stars at Oktober Bend
Old Barn Books
Shortlist
Mal Peet and Meg Rosoff
Beck
Walker
Shortlist
Philip Reeve
Railhead
Oxford University Press
Shortlist
Lauren Wolk
Wolf Hollow
Corgi
Shortlist
2018
Geraldine McCaughrean, illus. by Jane Milloy
Where the World Ends
Usborne
Winner
Lissa Evans
Wed Wabbit
David Fickling Books
Shortlist
Will Hill
After the Fire
Usborne
Shortlist
Anthony McGowan
Rook
Barrington Stoke
Shortlist
Patrick Ness
Release
Walker
Shortlist
Marcus Sedgwick
Saint Death
Orion
Shortlist
Angie Thomas
The Hate U Give
Walker
Shortlist
Lauren Wolk
Beyond the Bright Sea
Corgi
Shortlist
2019
Elizabeth Acevedo
The Poet X
Harper Teen
Winner
Kwame Alexander, illus. by Dawud Anyabwile
Rebound
Andersen Press
Shortlist
Sophie Anderson, illus. by Elisa Paganelli
The House with Chicken Legs
Usborne
Shortlist
Candy Gourlay
Bone Talk
David Fickling Books
Shortlist
Frances Hardinge
A Skinful of Shadows
Macmillan Children's Books
Shortlist
Sally Nicholls
Things a Bright Girl Can Do
Andersen Press
Shortlist
Jason Reynolds
Long Way Down
Faber Child
Shortlist
Kate Saunders
The Land of Neverendings
Faber Child
Shortlist
2020s
Medal winners and Shortlists, 2010-2019
Year
Author
Title
Publisher
Result
Ref.
2020
Anthony McGowan
Lark
Barrington Stoke
Winner
Dean Atta, illus. by Anshika Khullar
The Black Flamingo
Hachette Children's Group
Shortlist
Nick Lake
Nowhere on Earth
Hachette Children's Group
Shortlist
Randy Ribay
Patron Saints of Nothing
Little Tiger
Shortlist
Annet Schaap, trans. by Laura Watkinson
Lampie
Pushkin Children's Books
Shortlist
Marcus Sedgwick and Julian Sedgwick, illus. by Alexis Deacon
Voyages in the Underworld of Orpheus Black
Walker
Shortlist
Angie Thomas
On the Come Up
Walker
Shortlist
Chris Vick
Girl. Boy. Sea.
Head of Zeus
Shortlist
2021
Jason Reynolds
Look Both Ways
Knights Of
Winner
Elizabeth Acevedo
Clap When You Land
Hot Key Books
Shortlist
Sophie Anderson, illus. by Kathrin Honesta
The Girl Who Speaks Bear
Usborne
Shortlist
Joseph Coelho, illus. by Kate Milner
The Girl Who Became A Tree
Otter-Barry Books
Shortlist
Marie-Louise Fitzpatrick
On Midnight Beach
Faber & Faber
Shortlist
Manjeet Mann
Run, Rebel
Penguin
Shortlist
Ruta Sepetys
The Fountains of Silence
Penguin
Shortlist
Lauren Wolk
Echo Mountain
Penguin
Shortlist
2022
Katya Balen, illus. by Angela Harding
October, October
Bloomsbury
Winner
Sue Divin
Guard Your Heart
Pan Macmillan
Shortlist
Phil Earle
When the Sky Falls
Andersen Press
Shortlist
Bonnie-Sue Hitchcock
Everyone Dies Famous in a Small Town
Faber & Faber
Shortlist
Manjeet Mann
The Crossing
Penguin
Shortlist
Julian Sedgwick, illus. by Chie Kutsuwada
Tsunami Girl
Guppy Publishing
Shortlist
Alex Wheatle
Cane Warriors
Andersen Press
Shortlist
Ibi Zoboi and Yusef Salaam
Punching the Air
HarperCollins
Shortlist
2023
Manon Steffan Ros
The Blue Book of Nebo
Firefly Press
Winner
Katya Balen
The Light in Everything
Bloomsbury Children’s Books
Shortlist
Sita Brahmachari
When Shadows Fall
Little Tiger
Shortlist
Jessie Burton
Medusa
Bloomsbury Children’s Books
Shortlist
Louise Finch
The Eternal Return of Clara Hart
Little Island
Shortlist
Patrice Lawrence
Needle
Barrington Stoke
Shortlist
Ruta Sepetys
I Must Betray You
Hodder Children's Books
Shortlist
2024
Kwame Alexander
The Door of No Return
Andersen
Shortlist
Zillah Bethell
The Song Walker
Usborne
Shortlist
Sophie Cameron
Away with Words
Little Tiger
Shortlist
Joseph Coelho, illus. by Kate Milner
The Boy Lost in the Maze
Otter-Barry Books
Shortlist
Nicola Davies, illus. by Petr Horáček
Choose Love
Graffeg
Shortlist
Tia Fisher
Crossing the Line
Bonnier
Shortlist
Hiba Noor Khan
Safiyyah’s War
Andersen
Shortlist
Nathanael Lessore
Steady for This
Bonnier
Shortlist
Repeat honorees
Eight authors have won two Carnegie Medals, which was prohibited for many years. Additionally, several authors have been shortlisted and/or commended multiple times.
The table below provides a list of authors who have been honoured, sorted first by number of honors and the rank of the honor (e.g., win is higher than commendation), then by the authors' last name. For the sake of ease, shortlists are considered of equal rank to commendations, though lower than high commendations. The table was last updated in March 2024.
Repeat honorees
Author
Wins
High commendations
Commendations
Shortlists
Anne Fine
2 (1989, 1992)
3 (1989, 1996, 2002)
2 (2007, 2014)
Robert Westall
2 (1975, 1981)
2 (1990, 1992)
1 (2007)
Peter Dickinson
2 (1979, 1980)
1 (1988)
4 (1970, 1972, 1976, 1992)
Geraldine McCaughrean
2 (1988, 2018)
1 (2001)
3 (2005, 2011, 2015)
Jan Mark
2 (1976, 1983)
1 (1980)
1 (2005)
Berlie Doherty
2 (1986, 1991)
1 (1994)
Margaret Mahy
2 (1982, 1984)
1 (1987)
Patrick Ness
2 (2011, 2012)
5 (2009, 2010, 2015, 2016, 2018)
K. M. Peyton
1 (1969)
6 (1962, 1964, 1965, 1966, 1967, 1969)
William Mayne
1 (1957)
5 (1955, 1956, 1957, 1970)
Rosemary Sutcliff
1 (1959)
5 (1954, 1956, 1957, 1958, 1971)
Gillian Cross
1 (1990)
4 (1982, 1986, 1988, 1992)
Melvin Burgess
1 (1996)
3 (1990, 1993, 2000)
2 (1996, 2007)
Philippa Pearce
1 (1958)
3 (1977, 1979, 1983)
1 (2007)
Leon Garfield
1 (1970)
3 (1967, 1968, 1970)
Lucy M. Boston
1 (1961)
2 (1954, 1958)
Hester Burton
1 (1963)
2 (1960, 1962)
Philip Pullman
1 (1995)
1 (2000)
2 (2004, 2007)
Sharon Creech
1 (2002)
1 (2001)
1 (2004)
Alan Garner
1 (1967)
1 (1965)
1 (2007)
Mary Norton
1 (1952)
1 (1959)
1 (2007)
Terry Pratchett
1 (2008)
1 (1996)
1 (2010)
Cynthia Harnett
1 (1951)
1 (1959)
C. S. Lewis
1 (1956)
1 (1954)
Noel Streatfeild
1 (1938)
1 (1936)
Robert Swindells
1 (1993)
1 (1984)
David Almond
1 (1998)
4 (2003, 2005, 2007, 2012)
Frank Cottrell-Boyce
1 (2004)
3 (2005, 2009, 2017)
Ruta Sepetys
1 (2017)
3 (2012, 2021, 2023)
Kevin Brooks
1 (2014)
2 (2007, 2009)
Sarah Crossan
1 (2016)
2 (2013, 2015)
Kevin Crossley-Holland
1 (1985)
2 (1985, 2008)
Philip Reeve
1 (2008)
2 (2010, 2017)
Meg Rosoff
1 (2007)
2 (2008, 2011)
Katya Balen
1 (2022)
1 (2023)
Theresa Breslin
1 (1994)
1 (2011)
Siobhan Dowd
1 (2009)
1 (2007)
Sally Gardner
1 (2013)
1 (2015)
Tanya Landman
1 (2015)
1 (2008)
Anthony McGowan
1 (2020)
1 (2018)
Mal Peet
1 (2005)
1 (2017)
Jason Reynolds
1 (2021)
1 (2019)
Helen Cresswell
4 (1969, 1971, 1973, 1967)
Gillian Avery
3 (1957, 1962, 1971)
Antonia Forest
3 (1957, 1961, 1963)
Diana Wynne Jones
3 (1975, 1977, 1988)
Barbara Leonie Picard
3 (1954, 1956, 1965)
Susan Cooper
2 (1973, 1975)
1 (2014)
Vivien Alcock
2 (1988, 1989)
Bernard Ashley
2 (1979, 1986)
Jenny Grace Fyson
2 (1964, 1965)
Rumer Godden
2 (1956, 1961)
Mary K. Harris
2 (1960, 1965)
Janni Howker
2 (1985, 1986)
Jo Manton
2 (1955, 1962)
James Reeves
2 (1954, 1961)
Ian Serraillier
2 (1956, 1960)
John Rowe Townsend
2 (1963, 1969)
John Verney
2 (1959, 1961)
Jacqueline Wilson
2 (1991, 1995)
Elizabeth Laird
1 (1988)
3 (2003, 2008, 2015)
Jane Gardam
1 (1981)
1 (1981)
Michael Morpurgo
1 (1987)
1 (2003)
Marcus Sedgwick
7 (2007, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2016, 2018, 2020)
Frances Hardinge
3 (2015, 2016, 2019)
Nick Lake
3 (2013, 2016, 2020)
Lauren Wolk
3 (2017, 2018, 2021)
Elizabeth Acevedo
2 (2019, 2021)
Sophie Anderson
2 (2019, 2021)
Lissa Evans
2 (2012, 2018)
Bonnie-Sue Hitchcock
2 (2017, 2022)
Manjeet Mann
2 (2021, 2022)
Kate Saunders
2 (2016, 2019)
Angie Thomas
2 (2018, 2020)
Jenny Valentine
2 (2008, 2016)
Joseph Coelho
2 (2021, 2024)
Multiple award recipients
Six books have won both the Carnegie Medal and the annual Guardian Children's Fiction Prize, which was inaugurated 1967.(Dates are years of U.K. publication, and Carnegie award dates before 2006.)
Alan Garner, The Owl Service (1967)
Richard Adams, Watership Down (1972)
Geraldine McCaughrean, A Pack of Lies (1988)
Anne Fine, Goggle-Eyes (1989)
Philip Pullman, His Dark Materials 1: Northern Lights (1995)
Melvin Burgess, Junk (1996)
Only A Monster Calls, written by Patrick Ness and illustrated by Jim Kay, has won both the Carnegie and Greenaway Medals (2012).
Only The Graveyard Book by Neil Gaiman (2009) has won both the Carnegie Medal and the equivalent American award, the Newbery Medal.
Sharon Creech, who won the Carnegie for Ruby Holler (2002), previously won the Newbery and two U.K. awards for Walk Two Moons (1994).
Four writers have won both the Carnegie and the US Michael L. Printz Award. The Printz Award is an American Library Association literary award that annually recognises the "best book written for teens, based entirely on its literary merit". The four writers are David Almond, Aidan Chambers, Geraldine McCaughrean, and Meg Rosoff. Chambers alone has won both for the same book, the 1999 Carnegie and 2003 Printz for the novel Postcards from No Man's Land.
In its scope, books for children or young adults, the British Carnegie corresponds to the American Newbery and Printz awards.
See also
Children's literature portal
Kate Greenaway Medal
Children's Laureate
Blue Peter Book Awards
Guardian Children's Fiction Prize
Nestlé Smarties Book Prize
Newbery Medal, the primary American Library Association annual children's book award
Michael L. Printz Award, the primary ALA annual young adult book award
Notes
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t This book was named to the 70th Anniversary Top Ten in 2007.
^ a b c The first two Medal-winning books were illustrated by their authors, as were four others to 1953 (six of the first sixteen winners), but none since then.
^ a b In 1966, the last time no medal was awarded, Central Connecticut State University lists a "Highly Commended" book for the first time.
^ Dave McKean illustrated the UK Adult edition and the US edition of The Graveyard Book, while Chris Riddell illustrated the UK Children's edition, all published in October 2008. Riddell was shortlisted for the companion Kate Greenaway Medal, recognising the year's best illustration.
^ The special commendation to Harold Jones in 1955 for his 1954 illustration of Lavender's Blue was "a major reason" for the Library Association to establish the Kate Greenaway Medal that year; no 1955 work was judged worthy in 1956, so the Medal was actually inaugurated one year later.
^ Prior to 2007, the award year aligned with eligible books' year of publication; in 2007 and later years, the award year followed eligible books' year of publication.
^ The award to Brooks roused some controversy because of the bleak nature of the novel.
^ The Bone Sparrow received an Amnesty CILIP Honour commendation.
^ The Hate U Give received an Amnesty CILIP Honour commendation.
^ Westfall's The Machine Gunners was shortlisted for the 2007 Carnegie of Carnegie's award.
^ Two of Mayne's books were highly commended in 1956.
^ Burgess's Junk was shortlisted for the 2007 Carnegie of Carnegies.
^ Pearce's Tom's Midnight Garden was selected for the 2007 Carnegie of Carnegie Top 10.
^ Pullman's Northern Lights was selected for the 2007 Carnegie of Carnegie's Top 10.
^ Westfall's The Machine Gunners was selected for the 2007 Carnegie of Carnegie's award.
^ Norton's The Borrowers was selected for the 2007 Carnegie of Carnegie's Top 10.
^ Almond's Skellig was shortlisted for the 2007 Carnegie of Carnegie's award.
^ Crossley-Holland's Storm was shortlisted for the 2007 Carnegie of Carnegie award.
References
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^ a b c d e "Criteria: Carnegie Medal". The CILIP Carnegie and Kate Greenaway Awards. Archived from the original on 4 January 2020. Retrieved 14 March 2019.
^ a b Cullinan, Bernice E.; Goetz Person, Diane (2005). The Continuum Encyclopedia of Children's Literature. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 149.
^ a b c "The CILIP Carnegie Medal". The CILIP Carnegie and Kate Greenaway Awards. Archived from the original on 18 March 2016.
^ "Colin Mears bequest consultation". Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals. 17 April 2015. Retrieved 15 March 2019.
^ a b "Historic Win as Yoto Carnegie Medal for Writing Awarded to a Book in Translation for the First Time". The Yoto Carnegies. Retrieved 27 June 2023.
^ "The Yoto Carnegies". Retrieved 27 June 2023.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w "Carnegie Medal Award". Central Connecticut State University. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 4 June 2023.
^ a b c d e "Archive (Full list of winners)". The CILIP Carnegie and Kate Greenaway Awards. Archived from the original on 17 October 2018. Retrieved 14 March 2019.
^ "The CILIP Kate Greenaway Medal". The CILIP Carnegie and Kate Greenaway Awards. Archived from the original on 7 July 2019. Retrieved 14 March 2019.
^ "CILIP Partners with Yoto to Unlock New Future for Carnegie Greenaway Awards". Yoto Carnegies. Archived from the original on 7 May 2023. Retrieved 5 June 2023.
^ "Partners and Sponsors". The Yoto Carnegies. Archived from the original on 8 April 2023. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b c "Awards Process". The CILIP Carnegie and Kate Greenaway Awards. Archived from the original on 4 January 2020. Retrieved 14 March 2019.
^ Flood, Alison (27 September 2018). "Carnegie medal promises immediate action over lack of diversity". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 26 September 2020. Retrieved 27 August 2020.
^ a b c d e f g h i "70 Years Celebration". The CILIP Carnegie and Kate Greenaway Awards. Archived from the original on 6 December 2017. Retrieved 14 March 2019.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn bo bp bq br Eccleshare, Julia (13 June 2016). "Eighty years of children's books: the best Carnegie medal winners". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 12 February 2023. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ "The Yoto Carnegies". Retrieved 9 September 2023.
^ a b "Carnegie medal for Millions". The Guardian. 8 July 2005. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 6 December 2021. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b Crown, Sarah (7 July 2006). "Carnegie newcomer beats veteran shortlist". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 27 March 2021. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b Flood, Alison (25 June 2009). "Carnegie medal posthumously awarded to Siobhan Dowd". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 20 March 2022. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b Flood, Alison (24 June 2010). "Neil Gaiman wins Carnegie medal". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 26 October 2013. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b Pauli, Michelle (23 June 2011). "Patrick Ness accepts Carnegie medal with fierce defence of libraries". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 5 October 2022. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b Flood, Alison (14 June 2012). "Patrick Ness wins Carnegie medal for second year running". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b "Sally Gardner's Maggot Moon wins the Carnegie medal". The Guardian. 19 June 2013. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 14 June 2021. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b "Why we're glad The Bunker Diary won the Carnegie". The Guardian. 25 June 2014. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 1 October 2022. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b Drabble, Emily (22 June 2015). "Carnegie and Kate Greenaway medals: Tanya Landman and William Grill win UK's oldest children's book awards". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 13 December 2022. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b Drabble, Emily (20 June 2016). "Sarah Crossan wins the Carnegie medal with verse novel One". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b Flood, Alison (18 June 2019). "Carnegie medal goes to first writer of colour in its 83-year history". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 18 June 2019. Retrieved 19 June 2019.
^ a b Flood, Alison (16 June 2021). "Jason Reynolds wins Carnegie medal for 'breathtaking' Look Both Ways". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 16 June 2021. Retrieved 17 June 2021.
^ a b "Balen, Novgorodoff win Carnegie, Greenaway medals". Books+Publishing. 20 June 2022. Archived from the original on 29 September 2022. Retrieved 20 June 2022.
^ Eccleshare, Julia (21 June 2007). "Rosoff, Grey Win Carnegie, Greenaway Medals in U.K." Publishers Weekly. Archived from the original on 7 October 2008. Retrieved 15 March 2019.
^ Ezard, John (22 June 2007). "Pullman children's book voted best in 70 years". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 29 June 2018. Retrieved 15 March 2019.
^ "Carnegie Winner Archives". The CILIP Carnegie and Kate Greenaway Awards. Archived from the original on 17 October 2018. Retrieved 4 June 2023.
^ a b c d Pauli, Michelle (5 May 2006). "Veterans dominate Carnegie medal shortlist". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 10 October 2015. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b c d e "The CILIP Carnegie Medal Shortlist for 2007". The CILIP Carnegie & Kate Greenaway Children's Book Awards. Archived from the original on 4 May 2012. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b c d e f "The CILIP Carnegie Medal Shortlist for 2008". The CILIP Carnegie & Kate Greenaway Children's Book Awards. Archived from the original on 24 May 2012. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b c d e f Pauli, Michelle (18 April 2008). "Carnegie shortlist takes children back in time". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 12 March 2016. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b c d e f "The CILIP Carnegie Medal Shortlist for 2009". The CILIP Carnegie & Kate Greenaway Children's Book Awards. Archived from the original on 11 March 2016. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b c d e f Flood, Alison (23 April 2009). "Carnegie medal judges draw up 'boysy' shortlist". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 21 October 2021. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b c d e f g "The CILIP Carnegie Medal Shortlist for 2010". The CILIP Carnegie & Kate Greenaway Children's Book Awards. Archived from the original on 6 October 2015. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b c d e f g "Gallery: Carnegie medal 2010 shortlist". the Guardian. 23 April 2010. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 14 March 2021. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b c d e "The CILIP Carnegie Medal Shortlist for 2011". The CILIP Carnegie Medal. Archived from the original on 29 May 2012. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b c d e f g "The CILIP Carnegie Medal Shortlist for 2012". The CILIP Carnegie Medal. Archived from the original on 22 February 2014. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b c d e f g Flood, Alison (27 March 2012). "Carnegie shortlist includes Andy Mulligan's controversial Trash". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 5 September 2019. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b c d e f g "The CILIP Carnegie Medal Shortlist for 2013". The CILIP Carnegie Medal. Archived from the original on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b c d e f g "Kate Greenaway medal 2013 shortlist - in pictures". The Guardian. 12 March 2013. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 26 February 2016. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b Flood, Alison (24 June 2014). "Carnegie medal under fire after 'vile and dangerous' Bunker Diary wins". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 10 March 2017. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b c d e f g "The CILIP Carnegie Medal Shortlist for 2014". The CILIP Carnegie Medal. Archived from the original on 22 August 2015. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b c d e f g "Carnegie medal and Kate Greenaway shortlists 2014 announced!". The Guardian. 18 March 2014. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 18 February 2023. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b c d e f g "The CILIP Carnegie Medal Shortlist for 2015". The CILIP Carnegie Medal. Archived from the original on 5 April 2016. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b c d e f g Drabble, Emily (17 March 2015). "Carnegie medal and Kate Greenaway 2015 shortlists announced". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 22 January 2023. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b c d e f g "Four Giants of "A Gold Age of Children's Books" Look for a Record Third Medal Win in CILIP Carnegie & Kate Greenaway Shortlists". The CILIP Carnegie and Kate Greenaway Awards. 15 March 2016. Archived from the original on 28 May 2016. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b c d e f g Waddell, Lily (15 March 2016). "Carnegie medal and Kate Greenaway shortlists 2016 announced". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 7 May 2023. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b "First Double American Win for the CILIP Carnegie and Kate Greenaway Medals". The CILIP Carnegie and Kate Greenaway Awards. Archived from the original on 20 November 2018. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ Kean, Danuta (19 June 2017). "Carnegie and Kate Greenaway medals: US double in children's book awards". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 21 June 2017. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b c d e f g "Shortlists for 2017 CILIP Carnegie and Kate Greenaway Medals Announced". The CILIP Carnegie and Kate Greenaway Awards. Archived from the original on 28 September 2018. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b c d e f g Cain, Sian (16 March 2017). "Mal Peet in line for posthumous win as Carnegie shortlist announced". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 12 February 2023. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b "Geraldine McCaughrean scoops second CILIP Carnegie Medal 30 years after first win and champions triumph of 'literary' fiction". The Yoto Carnegies. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ Flood, Alison (18 June 2018). "Carnegie medal winner slams children's book publishers for 'accessible' prose". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 19 March 2023. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b c d e f g "Shortlists for 2018 CILIP Carnegie and Kate Greenaway Medals Announced". The Yoto Carnegies. Archived from the original on 8 April 2023. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b c d e f g Flood, Alison (15 March 2018). "Patrick Ness could land first ever Carnegie medal hat-trick". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 17 October 2018. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b c d e f g "2019 Carnegie and Kate Greenaway medals shortlists announced". Books+Publishing. 20 March 2019. Archived from the original on 26 March 2019. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b c d e f g Flood, Alison (19 March 2019). "Carnegie medal shortlist celebrates novels in free verse". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 3 June 2019. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ Cowdrey, Katherine (17 June 2020). "McGowan and Tan awarded CILIP Carnegie and Kate Greenaway Medals". The Bookseller. Archived from the original on 18 June 2020. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b c d e f g "Shortlists for 2020 CILIP Carnegie and Kate Greenaway Medals Announced". The Yoto Carnegies. 19 March 2020. Archived from the original on 1 October 2022. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ "Reynolds, Smith win 2021 Carnegie, Greenaway medals". Books+Publishing. 17 June 2021. Archived from the original on 17 June 2021. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b c d e f g "Greenaway, Carnegie Medal shortlists announced". Books+Publishing. 19 March 2021. Archived from the original on 19 March 2021. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b c d e f g Flood, Alison (18 March 2021). "Shortlist for Carnegie medal offers locked-down children 'hope and escapism'". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 19 March 2023. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b c d e f g "The CILIP Carnegie & Kate Greenaway Medals shortlists 2022". Readings Books. 16 March 2022. Archived from the original on 17 March 2022. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b c d e f g Knight, Lucy (16 March 2022). "Carnegie medal shortlist spotlights real-life stories of friendship in challenging times". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 29 March 2023. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ "Ros, Zdung win Yoto Carnegie medals". Books+Publishing. 22 June 2023. Retrieved 29 June 2023.
^ a b c d e f "The Yoto Carnegie Medal for Writing Shortlist 2023". The Yoto Carnegies. Archived from the original on 8 April 2023. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b c d e f Shaffi, Sarah (17 March 2023). "Carnegie medal for writing announces all-female shortlist". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 25 May 2023. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
^ a b c d e f g h Creamer, Ella (13 March 2024). "Carnegie medal for children's books shortlist announced". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 13 March 2024.
^ a b c d e f g h Jones, Nicolette (13 March 2024). "Who will win the Carnegie, the most prestigious prize for children's stories?". ISSN 0140-0460. Retrieved 13 March 2024.
^ Flood, Alison (24 June 2010). "Neil Gaiman wins Carnegie Medal". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 26 October 2013. Retrieved 6 May 2012.
^
"Walk Two Moons". Sharon Creech: Novels. Sharon Creech. Archived from the original on 12 October 2010. Retrieved 13 September 2010.
^ "The Carnegie Medal: Full List of Winners". Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals (CILIP). Archived from the original on 30 April 2007. Retrieved 6 February 2014.
^ "Michael L. Printz Winners and Honor Books". YALSA. ALA. 15 March 2007. Archived from the original on 28 March 2019. Retrieved 6 February 2014.
Citations
Marcus Crouch and Alec Ellis, Chosen for children: an account of the books which have been awarded the Library Association Carnegie Medal, 1936–1975, Third edition, London: Library Association, 1977. ISBN 9780853653493. — The second, 1967 edition by Crouch covers the first three decades. The third edition by Crouch and Alec Ellis comprises the second, except a new introduction by Ellis, plus coverage of the fourth decade by Ellis.
External links
CILIP children's book awards
Authority control databases: National
Germany
Israel
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Andrew Carnegie Medals for Excellence in Fiction and Nonfiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Carnegie_Medals_for_Excellence_in_Fiction_and_Nonfiction"},{"link_name":"literary award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literary_award"},{"link_name":"book for children or young adults","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children%27s_literature"},{"link_name":"Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chartered_Institute_of_Library_and_Information_Professionals"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-about2-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rules-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cullinan-3"},{"link_name":"Ivan Southall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Southall"},{"link_name":"Josh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josh_(novel)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cullinan-3"},{"link_name":"Peter Dickinson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Dickinson"},{"link_name":"Tulku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulku_(novel)"},{"link_name":"City of Gold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_Gold_(book)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-about-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mears-5"}],"text":"Not to be confused with Andrew Carnegie Medals for Excellence in Fiction and Nonfiction.The Carnegie Medal for Writing, established in 1936, is a British literary award that annually recognises one outstanding new English-language book for children or young adults. It is conferred upon the author by the Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals (CILIP), who calls it \"the UK's oldest and most prestigious book award for children's writing\".[1] CILIP is currently partnered with the audio technology company Yoto in connection with the award.Nominated books must be written in English and first published in the UK during the preceding school year (September to August).[2] Until 1969, the award was limited to books by British authors first published in England.[3] The first non-British medalist was Australian author Ivan Southall for Josh (1972). The original rules also prohibited winning authors from future consideration.[3] The first author to win a second Carnegie Medal was Peter Dickinson in 1981, who won consecutively for Tulku and City of Gold. As of 2018, eight authors had received the Medal more than once.The winner is awarded a gold medal and £500 worth of books donated to the winner's chosen library. In addition, since 2016 the winner has received a £5,000 cash prize from the Colin Mears bequest.[4][5]","title":"Carnegie Medal (literary award)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Manon Steffan Ros","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manon_Steffan_Ros"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-yotocarnegies.co.uk-6"},{"link_name":"Welsh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_language"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Katya Balen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katya_Balen"},{"link_name":"The Light in Everything","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Light_in_Everything"},{"link_name":"Bloomsbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloomsbury_Publishing"},{"link_name":"Sita Brahmachari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sita_Brahmachari"},{"link_name":"Little Tiger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Tiger"},{"link_name":"Jessie Burton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jessie_Burton"},{"link_name":"Patrice Lawrence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrice_Lawrence"},{"link_name":"Barrington Stoke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrington_Stoke"},{"link_name":"Manon Steffan Ros","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manon_Steffan_Ros"},{"link_name":"Ruta Sepetys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruta_Sepetys"},{"link_name":"Hodder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hodder_%26_Stoughton"}],"text":"Manon Steffan Ros won the 2023 Carnegie Medal for The Blue Book of Nebo,[6] the first time a translation had won the award. The Blue Book of Nebo is a novel told in dual narrative by a boy and his mother navigating a post-apocalyptic world. Translated from Welsh, it depicts Welsh identity and culture.There were seven books on the 2023 shortlist:[7]Katya Balen, The Light in Everything (Bloomsbury)\nSita Brahmachari, When Shadows Fall (Little Tiger)\nJessie Burton, Medusa (Bloomsbury)\nLouise Finch, The Eternal Return of Clara Hart (Little Island)\nPatrice Lawrence, Needle (Barrington Stoke)\nManon Steffan Ros, The Blue Book of Nebo (Firefly Press)\nRuta Sepetys, I Must Betray You (Hodder) Winner of the Shadowers choiceRecommended ages have ranged from 8+ to 14+ for books on the shortlist since 2001.","title":"2023 rendition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Scottish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland"},{"link_name":"American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"philanthropist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philanthropist"},{"link_name":"Andrew Carnegie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Carnegie"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-about-4"},{"link_name":"Library Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CILIP#History"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-about-4"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CCSU-8"},{"link_name":"Arthur Ransome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Ransome"},{"link_name":"Pigeon Post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigeon_Post"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CCSU-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-winners-9"},{"link_name":"Kate Greenaway Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kate_Greenaway_Medal"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CCSU-8"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Scholastic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scholastic_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Authors' Licensing and Collecting Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authors%27_Licensing_and_Collecting_Society"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"The Medal is named after the Scottish-born American philanthropist Andrew Carnegie (1835–1919), who founded more than 2,800 libraries in the English-speaking world, including at least one in more than half of British library authorities.[4] It was established in 1936 by the British Library Association, to celebrate the centenary of Carnegie's birth[4][8] and inaugurated in 1937 with the award to Arthur Ransome for Pigeon Post (1936) and the identification of two 'commended' books.[8] The first Medal was dated 1936, but since 2007, it has been dated by its year of presentation, which is now one or two years after publication.[9]In 1955, the Kate Greenaway Medal was established as a companion to the Carnegie Medal. The Kate Greenaway Medal recognises \"distinguished illustration in a book for children\".[10]Both awards were established and administered by the Library Association, until it was succeeded by CILIP in 2002.[8] In 2022, the award was officially renamed to the Carnegie Medal for Illustration.[11]As of 2023, the award is organized by CILIP and sponsored by Yoto, Scholastic, and the Authors' Licensing and Collecting Society.[12]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CGprocess-13"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CGprocess-13"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rules-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rules-2"},{"link_name":"secondary schools","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_school"},{"link_name":"public libraries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_library"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CGprocess-13"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rules-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rules-2"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"CILIP members may nominate books each September and October, with the full list of valid nominations published in November.[13] The longlist, chosen by the judges from the nominated books, is published in February. The judging panel comprises 12 children's librarians, all of whom are members of CILIP's Youth Libraries Group (YLG). The shortlist is announced in March and the winner in June.[13]Titles must be English-language works first published in the UK during the preceding year (1 September to 31 August). According to CILIP, \"all categories of books, including poetry, non-fiction and graphic novels, in print or ebook format, for children and young people are eligible\".[2] Multiple-author anthologies are excluded; however, co-authored single works are eligible.[2]Young people from across the UK take part in shadowing groups organised by secondary schools and public libraries, to read and discuss the shortlisted books.[13]CILIP instructs the judging panel to consider plot, characterisation, and style \"where appropriate\".[2] Furthermore, it states that \"the book that wins the Carnegie Medal should be a book of outstanding literary quality. The whole work should provide pleasure, not merely from the surface enjoyment of a good read, but also the deeper subconscious satisfaction of having gone through a vicarious, but at the time of reading, a real experience that is retained afterwards\".[2]A diversity review in 2018 led to changes in the nomination and judging process to promote better representation of ethnic minority authors and books.[14]","title":"Process"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-winners-9"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-winners-9"}],"text":"As of 2022, 83 Medals have been awarded over 86 years, spanning the period from 1936 to 2021. No eligible book published in 1943, 1945, or 1966 was considered suitable by the judging panel.[9]From 2007 onward, the medals are dated by the year of presentation. Prior to this, they were dated by the calendar year of their British publication.[9]Forty-one winning books were illustrated in their first editions, including every one during the first three decades. Six from 1936 to 1953 were illustrated or co-illustrated by their authors; none since then.","title":"Winners"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"British Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Library"},{"link_name":"Northern Lights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Lights_(Pullman_novel)"},{"link_name":"Philip Pullman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Pullman"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-eccleshare-35"},{"link_name":"David Almond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Almond"},{"link_name":"Skellig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skellig"},{"link_name":"Hodder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hodder_%26_Stoughton"},{"link_name":"Melvin Burgess","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melvin_Burgess"},{"link_name":"Junk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junk_(novel)"},{"link_name":"Penguin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penguin_Books"},{"link_name":"Kevin Crossley-Holland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin_Crossley-Holland"},{"link_name":"Storm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storm_(novella)"},{"link_name":"Egmont","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egmont_Group"},{"link_name":"Jennifer Donnelly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jennifer_Donnelly"},{"link_name":"A Gathering Light","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Gathering_Light"},{"link_name":"Bloomsbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloomsbury_Publishing"},{"link_name":"Alan Garner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Garner"},{"link_name":"The Owl Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Owl_Service"},{"link_name":"HarperCollins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HarperCollins"},{"link_name":"Eve Garnett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eve_Garnett"},{"link_name":"The Family from One End Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Family_from_One_End_Street"},{"link_name":"Mary Norton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Norton_(author)"},{"link_name":"The Borrowers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Borrowers"},{"link_name":"Philippa Pearce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippa_Pearce"},{"link_name":"Tom's Midnight Garden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%27s_Midnight_Garden"},{"link_name":"Oxford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_Press"},{"link_name":"Philip Pullman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Pullman"},{"link_name":"Northern Lights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Lights_(Pullman_novel)"},{"link_name":"Scholastic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scholastic_Press"},{"link_name":"Robert Westall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Westall"},{"link_name":"The Machine Gunners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Machine_Gunners"},{"link_name":"Macmillan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macmillan_Publishers"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cofc-36"}],"text":"To commemorate the 70th anniversary of the Carnegie Medal in 2007, CILIP created a 'Living Archive' on the Carnegie Medal website with information about each of the winning books and conducted a poll to identify the nation's favourite Carnegie Medal winner, to be named the \"Carnegie of Carnegies\". The winner, announced on 21 June 2007 at the British Library, was Northern Lights by Philip Pullman (1995). It was the expected winner, garnering 40% of the votes in the UK, and 36% worldwide.[31]70th Anniversary Top TenDavid Almond, Skellig, (Hodder, 1998)\nMelvin Burgess, Junk, (Penguin, 1996)\nKevin Crossley-Holland, Storm, (Egmont, 1985)\nJennifer Donnelly, A Gathering Light, (Bloomsbury, 2003)\nAlan Garner, The Owl Service, (HarperCollins, 1967)\nEve Garnett, The Family from One End Street, (Penguin, 1937)\nMary Norton, The Borrowers, (Penguin, 1952)\nPhilippa Pearce, Tom's Midnight Garden, (Oxford, 1958)\nPhilip Pullman, Northern Lights, (Scholastic, 1995)\nRobert Westall, The Machine Gunners, (Macmillan, 1975)Northern Lights, with 40% of the public vote, was followed by 16% for Tom's Midnight Garden by Philippa Pearce and 8% for Skellig by David Almond. As those three books had won the 70-year-old Medal in its year 60, year 23, and year 63, some commentary observed that Tom's Midnight Garden had passed a test of time that the others had not yet faced.[32]","title":"Carnegie of Carnegies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Archives-37"}],"text":"Prior to 2007, the award year matched books' year of publication with selection announced and medals presented early the following year.[33]","title":"Honorees"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"1930s","title":"Honorees"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"1940s","title":"Honorees"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"1950s","title":"Honorees"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"1960s","title":"Honorees"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"1970s","title":"Honorees"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"1980s","title":"Honorees"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"1990s","title":"Honorees"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"2000s","text":"Beginning in 2003, commendations were not presented, only short and longlists; only the shortlists are presented below.","title":"Honorees"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"2010s","title":"Honorees"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"2020s","title":"Honorees"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Eight authors have won two Carnegie Medals, which was prohibited for many years.[citation needed] Additionally, several authors have been shortlisted and/or commended multiple times.The table below provides a list of authors who have been honoured, sorted first by number of honors and the rank of the honor (e.g., win is higher than commendation), then by the authors' last name. For the sake of ease, shortlists are considered of equal rank to commendations, though lower than high commendations. The table was last updated in March 2024.","title":"Repeat honorees"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Guardian Children's Fiction Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guardian_Children%27s_Fiction_Prize"},{"link_name":"Alan Garner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Garner"},{"link_name":"The Owl Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Owl_Service"},{"link_name":"Richard Adams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Adams"},{"link_name":"Watership Down","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watership_Down"},{"link_name":"Geraldine McCaughrean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geraldine_McCaughrean"},{"link_name":"A Pack of Lies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Pack_of_Lies"},{"link_name":"Anne Fine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Fine"},{"link_name":"Goggle-Eyes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goggle-Eyes"},{"link_name":"Philip Pullman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Pullman"},{"link_name":"His Dark Materials 1: Northern Lights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Lights_(Pullman_novel)"},{"link_name":"Melvin Burgess","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melvin_Burgess"},{"link_name":"Junk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junk_(novel)"},{"link_name":"A Monster Calls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Monster_Calls"},{"link_name":"Patrick Ness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Ness"},{"link_name":"Jim Kay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Kay"},{"link_name":"The Graveyard Book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Graveyard_Book"},{"link_name":"Neil Gaiman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Gaiman"},{"link_name":"Newbery Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newbery_Medal"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"},{"link_name":"Sharon Creech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharon_Creech"},{"link_name":"Ruby Holler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruby_Holler"},{"link_name":"Walk Two Moons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walk_Two_Moons"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-creech-95"},{"link_name":"Michael L. Printz Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_L._Printz_Award"},{"link_name":"American Library Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Library_Association"},{"link_name":"literary award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literary_award"},{"link_name":"literary merit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literary_merit"},{"link_name":"David Almond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Almond"},{"link_name":"Aidan Chambers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aidan_Chambers"},{"link_name":"Geraldine McCaughrean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geraldine_McCaughrean"},{"link_name":"Meg Rosoff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meg_Rosoff"},{"link_name":"Postcards from No Man's Land","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postcards_from_No_Man%27s_Land"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-winners-9"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"}],"text":"Six books have won both the Carnegie Medal and the annual Guardian Children's Fiction Prize, which was inaugurated 1967.(Dates are years of U.K. publication, and Carnegie award dates before 2006.)Alan Garner, The Owl Service (1967)\nRichard Adams, Watership Down (1972)\nGeraldine McCaughrean, A Pack of Lies (1988)\nAnne Fine, Goggle-Eyes (1989)\nPhilip Pullman, His Dark Materials 1: Northern Lights (1995)\nMelvin Burgess, Junk (1996)Only A Monster Calls, written by Patrick Ness and illustrated by Jim Kay, has won both the Carnegie and Greenaway Medals (2012).Only The Graveyard Book by Neil Gaiman (2009) has won both the Carnegie Medal and the equivalent American award, the Newbery Medal.[76]Sharon Creech, who won the Carnegie for Ruby Holler (2002), previously won the Newbery and two U.K. awards for Walk Two Moons (1994).[77]Four writers have won both the Carnegie and the US Michael L. Printz Award. The Printz Award is an American Library Association literary award that annually recognises the \"best book written for teens, based entirely on its literary merit\". The four writers are David Almond, Aidan Chambers, Geraldine McCaughrean, and Meg Rosoff. Chambers alone has won both for the same book, the 1999 Carnegie and 2003 Printz for the novel Postcards from No Man's Land.[9][78][79]In its scope, books for children or young adults, the British Carnegie corresponds to the American Newbery and Printz awards.","title":"Multiple award recipients"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Top10_16-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Top10_16-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Top10_16-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Top10_16-3"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Top10_16-4"},{"link_name":"f","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Top10_16-5"},{"link_name":"g","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Top10_16-6"},{"link_name":"h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Top10_16-7"},{"link_name":"i","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Top10_16-8"},{"link_name":"j","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Top10_16-9"},{"link_name":"k","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Top10_16-10"},{"link_name":"l","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Top10_16-11"},{"link_name":"m","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Top10_16-12"},{"link_name":"n","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Top10_16-13"},{"link_name":"o","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Top10_16-14"},{"link_name":"p","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Top10_16-15"},{"link_name":"q","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Top10_16-16"},{"link_name":"r","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Top10_16-17"},{"link_name":"s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Top10_16-18"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Top10_16-19"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70th-15"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-self_18-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-self_18-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-self_18-2"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-HC1966_19-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-HC1966_19-1"},{"link_name":"Central Connecticut State University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Connecticut_State_University"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-24"},{"link_name":"Dave McKean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave_McKean"},{"link_name":"Chris Riddell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Riddell"},{"link_name":"Kate Greenaway Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kate_Greenaway_Medal"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-38"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70th-15"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-40"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-54"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Guardian2014-53"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-65"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Carnegie2017-61"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-70"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Yoto2018-66"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-85"},{"link_name":"The Machine Gunners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Machine_Gunners"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-86"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-87"},{"link_name":"Junk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junk_(novel)"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70th-15"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-88"},{"link_name":"Tom's Midnight Garden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%27s_Midnight_Garden"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70th-15"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-89"},{"link_name":"Northern Lights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Lights_(Pullman_novel)"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70th-15"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-90"},{"link_name":"The Machine Gunners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Machine_Gunners"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70th-15"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-91"},{"link_name":"The Borrowers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Borrowers"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70th-15"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-92"},{"link_name":"Skellig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skellig"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70th-15"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-93"},{"link_name":"Storm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storm_(novella)"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70th-15"}],"text":"^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t This book was named to the 70th Anniversary Top Ten in 2007.[15]\n\n^ a b c The first two Medal-winning books were illustrated by their authors, as were four others to 1953 (six of the first sixteen winners), but none since then.\n\n^ a b In 1966, the last time no medal was awarded, Central Connecticut State University lists a \"Highly Commended\" book for the first time.\n\n^ Dave McKean illustrated the UK Adult edition and the US edition of The Graveyard Book, while Chris Riddell illustrated the UK Children's edition, all published in October 2008. Riddell was shortlisted for the companion Kate Greenaway Medal, recognising the year's best illustration.\n\n^ The special commendation to Harold Jones in 1955 for his 1954 illustration of Lavender's Blue was \"a major reason\" for the Library Association to establish the Kate Greenaway Medal that year; no 1955 work was judged worthy in 1956, so the Medal was actually inaugurated one year later.[15]\n\n^ Prior to 2007, the award year aligned with eligible books' year of publication; in 2007 and later years, the award year followed eligible books' year of publication.\n\n^ The award to Brooks roused some controversy because of the bleak nature of the novel.[47]\n\n^ The Bone Sparrow received an Amnesty CILIP Honour commendation.[54]\n\n^ The Hate U Give received an Amnesty CILIP Honour commendation.[58]\n\n^ Westfall's The Machine Gunners was shortlisted for the 2007 Carnegie of Carnegie's award.\n\n^ Two of Mayne's books were highly commended in 1956.\n\n^ Burgess's Junk was shortlisted for the 2007 Carnegie of Carnegies.[15]\n\n^ Pearce's Tom's Midnight Garden was selected for the 2007 Carnegie of Carnegie Top 10.[15]\n\n^ Pullman's Northern Lights was selected for the 2007 Carnegie of Carnegie's Top 10.[15]\n\n^ Westfall's The Machine Gunners was selected for the 2007 Carnegie of Carnegie's award.[15]\n\n^ Norton's The Borrowers was selected for the 2007 Carnegie of Carnegie's Top 10.[15]\n\n^ Almond's Skellig was shortlisted for the 2007 Carnegie of Carnegie's award.[15]\n\n^ Crossley-Holland's Storm was shortlisted for the 2007 Carnegie of Carnegie award.[15]","title":"Notes"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"Children's literature portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Children%27s_literature"},{"title":"Kate Greenaway Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kate_Greenaway_Medal"},{"title":"Children's Laureate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children%27s_Laureate"},{"title":"Blue Peter Book Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Peter_Book_Awards"},{"title":"Guardian Children's Fiction Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guardian_Children%27s_Fiction_Prize"},{"title":"Nestlé Smarties Book Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nestl%C3%A9_Smarties_Book_Prize"},{"title":"Newbery Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newbery_Medal"},{"title":"Michael L. Printz Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_L._Printz_Award"}]
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[{"reference":"\"About the Awards\". The CILIP Carnegie and Kate Greenaway Awards. Archived from the original on 18 March 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160318171456/https://carnegiegreenaway.org.uk/about-the-awards.php","url_text":"\"About the Awards\""},{"url":"https://carnegiegreenaway.org.uk/about-the-awards.php","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Criteria: Carnegie Medal\". The CILIP Carnegie and Kate Greenaway Awards. Archived from the original on 4 January 2020. Retrieved 14 March 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200104024529/https://www.carnegiegreenaway.org.uk/awards-process.php#criteria","url_text":"\"Criteria: Carnegie Medal\""},{"url":"https://www.carnegiegreenaway.org.uk/awards-process.php#criteria","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Cullinan, Bernice E.; Goetz Person, Diane (2005). The Continuum Encyclopedia of Children's Literature. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 149.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"The CILIP Carnegie Medal\". The CILIP Carnegie and Kate Greenaway Awards. Archived from the original on 18 March 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160318171524/https://www.carnegiegreenaway.org.uk/carnegie.php","url_text":"\"The CILIP Carnegie Medal\""},{"url":"https://www.carnegiegreenaway.org.uk/carnegie.php","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Colin Mears bequest consultation\". Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals. 17 April 2015. Retrieved 15 March 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.cilip.org.uk/news/colin-mears-bequest-consultation","url_text":"\"Colin Mears bequest consultation\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chartered_Institute_of_Library_and_Information_Professionals","url_text":"Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals"}]},{"reference":"\"Historic Win as Yoto Carnegie Medal for Writing Awarded to a Book in Translation for the First Time\". The Yoto Carnegies. Retrieved 27 June 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://yotocarnegies.co.uk/2023-winners-announced/","url_text":"\"Historic Win as Yoto Carnegie Medal for Writing Awarded to a Book in Translation for the First Time\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Yoto Carnegies\". Retrieved 27 June 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://yotocarnegies.co.uk/2023-winners-announced/","url_text":"\"The Yoto Carnegies\""}]},{"reference":"\"Carnegie Medal Award\". Central Connecticut State University. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 4 June 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160303231442/http:/web.ccsu.edu/library/nadeau/award%20books/CarnegieMedal.htm#Carnegie%20Medal","url_text":"\"Carnegie Medal Award\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Connecticut_State_University","url_text":"Central Connecticut State University"},{"url":"http://web.ccsu.edu/library/nadeau/award%20books/CarnegieMedal.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Archive (Full list of winners)\". The CILIP Carnegie and Kate Greenaway Awards. Archived from the original on 17 October 2018. Retrieved 14 March 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20181017234144/http://www.carnegiegreenaway.org.uk/archive-full-list.php","url_text":"\"Archive (Full list of winners)\""},{"url":"https://www.carnegiegreenaway.org.uk/archive-full-list.php","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"The CILIP Kate Greenaway Medal\". The CILIP Carnegie and Kate Greenaway Awards. Archived from the original on 7 July 2019. Retrieved 14 March 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190707134945/https://www.carnegiegreenaway.org.uk/greenaway.php","url_text":"\"The CILIP Kate Greenaway Medal\""},{"url":"https://www.carnegiegreenaway.org.uk/greenaway.php","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"CILIP Partners with Yoto to Unlock New Future for Carnegie Greenaway Awards\". Yoto Carnegies. Archived from the original on 7 May 2023. Retrieved 5 June 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://yotocarnegies.co.uk/cilip-partners-with-yoto-to-unlock-new-future-for-carnegie-greenaway-awards/","url_text":"\"CILIP Partners with Yoto to Unlock New Future for Carnegie Greenaway Awards\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230507124113/https://yotocarnegies.co.uk/cilip-partners-with-yoto-to-unlock-new-future-for-carnegie-greenaway-awards/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Partners and Sponsors\". The Yoto Carnegies. Archived from the original on 8 April 2023. 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Retrieved 6 June 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://yotocarnegies.co.uk/geraldine-mccaughrean-scoops-second-cilip-carnegie-medal-30-years-after-first-win-and-champions-triumph-of-literary-fiction/","url_text":"\"Geraldine McCaughrean scoops second CILIP Carnegie Medal 30 years after first win and champions triumph of 'literary' fiction\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Yoto_Carnegies","url_text":"The Yoto Carnegies"}]},{"reference":"Flood, Alison (18 June 2018). \"Carnegie medal winner slams children's book publishers for 'accessible' prose\". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 19 March 2023. 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Retrieved 6 June 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://yotocarnegies.co.uk/shortlists-for-2018-cilip-carnegie-and-kate-greenaway-medals-announced/","url_text":"\"Shortlists for 2018 CILIP Carnegie and Kate Greenaway Medals Announced\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Yoto_Carnegies","url_text":"The Yoto Carnegies"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230408030420/https://yotocarnegies.co.uk/shortlists-for-2018-cilip-carnegie-and-kate-greenaway-medals-announced/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Flood, Alison (15 March 2018). \"Patrick Ness could land first ever Carnegie medal hat-trick\". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 17 October 2018. Retrieved 6 June 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/books/2018/mar/15/patrick-ness-carnegie-medal-hat-trick-angie-thomas","url_text":"\"Patrick Ness could land first ever Carnegie medal hat-trick\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian","url_text":"The Guardian"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077","url_text":"0261-3077"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20181017123659/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2018/mar/15/patrick-ness-carnegie-medal-hat-trick-angie-thomas","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"2019 Carnegie and Kate Greenaway medals shortlists announced\". Books+Publishing. 20 March 2019. Archived from the original on 26 March 2019. Retrieved 6 June 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.booksandpublishing.com.au/articles/2019/03/20/130168/2019-carnegie-and-kate-greenaway-medals-shortlists-announced/","url_text":"\"2019 Carnegie and Kate Greenaway medals shortlists announced\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Books%2BPublishing","url_text":"Books+Publishing"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190326042153/https://www.booksandpublishing.com.au/articles/2019/03/20/130168/2019-carnegie-and-kate-greenaway-medals-shortlists-announced/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Flood, Alison (19 March 2019). \"Carnegie medal shortlist celebrates novels in free verse\". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 3 June 2019. Retrieved 6 June 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/books/2019/mar/19/carnegie-medal-shortlist-celebrates-novels-in-free-verse","url_text":"\"Carnegie medal shortlist celebrates novels in free verse\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian","url_text":"The Guardian"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077","url_text":"0261-3077"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190603152041/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2019/mar/19/carnegie-medal-shortlist-celebrates-novels-in-free-verse","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Cowdrey, Katherine (17 June 2020). \"McGowan and Tan awarded CILIP Carnegie and Kate Greenaway Medals\". The Bookseller. Archived from the original on 18 June 2020. Retrieved 6 June 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thebookseller.com/news/mcgowan-and-tan-awarded-cilip-carnegie-and-kate-greenaway-medals-1207135","url_text":"\"McGowan and Tan awarded CILIP Carnegie and Kate Greenaway Medals\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200618010330/https://www.thebookseller.com/news/mcgowan-and-tan-awarded-cilip-carnegie-and-kate-greenaway-medals-1207135","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Shortlists for 2020 CILIP Carnegie and Kate Greenaway Medals Announced\". The Yoto Carnegies. 19 March 2020. Archived from the original on 1 October 2022. 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Retrieved 6 June 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.booksandpublishing.com.au/articles/2021/06/17/188171/reynolds-smith-win-2021-carnegie-greenaway-medals/","url_text":"\"Reynolds, Smith win 2021 Carnegie, Greenaway medals\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Books%2BPublishing","url_text":"Books+Publishing"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210617023606/https://www.booksandpublishing.com.au/articles/2021/06/17/188171/reynolds-smith-win-2021-carnegie-greenaway-medals/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Greenaway, Carnegie Medal shortlists announced\". Books+Publishing. 19 March 2021. Archived from the original on 19 March 2021. 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Retrieved 6 June 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/books/2022/mar/16/carnegie-medal-prize-shortlist","url_text":"\"Carnegie medal shortlist spotlights real-life stories of friendship in challenging times\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian","url_text":"The Guardian"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077","url_text":"0261-3077"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230329050645/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2022/mar/16/carnegie-medal-prize-shortlist","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Ros, Zdung win Yoto Carnegie medals\". Books+Publishing. 22 June 2023. Retrieved 29 June 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.booksandpublishing.com.au/articles/2023/06/22/232914/ros-zdung-win-yoto-carnegie-medals/","url_text":"\"Ros, Zdung win Yoto Carnegie medals\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Yoto Carnegie Medal for Writing Shortlist 2023\". The Yoto Carnegies. Archived from the original on 8 April 2023. Retrieved 6 June 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://yotocarnegies.co.uk/writing-shortlist-2023/","url_text":"\"The Yoto Carnegie Medal for Writing Shortlist 2023\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230408030849/https://yotocarnegies.co.uk/writing-shortlist-2023/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Shaffi, Sarah (17 March 2023). \"Carnegie medal for writing announces all-female shortlist\". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 25 May 2023. Retrieved 6 June 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/books/2023/mar/17/carnegie-medal-for-writing-announces-all-female-shortlist","url_text":"\"Carnegie medal for writing announces all-female shortlist\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian","url_text":"The Guardian"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077","url_text":"0261-3077"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230525003208/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2023/mar/17/carnegie-medal-for-writing-announces-all-female-shortlist","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Creamer, Ella (13 March 2024). \"Carnegie medal for children's books shortlist announced\". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 13 March 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/books/2024/mar/13/carnegie-medal-for-childrens-books-shortlist-announced","url_text":"\"Carnegie medal for children's books shortlist announced\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077","url_text":"0261-3077"}]},{"reference":"Jones, Nicolette (13 March 2024). \"Who will win the Carnegie, the most prestigious prize for children's stories?\". ISSN 0140-0460. Retrieved 13 March 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/who-will-win-the-carnegie-the-most-prestigious-prize-for-childrens-stories-c7h879lbg","url_text":"\"Who will win the Carnegie, the most prestigious prize for children's stories?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0140-0460","url_text":"0140-0460"}]},{"reference":"Flood, Alison (24 June 2010). \"Neil Gaiman wins Carnegie Medal\". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 26 October 2013. Retrieved 6 May 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/books/2010/jun/24/neil-gaiman-carnegie-graveyard-book","url_text":"\"Neil Gaiman wins Carnegie Medal\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian","url_text":"The Guardian"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131026001809/http://www.theguardian.com/books/2010/jun/24/neil-gaiman-carnegie-graveyard-book","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Walk Two Moons\". Sharon Creech: Novels. Sharon Creech. Archived from the original on 12 October 2010. Retrieved 13 September 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20101012162753/http://www.sharoncreech.com/novels/06.asp","url_text":"\"Walk Two Moons\""},{"url":"http://sharoncreech.com/novels/06.asp","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"The Carnegie Medal: Full List of Winners\". Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals (CILIP). Archived from the original on 30 April 2007. Retrieved 6 February 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070430164320/http://www.carnegiegreenaway.org.uk/carnegie/full_list_of_winners.php","url_text":"\"The Carnegie Medal: Full List of Winners\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CILIP","url_text":"CILIP"},{"url":"http://www.carnegiegreenaway.org.uk/carnegie/full_list_of_winners.php","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Michael L. Printz Winners and Honor Books\". YALSA. ALA. 15 March 2007. Archived from the original on 28 March 2019. Retrieved 6 February 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ala.org/yalsa/booklistsawards/bookawards/printzaward/previouswinners/winners","url_text":"\"Michael L. Printz Winners and Honor Books\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190328214929/http://www.ala.org/yalsa/booklistsawards/bookawards/printzaward/previouswinners/winners","url_text":"Archived"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_in_Sport
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All in Sport
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["1 See also","2 References","3 Sources"]
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American comic strip by Chester Adams
All in Sport was a syndicated newspaper comic strip created in the late 1940s by the cartoonist Chester "Chet" Adams, who earlier had drawn the Gigs and Gags feature during World War II.
It usually was featured in the sports section of newspapers. The syndicated daily strip ran from April 18, 1960, to March 8, 1974, and the Sunday strip began December 29, 1963, continuing until February 17, 1974.
See also
Tank McNamara
References
^ Silverman, David. "Chester Adams, 78, Created A Sports Cartoon For Tribune". Chicago Tribune, March 30, 1992.
Sources
Strickler, Dave. Syndicated Comic Strips and Artists, 1924-1995.
This comic strip–related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
|
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|
[]
|
[{"title":"Tank McNamara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tank_McNamara"}]
|
[]
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Ludwig_Bauer
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Friedrich L. Bauer
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["1 Life","2 Work","3 Definition of software engineering","4 Legacy","5 Awards","5.1 Honorary doctorates","6 Publications","7 References","8 External links"]
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German computer scientist
"F. L. Bauer" redirects here. For the Austrian botanical illustrator, see Ferdinand Bauer.
Friedrich Ludwig BauerBornFriedrich Ludwig Bauer(1924-06-10)10 June 1924Regensburg, GermanyDied26 March 2015(2015-03-26) (aged 90)EducationLudwig-Maximilians-UniversitätKnown forStack (data structure)Sequential Formula TranslationALGOLSoftware engineeringBauer–Fike theoremChildren5AwardsIron Cross 2nd Class, Bundesverdienstkreuz 1st Class,IEEE Computer Pioneer Award (1988)Scientific careerFieldsComputer scienceApplied mathematicsInstitutionsUniversity of MainzTechnical University of MunichTheses
Group-theoretic investigations of the theory of spin wave equations (1952)
On quadratically convergent iteration methods for solving algebraic equations and eigenvalue problems (1954)
Doctoral advisorsFritz Bopp, Georg AumannDoctoral studentsManfred Broy, David Gries, Josef Stoer, Peter Wynn, Christoph Zenger
Friedrich Ludwig "Fritz" Bauer (10 June 1924 – 26 March 2015) was a German pioneer of computer science and professor at the Technical University of Munich.
Life
Bauer earned his Abitur in 1942 and served in the Wehrmacht during World War II, from 1943 to 1945. From 1946 to 1950, he studied mathematics and theoretical physics at Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität in Munich. Bauer received his Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) under the supervision of Fritz Bopp for his thesis Gruppentheoretische Untersuchungen zur Theorie der Spinwellengleichungen ("Group-theoretic investigations of the theory of spin wave equations") in 1952. He completed his habilitation thesis Über quadratisch konvergente Iterationsverfahren zur Lösung von algebraischen Gleichungen und Eigenwertproblemen ("On quadratically convergent iteration methods for solving algebraic equations and eigenvalue problems") in 1954 at the Technical University of Munich. After teaching as a privatdozent at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich from 1954 to 1958, he became extraordinary professor for applied mathematics at the University of Mainz. Since 1963, he worked as a professor of mathematics and (since 1972) computer science at the Technical University of Munich. He retired in 1989.
Work
Friedrich L. Bauer at the editors' meeting of Informatik Spektrum on 29 May 1995.
Bauer's early work involved constructing computing machinery (e.g. the logical relay computer STANISLAUS from 1951–1955). In this context, he was the first to propose the widely used stack method of expression evaluation.
Bauer was a member of the committees that developed the imperative computer programming languages ALGOL 58, and its successor ALGOL 60, important predecessors to all modern imperative programming languages. For ALGOL 58, Bauer was with the German Gesellschaft für Angewandte Mathematik und Mechanik (GAMM, Society of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics) which worked with the American Association for Computing Machinery (ACM). For ALGOL 60, Bauer was with the International Federation for Information Processing (IFIP) IFIP Working Group 2.1 on Algorithmic Languages and Calculi, which specified, maintains, and supports the languages ALGOL 60 and ALGOL 68.
Bauer was an influential figure in establishing computer science as an independent subject in German universities, which until then was usually considered part of mathematics. In 1967, he held the first lecture in computer science at a German university at the Technical University of Munich, titled Information Processing. By 1972, computer science had become an independent academic discipline at the TUM. In 1992, it was separated from the Department of Mathematics to form an independent Department of Informatics, though Bauer had retired from his chair in 1989.
In 1968, he coined the term software engineering which has been in widespread use since, and has become a discipline in computer science.
His scientific contributions spread from numerical analysis (Bauer–Fike theorem) and fundamentals of interpretation and translation of programming languages, to his later works on systematics of program development, especially program transformation methods and systems (CIP-S) and the associated wide-spectrum language system CIP-L. He also wrote a well-respected book on cryptology, Decrypted secrets, now in its fourth edition.
He was the doctoral advisor of 39 students, including Rudolf Berghammer, Manfred Broy, David Gries, Manfred Paul, Gerhard Seegmüller, Josef Stoer, Peter Wynn, and Christoph Zenger.
Friedrich Bauer was one of the 19 founding members of the German Informatics Society. He was editor of the Informatik Spektrum from its founding in 1978, and held that position until his death.
Friedrich Bauer was married to Hildegard Bauer-Vogg. He was the father of three sons and two daughters.
Definition of software engineering
Bauer was a colleague of the German Representative the NATO Science Committee. In 1967, NATO had been discussing 'The Software Crisis' and Bauer had suggested the term 'Software Engineering' as a way to conceive of both the problem and the solution.
In 1972, Bauer published the following definition of software engineering:
"Establishment and use of sound engineering principles to economically obtain software that is reliable and works on real machines efficiently."
Legacy
Since 1992, the Technical University of Munich has awarded the Friedrich L. Bauer Prize in computer science.
In 2014, the Technical University of Munich renamed their largest lecture hall in the Department of Informatics building after him.
Awards
1944: Iron Cross 2nd Class
1968: Member of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences in mathematics and science class
1971: Bavarian Order of Merit
1978: Wilhelm Exner Medal (Austria).
1982: Federal Merit Cross 1st Class
1984: Member of the German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina
1986: Bavarian Maximilian Order for Science and Art
1987: Honorary Member of the Society for computer science
1988: Golden Ring of Honour of the German Museum
1988: IEEE Computer Pioneer Award
1997: Heinz-Maier-Leibnitz Medal from the Technical University of Munich
1998: corresponding member of the Austrian Academy of Sciences
2002: Honorary Member of the Deutsches Museum
2004: Silver Medal of Merit of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences
Honorary doctorates
1974: Honorary Doctor of the University of Grenoble
1989: Honorary Doctor of the University of Passau
1998: Honorary doctorate from the Bundeswehr University Munich (Neubiberg)
Publications
Samelson, Klaus; Bauer, Friedrich Ludwig (February 1960). "Sequential Formula Translation". Communications of the ACM. 3 (2): 76–83. doi:10.1145/366959.366968. S2CID 16646147., a very influential paper on compilers
Baumann, Richard ; Feliciano, Manuel; Bauer, Friedrich Ludwig; Samelson, Klaus (1964). Introduction to ALGOL – A primer for the non-specialist, emphasizing the practical uses of the algorithmic language. Series in Automatic Computation. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA: Prentice-Hall, Inc. ISBN 0-13-477828-6. LCCN 64-10740. ark:/13960/t6qz35p37. Retrieved 2022-10-23.
Bauer, Friedrich Ludwig (1987). The Munich Project CIP: Volume II: The Programme Transformation System CIP-S (Lecture Notes in Computer Science). Springer. ISBN 978-3-5401-8779-0.
Bauer, Friedrich Ludwig; Wirsing, Martin (March 1991). Elementare Aussagenlogik (in German). Berlin – Heidelberg, Germany: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3-540-52974-8.
Bauer, Friedrich Ludwig (2006). Decrypted Secrets: Methods and Maxims of Cryptology, 4th edition. New York, USA: Springer. ISBN 978-3-5402-4502-5.
References
^ "Verzeichnis der Professorinnen und Professoren der Universität Mainz". Gutenberg Biographics (in German). Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz. Retrieved 2017-02-16.
^ Hashigen, Ulf; Keil-Slawik, Reinhard ; Norberg, Arthur Lawrence, eds. (2002). History of Computing: Software Issues. Berlin Heidelberg New York: Springer-Verlag. pp. 15–16. ISBN 978-3-642-07653-4.
^ a b Perlis, Alan Jay (1981). "Talk on Computing in the Fifties". ACM National Conference. Nashville, Tennessee. Los Alamito, California, 1995: (Transcript in J. A. N. Lee (ed.), Computer Pioneers, IEEE Computer Society Press. pp. 545–556.{{cite conference}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
^ a b Jeuring, Johan; Meertens, Lambert; Guttmann, Walter (2016-08-17). "Profile of IFIP Working Group 2.1". Foswiki. Retrieved 2020-09-07.
^ Swierstra, S. Doaitse; Gibbons, Jeremy; Meertens, Lambert (2011-03-02). "ScopeEtc: IFIP21: Foswiki". Foswiki. Retrieved 2020-09-07.
^ "History". TUM Department of Informatics. Retrieved 2020-12-22.
^ Fritz Krückeberg : Die Geschichte der GI, p. 14; 2nd edition, November 2001, Gesellschaft für Informatik. , retrieved 9 February 2021
^ Informatik Spektrum Volume 38, Issue 2, April 2015: Imprint Page A4
^ MacKenzie, Donald (2001). Mechanizing Proof: Computing, Risk, and Trust. Cambridge: MIT Press. pp. 34–36. ISBN 0-262-13393-8.
^ Bauer, Friedrich Ludwig (1972). "Software Engineering". Information Processing. p. 71.
^ Editor, ÖGV. (2015). Wilhelm Exner Medal. Austrian Trade Association. ÖGV. Austria.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Friedrich Ludwig Bauer.
Oral history interview with Friedrich L. Bauer, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. Bauer discusses his education and early research, including the European side of the development of ALGOL, as well as his later work in numerical analysis and programming languages.
Photograph of Friedrich L. Bauer (provided by Brian Randell)
Bauer about Rutishauser at a symposium at the ETH Zürich in 2002
Friedrich L. Bauer at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
Author profile in the database zbMATH
vteALGOL programmingImplementationsTechnicalstandards
ALGOL 58
ALGOL 60
ALGOL 68
Dialects
ABC ALGOL
ALCOR
ALGO
ALGOL 68C
ALGOL 68-R
ALGOL 68RS (ELLA)
ALGOL 68S
ALGOL N
ALGOL W
ALGOL X
Atlas Autocode (Edinburgh IMP)
Burroughs ALGOL
CORAL 66
Dartmouth ALGOL 30
DASK ALGOL
DG/L
Elliott ALGOL
Executive Systems Problem Oriented Language (ESPOL) → New Executive Programming Language (NEWP)
FLACC
IMP
JOVIAL
Kidsgrove Algol
MAD
Mary
NELIAC
RTL/2
S-algol, PS-algol, Napier88
Simula
Small Machine ALGOL Like Language (SMALL)
SMIL ALGOL
Formalisms
Jensen's device
Van Wijngaarden grammar
CommunityOrganizationsProfessionalassociations
ALCOR Group
Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)
BSI Group
Euro-Asian Council for Standardization, Metrology and Certification (EASC)
International Federation for Information Processing (IFIP) IFIP Working Group 2.1
Society of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics (GAMM)
Business
Burroughs Corporation
Elliott Brothers
Regnecentralen
Education
Case Institute of Technology
University of Edinburgh
University of St Andrews
Manchester University
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)
Government
Royal Radar Establishment (RRE)
PeopleALGOL 58
John Backus
Friedrich L. Bauer
Hermann Bottenbruch
Charles Katz
Alan Perlis
Heinz Rutishauser
Klaus Samelson
Joseph Henry Wegstein
MAD
Bruce Arden
Bernard Galler
Robert M. Graham
ALGOL 60
Backus^
Roland Carl Backhouse
Bauer^
Richard Bird
Stephen R. Bourne
Edsger W. Dijkstra
Andrey Ershov
Robert W. Floyd
Jeremy Gibbons
Julien Green
David Gries
Eric Hehner
Tony Hoare
Jørn Jensen
Katz^
Peter Landin
Tom Maibaum
Conor McBride
John McCarthy
Carroll Morgan
Peter Naur
Maurice Nivat
John E. L. Peck
Perlis^
Brian Randell
Rutishauser^
Samelson^
Jacob T. Schwartz
Micha Sharir
David Turner
Bernard Vauquois
Eiiti Wada
Wegstein^
Adriaan van Wijngaarden
Mike Woodger
Simula
Ole-Johan Dahl
Kristen Nygaard
ALGOL 68
Bauer^
Susan G. Bond
Bourne^
Robert Dewar
Dijkstra^
Gerhard Goos
Michael Guy
Hoare^
Cornelis H. A. Koster
Peter Landin
Charles H. Lindsey
Barry J. Mailloux
McCarthy^
Lambert Meertens
Naur^
Peck^
Willem van der Poel
Randell^
Douglas T. Ross
Samelson^
Michel Sintzoff
van Wijngaarden^
Niklaus Wirth
Woodger^
Philip Woodward
Nobuo Yoneda
Hal Abelson
John Barnes
Tony Brooker
Ron Morrison
Peter O'Hearn
John C. Reynolds
ALGOL BulletinComparison
ALGOL 58 influence on ALGOL 60
ALGOL 68 to other languages
ALGOL 68 to C++
^ = full name and link in prior ALGOL version above Category: ALGOL Category: ALGOL 60
Authority control databases International
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IdRef
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Bauer at the editors' meeting of Informatik Spektrum on 29 May 1995.Bauer's early work involved constructing computing machinery (e.g. the logical relay computer STANISLAUS from 1951–1955[2]). In this context, he was the first to propose the widely used stack method of expression evaluation.Bauer was a member of the committees that developed the imperative computer programming languages ALGOL 58,[3] and its successor ALGOL 60,[4] important predecessors to all modern imperative programming languages. For ALGOL 58, Bauer was with the German Gesellschaft für Angewandte Mathematik und Mechanik (GAMM, Society of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics) which worked with the American Association for Computing Machinery (ACM).[3] For ALGOL 60, Bauer was with the International Federation for Information Processing (IFIP) IFIP Working Group 2.1 on Algorithmic Languages and Calculi,[4] which specified, maintains, and supports the languages ALGOL 60 and ALGOL 68.[5]Bauer was an influential figure in establishing computer science as an independent subject in German universities, which until then was usually considered part of mathematics. In 1967, he held the first lecture in computer science at a German university at the Technical University of Munich, titled Information Processing. By 1972, computer science had become an independent academic discipline at the TUM. In 1992, it was separated from the Department of Mathematics to form an independent Department of Informatics, though Bauer had retired from his chair in 1989.[6]In 1968, he coined the term software engineering which has been in widespread use since, and has become a discipline in computer science.His scientific contributions spread from numerical analysis (Bauer–Fike theorem) and fundamentals of interpretation and translation of programming languages, to his later works on systematics of program development, especially program transformation methods and systems (CIP-S) and the associated wide-spectrum language system CIP-L. He also wrote a well-respected book on cryptology, Decrypted secrets, now in its fourth edition.He was the doctoral advisor of 39 students, including Rudolf Berghammer, Manfred Broy, David Gries, Manfred Paul, Gerhard Seegmüller, Josef Stoer, Peter Wynn, and Christoph Zenger.Friedrich Bauer was one of the 19 founding members of the German Informatics Society.[7] He was editor of the Informatik Spektrum from its founding in 1978, and held that position until his death.[8]Friedrich Bauer was married to Hildegard Bauer-Vogg. He was the father of three sons and two daughters.","title":"Work"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MacKenzie_2001-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bauer_1972-10"}],"text":"Bauer was a colleague of the German Representative the NATO Science Committee. In 1967, NATO had been discussing 'The Software Crisis' and Bauer had suggested the term 'Software Engineering' as a way to conceive of both the problem and the solution.[9]In 1972, Bauer published the following definition of software engineering:\"Establishment and use of sound engineering principles to economically obtain software that is reliable and works on real machines efficiently.\"[10]","title":"Definition of software engineering"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Technical University of Munich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_University_of_Munich"},{"link_name":"Friedrich L. Bauer Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Friedrich_L._Bauer_Prize&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"de","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/F.L.-Bauer-Preis"},{"link_name":"lecture hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lecture_hall"},{"link_name":"Department of Informatics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TUM_Department_of_Informatics"}],"text":"Since 1992, the Technical University of Munich has awarded the Friedrich L. Bauer Prize [de] in computer science.In 2014, the Technical University of Munich renamed their largest lecture hall in the Department of Informatics building after him.","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Iron Cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Cross"},{"link_name":"Bavarian Academy of Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bavarian_Academy_of_Sciences"},{"link_name":"Bavarian Order of Merit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bavarian_Order_of_Merit"},{"link_name":"Wilhelm Exner Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Exner_Medal"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WEM_2015-11"},{"link_name":"Federal Merit Cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bundesverdienstkreuz"},{"link_name":"German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Academy_of_Sciences_Leopoldina"},{"link_name":"Bavarian Maximilian Order for Science and Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bavarian_Maximilian_Order_for_Science_and_Art"},{"link_name":"IEEE Computer Pioneer Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_Computer_Pioneer_Award"},{"link_name":"Technical University of Munich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_University_of_Munich"},{"link_name":"Austrian Academy of Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austrian_Academy_of_Sciences"},{"link_name":"Deutsches Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsches_Museum"}],"text":"1944: Iron Cross 2nd Class\n1968: Member of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences in mathematics and science class\n1971: Bavarian Order of Merit\n1978: Wilhelm Exner Medal (Austria).[11]\n1982: Federal Merit Cross 1st Class\n1984: Member of the German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina\n1986: Bavarian Maximilian Order for Science and Art\n1987: Honorary Member of the Society for computer science\n1988: Golden Ring of Honour of the German Museum\n1988: IEEE Computer Pioneer Award\n1997: Heinz-Maier-Leibnitz Medal from the Technical University of Munich\n1998: corresponding member of the Austrian Academy of Sciences\n2002: Honorary Member of the Deutsches Museum\n2004: Silver Medal of Merit of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences","title":"Awards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"University of Grenoble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Grenoble"},{"link_name":"University of Passau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Passau"},{"link_name":"Bundeswehr University Munich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bundeswehr_University_Munich"}],"sub_title":"Honorary doctorates","text":"1974: Honorary Doctor of the University of Grenoble\n1989: Honorary Doctor of the University of Passau\n1998: Honorary doctorate from the Bundeswehr University Munich (Neubiberg)","title":"Awards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Samelson, Klaus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klaus_Samelson"},{"link_name":"\"Sequential Formula 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Aussagenlogik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=Ff58BwAAQBAJ"},{"link_name":"Springer-Verlag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer-Verlag"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"3-540-52974-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-540-52974-8"},{"link_name":"Decrypted Secrets: Methods and Maxims of Cryptology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Books_on_cryptography#History_of_cryptography"},{"link_name":"Springer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-5402-4502-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-5402-4502-5"}],"text":"Samelson, Klaus; Bauer, Friedrich Ludwig (February 1960). \"Sequential Formula Translation\". Communications of the ACM. 3 (2): 76–83. doi:10.1145/366959.366968. S2CID 16646147., a very influential paper on compilers\nBaumann, Richard [in German]; Feliciano, Manuel; Bauer, Friedrich Ludwig; Samelson, Klaus (1964). Introduction to ALGOL – A primer for the non-specialist, emphasizing the practical uses of the algorithmic language. Series in Automatic Computation. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA: Prentice-Hall, Inc. ISBN 0-13-477828-6. LCCN 64-10740. ark:/13960/t6qz35p37. Retrieved 2022-10-23.\nBauer, Friedrich Ludwig (1987). The Munich Project CIP: Volume II: The Programme Transformation System CIP-S (Lecture Notes in Computer Science). Springer. ISBN 978-3-5401-8779-0.\nBauer, Friedrich Ludwig; Wirsing, Martin (March 1991). Elementare Aussagenlogik (in German). Berlin – Heidelberg, Germany: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3-540-52974-8.\nBauer, Friedrich Ludwig (2006). Decrypted Secrets: Methods and Maxims of Cryptology, 4th edition. New York, USA: Springer. ISBN 978-3-5402-4502-5.","title":"Publications"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Friedrich L. Bauer at the editors' meeting of Informatik Spektrum on 29 May 1995.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/FriedrichLBauer29-05-1995.jpg/220px-FriedrichLBauer29-05-1995.jpg"}]
| null |
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ISBN 978-3-5402-4502-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Books_on_cryptography#History_of_cryptography","url_text":"Decrypted Secrets: Methods and Maxims of Cryptology"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media","url_text":"Springer"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-5402-4502-5","url_text":"978-3-5402-4502-5"}]},{"reference":"\"Verzeichnis der Professorinnen und Professoren der Universität Mainz\". Gutenberg Biographics (in German). Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz. Retrieved 2017-02-16.","urls":[{"url":"http://gutenberg-biographics.ub.uni-mainz.de/id/f197cbba-1453-4ffd-8de6-24d75a2dece6.html","url_text":"\"Verzeichnis der Professorinnen und Professoren der Universität Mainz\""}]},{"reference":"Hashigen, Ulf; Keil-Slawik, Reinhard [in German]; Norberg, Arthur Lawrence, eds. (2002). History of Computing: Software Issues. Berlin Heidelberg New York: Springer-Verlag. pp. 15–16. ISBN 978-3-642-07653-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinhard_Keil_(Informatiker)","url_text":"Keil-Slawik, Reinhard"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Lawrence_Norberg","url_text":"Norberg, Arthur Lawrence"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer-Verlag","url_text":"Springer-Verlag"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-07653-4","url_text":"978-3-642-07653-4"}]},{"reference":"Perlis, Alan Jay (1981). \"Talk on Computing in the Fifties\". ACM National Conference. Nashville, Tennessee. Los Alamito, California, 1995: (Transcript in J. A. N. Lee (ed.), Computer Pioneers, IEEE Computer Society Press. pp. 545–556.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Jay_Perlis","url_text":"Perlis, Alan Jay"}]},{"reference":"Jeuring, Johan; Meertens, Lambert; Guttmann, Walter (2016-08-17). \"Profile of IFIP Working Group 2.1\". Foswiki. Retrieved 2020-09-07.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambert_Meertens","url_text":"Meertens, Lambert"},{"url":"https://ifipwg21wiki.cs.kuleuven.be/IFIP21/Profile","url_text":"\"Profile of IFIP Working Group 2.1\""}]},{"reference":"Swierstra, S. Doaitse; Gibbons, Jeremy; Meertens, Lambert (2011-03-02). \"ScopeEtc: IFIP21: Foswiki\". Foswiki. Retrieved 2020-09-07.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremy_Gibbons","url_text":"Gibbons, Jeremy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambert_Meertens","url_text":"Meertens, Lambert"},{"url":"https://ifipwg21wiki.cs.kuleuven.be/IFIP21/ScopeEtc","url_text":"\"ScopeEtc: IFIP21: Foswiki\""}]},{"reference":"\"History\". TUM Department of Informatics. Retrieved 2020-12-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.in.tum.de/en/the-department/history/","url_text":"\"History\""}]},{"reference":"MacKenzie, Donald (2001). Mechanizing Proof: Computing, Risk, and Trust. Cambridge: MIT Press. pp. 34–36. ISBN 0-262-13393-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=QiMS8t4V_0cC&pg=PA34","url_text":"Mechanizing Proof: Computing, Risk, and Trust"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Press","url_text":"MIT Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-13393-8","url_text":"0-262-13393-8"}]},{"reference":"Bauer, Friedrich Ludwig (1972). \"Software Engineering\". Information Processing. p. 71.","urls":[]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kotlin_Island
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Kotlin Island
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["1 History","2 Geography","3 Transportation","4 References","5 External links"]
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Coordinates: 60°00′45″N 29°44′01″E / 60.01250°N 29.73361°E / 60.01250; 29.73361Russian island in the Gulf of Finland
Kotlin IslandОстров КотлинMap of Kronstadt bay with Kotlin Island in the upper left cornerKotlin IslandKotlin Island within Saint PetersburgShow map of Saint PetersburgKotlin IslandKotlin Island within RussiaShow map of European RussiaKotlin IslandKotlin Island within EuropeShow map of EuropeGeographyLocationGulf of FinlandCoordinates60°00′45″N 29°44′01″E / 60.01250°N 29.73361°E / 60.01250; 29.73361Area15 km2 (5.8 sq mi)Length10.2 km (6.34 mi)Width3.7 km (2.3 mi)Highest elevation17 m (56 ft)AdministrationRussian FederationRegionSaint PetersburgDemographicsPopulation43,005 (2010)Pop. density2,867/km2 (7425/sq mi)
Kotlin (Russian: Ко́тлин; Swedish: Reitskär) is a Russian island, located near the head of the Gulf of Finland, 32 kilometres (20 mi) west of Saint Petersburg in the Baltic Sea. Kotlin separates the Neva Bay from the rest of the gulf. The fortified city of Kronstadt is located on the island and forms part of a World Heritage Site that is Saint Petersburg and Related Groups of Monuments. The island serves as a gateway to Saint Petersburg and as such has been the site of several military engagements.
The Kotlin programming language is named for the island, much as the Java programming language shares its name with an Indonesian island.
History
The island is mentioned in the 13th century treaty of Novgorod with Hanseatic League and Gotland, once as "Kotlign" and twice as "Kotling".
The city of Kronstadt was founded on Kotlin island by Peter the Great, who took it from the Swedes in 1703. In March 1921, Kotlin was the site of the Kronstadt rebellion, which resulted in over 11,000 casualties.
Geography
In general outline, the island forms an elongated triangle; 12.1 km (7.5 mi) long by about 1.6 km (1.0 mi) broad, with its base towards St Petersburg. The eastern or broad end is occupied by the city of Kronstadt, and shoals extend for 2.4 km (1.5 mi) from the western point of the island to the rock on which the Tolbaaken lighthouse is built.
The island thus divides the seaward approach to St Petersburg into two channels; that on the northern side is obstructed by shoals which extend across it from Kotlin to Lisiy Nos; the southern channel, the highway to the former capital, is narrowed by a spit which projects from opposite Lomonosov on the Russian mainland, and, lying close to Kronstadt, has been historically strongly guarded by batteries.
The naval approach to Saint Petersburg was greatly facilitated by the construction in 1875–85 of a canal, 7 m (23 ft) deep, through the shallows, whereas cars can travel overland to the island by using the Saint Petersburg Dam from the north and south shores of the Gulf of Finland. Started in 1980, but delayed by political upheaval in the 1990s, the dam project was completed in 2010 and officially commissioned in 2011.
Luftwaffe aerial reconnaissance photo of Kotlin Island, 1 June 1942
Beach in west Kotlin Island
Transportation
The low water depth in Neva Bay was an incentive to build a Sea Canal to accommodate large vessels, this canal allows the movement of vessels with a draft of 11 metres (to fresh water), a length of 320 metres and a width of 42 metres.
References
^ Google Earth
^ a b c d e One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Kropotkin, Peter; Bealby, John Thomas (1911). "Kronstadt". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 927–928.
^ Mobius (8 January 2015), Андрей Бреслав — Kotlin для Android: коротко и ясно, archived from the original on 2021-12-21, retrieved 28 May 2017
^ K.E. Napierski. Gramoty, kasayushchiesya do snosheniy Severo-Zapadnoy Rossii s Rigoyu i Ganzeyskimi gorodami v XII, XIII, XIV veke. Arheograficheskaya komissiya. St. Petersburg, 1868 (К.Э. Напиерский, Грамоты, касающиеся до сношений Северо-Западной России с Ригою и Ганзейскими городами в XII, XIII и XIV веке. Археографическая комиссия. Санкт-Петербург, 1868)
^ Pukhov, A. S. Kronshtadtskii miatezh v 1921 g. Leningrad, OGIZ-Molodaia Gvardiia.
^ Orlando Figes, A People's Tragedy: The Russian Revolution 1891-1924 (New York: Viking Press 1997), 767.
^ "St. Petersburg gets protecting dam". Voice of Russia. 12 August 2011. Archived from the original on 8 September 2012. Retrieved 14 August 2011.
^ Водные_объекты/961/Морской_канал_Санкт-Петербурга
External links
Google Earth view of Kotlin Island
vteInhabited islands in the Baltic SeaDenmark
Bornholm
Ertholmene
Falster
Lolland
Møn
Estonia
Abruka
Aegna
Hiiumaa
Kassari
Kesselaid
Kihnu
Kõinastu
Manilaid
Mohni
Muhu
Naissaar
Prangli
Osmussaar
Ruhnu
Saaremaa
Väike-Pakri
Vilsandi
Vormsi
Finland
Archipelago Sea Islands
Åland
Utö
Eugmo
Haapasaari
Hailuoto
Kallankari Islands
Kaskinen
Kaunissaari
Kimitoön
Kotkansaari
Kulosaari
Laajasalo
Larsmo
Lauttasaari
Mustikkamaa
Pellinki
Replot
Suomenlinna
Germany
Dänholm
Fehmarn
Hiddensee
Poel
Rügen
Ummanz
Usedom
Poland
Uznam
Wolin
Russia
Kotlin
Sweden
Alnön
Blekinge archipelago
Fårö
Gotland
Hertsön
Holmön
Härnön
Pitholmen
Seskarö
Stora Karlsö
Stockholm archipelago (Hallonstenarna)
Öland
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Russian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language"},{"link_name":"Swedish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_language"},{"link_name":"island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Island"},{"link_name":"Gulf of Finland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Finland"},{"link_name":"Saint Petersburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Petersburg"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-2"},{"link_name":"Baltic Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_Sea"},{"link_name":"Neva Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neva_Bay"},{"link_name":"Kronstadt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kronstadt"},{"link_name":"World Heritage Site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Heritage_Site"},{"link_name":"Saint Petersburg and Related Groups of Monuments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historic_Centre_of_Saint_Petersburg_and_Related_Groups_of_Monuments"},{"link_name":"Kotlin programming language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kotlin_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Java programming language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Indonesian island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"Russian island in the Gulf of FinlandKotlin (Russian: Ко́тлин; Swedish: Reitskär) is a Russian island, located near the head of the Gulf of Finland, 32 kilometres (20 mi) west of Saint Petersburg[2] in the Baltic Sea. Kotlin separates the Neva Bay from the rest of the gulf. The fortified city of Kronstadt is located on the island and forms part of a World Heritage Site that is Saint Petersburg and Related Groups of Monuments. The island serves as a gateway to Saint Petersburg and as such has been the site of several military engagements.The Kotlin programming language is named for the island, much as the Java programming language shares its name with an Indonesian island.[3]","title":"Kotlin Island"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Novgorod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novgorod"},{"link_name":"Hanseatic League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanseatic_League"},{"link_name":"Gotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gotland"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Peter the Great","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_the_Great"},{"link_name":"Swedes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-2"},{"link_name":"Kronstadt rebellion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kronstadt_rebellion"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"The island is mentioned in the 13th century treaty of Novgorod with Hanseatic League and Gotland, once as \"Kotlign\" and twice as \"Kotling\".[4]\nThe city of Kronstadt was founded on Kotlin island by Peter the Great, who took it from the Swedes in 1703.[2] In March 1921, Kotlin was the site of the Kronstadt rebellion, which resulted in over 11,000 casualties.[5][6]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"shoals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoal"},{"link_name":"lighthouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lighthouse"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-2"},{"link_name":"Lisiy Nos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisiy_Nos"},{"link_name":"Lomonosov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lomonosov,_Russia"},{"link_name":"batteries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artillery_battery"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-2"},{"link_name":"canal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canal"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-2"},{"link_name":"Saint Petersburg Dam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Petersburg_Dam"},{"link_name":"Gulf of Finland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Finland"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kronstadt1June1942.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%B6_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B3%D1%83.jpg"}],"text":"In general outline, the island forms an elongated triangle; 12.1 km (7.5 mi) long by about 1.6 km (1.0 mi) broad, with its base towards St Petersburg. The eastern or broad end is occupied by the city of Kronstadt, and shoals extend for 2.4 km (1.5 mi) from the western point of the island to the rock on which the Tolbaaken lighthouse is built.[2]The island thus divides the seaward approach to St Petersburg into two channels; that on the northern side is obstructed by shoals which extend across it from Kotlin to Lisiy Nos; the southern channel, the highway to the former capital, is narrowed by a spit which projects from opposite Lomonosov on the Russian mainland, and, lying close to Kronstadt, has been historically strongly guarded by batteries.[2]The naval approach to Saint Petersburg was greatly facilitated by the construction in 1875–85 of a canal, 7 m (23 ft) deep, through the shallows,[2] whereas cars can travel overland to the island by using the Saint Petersburg Dam from the north and south shores of the Gulf of Finland. Started in 1980, but delayed by political upheaval in the 1990s, the dam project was completed in 2010 and officially commissioned in 2011.[7]Luftwaffe aerial reconnaissance photo of Kotlin Island, 1 June 1942\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tBeach in west Kotlin Island","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Neva Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neva_Bay"},{"link_name":"Sea Canal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB_(%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D1%82-%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3)"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"The low water depth in Neva Bay was an incentive to build a Sea Canal to accommodate large vessels, this canal allows the movement of vessels with a draft of 11 metres (to fresh water), a length of 320 metres and a width of 42 metres.[8]","title":"Transportation"}]
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[{"reference":"Kropotkin, Peter; Bealby, John Thomas (1911). \"Kronstadt\". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 927–928.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Kronstadt","url_text":"Kronstadt"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm","url_text":"Chisholm, Hugh"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition","url_text":"Encyclopædia Britannica"}]},{"reference":"Mobius (8 January 2015), Андрей Бреслав — Kotlin для Android: коротко и ясно, archived from the original on 2021-12-21, retrieved 28 May 2017","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VU_L2_XGQ9s","url_text":"Андрей Бреслав — Kotlin для Android: коротко и ясно"},{"url":"https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/VU_L2_XGQ9s","url_text":"archived"}]},{"reference":"\"St. Petersburg gets protecting dam\". Voice of Russia. 12 August 2011. Archived from the original on 8 September 2012. Retrieved 14 August 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120908172747/http://english.ruvr.ru/2011/08/12/54579666.html","url_text":"\"St. Petersburg gets protecting dam\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_of_Russia","url_text":"Voice of Russia"},{"url":"http://english.ruvr.ru/2011/08/12/54579666.html","url_text":"the original"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaas_Witsen
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Nicolaes Witsen
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["1 Early life","2 Shipbuilding","3 Cartography","4 Mayor and Maecenas","5 Works","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"]
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Dutch statesman (1641–1717)
Nicolaes WitsenDrawing of Witsen by Peter Schenk the ElderBorn8 May 1641Amsterdam, NetherlandsDiedSeptember 10, 1717(1717-09-10) (aged 76)Amsterdam, NetherlandsBurial placeEgmond aan den Hoef, EnglandOccupationStatesman
Nicolaes Witsen (8 May 1641 – 10 August 1717; Dutch: Nicolaas Witsen) was a Dutch statesman who was mayor of Amsterdam thirteen times, between 1682 and 1706. In 1693, he became administrator of the Dutch East India Company (VOC). In 1689, he was extraordinary-ambassador to the English court and became Fellow of the Royal Society. In his free time, he was cartographer, maritime writer, and an authority on shipbuilding. His books on the subject are important sources on Dutch shipbuilding in the 17th century. Furthermore, he was an expert on Russian affairs. He was the first to describe Siberia, the Far East and Central Asia in his study Noord en Oost Tartarye .
Early life
Nicolaes Witsen was born in Amsterdam As a member of the Witsen family. His father, Cornelis Jan Witsen, was burgomaster, head bailiff and administrator of the Dutch West India Company. In 1656, Nicolaes went with his father to England, where he was introduced to Oliver Cromwell's children. In March 1662, Nicolaes Witsen held a disputation at the Amsterdam Athenaeum Illustre, in which he argued against the influence of comets on the welfare of all earthly things, possibly influenced by his nephew Joannes Hudde. In 1664 and 1665, Nicolaes made an embassy to Moscovia with the envoy Jacob Boreel. By boat, they went to Riga, then Swedish, and overland to Novgorod and Moscow. There he met with Andrew Vinius, who became his life long friend, sending him maps and objects. The talks with czar Alexis of Russia about a monopoly on tar were no success. Witsen wrote in his diary that no-one there was occupied with art or science. Witsen visited the Patriarch Nikon and made notes on the worship of icons, interested in his name saint (and patron saint of Amsterdam), saint Nicholas. He studied law at Leiden University, but became more interested in languages and maps. In the 1666–1667 Witsen travelled to Rome and met with Cosimo III de' Medici in Pisa. In Paris, he met the scientist Melchisédech Thévenot. In 1668 he travelled to Oxford. In 1674 he married Catherina Hochepied. Four children were born, not surviving childhood.
Shipbuilding
Witsen wrote "Aeloude and hedendaegsche Scheepsbouw en Bestier" in 1671, which quickly became seen as the standard work on the subject. Even an anatomist like Steno read the book. The technique Witsen describes is shell-first, and not frame-first. The book is not easy to read, because of misty wording and the chaotic structure, but has a lot of interesting engravings, made by himself. It can be compared with Doctrine for Naval Architecture by fellow-shipbuilder Anthony Dean, a mayor of Harwich and also a mentor of Peter the Great. It led to a correspondence between him and Peter the Great on modernising the Imperial Russian Navy, then backward by Western European standards. This led to an order for warships from Amsterdam shipyards in return for an ukase (negotiated by Witsen) on Dutch-Russian trade, guaranteeing to supply the Republic with grain, wood, talc, tar and skins. In 1697 Witsen organised a four-month training period for the tsar at the Dutch East India Company shipyards during his Grand Embassy, with the Tsar staying in Jacob J. Hinlopen's house and being taken by Witsen among many others to meet the botanist and anatomist Frederik Ruysch.
Cartography
Map of Tartary (Land of the Tartars)
After 20 years' study, Witsen published the first map of Siberia in 1690. This map represented the world from Nova Zembla to as far away as China. Witsen had discussed with the tsar the trade routes to Persia via the Caspian Sea and to China via Siberia. In 1692 he published a compendium titled "Noord en Oost Tartarye", describing Siberia and the surrounding areas, though without literary references. He consulted classical authors and Arabic medieval writers as well as his learned contemporaries in Europe. The second enlarged edition, a bulky book, also written in the 17th century Dutch, presents a rather complicated mixture of various texts with encyclopaedic details. It appeared in 1705 and was reprinted in 1785. In this book, Witsen gave an account of all the information available to the Europeans at that time about the northern and eastern parts of Europe and Asia, and also about the Volga area, Crimea, Caucasus, Central Asia, Mongolia, Tibet, China, Korea and the neighbouring parts of Japan. In the text, for instance, we find lists of 900 Georgian and 700 Kalmyk words and illustrations of the writing systems of Tibetan, Manchu and Mongolian languages. Witsen provides word lists and other data on more than 25 languages. In 1692 Witsen received the diary of Maarten Gerritsz Vries, who had explored the coast of Sahkalin in 1643, and it was never seen again.
Mayor and Maecenas
In 1688, Witsen was visited and invited more than once to discuss William III's proposed crossing to England, but he had great doubts and did not know what to advise. William Bentinck called him the most sensitive man in the world. Of the other three burgomasters – Jean Appelman (a merchant trading with France), Johannes Hudde and Cornelis Geelvinck – Geelvinck openly opposed the enterprise and Appelman was not trusted by the prince and thus was not informed. After the crossing went ahead, Witsen went to London in the next year to find a way of meeting the costs of 7,301,322 guilders the city of Amsterdam had incurred in supporting it. William offered to knight him as a baronet, but the modest Witsen refused.
Already in his youth Witsen started to collect Siberian curiosities and artworks, gathering corals, lacquer, books, paintings, weapons, porcelain, insects, seashells, stuffed animals and precious stones into his house on Herengracht on the Golden Bend. As mayor, he was a patron of the arts and sciences and maintained contacts with German scholars, such as Leibniz. He corresponded with Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, discovering tiny creatures under his microscope. In 1698 Willem de Vlamingh offered him two seashells from New Holland (Australia) and Witsen offered the drawings to Martin Lister. Witsen, who had invested in the journey, was disappointed that the men had been more interested in setting up trade than in exploring.
Witsen tried to introduce coffee plants from Batavia via Amsterdam to countries in South America. Boerhaave estimated that Witsen had put together a collection of more than 1500 paintings of plants that came to be known as the Codex Witsenii and were for the greater part of plants growing in and around the Cape Peninsula. These passed into the custody of Caspar Commelin, Professor of Botany at the Athenaeum Illustre and working in the Hortus Botanicus. After Commelin's death, they were passed to Johannes Burman, inspiring him to produce Rariorum africanarum plantarum in 1738-9. On Burman's death in 1779, his effects passed to his son, Nicolaas Laurens Burman. After his death in 1793, his effects, including the Codex, were sold by auction in 1800, disappearing from the records. Witsen had contact with the painter Jan de Bray over a plan to improve the city's water supply, and helped the artist Cornelis de Bruijn, who needed contacts in Egypt and Russia – indeed, it was probably Witsen who encouraged De Bruijn to make drawings of Persepolis, to show to the Royal Society.
The earliest known depiction of a Siberian shaman, produced by the Dutch explorer Nicolaes Witsen, who authored an account of his travels among Samoyedic- and Tungusic-speaking peoples in 1692. Witsen labelled the illustration as a "Priest of the Devil" and gave this figure clawed feet to highlight his demonic qualities.
46 people dedicated books to Witsen, including several by Olfert Dapper, one by the brother of Johan Nieuhof (including descriptions of Chinese shipbuilding), one by Jan van der Heyden on his invention of the fire hose and by the pharmacist Hermanus Angelkot jr. and Pieter Langendijk. He helped Maria Sybilla Merian to publish her prints with plants and insects from Surinam.
Witsen was also interested in religion but in an ecumenical way: his interests stretched to "saint Confucius" as he called him (based on his analysis of a Han dynasty Chinese mirror in his collection), as well as to shamanism. The minister famous for attacking witch-hunts, Balthasar Bekker, was his friend.
Witsen died in Amsterdam and was buried in Egmond aan den Hoef, not far from his country house, called "Tijdverdrijf" (=to pleasurably pass time). Peter the Great was present when Witsen died and said he lost a great friend. After Witsen's death, his notes were considered lost for a long time. His nephew Nicolaes Witsen (II) (1682-1746) inherited his library but was only moderately interested; 2,300 books were auctioned in 1728 and 1747; most in Latin, Dutch and French. Nicolaes Witsen (III) the younger (1709-1780) inherited the manuscripts collected by several family members; sold at auction in 1761. In 1886 did it become known that copies of Nicolaas Witsen's diary and notes were kept in a Paris library; 300 years later his travelogue to Moscovy could be published.
Works
N. Witsen, Moskovische Reyse 1664–1665. Journaal en Aentekeningen (Ed. Th.J.G. Locher and P. de Buck) ('s-Gravenhage, 1966; Transl.: Nikolaas Vitsen, Puteshestvie v Moskoviiu 1664–1665, St. Petersburg, 1996)
N. Witsen, Aeloude en hedendaegsche scheepsbouw en bestier (1671)
N. Witsen, Architectura navalis et regimen nauticum (second edition, 1690)
N. Witsen, Noord en Oost Tartarye, Ofte Bondig Ontwerp Van eenig dier Landen en Volken Welke voormaels bekent zijn geweest. Beneffens verscheide tot noch toe onbekende, en meest nooit voorheen beschreve Tartersche en Nabuurige Gewesten, Landstreeken, Steden, Rivieren, en Plaetzen, in de Noorder en Oosterlykste Gedeelten Van Asia En Europa Verdeelt in twee Stukken, Met der zelviger Land-kaerten: mitsgaders, onderscheide Afbeeldingen van Steden, Drachten, enz. Zedert naeuwkeurig onderzoek van veele Jaren, door eigen ondervondinge ontworpen, beschreven, geteekent, en in 't licht gegeven (Amsterdam MDCCV. First print: Amsterdam, 1692; Second edition: Amsterdam, 1705. Reprint in 1785)
See also:
Gerald Groenewald, 'To Leibniz, from Dorha: A Khoi prayer in the Republic of Letters', Itinerario 28-1 (2004) 29–48
Willemijn van Noord & Thijs Weststeijn, 'The Global Trajectory of Nicolaas Witsen's Chinese Mirror', The Rijksmuseum Bulletin 63-4 (2015) 324–361
Marion Peters, De wijze koopman. Het wereldwijde onderzoek van Nicolaes Witsen (1641–1717), burgemeester en VOC-bewindhebber van Amsterdam (Amsterdam 2010)
Marion Peters, 'Nicolaes Witsen and Gijsbert Cuper. Two seventeenth-century Burgomasters and their Gordian Knot', Lias 16-1 (1989) 111–151
Marion Peters, 'From the study of Nicolaes Witsen (1641–1717). His Life with Books and Manuscripts', Lias 21-1 (1994) 1–49
Marion Peters, 'Nepotisme, patronage en boekdedicaties bij Nicolaes Witsen (1641–1717), burgemeester en VOC-bewindhebber van Amsterdam', Lias 25-1 (1998) 83–134
See also
Hunmin Jeongeum
Sakha language
Anna Maria Sibylla Merian
References
^ The Witsen Project.
^ Gebhard Jr, J.F. (1881) Het leven van Mr Nicolaes Cornelisz. Witsen.
^ a b Gunn, Mary (1981). Botanical exploration of southern Africa : an illustrated history of early botanical literature on the Cape flora : biographical accounts of the leading plant collectors and their activities in southern Africa from the days of the East India Company until modern times. L. E. W. Codd. Cape Town: Published for the Botanical Research Institute by A.A. Balkema. p. 38. ISBN 0-86961-129-1. OCLC 8591273.
^ "ПУТЕШЕСТВИЕ В МОСКОВИЮ НИКОЛААСА ВИТСЕНА->ПУБЛИКАЦИЯ 1996 Г.->ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ". www.vostlit.info. Retrieved 6 May 2024.
^ Hoving, A.J. (1994) Nicolaes Witsens Scheeps-Bouw-Konst Open Gestelt, p. 28.
^ Driessen, J. (1996) Tsaar Peter de Grote en zijn Amsterdamse vrienden. In cooperation with Amsterdams Historisch Museum, p. 40.
^ Graaf, T. de, & B. Naarden. 2007. Description of the Border Areas of Russia with Japan and Their Inhabitants in Witsen's North and East Tartary. In: Acta Slavica Iaponica 24, pp. 205–220. For the article see this link Archived 10 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine
^ When Witsen was invited for the first time to see the prince, Witsen started to cry and fell on his knees, according to his personal archive, but could not refuse. In: Kok, J. (1744) Vaderlands Woordenboek, p. 251.
^ Kok, J. (1744) Vaderlands Woordenboek, p. 251-2.
^ Smit, P & A.P.M. Sanders & J.P.F. van der Veen (1986) Hendrik Engel's Alphabetical List of Dutch Zoological Canbinets and Menageries, p. 306.
^ Heeres, J.E. (1899) The part borne by the Dutch in the discovery of Australia 1606–1765, p. XVI, 83.
^ South African Botanical Art – Marion Arnold et al. (Fernwood Press, 2001)
^ Sancisi-Weerdenburg, H. (1998) Cornelis de Bruijn, Voyages from Rome to Jerusalem and from Moscow to Batavia, p. 45. Allard Pierson Museum, Amsterdam.
^ Hutton 2001. p. 32.
^ "NEPOTISME, PATRONAGE EN BOEKOPDRACHTEN BIJ NICOLAES WITSEN (1641–1717)". Retrieved 6 May 2024.
^ Willemijn van Noord & Thijs Weststeijn (2015). ""The Global Trajectory of Nicolaas Witsen's Chinese Mirror", The Rijksmuseum Bulletin 63, 4 (2015), pp. 324–361". The Rijksmuseum Bulletin. 63 (4): 324. doi:10.52476/trb.9835.
^ "MARION H. PETERS (1994) FROM THE STUDY OF NICOLAES WITSEN (1641-1717). HIS LIFE WITH BOOKS AND MANUSCRIPTS. in: Lias. Sources and documents relating to the early modern history of ideas. 21 / 1, pp.1-49" (PDF). Retrieved 6 May 2024.
^ "MARION H. PETERS (1994) FROM THE STUDY OF NICOLAES WITSEN (1641-1717). HIS LIFE WITH BOOKS AND MANUSCRIPTS. in: Lias. Sources and documents relating to the early modern history of ideas. 21 / 1, p. 27" (PDF). Retrieved 6 May 2024.
^ Nicolaas Witsen en Tartarye knaw.nl
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nicolaas Witsen.
Witsen's maps
Biography
(in Dutch) Busken Huet – Het land van Rembrand
The oldest Korean wordlist from Mr. Eibokken, written down by Witsen, translated into English.
His life with books and manuscripts
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dutch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_language"},{"link_name":"Dutch East India Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company"},{"link_name":"Fellow of the Royal Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society"},{"link_name":"cartographer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartographer"},{"link_name":"shipbuilding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shipbuilding"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"Nicolaes Witsen (8 May 1641 – 10 August 1717; Dutch: Nicolaas Witsen) was a Dutch statesman who was mayor of Amsterdam thirteen times, between 1682 and 1706. In 1693, he became administrator of the Dutch East India Company (VOC). In 1689, he was extraordinary-ambassador to the English court and became Fellow of the Royal Society. In his free time, he was cartographer, maritime writer, and an authority on shipbuilding. His books on the subject are important sources on Dutch shipbuilding in the 17th century. Furthermore, he was an expert on Russian affairs. He was the first to describe Siberia, the Far East and Central Asia in his study Noord en Oost Tartarye [North and East Tartary].[1]","title":"Nicolaes Witsen"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Amsterdam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amsterdam"},{"link_name":"Witsen family","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witsen_family"},{"link_name":"Cornelis Jan Witsen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornelis_Jan_Witsen"},{"link_name":"burgomaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burgomaster"},{"link_name":"Dutch West India Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_West_India_Company"},{"link_name":"Oliver Cromwell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Athenaeum Illustre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athenaeum_Illustre_of_Amsterdam"},{"link_name":"comets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet"},{"link_name":"Joannes Hudde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_van_Waveren_Hudde"},{"link_name":"Jacob Boreel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Boreel"},{"link_name":"Riga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riga"},{"link_name":"Novgorod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novgorod"},{"link_name":"Andrew Vinius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Vinius"},{"link_name":"czar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czar"},{"link_name":"Alexis of Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexis_of_Russia"},{"link_name":"tar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tar"},{"link_name":"Patriarch Nikon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_Nikon"},{"link_name":"icons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icon"},{"link_name":"saint Nicholas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Nicholas"},{"link_name":"Leiden University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leiden_University"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"Cosimo III de' Medici","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosimo_III_de%27_Medici"},{"link_name":"Melchisédech Thévenot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melchis%C3%A9dech_Th%C3%A9venot"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Oxford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford"}],"text":"Nicolaes Witsen was born in Amsterdam As a member of the Witsen family. His father, Cornelis Jan Witsen, was burgomaster, head bailiff and administrator of the Dutch West India Company. In 1656, Nicolaes went with his father to England, where he was introduced to Oliver Cromwell's children.[2] In March 1662, Nicolaes Witsen held a disputation at the Amsterdam Athenaeum Illustre, in which he argued against the influence of comets on the welfare of all earthly things, possibly influenced by his nephew Joannes Hudde. In 1664 and 1665, Nicolaes made an embassy to Moscovia with the envoy Jacob Boreel. By boat, they went to Riga, then Swedish, and overland to Novgorod and Moscow. There he met with Andrew Vinius, who became his life long friend, sending him maps and objects. The talks with czar Alexis of Russia about a monopoly on tar were no success. Witsen wrote in his diary that no-one there was occupied with art or science. Witsen visited the Patriarch Nikon and made notes on the worship of icons, interested in his name saint (and patron saint of Amsterdam), saint Nicholas. He studied law at Leiden University,[3] but became more interested in languages and maps. In the 1666–1667 Witsen travelled to Rome and met with Cosimo III de' Medici in Pisa. In Paris, he met the scientist Melchisédech Thévenot.[4] In 1668 he travelled to Oxford. In 1674 he married Catherina Hochepied. Four children were born, not surviving childhood.","title":"Early life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"anatomist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomist"},{"link_name":"Steno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Steno"},{"link_name":"shell-first","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trireme#Construction"},{"link_name":"frame-first","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_shipbuilding_techniques#Frame-first"},{"link_name":"Anthony Dean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Dean_(mayor)"},{"link_name":"Harwich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harwich"},{"link_name":"Peter the Great","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_the_Great"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Peter the Great","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_the_Great"},{"link_name":"Imperial Russian Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Russian_Navy"},{"link_name":"ukase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukase"},{"link_name":"talc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talc"},{"link_name":"Dutch East India Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company"},{"link_name":"Grand Embassy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Embassy_of_Peter_I"},{"link_name":"Jacob J. Hinlopen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_J._Hinlopen"},{"link_name":"botanist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanist"},{"link_name":"anatomist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomist"},{"link_name":"Frederik Ruysch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederik_Ruysch"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Witsen wrote \"Aeloude and hedendaegsche Scheepsbouw en Bestier\" in 1671, which quickly became seen as the standard work on the subject. Even an anatomist like Steno read the book. The technique Witsen describes is shell-first, and not frame-first. The book is not easy to read, because of misty wording and the chaotic structure, but has a lot of interesting engravings, made by himself. It can be compared with Doctrine for Naval Architecture by fellow-shipbuilder Anthony Dean, a mayor of Harwich and also a mentor of Peter the Great.[5] It led to a correspondence between him and Peter the Great on modernising the Imperial Russian Navy, then backward by Western European standards. This led to an order for warships from Amsterdam shipyards in return for an ukase (negotiated by Witsen) on Dutch-Russian trade, guaranteeing to supply the Republic with grain, wood, talc, tar and skins. In 1697 Witsen organised a four-month training period for the tsar at the Dutch East India Company shipyards during his Grand Embassy, with the Tsar staying in Jacob J. Hinlopen's house and being taken by Witsen among many others to meet the botanist and anatomist Frederik Ruysch.[6]","title":"Shipbuilding"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Witsen_-_Tartaria.jpg"},{"link_name":"Tartary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tartary"},{"link_name":"Siberia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siberia"},{"link_name":"Nova Zembla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novaya_Zemlya"},{"link_name":"China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_China"},{"link_name":"Persia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persia"},{"link_name":"Caspian Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caspian_Sea"},{"link_name":"Volga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volga"},{"link_name":"Crimea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimea"},{"link_name":"Caucasus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasus"},{"link_name":"Mongolia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Yuan_dynasty"},{"link_name":"China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_China"},{"link_name":"Korea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseon"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate"},{"link_name":"Georgian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgian_language"},{"link_name":"Kalmyk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalmyk_language"},{"link_name":"Tibetan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Tibetan"},{"link_name":"Manchu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchu_language"},{"link_name":"Mongolian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolian_language"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Maarten Gerritsz Vries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maarten_Gerritsz_Vries"},{"link_name":"Sahkalin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahkalin"}],"text":"Map of Tartary (Land of the Tartars)After 20 years' study, Witsen published the first map of Siberia in 1690. This map represented the world from Nova Zembla to as far away as China. Witsen had discussed with the tsar the trade routes to Persia via the Caspian Sea and to China via Siberia. In 1692 he published a compendium titled \"Noord en Oost Tartarye\", describing Siberia and the surrounding areas, though without literary references. He consulted classical authors and Arabic medieval writers as well as his learned contemporaries in Europe. The second enlarged edition, a bulky book, also written in the 17th century Dutch, presents a rather complicated mixture of various texts with encyclopaedic details. It appeared in 1705 and was reprinted in 1785. In this book, Witsen gave an account of all the information available to the Europeans at that time about the northern and eastern parts of Europe and Asia, and also about the Volga area, Crimea, Caucasus, Central Asia, Mongolia, Tibet, China, Korea and the neighbouring parts of Japan. In the text, for instance, we find lists of 900 Georgian and 700 Kalmyk words and illustrations of the writing systems of Tibetan, Manchu and Mongolian languages. Witsen provides word lists and other data on more than 25 languages.[7] In 1692 Witsen received the diary of Maarten Gerritsz Vries, who had explored the coast of Sahkalin in 1643, and it was never seen again.","title":"Cartography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"William III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_III_of_England"},{"link_name":"William Bentinck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Bentinck,_1st_Earl_of_Portland"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Johannes Hudde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Hudde"},{"link_name":"Cornelis Geelvinck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornelis_Geelvinck"},{"link_name":"baronet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baronet"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Herengracht","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herengracht"},{"link_name":"Golden Bend","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gouden_Bocht"},{"link_name":"Leibniz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz"},{"link_name":"Antonie van Leeuwenhoek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek"},{"link_name":"microscope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope"},{"link_name":"Willem de Vlamingh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willem_de_Vlamingh"},{"link_name":"New Holland (Australia)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Holland_(Australia)"},{"link_name":"Martin Lister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Lister"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"coffee plants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coffee_plant"},{"link_name":"Batavia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batavia,_Dutch_East_Indies"},{"link_name":"Boerhaave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boerhaave"},{"link_name":"Cape Peninsula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Peninsula"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Caspar Commelin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caspar_Commelin"},{"link_name":"Athenaeum Illustre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athenaeum_Illustre_of_Amsterdam"},{"link_name":"Hortus Botanicus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hortus_Botanicus_(Amsterdam)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"Johannes Burman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Burman"},{"link_name":"Jan de Bray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_de_Bray"},{"link_name":"Cornelis de Bruijn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornelis_de_Bruijn"},{"link_name":"Persepolis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persepolis"},{"link_name":"Royal Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Witsen%27s_Shaman.JPG"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Olfert Dapper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olfert_Dapper"},{"link_name":"Johan Nieuhof","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johan_Nieuhof"},{"link_name":"Jan van der Heyden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_van_der_Heyden"},{"link_name":"fire hose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_hose"},{"link_name":"Hermanus Angelkot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermanus_Angelkot_junior"},{"link_name":"Pieter Langendijk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pieter_Langendijk"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Maria Sybilla Merian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Sybilla_Merian"},{"link_name":"Surinam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surinam_(Dutch_colony)"},{"link_name":"ecumenical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecumenism"},{"link_name":"Confucius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucius"},{"link_name":"shamanism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shamanism"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Balthasar Bekker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balthasar_Bekker"},{"link_name":"Amsterdam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amsterdam"},{"link_name":"Egmond aan den Hoef","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egmond_aan_den_Hoef"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Moscovy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscovy"}],"text":"In 1688, Witsen was visited and invited more than once to discuss William III's proposed crossing to England, but he had great doubts and did not know what to advise. William Bentinck called him the most sensitive man in the world.[8] Of the other three burgomasters – Jean Appelman (a merchant trading with France), Johannes Hudde and Cornelis Geelvinck – Geelvinck openly opposed the enterprise and Appelman was not trusted by the prince and thus was not informed. After the crossing went ahead, Witsen went to London in the next year to find a way of meeting the costs of 7,301,322 guilders the city of Amsterdam had incurred in supporting it. William offered to knight him as a baronet, but the modest Witsen refused.[9]Already in his youth Witsen started to collect Siberian curiosities and artworks, gathering corals, lacquer, books, paintings, weapons, porcelain, insects, seashells, stuffed animals and precious stones into his house on Herengracht on the Golden Bend. As mayor, he was a patron of the arts and sciences and maintained contacts with German scholars, such as Leibniz. He corresponded with Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, discovering tiny creatures under his microscope. In 1698 Willem de Vlamingh offered him two seashells from New Holland (Australia) and Witsen offered the drawings to Martin Lister.[10] Witsen, who had invested in the journey, was disappointed that the men had been more interested in setting up trade than in exploring.[11]Witsen tried to introduce coffee plants from Batavia via Amsterdam to countries in South America. Boerhaave estimated that Witsen had put together a collection of more than 1500 paintings of plants that came to be known as the Codex Witsenii and were for the greater part of plants growing in and around the Cape Peninsula.[12] These passed into the custody of Caspar Commelin, Professor of Botany at the Athenaeum Illustre and working in the Hortus Botanicus.[3] After Commelin's death, they were passed to Johannes Burman, inspiring him to produce Rariorum africanarum plantarum in 1738-9. On Burman's death in 1779, his effects passed to his son, Nicolaas Laurens Burman. After his death in 1793, his effects, including the Codex, were sold by auction in 1800, disappearing from the records. Witsen had contact with the painter Jan de Bray over a plan to improve the city's water supply, and helped the artist Cornelis de Bruijn, who needed contacts in Egypt and Russia – indeed, it was probably Witsen who encouraged De Bruijn to make drawings of Persepolis, to show to the Royal Society.[13]The earliest known depiction of a Siberian shaman, produced by the Dutch explorer Nicolaes Witsen, who authored an account of his travels among Samoyedic- and Tungusic-speaking peoples in 1692. Witsen labelled the illustration as a \"Priest of the Devil\" and gave this figure clawed feet to highlight his demonic qualities.[14]46 people dedicated books to Witsen, including several by Olfert Dapper, one by the brother of Johan Nieuhof (including descriptions of Chinese shipbuilding), one by Jan van der Heyden on his invention of the fire hose and by the pharmacist Hermanus Angelkot jr. and Pieter Langendijk.[15] He helped Maria Sybilla Merian to publish her prints with plants and insects from Surinam.Witsen was also interested in religion but in an ecumenical way: his interests stretched to \"saint Confucius\" as he called him (based on his analysis of a Han dynasty Chinese mirror in his collection), as well as to shamanism.[16] The minister famous for attacking witch-hunts, Balthasar Bekker, was his friend.Witsen died in Amsterdam and was buried in Egmond aan den Hoef, not far from his country house, called \"Tijdverdrijf\" (=to pleasurably pass time). Peter the Great was present when Witsen died and said he lost a great friend. After Witsen's death, his notes were considered lost for a long time. His nephew Nicolaes Witsen (II) (1682-1746) inherited his library but was only moderately interested; 2,300 books were auctioned in 1728 and 1747; most in Latin, Dutch and French.[17] Nicolaes Witsen (III) the younger (1709-1780) inherited the manuscripts collected by several family members; sold at auction in 1761.[18] In 1886 did it become known that copies of Nicolaas Witsen's diary and notes were kept in a Paris library;[19] 300 years later his travelogue to Moscovy could be published.","title":"Mayor and Maecenas"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"N. Witsen, Moskovische Reyse 1664–1665. Journaal en Aentekeningen (Ed. Th.J.G. Locher and P. de Buck) ('s-Gravenhage, 1966; Transl.: Nikolaas Vitsen, Puteshestvie v Moskoviiu 1664–1665, St. Petersburg, 1996)\nN. Witsen, Aeloude en hedendaegsche scheepsbouw en bestier (1671)\nN. Witsen, Architectura navalis et regimen nauticum (second edition, 1690)\nN. Witsen, Noord en Oost Tartarye, Ofte Bondig Ontwerp Van eenig dier Landen en Volken Welke voormaels bekent zijn geweest. Beneffens verscheide tot noch toe onbekende, en meest nooit voorheen beschreve Tartersche en Nabuurige Gewesten, Landstreeken, Steden, Rivieren, en Plaetzen, in de Noorder en Oosterlykste Gedeelten Van Asia En Europa Verdeelt in twee Stukken, Met der zelviger Land-kaerten: mitsgaders, onderscheide Afbeeldingen van Steden, Drachten, enz. Zedert naeuwkeurig onderzoek van veele Jaren, door eigen ondervondinge ontworpen, beschreven, geteekent, en in 't licht gegeven (Amsterdam MDCCV. First print: Amsterdam, 1692; Second edition: Amsterdam, 1705. Reprint in 1785)See also:Gerald Groenewald, 'To Leibniz, from Dorha: A Khoi prayer in the Republic of Letters', Itinerario 28-1 (2004) 29–48\nWillemijn van Noord & Thijs Weststeijn, 'The Global Trajectory of Nicolaas Witsen's Chinese Mirror', The Rijksmuseum Bulletin 63-4 (2015) 324–361\nMarion Peters, De wijze koopman. Het wereldwijde onderzoek van Nicolaes Witsen (1641–1717), burgemeester en VOC-bewindhebber van Amsterdam (Amsterdam 2010) [Transl.: \"Mercator Sapiens. The Worldwide Investigations of Nicolaes Witsen, Amsterdam Mayor and Boardmember of the East India Company\"]\nMarion Peters, 'Nicolaes Witsen and Gijsbert Cuper. Two seventeenth-century Burgomasters and their Gordian Knot', Lias 16-1 (1989) 111–151\nMarion Peters, 'From the study of Nicolaes Witsen (1641–1717). His Life with Books and Manuscripts', Lias 21-1 (1994) 1–49\nMarion Peters, 'Nepotisme, patronage en boekdedicaties bij Nicolaes Witsen (1641–1717), burgemeester en VOC-bewindhebber van Amsterdam', Lias 25-1 (1998) 83–134","title":"Works"}]
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[{"image_text":"Map of Tartary (Land of the Tartars)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Witsen_-_Tartaria.jpg/220px-Witsen_-_Tartaria.jpg"},{"image_text":"The earliest known depiction of a Siberian shaman, produced by the Dutch explorer Nicolaes Witsen, who authored an account of his travels among Samoyedic- and Tungusic-speaking peoples in 1692. Witsen labelled the illustration as a \"Priest of the Devil\" and gave this figure clawed feet to highlight his demonic qualities.[14]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Witsen%27s_Shaman.JPG/220px-Witsen%27s_Shaman.JPG"}]
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[{"title":"Hunmin Jeongeum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunmin_Jeongeum"},{"title":"Sakha language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakha_language"},{"title":"Anna Maria Sibylla Merian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Maria_Sibylla_Merian"}]
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[{"reference":"Gunn, Mary (1981). Botanical exploration of southern Africa : an illustrated history of early botanical literature on the Cape flora : biographical accounts of the leading plant collectors and their activities in southern Africa from the days of the East India Company until modern times. L. E. W. Codd. Cape Town: Published for the Botanical Research Institute by A.A. Balkema. p. 38. ISBN 0-86961-129-1. OCLC 8591273.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/8591273","url_text":"Botanical exploration of southern Africa : an illustrated history of early botanical literature on the Cape flora : biographical accounts of the leading plant collectors and their activities in southern Africa from the days of the East India Company until modern times"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86961-129-1","url_text":"0-86961-129-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/8591273","url_text":"8591273"}]},{"reference":"\"ПУТЕШЕСТВИЕ В МОСКОВИЮ НИКОЛААСА ВИТСЕНА->ПУБЛИКАЦИЯ 1996 Г.->ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ\". www.vostlit.info. Retrieved 6 May 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.vostlit.info/Texts/rus5/Vitsen/pred.phtml?id=271","url_text":"\"ПУТЕШЕСТВИЕ В МОСКОВИЮ НИКОЛААСА ВИТСЕНА->ПУБЛИКАЦИЯ 1996 Г.->ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ\""}]},{"reference":"\"NEPOTISME, PATRONAGE EN BOEKOPDRACHTEN BIJ NICOLAES WITSEN (1641–1717)\". Retrieved 6 May 2024.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.xs4all.nl/~mhpeters/nep.htm","url_text":"\"NEPOTISME, PATRONAGE EN BOEKOPDRACHTEN BIJ NICOLAES WITSEN (1641–1717)\""}]},{"reference":"Willemijn van Noord & Thijs Weststeijn (2015). \"\"The Global Trajectory of Nicolaas Witsen's Chinese Mirror\", The Rijksmuseum Bulletin 63, 4 (2015), pp. 324–361\". The Rijksmuseum Bulletin. 63 (4): 324. doi:10.52476/trb.9835.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.academia.edu/19725659","url_text":"\"\"The Global Trajectory of Nicolaas Witsen's Chinese Mirror\", The Rijksmuseum Bulletin 63, 4 (2015), pp. 324–361\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.52476%2Ftrb.9835","url_text":"10.52476/trb.9835"}]},{"reference":"\"MARION H. PETERS (1994) FROM THE STUDY OF NICOLAES WITSEN (1641-1717). HIS LIFE WITH BOOKS AND MANUSCRIPTS. in: Lias. Sources and documents relating to the early modern history of ideas. 21 / 1, pp.1-49\" (PDF). Retrieved 6 May 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://marion-peters.nl/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/witsenbooks.pdf","url_text":"\"MARION H. PETERS (1994) FROM THE STUDY OF NICOLAES WITSEN (1641-1717). HIS LIFE WITH BOOKS AND MANUSCRIPTS. in: Lias. Sources and documents relating to the early modern history of ideas. 21 / 1, pp.1-49\""}]},{"reference":"\"MARION H. PETERS (1994) FROM THE STUDY OF NICOLAES WITSEN (1641-1717). HIS LIFE WITH BOOKS AND MANUSCRIPTS. in: Lias. Sources and documents relating to the early modern history of ideas. 21 / 1, p. 27\" (PDF). Retrieved 6 May 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://marion-peters.nl/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/witsenbooks.pdf","url_text":"\"MARION H. PETERS (1994) FROM THE STUDY OF NICOLAES WITSEN (1641-1717). HIS LIFE WITH BOOKS AND MANUSCRIPTS. in: Lias. Sources and documents relating to the early modern history of ideas. 21 / 1, p. 27\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Steel_strike
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Little Steel strike
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["1 Background","2 Organization","3 Early phase","4 Steelworkers' resistance","4.1 Memorial Day massacre of 1937","4.2 Other confrontations","4.3 Black unionists","4.4 Women in the trenches","5 Afterward","6 Results","7 World War II","8 See also","9 References","10 Sources and further reading","11 External links"]
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1937 labor strike throughout the American steel industry
1937 Memorial Day massacre at the Republic Steel Company, Chicago (May 30, 1937)
The Little Steel strike was a 1937 labor strike by the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) and its branch the Steel Workers Organizing Committee (SWOC), against a number of smaller steel producing companies, principally Republic Steel, Inland Steel, and Youngstown Sheet and Tube Company. The strike affected a total of thirty different mills belonging to the three companies, which employed 80,000 workers. The strike, which was one of the most violent labor disputes of the 1930s, ended without the strikers achieving their principal goal, recognition by the companies of the union as the bargaining agent for the workers.
On March 13, 1937, the United States Steel Corporation (US Steel) signed a historic collective bargaining agreement with SWOC. The agreement provided for a standard pay scale, an 8-hour work day, and time and a half for overtime. Although US Steel ("Big Steel") signed the deal, there were smaller companies that refused to sign. That is why the strike is known as the "Little Steel" strike: US Steel Corporation was so massive that it gave rise to the moniker "Little Steel" for its four smaller competitors, Republic Steel Corporation, Bethlehem Steel Corporation, Youngstown Sheet & Tube Company, and Inland Steel Company, each ranked among the hundred largest firms in America.
The strike did not start immediately. In fact, there was an expectation that Little Steel would follow Big Steel's lead and sign a deal with SWOC. On March 30, 1937, SWOC proposed an agreement similar to the one with US Steel to Little Steel. The proposal sought an eight-hour work day, a forty-hour work week, overtime pay, a $5-per-day minimum wage, paid vacations, health and safety standards, seniority, and procedures for resolving grievances. Rather than sign, Little Steel representatives met, debated, dragged their feet, sent spies to infiltrate SWOC, and prepared for actual battle. The companies bought poison gas and other weapons, hired private police, donated weapons to official law enforcement, encouraged law enforcement to hire more deputies, stocked their plants with food and bedding, installed search lights and barbed wire, and fired hundreds of union workers.
The Little Steel Strike started on May 26, 1937, when the US economy was just starting to recover from the Great Depression. Steel workers, represented by the CIO affiliated Steel Workers Organizing Committee (SWOC) participated in protests ranging from sit-ins to picket lines. Within days of SWOC's authorization of the strike, 67,000 workers were off the job and the scattered violence that began to erupt was a harbinger of more dire things to come.
The strike is characterized as one of the most violent strikes of the 1930s, with thousands of strikers arrested, three hundred injured and eighteen dead. The Little Steel companies eventually defeated the strike, which lasted just over five months time. However, groundwork for the unionization of the Little Steel industry was set and the goal to unionize Little Steel occurred five years later, in 1942, as World War II began to ramp up.
Background
vteSteel strikes in the US
1800s–1920s
Homestead 1892
U.S. Steel recognition 1901
Pressed Steel Car 1909
Great Steel 1919
1930s–1970s
Little Steel (Memorial Day massacre) 1937
Nationwide 1946
Nationwide 1952
Nationwide 1959
1980s–2020s
USX 1986
Allegheny Technologies 2021
Early in 1937 the large American steel companies ("big steel") were facing union pressure. The success of several sit down strikes in the automobile industry and the rising strength of unions made US Steel chairman Myron C. Taylor very hesitant to confront the unions. The pressure from other union successes throughout the industry and also the persistent work of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) made Taylor decide to agree with CIO president John L. Lewis to recognize the newly created branch of the CIO, the Steel Workers Organizing Committee (SWOC), as the sole agent for his company on March 2, 1937. By signing the union contract, Taylor started a domino effect, and other steel companies began signing union contracts with very little fight, many just at the slightest rumor of a strike. Several steel companies, who held very strong anti-union, anti-labor stances, such as Jones and Laughlin, signed union contracts following US Steel, sending a message through the industry, and giving SWOC legitimacy. The contracts had greater benefits than simply turning the mills into closed shops. Workers also received pay raises, forty-hour workweeks, and one-week vacations, along with three guaranteed holidays. The achievements gave SWOC and the CIO the confidence to expand into the smaller-market Little Steel Industry.
After Jones & Laughlin signed union contracts, signing with the smaller steel producers ("little steel") became the next goal of the CIO. The three main targets were decided to be Republic Steel, Youngstown Sheet and Tube Company, and Inland Steel Corporation, which owned mills across the Midwest and Northeast United States, with close to thirty mills between the three of them. The three companies became the focus of the CIO from status that they held within the Little Steel industry, like that of US Steel in the Big Steel industry, powerhouses of their industry. After big steel unionized, Lewis immediately tried to convince these little steel companies to sign SWOC union contracts similar to those signed by US Steel, just weeks earlier. The hope was to hit the powerhouses early in the movement to send a message throughout the industry for negotiations with smaller companies. However, the three companies refused the contracts without hesitation, as they had withstood unionization before, and refused to sign with SWOC.
Organization
United States Steel Corporation.
After the contracts were rejected, CIO and SWOC immediately began planning to organize the smaller steel companies. The SWOC had two major ideas behind their organizing drive: "overcoming, by successfully organizing all groups of workers, the racial and ethnic conflicts that had crippled earlier efforts to organize steel workers; and infiltrating and co-opting the company unions." The CIO immediately began placing union representatives within the mills of the companies. The representatives were often met with harassment and beatings by spies placed within the union by the companies to prevent unionization. As word of unionization spread, the SWOC was able to quick gain the quick support of many black steel workers mainly in the Chicago mills from their openness and willingness to accept black steel workers into the union. It was due to the black support that the SWOC was able to gain momentum so quickly, allowing whole mills to be involved in the movement. As May approached, it was clear that the companies were preparing for a strike. Republic Steel fired many union supporters and conducted lockouts at several other locations as a way weaken union support.
It was then that the CIO and SWOC decided they must take action. A deadline of May 26, 1937 was given to the steel companies to sign the union contracts or endure a strike. After that day passed with no response from Little Steel, John L. Lewis made an official strike call and workers walked away from their positions just hours after the deadline, shutting down almost every mill of the three largest Little Steel companies.
Early phase
Within hours of the call, there was already a quicker start than most people had predicted. Union representatives were able to lay down enough groundwork and spread the word well enough for a seamless beginning to the strike across a total of eight states. Workers began picketing, marching, and holding rallies outside their respective mills trying to gain the support of those workers not already involved with the union, along with their local communities to add pressure on the companies by adding supporters. The majority of the mills were empty after the massive walkout on May 26 and unable to continue production. However, two Republic Steel mills in Youngstown, Ohio and the Southside of Chicago remained open, using around two hundred to three hundred workers who disapproved of the strike to keep the mills running. SWOC officials and striking steel workers targeted the mill in South Chicago with massive numbers of picketers and rallies, hoping to bring national attention and make keeping the mill open a nightmare for Republic Steel.
Steelworkers' resistance
At the beginning of the strike, more than 50% of the striking employees were from Republic Steel. Republic Steel was headquartered in Cleveland and was among the top five steel producers in the country. By 1942 Republic Steel housed 9,000 workers which made it one of the top employers in the city of Cleveland.
Memorial Day massacre of 1937
Main article: 1937 Memorial Day massacre
The Republic Steel South Chicago mill was home to largest arsenal and police force involved in the labor dispute. Police maintained a line made up of 150 police officers in front of the gate to keep strikers at a distance safe enough for the mill to still be productive and running smoothly. The South Chicago mill was one of two steel mills still open.
On Memorial Day 1937, the third day of the Little Steel Strike, more than 1500 SWOC members and their families were gathered at a park just a few blocks from the front gate of the mill for a march planned for the day. The atmosphere was festive and picnic-like. There were a large number of women and children in the group. As Steelworker Jesse Reese of Youngstown Sheet and Tube recalled, "Republic Steel was scabbing. So we went to South Chicago with truckloads of people, working-class people." Republic had long been anticipating a strike and fortified the factory. There were loyal employees stationed there around the clock. There was a stockpile of munitions, including poison gas. That Memorial Day, there were approximately 250 city police and twenty to thirty private police forming a defensive perimeter around the plant. They were armed with revolvers, nightsticks, blackjacks, and hatchet handles.
Because of the large number of protesters, an additional two hundred police officers were called in to protect the mill by cutting the crowd off a block away from the mill by creating a line cutting access to the gate. With no access to the plant, more and more angry protesters began crowding in front of the line of officers, arguing to let them pass and continue as they meant no harm and wished to continue their planned march. As the protesters and police argued, the conversations became heated, and violence followed. Some reported that protesters in the back of the crowd began throwing sticks and stones and whatever else they could get their hands on, hitting several officers. The officers panicked and opened fire on the crowd. Soon ten protesters lay dead and 100 more with gunshot wounds. One steelworker later recounted, "I was in the war and I fought in France, but I never heard so many bullets as those coppers fired. Women and children were screaming all over the place. They were like a herd of cattle panic stricken. I ran till they got me. I saw one woman shot down and a policeman dragged her away." Scores of club-wielding police were beating people, men and women, black as well as white, and firing gas weapons and firearms, striking down dozens. Jesse Reese, a black man, observed: "I'd never seen the police beat women, not white women". The incident later became known as the Memorial Day massacre of 1937.
Of the twenty-three people killed or seriously injured in the Memorial Day Massacre identifiable as steel workers, eighteen were married and eight were at least forty years old. Middle-aged family men were not the only victims of the Memorial Day Massacre: an eleven-year-old boy, Nicholas Leverich (or Leurich), was hit in the ankle, a baby was wounded in the arm, and as discussed below, two women were shot in the legs. All in all, four demonstrators died of gunshot wounds on or near the scene; six others died over the next three weeks, also of gunshot wounds. Another thirty demonstrators were shot and sixty were otherwise injured, for a total of around one hundred significant casualties, of which around ten involved permanent disability. Thirty-five police were injured, but none of their injuries, besides a broken arm, was serious.
A notable example of police misbehavior was the treatment of pro-union victims of the Massacre. Although the police brought in ambulances for their men, they did little to aid grievously wounded demonstrators and did not even bother to use their stretchers to carry the injured. One shooting victim, Earl Handley, probably died when the police removed him from a union car, marked with a red cross, which was trying to take him to a hospital, slipped a tourniquet that was stopping him from bleeding to death, and piled him, blood pouring from a severed artery in his thigh, with fifteen other people into a patrol wagon.
After the incident, Little Steel's public relation team sent out multiple reports justifying the actions of the Chicago police force. Reports began coming in claiming that the protesters were armed and planned to raid the mill and that the protesters were led by marijuana-smoking communists.
With both local police forces and the National Guard on the side of Little Steel, the situation deteriorated for the strikers after the events of the Memorial Day massacre. The events of the massacre turned what seemed to be a peaceful strike of picketing and the occasional rally march into five months of arrests, beatings and several more deaths across the Midwest and Northeast as more conflicts emerged between Little Steel (mostly Republic Steel) and the SWOC protesters.
Other confrontations
The Republic Steel mill in Youngstown, Ohio, one of the two mills to remain open, had a conflict just less than a month later. On June 19, 300 officers were working at the mill, and a large number of picketers were outside of mill property. After a woman made a comment that embarrassed one of the officers on patrol duty about how to do his job correctly, things escalated quickly, leading to gas canisters to be fired directly into the crowd of protesters. A massive riot then ensued, the "Women's day massacre", leading to a gunfight between the heavily armed officers and the protesters that lasted well into the night leaving dozens injured and two dead. Many were arrested after the event, many of which were through home raids of those who were prominent in the strike in the area.
Another example of strike violence was an event that occurred on July 11 in Massillon, Ohio, when a company agent somehow came into the control of the local police force and rallied to attack the local union headquarters. The police force completely destroyed the building, two unionists were killed, and one hundred and sixty five were brutally arrested, some still in their pajamas and held for several days without cause.
Ten days sooner, there was a strike at Inland Steel Company as well on the east side of Chicago. The strike was not as violent but ended just as abruptly.
In Monroe, at the Newton Steel Plant, the SWOC decided to organize a strike that would hopefully shut down the plant. The strike worked for a time. With almost all of the workers on strike coming from one of the main departments of the plant, that made it impossible for the other areas of the factory to operate. In addition, workers not on strike refused to cross the picket lines.
Victims of violence were labeled as troublemakers, communists, or people with disregard for the law. Officers of the companies claimed that force was needed to protect the plants and the nonstriking workers. Several governors tried to quell the violence by calling in the National Guard, which helped the employers. With the job of preventing violence, strict regulations were placed on the picketers, such as limiting the number of picketers to ten. Strikers lost hope for success, and the strike ended quickly.
Black unionists
At the time of the Little Steel Strike, about ten percent of steelworkers were black. Nearly three quarters of them were common laborers, who performed the roughest work in the hottest, dirtiest, and most dangerous departments. That meant that they bore the brunt of capricious workplace policies. Not surprisingly, then, they found the idea of rationalizing employment policies by unionism attractive. That was true despite their justifiable skepticism of unionism based on the unions' history of discrimination against and outright exclusion of blacks. Ultimately, blacks and whites alike recognized that an integrated union was an imperative, black steelworkers deserved to be part of the union, and an industrial union that excluded them did not warrant the name. Many unions made a point of reaching out to black-dominated institutions, recruiting blacks to their cause, and insuring that they had blacks in leadership positions within their organizations. With that backdrop, black union supporters, including Ben Careathers, a veteran organizer who had agitated on behalf of the "Scottsboro Boys", Hosea Hudson, an Alabama steelworker later renowned as a civil rights pioneer, Henry Johnson, the college-educated son of a union man, George Kimbley, the first full-time black person on staff with SWOC, Leondies McDonald, an organizer in the steel and meatpacking industries who had the ability to recruit people of all races to the union, Jesse Reese, discussed above, and Eleanor Rye, a journalist for a prominent black newspaper and one of a handful of black women organizers, became important players in the 1937 Little Steel Strike.
Women in the trenches
The Little Steel Strike unfolded at a time when few married women held regular jobs outside the home. Nevertheless, women played a meaningful role in the conflict. They walked picket lines, led marches, and risked life and limb to press the union's cause. Three days before the Memorial Day Massacre, for instance, a woman was one of three people leading a column of some 700 to 1000 people to a Republic Steel plant in Chicago, Illinois. On the day of the Massacre, moreover, ten to fifteen percent of the marchers were women. Two of them, Tillie Brazell and Catherine Nelson, were shot in the legs by company agents. The very next month, at Republic's "Stop 5" gate in Youngstown, Ohio, on Women's Day, on the picket line, some fifteen women were demonstrating when a belligerent city police captain reproached them, as women, for doing so. Moments later, the same officer started a violent confrontation that ultimately turned deadly. At least seven women were injured, four of them by gunfire.
Afterward
With so many of the unionists on strike being killed, beaten and arrested, the protesters quickly lost morale and motivation to continue with the strike. Protesters knew that even on a day that seemed quiet, violence could explode at any minute over the most insignificant cause, and many could no longer risk their lives for the cause of the SWOC. As one protester put it, "They imported weapons, bombs, and what-have-you and had them all set though the plants with mounted machine guns, threatening, in case something would happen that they would kill thousands of us." As police and the National Guard began enforcing court orders to vacate, the weakened and demoralized picket lines began to crumble, and after five months, the "Little Steel" Strike finally came to an end.
However the failure of the strike was not solely from violence, well-organized public relations, or the failing morale of the strikers. Right before the Little Steel strike began, the economy had slipped back into a slight depression, causing less demand for steel. Fewer employees were needed to satisfy the decreased demand. The SWOC was not able to use lost profits as a bargaining tool. It was aggressive strike breaking tactics from Little Steel, lack of organization from SWOC, and demoralized unionists that made the strike end by the end of the summer of 1937 with the companies victorious.
Results
Immediately after the collapse of the strike, the Little Steel companies reopened all the mills affected. That sent a message that they had clearly won and were returning to business as usual. The Little Steel companies fired and blacklisted any worker associated with the strike. Youngstown striker Danny Thomas, a leader at one of Sheet & Tube’s plants there, recalled: "There was a group of us that was blackballed to the point that we couldn’t secure any positions or work anywhere. No one would give us a job, credit, or anything." It was through the blacklisting that the strikers were placed in an even worse situation, as many could not find work anywhere, and even if they did, they were soon fired when their employers were made aware of their position.
SWOC officials continued to work behind the scenes to unionize Little Steel. SWOC officials were eventually able to get in front of the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) and argued that the force used against strikers broke federal labor laws. The argument was that the fact that Little Steel companies used unlawful tactics to provoke protesters and that fired workers should be reinstated. Little Steel argued that any crime against their company was unforgivable and demanded for the blacklist to stay in place. The NLRB decided that those accused of crimes during the strike were free from the blacklist unless they were found guilty or were in the process of being tried.
World War II
For several years, the Little Steel conflict seemed to settle down, workers returned to work, but the SWOC was not satisfied with the results of all their effort and eventually took their case all the way to the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court then upheld the National Labor Relations Board’s ruling and told Little Steel to begin collective bargaining. By 1942, the economy had recovered due to the war. The demand for steel was higher than it had been in years, leading to Little Steel to begin hiring workers by the thousands, and SWOC saw its opportunity to pounce on the desperate Little Steel industry.
Rumor of another strike began to circulate, making Little Steel owners extremely nervous because of the high government pressure to maintain production for the war effort and because of the risk of lost profits and lost contracts due to slowdowns. The National War Labor Board attempted to persuade Little Steel to accept the terms of unionization. Little Steel management surrendered instantly. Republic Steel was even forced to pay twenty million dollars' worth of back pay to those blacklisted in 1937. At last, Little Steel became unionized.
See also
Strikes in the United States in the 1930s
List of worker deaths in United States labor disputes
Isaiah Sol Dorfman
Jesse Reese
References
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab
White, Ahmed (2016). The Last Great Strike: Little Steel, the CIO, and the Struggle for Labor Rights in New Deal America. University of California Press. pp. 1-3 (description), 14 (co-opting), 15 (anti-labor stances), 20-21 (lockouts), 46 (Open Shop Era), 89-91 (conditions, unionism), 95-96 (campaign), 101-102 (collective bargaining), 119–129 (from stalemate to walkout), 130-146 (Memorial Day), 149-150 (struggle), 240 (failure). ISBN 9780520961012.
^ a b Blake, Benjamin. "Steelpage2content." Steelpage2content. Western Reserve Historical Society, Web
^ "Pay Rises in Steel Go to 38,900 More." New York Times 13 Mar. 1937: 1. Print.
^ Dennis, Michael. "Building toward Rebellion." Chicago and the Little Steel Strike. Nova Scotia: Acadia University, 2012. 171. Print.
^ Roseberry-Polier, Alison. United States steelworkers strike for a contract and union recognition, 1937. N.p., 13 Feb. 2011. Web. 31 May 2015. <http://nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu/content/united-states-steelworkers-strike-contract-and-union-recognition-1937>.
^ a b Little Steel Strike Of 1937. N.p., 23 May 2013. Web. 31 May 2015. http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Little_Steel_Strike_of_1937?rec=513
^ Dennis, Michael. "Building toward Rebellion." Chicago and the Little Steel Strike. Nova Scotia: Acadia University, 2012. 179. Print.
^ Blake, Benjamin. "Steelpage2content." Steelpage2content. Western Reserve Historical Society, Web.
^ a b c d
White, Ahmed A. "The Drive to Organize Steel". The 'Little Steel' Strike of 1937: Class Violence, Law, and the End of the New Deal: 21–22, 28. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ Ahmed White, THE LAST GREAT STRIKE: Little Steel, the CIO, and the Struggle for Labor Rights in New Deal America, p. 1, 2, 96, 135, 139 (University of California Press 2016)
^ Ahmed White, THE LAST GREAT STRIKE: Little Steel, the CIO, and the Struggle for Labor Rights in New Deal America, p. 90, 96, 98 (University of California Press 2016)
^ Ahmed White, THE LAST GREAT STRIKE: Little Steel, the CIO, and the Struggle for Labor Rights in New Deal America, p. 239 (University of California Press 2016)
^ Ahmed White, THE LAST GREAT STRIKE: Little Steel, the CIO, and the Struggle for Labor Rights in New Deal America, p. 133 (University of California Press 2016)
^ Ahmed White, THE LAST GREAT STRIKE: Little Steel, the CIO, and the Struggle for Labor Rights in New Deal America, p. 134 (University of California Press 2016)
^ Ahmed White, THE LAST GREAT STRIKE: Little Steel, the CIO, and the Struggle for Labor Rights in New Deal America, p. 136-37 (University of California Press 2016)
^ Ahmed White, THE LAST GREAT STRIKE: Little Steel, the CIO, and the Struggle for Labor Rights in New Deal America, p. 155 (University of California Press 2016)
^ Ahmed White, THE LAST GREAT STRIKE: Little Steel, the CIO, and the Struggle for Labor Rights in New Deal America, p. 19 (University of California Press 2016)
^ White, Ahmed A. "THE DRIVE TO ORGANIZE STEEL." The "Little Steel" Strike of 1937: Class Violence, Law, and the End of the New Deal. Page 29. Selected Works. Web.
^ a b
Leab, Daniel J. (1967). "The Memorial Day Massacre". Midcontinent American Studies Journal, 2nd ed. Vol. 8: 14, 15–16. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
Sources and further reading
Brooks, Robert R. R. As steel goes ... Unionism in a basic industry (Yale UP, 1940) online
Baughman, James L. (1978). "Classes and Company Towns: Legends of the 1937 Little Steel Strike". Ohio History: 175–192.
Clark, Paul F. et al. eds. Forging a Union of Steel: Philip Murray, SWOC, and the United Steel Workers (ILR Press, 1987).
Cook, Philip L. "Tom M. Girdler and the Labor Policies of Republic Steel Corporation." Social Science (1967): 21-30 online
Dennis, Michael (2012). "Chicago and the Little Steel Strike". Labor History. 53 (2): 167–204. doi:10.1080/0023656X.2012.679394. S2CID 145394831.
Leab, Daniel J. "The Memorial Day Massacre." Midcontinent American Studies Journal 8.2 (1967): 3-17. online
McPherson, Donald S. (1972). "The 'Little Steel' Strike of 1937 in Johnstown, Pennsylvania". Pennsylvania History: 219–238.
White, Ahmed (2016). The Last Great Strike: Little Steel, the CIO, and the Struggle for Labor Rights in New Deal America. University of California Press.
External links
"Little Steel Strike Of 1937". Ohio History Central. 23 May 2013. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
"The Eyes of the World Were Watching: the Newton Steel Strike". Monroe County Labor History Museum. Retrieved 1 June 2015.
Americans in Depression and War. U.S. Department Of Labor. Retrieved 31 May 2015.
Eduardo F. Candeo. "Little Steel Strike". Encyclopedia of the Great Depression.
Grossman, Ron (May 2012). "The Republic Steel strike of 1937". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 31 May 2015.
Alcorn, William (20 May 2012). "The Strike That Changed The Rules". The Vindicator. Retrieved 31 May 2015.
"Home". Encyclopedia of Cleveland History. Retrieved 31 May 2015.
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James Laughlin
Bernard Lauth
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Facilities
Trammell Crow Center
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[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Photograph_titled_%22The_Chicago_Memorial_Day_Incident%22_-_NARA_-_306197.jpg"},{"link_name":"1937 Memorial Day massacre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1937_Memorial_Day_massacre"},{"link_name":"Republic Steel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_Steel"},{"link_name":"labor strike","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labor_strike"},{"link_name":"Congress of Industrial Organizations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congress_of_Industrial_Organizations"},{"link_name":"Steel Workers Organizing Committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steel_Workers_Organizing_Committee"},{"link_name":"Republic Steel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_Steel"},{"link_name":"Inland Steel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inland_Steel"},{"link_name":"Youngstown Sheet and Tube Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youngstown_Sheet_and_Tube_Company"},{"link_name":"United States Steel Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Steel_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ahmed-1"},{"link_name":"Bethlehem Steel Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethlehem_Steel"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ahmed-1"},{"link_name":"Great Depression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Depression"},{"link_name":"Steel Workers Organizing Committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steel_Workers_Organizing_Committee"},{"link_name":"sit-ins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sit-in"},{"link_name":"picket lines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picketing"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ahmed-1"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"}],"text":"1937 Memorial Day massacre at the Republic Steel Company, Chicago (May 30, 1937)The Little Steel strike was a 1937 labor strike by the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) and its branch the Steel Workers Organizing Committee (SWOC), against a number of smaller steel producing companies, principally Republic Steel, Inland Steel, and Youngstown Sheet and Tube Company. The strike affected a total of thirty different mills belonging to the three companies, which employed 80,000 workers. The strike, which was one of the most violent labor disputes of the 1930s, ended without the strikers achieving their principal goal, recognition by the companies of the union as the bargaining agent for the workers.On March 13, 1937, the United States Steel Corporation (US Steel) signed a historic collective bargaining agreement with SWOC.[1] The agreement provided for a standard pay scale, an 8-hour work day, and time and a half for overtime. Although US Steel (\"Big Steel\") signed the deal, there were smaller companies that refused to sign. That is why the strike is known as the \"Little Steel\" strike: US Steel Corporation was so massive that it gave rise to the moniker \"Little Steel\" for its four smaller competitors, Republic Steel Corporation, Bethlehem Steel Corporation, Youngstown Sheet & Tube Company, and Inland Steel Company, each ranked among the hundred largest firms in America.[1]The strike did not start immediately. In fact, there was an expectation that Little Steel would follow Big Steel's lead and sign a deal with SWOC. On March 30, 1937, SWOC proposed an agreement similar to the one with US Steel to Little Steel. The proposal sought an eight-hour work day, a forty-hour work week, overtime pay, a $5-per-day minimum wage, paid vacations, health and safety standards, seniority, and procedures for resolving grievances. Rather than sign, Little Steel representatives met, debated, dragged their feet, sent spies to infiltrate SWOC, and prepared for actual battle. The companies bought poison gas and other weapons, hired private police, donated weapons to official law enforcement, encouraged law enforcement to hire more deputies, stocked their plants with food and bedding, installed search lights and barbed wire, and fired hundreds of union workers.The Little Steel Strike started on May 26, 1937, when the US economy was just starting to recover from the Great Depression. Steel workers, represented by the CIO affiliated Steel Workers Organizing Committee (SWOC) participated in protests ranging from sit-ins to picket lines. Within days of SWOC's authorization of the strike, 67,000 workers were off the job and the scattered violence that began to erupt was a harbinger of more dire things to come.[1]The strike is characterized as one of the most violent strikes of the 1930s, with thousands of strikers arrested, three hundred injured and eighteen dead. The Little Steel companies eventually defeated the strike, which lasted just over five months time. However, groundwork for the unionization of the Little Steel industry was set and the goal to unionize Little Steel occurred five years later, in 1942, as World War II began to ramp up.","title":"Little Steel strike"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_US_steel_strikes"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_US_steel_strikes"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_US_steel_strikes"},{"link_name":"Homestead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homestead_strike"},{"link_name":"U.S. Steel recognition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Steel_recognition_strike_of_1901"},{"link_name":"Pressed Steel Car","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressed_Steel_Car_strike_of_1909"},{"link_name":"Great Steel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1919_General_Steel_Strike"},{"link_name":"Little Steel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Memorial Day massacre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1937_Memorial_Day_massacre"},{"link_name":"Nationwide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1946_US_Steel_Strike"},{"link_name":"Nationwide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1952_steel_strike"},{"link_name":"Nationwide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steel_strike_of_1959"},{"link_name":"USX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1986_USX_steel_strike"},{"link_name":"Allegheny Technologies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Allegheny_Technologies_strike"},{"link_name":"sit down strikes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sit_down_strikes"},{"link_name":"US Steel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Steel"},{"link_name":"Myron C. Taylor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myron_C._Taylor"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceA-2"},{"link_name":"Congress of Industrial Organizations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congress_of_Industrial_Organizations"},{"link_name":"John L. Lewis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_L._Lewis"},{"link_name":"Steel Workers Organizing Committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steel_Workers_Organizing_Committee"},{"link_name":"domino effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domino_effect"},{"link_name":"Jones and Laughlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jones_and_Laughlin"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ahmed-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Republic Steel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_Steel"},{"link_name":"Youngstown Sheet and Tube Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youngstown_Sheet_and_Tube_Company"},{"link_name":"Inland Steel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inland_Steel"}],"text":"vteSteel strikes in the US\n1800s–1920s\nHomestead 1892\nU.S. Steel recognition 1901\nPressed Steel Car 1909\nGreat Steel 1919\n1930s–1970s\nLittle Steel (Memorial Day massacre) 1937\nNationwide 1946\nNationwide 1952\nNationwide 1959\n1980s–2020s\nUSX 1986\nAllegheny Technologies 2021Early in 1937 the large American steel companies (\"big steel\") were facing union pressure. The success of several sit down strikes in the automobile industry and the rising strength of unions made US Steel chairman Myron C. Taylor very hesitant to confront the unions.[2] The pressure from other union successes throughout the industry and also the persistent work of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) made Taylor decide to agree with CIO president John L. Lewis to recognize the newly created branch of the CIO, the Steel Workers Organizing Committee (SWOC), as the sole agent for his company on March 2, 1937. By signing the union contract, Taylor started a domino effect, and other steel companies began signing union contracts with very little fight, many just at the slightest rumor of a strike. Several steel companies, who held very strong anti-union, anti-labor stances, such as Jones and Laughlin,[1] signed union contracts following US Steel, sending a message through the industry, and giving SWOC legitimacy. The contracts had greater benefits than simply turning the mills into closed shops. Workers also received pay raises, forty-hour workweeks, and one-week vacations, along with three guaranteed holidays.[3] The achievements gave SWOC and the CIO the confidence to expand into the smaller-market Little Steel Industry.After Jones & Laughlin signed union contracts, signing with the smaller steel producers (\"little steel\") became the next goal of the CIO. The three main targets were decided to be Republic Steel, Youngstown Sheet and Tube Company, and Inland Steel Corporation, which owned mills across the Midwest and Northeast United States, with close to thirty mills between the three of them. The three companies became the focus of the CIO from status that they held within the Little Steel industry, like that of US Steel in the Big Steel industry, powerhouses of their industry. After big steel unionized, Lewis immediately tried to convince these little steel companies to sign SWOC union contracts similar to those signed by US Steel, just weeks earlier. The hope was to hit the powerhouses early in the movement to send a message throughout the industry for negotiations with smaller companies. However, the three companies refused the contracts without hesitation, as they had withstood unionization before, and refused to sign with SWOC.","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:USS.svg"},{"link_name":"United States Steel Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Steel_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ahmed-1"},{"link_name":"Chicago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ahmed-1"},{"link_name":"John L. Lewis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_L._Lewis"}],"text":"United States Steel Corporation.After the contracts were rejected, CIO and SWOC immediately began planning to organize the smaller steel companies. The SWOC had two major ideas behind their organizing drive: \"overcoming, by successfully organizing all groups of workers, the racial and ethnic conflicts that had crippled earlier efforts to organize steel workers; and infiltrating and co-opting the company unions.\"[1] The CIO immediately began placing union representatives within the mills of the companies. The representatives were often met with harassment and beatings by spies placed within the union by the companies to prevent unionization. As word of unionization spread, the SWOC was able to quick gain the quick support of many black steel workers mainly in the Chicago mills from their openness and willingness to accept black steel workers into the union.[4] It was due to the black support that the SWOC was able to gain momentum so quickly, allowing whole mills to be involved in the movement. As May approached, it was clear that the companies were preparing for a strike. Republic Steel fired many union supporters and conducted lockouts at several other locations as a way weaken union support.[1]It was then that the CIO and SWOC decided they must take action. A deadline of May 26, 1937 was given to the steel companies to sign the union contracts or endure a strike. After that day passed with no response from Little Steel, John L. Lewis made an official strike call and workers walked away from their positions just hours after the deadline, shutting down almost every mill of the three largest Little Steel companies.","title":"Organization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceA-2"}],"text":"Within hours of the call, there was already a quicker start than most people had predicted. Union representatives were able to lay down enough groundwork and spread the word well enough for a seamless beginning to the strike across a total of eight states. Workers began picketing, marching, and holding rallies outside their respective mills trying to gain the support of those workers not already involved with the union, along with their local communities to add pressure on the companies by adding supporters. The majority of the mills were empty after the massive walkout on May 26 and unable to continue production. However, two Republic Steel mills in Youngstown, Ohio and the Southside of Chicago remained open, using around two hundred to three hundred workers who disapproved of the strike to keep the mills running.[2] SWOC officials and striking steel workers targeted the mill in South Chicago with massive numbers of picketers and rallies, hoping to bring national attention and make keeping the mill open a nightmare for Republic Steel.","title":"Early phase"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ohiohistorycentral.org-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ohiohistorycentral.org-6"}],"text":"At the beginning of the strike, more than 50% of the striking employees were from Republic Steel.[5] Republic Steel was headquartered in Cleveland and was among the top five steel producers in the country.[6] By 1942 Republic Steel housed 9,000[6] workers which made it one of the top employers in the city of Cleveland.","title":"Steelworkers' resistance"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ahmed-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ahmed-1"},{"link_name":"Jesse Reese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesse_Reese"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ahmed-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ahmed-1"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ahmed-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ahmed-1"},{"link_name":"Memorial Day massacre of 1937","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memorial_Day_massacre_of_1937"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ahmed-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ahmed-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ahmed-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ahmed-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ahmed-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ahmed-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ahmed-1"},{"link_name":"marijuana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marijuana"},{"link_name":"communists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Drive-9"},{"link_name":"National Guard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Guard_of_the_United_States"}],"sub_title":"Memorial Day massacre of 1937","text":"The Republic Steel South Chicago mill was home to largest arsenal and police force involved in the labor dispute. Police maintained a line made up of 150 police officers in front of the gate to keep strikers at a distance safe enough for the mill to still be productive and running smoothly. The South Chicago mill was one of two steel mills still open.On Memorial Day 1937, the third day of the Little Steel Strike, more than 1500 SWOC members and their families were gathered at a park just a few blocks from the front gate of the mill for a march planned for the day. The atmosphere was festive and picnic-like.[1] There were a large number of women and children in the group.[1] As Steelworker Jesse Reese of Youngstown Sheet and Tube recalled, \"Republic Steel was scabbing. So we went to South Chicago with truckloads of people, working-class people.\"[7] Republic had long been anticipating a strike and fortified the factory. There were loyal employees stationed there around the clock. There was a stockpile of munitions, including poison gas. That Memorial Day, there were approximately 250 city police and twenty to thirty private police forming a defensive perimeter around the plant. They were armed with revolvers, nightsticks, blackjacks, and hatchet handles.[1]Because of the large number of protesters, an additional two hundred police officers were called in to protect the mill by cutting the crowd off a block away from the mill by creating a line cutting access to the gate. With no access to the plant, more and more angry protesters began crowding in front of the line of officers, arguing to let them pass and continue as they meant no harm and wished to continue their planned march. As the protesters and police argued, the conversations became heated, and violence followed. Some reported that protesters in the back of the crowd began throwing sticks and stones and whatever else they could get their hands on, hitting several officers.[1] The officers panicked and opened fire on the crowd. Soon ten protesters lay dead and 100 more with gunshot wounds. One steelworker later recounted, \"I was in the war and I fought in France, but I never heard so many bullets as those coppers fired. Women and children were screaming all over the place. They were like a herd of cattle panic stricken. I ran till they got me. I saw one woman shot down and a policeman dragged her away.\"[8] Scores of club-wielding police were beating people, men and women, black as well as white, and firing gas weapons and firearms, striking down dozens.[1] Jesse Reese, a black man, observed: \"I'd never seen the police beat women, not white women\".[1] The incident later became known as the Memorial Day massacre of 1937.Of the twenty-three people killed or seriously injured in the Memorial Day Massacre identifiable as steel workers, eighteen were married and eight were at least forty years old.[1] Middle-aged family men were not the only victims of the Memorial Day Massacre: an eleven-year-old boy, Nicholas Leverich (or Leurich), was hit in the ankle, a baby was wounded in the arm, and as discussed below, two women were shot in the legs.[1] All in all, four demonstrators died of gunshot wounds on or near the scene; six others died over the next three weeks, also of gunshot wounds.[1] Another thirty demonstrators were shot and sixty were otherwise injured, for a total of around one hundred significant casualties, of which around ten involved permanent disability.[1] Thirty-five police were injured, but none of their injuries, besides a broken arm, was serious.[1]A notable example of police misbehavior was the treatment of pro-union victims of the Massacre. Although the police brought in ambulances for their men, they did little to aid grievously wounded demonstrators and did not even bother to use their stretchers to carry the injured.[1] One shooting victim, Earl Handley, probably died when the police removed him from a union car, marked with a red cross, which was trying to take him to a hospital, slipped a tourniquet that was stopping him from bleeding to death, and piled him, blood pouring from a severed artery in his thigh, with fifteen other people into a patrol wagon.[1]After the incident, Little Steel's public relation team sent out multiple reports justifying the actions of the Chicago police force. Reports began coming in claiming that the protesters were armed and planned to raid the mill and that the protesters were led by marijuana-smoking communists.[9]With both local police forces and the National Guard on the side of Little Steel, the situation deteriorated for the strikers after the events of the Memorial Day massacre. The events of the massacre turned what seemed to be a peaceful strike of picketing and the occasional rally march into five months of arrests, beatings and several more deaths across the Midwest and Northeast as more conflicts emerged between Little Steel (mostly Republic Steel) and the SWOC protesters.","title":"Steelworkers' resistance"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Youngstown, Ohio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youngstown,_Ohio"},{"link_name":"Women's day massacre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%27s_day_massacre"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Drive-9"},{"link_name":"Massillon, Ohio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massillon,_Ohio"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Drive-9"},{"link_name":"Inland Steel Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inland_Steel_Company"}],"sub_title":"Other confrontations","text":"The Republic Steel mill in Youngstown, Ohio, one of the two mills to remain open, had a conflict just less than a month later. On June 19, 300 officers were working at the mill, and a large number of picketers were outside of mill property. After a woman made a comment that embarrassed one of the officers on patrol duty about how to do his job correctly, things escalated quickly, leading to gas canisters to be fired directly into the crowd of protesters. A massive riot then ensued, the \"Women's day massacre\", leading to a gunfight between the heavily armed officers and the protesters that lasted well into the night leaving dozens injured and two dead. Many were arrested after the event, many of which were through home raids of those who were prominent in the strike in the area.[9]Another example of strike violence was an event that occurred on July 11 in Massillon, Ohio, when a company agent somehow came into the control of the local police force and rallied to attack the local union headquarters. The police force completely destroyed the building, two unionists were killed, and one hundred and sixty five were brutally arrested, some still in their pajamas and held for several days without cause.[9]Ten days sooner, there was a strike at Inland Steel Company as well on the east side of Chicago. The strike was not as violent but ended just as abruptly.In Monroe, at the Newton Steel Plant, the SWOC decided to organize a strike that would hopefully shut down the plant. The strike worked for a time. With almost all of the workers on strike coming from one of the main departments of the plant, that made it impossible for the other areas of the factory to operate. In addition, workers not on strike refused to cross the picket lines.Victims of violence were labeled as troublemakers, communists, or people with disregard for the law. Officers of the companies claimed that force was needed to protect the plants and the nonstriking workers. Several governors tried to quell the violence by calling in the National Guard, which helped the employers. With the job of preventing violence, strict regulations were placed on the picketers, such as limiting the number of picketers to ten. Strikers lost hope for success, and the strike ended quickly.","title":"Steelworkers' resistance"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Drive-9"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ahmed-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ahmed-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ahmed-1"},{"link_name":"Scottsboro Boys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottsboro_Boys"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ahmed-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ahmed-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ahmed-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ahmed-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ahmed-1"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"sub_title":"Black unionists","text":"At the time of the Little Steel Strike, about ten percent of steelworkers were black.[9] Nearly three quarters of them were common laborers, who performed the roughest work in the hottest, dirtiest, and most dangerous departments.[1] That meant that they bore the brunt of capricious workplace policies. Not surprisingly, then, they found the idea of rationalizing employment policies by unionism attractive.[1] That was true despite their justifiable skepticism of unionism based on the unions' history of discrimination against and outright exclusion of blacks. Ultimately, blacks and whites alike recognized that an integrated union was an imperative, black steelworkers deserved to be part of the union, and an industrial union that excluded them did not warrant the name.[1] Many unions made a point of reaching out to black-dominated institutions, recruiting blacks to their cause, and insuring that they had blacks in leadership positions within their organizations. With that backdrop, black union supporters, including Ben Careathers, a veteran organizer who had agitated on behalf of the \"Scottsboro Boys\",[1] Hosea Hudson, an Alabama steelworker later renowned as a civil rights pioneer,[1] Henry Johnson, the college-educated son of a union man,[1] George Kimbley, the first full-time black person on staff with SWOC,[1] Leondies McDonald, an organizer in the steel and meatpacking industries who had the ability to recruit people of all races to the union,[1] Jesse Reese,[10] discussed above, and Eleanor Rye, a journalist for a prominent black newspaper and one of a handful of black women organizers,[11] became important players in the 1937 Little Steel Strike.","title":"Steelworkers' resistance"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"sub_title":"Women in the trenches","text":"The Little Steel Strike unfolded at a time when few married women held regular jobs outside the home.[12] Nevertheless, women played a meaningful role in the conflict. They walked picket lines, led marches, and risked life and limb to press the union's cause. Three days before the Memorial Day Massacre, for instance, a woman was one of three people leading a column of some 700 to 1000 people to a Republic Steel plant in Chicago, Illinois.[13] On the day of the Massacre, moreover, ten to fifteen percent of the marchers were women.[14] Two of them, Tillie Brazell and Catherine Nelson, were shot in the legs by company agents.[15] The very next month, at Republic's \"Stop 5\" gate in Youngstown, Ohio, on Women's Day, on the picket line, some fifteen women were demonstrating when a belligerent city police captain reproached them, as women, for doing so.[16] Moments later, the same officer started a violent confrontation that ultimately turned deadly. At least seven women were injured, four of them by gunfire.[17]","title":"Steelworkers' resistance"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"text":"With so many of the unionists on strike being killed, beaten and arrested, the protesters quickly lost morale and motivation to continue with the strike. Protesters knew that even on a day that seemed quiet, violence could explode at any minute over the most insignificant cause, and many could no longer risk their lives for the cause of the SWOC. As one protester put it, \"They imported weapons, bombs, and what-have-you and had them all set though the plants with mounted machine guns, threatening, in case something would happen that they would kill thousands of us.\"[18] As police and the National Guard began enforcing court orders to vacate, the weakened and demoralized picket lines began to crumble, and after five months, the \"Little Steel\" Strike finally came to an end.However the failure of the strike was not solely from violence, well-organized public relations, or the failing morale of the strikers. Right before the Little Steel strike began, the economy had slipped back into a slight depression, causing less demand for steel. Fewer employees were needed to satisfy the decreased demand. The SWOC was not able to use lost profits as a bargaining tool. It was aggressive strike breaking tactics from Little Steel, lack of organization from SWOC, and demoralized unionists that made the strike end by the end of the summer of 1937 with the companies victorious.","title":"Afterward"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ahmed-1"},{"link_name":"National Labor Relations Board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Board"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Leab-19"}],"text":"Immediately after the collapse of the strike, the Little Steel companies reopened all the mills affected. That sent a message that they had clearly won and were returning to business as usual. The Little Steel companies fired and blacklisted any worker associated with the strike. Youngstown striker Danny Thomas, a leader at one of Sheet & Tube’s plants there, recalled: \"There was a group of us that was blackballed to the point that we couldn’t secure any positions or work anywhere. No one would give us a job, credit, or anything.\"[1] It was through the blacklisting that the strikers were placed in an even worse situation, as many could not find work anywhere, and even if they did, they were soon fired when their employers were made aware of their position.SWOC officials continued to work behind the scenes to unionize Little Steel. SWOC officials were eventually able to get in front of the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) and argued that the force used against strikers broke federal labor laws. The argument was that the fact that Little Steel companies used unlawful tactics to provoke protesters and that fired workers should be reinstated. Little Steel argued that any crime against their company was unforgivable and demanded for the blacklist to stay in place. The NLRB decided that those accused of crimes during the strike were free from the blacklist unless they were found guilty or were in the process of being tried.[19]","title":"Results"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"National Labor Relations Board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Board"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Leab-19"},{"link_name":"National War Labor Board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_War_Labor_Board_(1942%E2%80%931945)"}],"text":"For several years, the Little Steel conflict seemed to settle down, workers returned to work, but the SWOC was not satisfied with the results of all their effort and eventually took their case all the way to the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court then upheld the National Labor Relations Board’s ruling and told Little Steel to begin collective bargaining.[19] By 1942, the economy had recovered due to the war. The demand for steel was higher than it had been in years, leading to Little Steel to begin hiring workers by the thousands, and SWOC saw its opportunity to pounce on the desperate Little Steel industry.Rumor of another strike began to circulate, making Little Steel owners extremely nervous because of the high government pressure to maintain production for the war effort and because of the risk of lost profits and lost contracts due to slowdowns. The National War Labor Board attempted to persuade Little Steel to accept the terms of unionization. Little Steel management surrendered instantly. Republic Steel was even forced to pay twenty million dollars' worth of back pay to those blacklisted in 1937. At last, Little Steel became unionized.","title":"World War II"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"online","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/assteelgoesunion0000broo"},{"link_name":"online","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/41885220"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1080/0023656X.2012.679394","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1080%2F0023656X.2012.679394"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"145394831","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145394831"},{"link_name":"online","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//journals.ku.edu/amerstud/article/download/2178/2137"},{"link_name":"The Last Great Strike: Little Steel, the CIO, and the Struggle for Labor Rights in New Deal America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/lastgreatstrikel0000whit_e2f9"}],"text":"Brooks, Robert R. R. As steel goes ... Unionism in a basic industry (Yale UP, 1940) onlineBaughman, James L. (1978). \"Classes and Company Towns: Legends of the 1937 Little Steel Strike\". Ohio History: 175–192.\nClark, Paul F. et al. eds. Forging a Union of Steel: Philip Murray, SWOC, and the United Steel Workers (ILR Press, 1987).\nCook, Philip L. \"Tom M. Girdler and the Labor Policies of Republic Steel Corporation.\" Social Science (1967): 21-30 online\nDennis, Michael (2012). \"Chicago and the Little Steel Strike\". Labor History. 53 (2): 167–204. doi:10.1080/0023656X.2012.679394. S2CID 145394831.\nLeab, Daniel J. \"The Memorial Day Massacre.\" Midcontinent American Studies Journal 8.2 (1967): 3-17. onlineMcPherson, Donald S. (1972). \"The 'Little Steel' Strike of 1937 in Johnstown, Pennsylvania\". Pennsylvania History: 219–238.\nWhite, Ahmed (2016). The Last Great Strike: Little Steel, the CIO, and the Struggle for Labor Rights in New Deal America. University of California Press.","title":"Sources and further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"1937 Memorial Day massacre at the Republic Steel Company, Chicago (May 30, 1937)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Photograph_titled_%22The_Chicago_Memorial_Day_Incident%22_-_NARA_-_306197.jpg/290px-Photograph_titled_%22The_Chicago_Memorial_Day_Incident%22_-_NARA_-_306197.jpg"},{"image_text":"United States Steel Corporation.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/USS.svg/220px-USS.svg.png"}]
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[{"title":"Strikes in the United States in the 1930s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strikes_in_the_United_States_in_the_1930s"},{"title":"List of worker deaths in United States labor disputes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_worker_deaths_in_United_States_labor_disputes"},{"title":"Isaiah Sol Dorfman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaiah_Sol_Dorfman"},{"title":"Jesse Reese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesse_Reese"}]
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[{"reference":"White, Ahmed (2016). The Last Great Strike: Little Steel, the CIO, and the Struggle for Labor Rights in New Deal America. University of California Press. pp. 1-3 (description), 14 (co-opting), 15 (anti-labor stances), 20-21 (lockouts), 46 (Open Shop Era), 89-91 (conditions, unionism), 95-96 (campaign), 101-102 (collective bargaining), 119–129 (from stalemate to walkout), 130-146 (Memorial Day), 149-150 (struggle), 240 (failure). ISBN 9780520961012.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmed_White","url_text":"White, Ahmed"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=96uSCgAAQBAJ","url_text":"The Last Great Strike: Little Steel, the CIO, and the Struggle for Labor Rights in New Deal America"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520961012","url_text":"9780520961012"}]},{"reference":"White, Ahmed A. \"The Drive to Organize Steel\". The 'Little Steel' Strike of 1937: Class Violence, Law, and the End of the New Deal: 21–22, 28.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Leab, Daniel J. (1967). \"The Memorial Day Massacre\". Midcontinent American Studies Journal, 2nd ed. Vol. 8: 14, 15–16.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_J._Leab","url_text":"Leab, Daniel J."}]},{"reference":"Baughman, James L. (1978). \"Classes and Company Towns: Legends of the 1937 Little Steel Strike\". Ohio History: 175–192.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Dennis, Michael (2012). \"Chicago and the Little Steel Strike\". Labor History. 53 (2): 167–204. doi:10.1080/0023656X.2012.679394. S2CID 145394831.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0023656X.2012.679394","url_text":"10.1080/0023656X.2012.679394"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145394831","url_text":"145394831"}]},{"reference":"McPherson, Donald S. (1972). \"The 'Little Steel' Strike of 1937 in Johnstown, Pennsylvania\". Pennsylvania History: 219–238.","urls":[]},{"reference":"White, Ahmed (2016). The Last Great Strike: Little Steel, the CIO, and the Struggle for Labor Rights in New Deal America. University of California Press.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/lastgreatstrikel0000whit_e2f9","url_text":"The Last Great Strike: Little Steel, the CIO, and the Struggle for Labor Rights in New Deal America"}]},{"reference":"\"Little Steel Strike Of 1937\". Ohio History Central. 23 May 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Little_Steel_Strike_of_1937?rec=513","url_text":"\"Little Steel Strike Of 1937\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Eyes of the World Were Watching: the Newton Steel Strike\". Monroe County Labor History Museum. Retrieved 1 June 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.monroelabor.org/eyes-world-were-watching-newton-steel-strike","url_text":"\"The Eyes of the World Were Watching: the Newton Steel Strike\""}]},{"reference":"Americans in Depression and War. U.S. Department Of Labor. Retrieved 31 May 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.dol.gov/dol/aboutdol/history/chapter5.htm","url_text":"Americans in Depression and War"}]},{"reference":"Eduardo F. Candeo. \"Little Steel Strike\". Encyclopedia of the Great Depression.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Grossman, Ron (May 2012). \"The Republic Steel strike of 1937\". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 31 May 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2012-05-27/site/ct-per-flash-republicsteel-0527-20120527_1_gun-shots-police-officers-strikers","url_text":"\"The Republic Steel strike of 1937\""}]},{"reference":"Alcorn, William (20 May 2012). \"The Strike That Changed The Rules\". The Vindicator. Retrieved 31 May 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.vindy.com/news/2012/may/20/by-william-k-alcorn-alcornvindycom","url_text":"\"The Strike That Changed The Rules\""}]},{"reference":"\"Home\". Encyclopedia of Cleveland History. Retrieved 31 May 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://ech.case.edu/","url_text":"\"Home\""}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=96uSCgAAQBAJ","external_links_name":"The Last Great Strike: Little Steel, the CIO, and the Struggle for Labor Rights in New Deal America"},{"Link":"http://nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu/content/united-states-steelworkers-strike-contract-and-union-recognition-1937","external_links_name":"http://nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu/content/united-states-steelworkers-strike-contract-and-union-recognition-1937"},{"Link":"http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Little_Steel_Strike_of_1937?rec=513","external_links_name":"http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Little_Steel_Strike_of_1937?rec=513"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/assteelgoesunion0000broo","external_links_name":"online"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/41885220","external_links_name":"online"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0023656X.2012.679394","external_links_name":"10.1080/0023656X.2012.679394"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145394831","external_links_name":"145394831"},{"Link":"https://journals.ku.edu/amerstud/article/download/2178/2137","external_links_name":"online"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/lastgreatstrikel0000whit_e2f9","external_links_name":"The Last Great Strike: Little Steel, the CIO, and the Struggle for Labor Rights in New Deal America"},{"Link":"http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Little_Steel_Strike_of_1937?rec=513","external_links_name":"\"Little Steel Strike Of 1937\""},{"Link":"http://www.monroelabor.org/eyes-world-were-watching-newton-steel-strike","external_links_name":"\"The Eyes of the World Were Watching: the Newton Steel Strike\""},{"Link":"http://www.dol.gov/dol/aboutdol/history/chapter5.htm","external_links_name":"Americans in Depression and War"},{"Link":"http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2012-05-27/site/ct-per-flash-republicsteel-0527-20120527_1_gun-shots-police-officers-strikers","external_links_name":"\"The Republic Steel strike of 1937\""},{"Link":"http://www.vindy.com/news/2012/may/20/by-william-k-alcorn-alcornvindycom","external_links_name":"\"The Strike That Changed The Rules\""},{"Link":"http://ech.case.edu/","external_links_name":"\"Home\""},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007549470205171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh98006629","external_links_name":"United States"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Godward
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Ernest Godward
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["1 Background","2 Inventions","3 Political career","4 Rockhaven","5 Murder attempt","6 Economiser","7 Demise","8 See also","9 References","10 External links","11 Bibliography"]
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British engineer
Ernest Robert Godward (7 April 1869 – 2 December 1936) was an English born inventor and engineer who lived in New Zealand, England, and the United States. He created the spiral hairpin and a type of carburettor called a petrol economizer, which increased engine performance and reduced fuel consumption.
Background
1882 Shand Mason and Co fire engine
Godward was born in Marylebone, London on 7 April 1869. He was the son of Henry Robert Godward, a fireman, and his wife, Sarah Ann Pattison.
When Godward was 12 he was sent to prep-school but ran away to sea reaching Japan where he worked on a cabling ship between Nagasaki and Vladivostok before he was returned home by the British Consul, Nicholas Hannen. On his return he was apprenticed to Shand, Mason and Co in London where he trained as a mechanic. Shand Mason were a firm of hydraulic engineers and steam powered fire engine manufacturers. Quitting Shand Mason he returned to the sea in 1884 as a ship's steward.
In 1886 Godward emigrated to New Zealand arriving at Port Chalmers aboard the 1310 ton Shaw, Savill & Albion Line sailing ship Nelson on 31 December. During his time in Dunedin he learned to play the banjo and formed a music group called the Star Variety Company. He worked in the cycle trade for Sam Stedman before shifting to Invercargill in 1893. There he became a partner in the Southland Cycle Works (later Godward and McKenzie) of Dee Street. Southland Cycle Works made Sparrowhawk cycles. On 28 January 1896 he married Marguerita Florence Celena Treweek and the couple had 10 children. Nine of their own plus a niece of Marguerita's.
Inventions
Leaving the Southland Cycle Works in 1900 Godward embarked on inventing and manufacturing a wide range of everyday objects. Included among these were a non-slip egg-beater, a new post-hole borer, a new type of hair curler, a burglar-proof window and a hedge trimmer made from bicycle parts. He founded the Godward Spiral Pin and New Inventions Co Ltd which was a listed company on the New Zealand stock exchange.
Major financial success came in 1901 with the invention of the spiral hairpin he had patented in 1899. Godward sold the American rights to the spiral hairpin for £20,000, which was a fortune at that time.
Political career
From 1903 to 1906 Godward served on the North Invercargill Borough Council, painted portraits and landscapes, played a variety of musical instruments, sang in local musical productions, and in 1908 was involved in Southland's first hot air ballooning. He was a skilled sportsman: cycling for the Invercargill Cycle Club, running, swimming and one of the founders of the Invercargill Amateur Swimming Club in 1903, rowing, and boxing. In 1909 Godward together with Robert Murie won a motor race from Invercargill to Dunedin and back. A few weeks later a second race was run, with Godward and Murie crashing avoiding a dray. The race drew criticism from the Police, Automobile Association, and local Councils.
Rockhaven
From 1905 to 1908 Godward built an impressive new house, Rockhaven at 397 Queens Drive, Invercargill. The house was designed by a relatively unknown architect, Peter Walker. The house is a significant example of Queen Anne style and carries a Category 2 Historic Place designation.
His wife lived in Rockhaven until 1946 when it was sold to Invercargill farmer Harold Smith. The Smith's owned the house until 1977. The house remains a private residence and the garage where Godward worked was still standing in 2013.
Murder attempt
In 1908 Godward was a witness in the Coldstream shooting case. Maud Buchanan was accused of attempting to shoot Vera McKay. The Buchanans had been looking after the McKays' property while the McKays were in America. After the McKays returned, the Buchanans continued to reside at the property for a short time before returning to their own home. While they were at the McKays', Mrs Buchanan had had a falling out with Mrs McKay over a conversation that Mrs McKay had repeated to someone. After the Buchanans returned to their own home they began to receive anonymous letters which Mrs Buchanan considered were being sent by the McKays. Mrs Buchanan approached Mr McKay requesting he stop the letters and when he said he did not know where they were coming from Mrs Buchanan became upset.
Later the same day the Buchanans and Godward were leaving the Buchanans' home, Coldstream, by car to attend a concert. On finding the exit gate closed Godward got down from the car and went to open it. While doing that he heard two shots which he initially thought were the car backfiring. Turning he saw Mrs Buchanan with a revolver pointing at Mrs McKay. She fired another shot, hitting Mrs McKay in the arm, and then two more at Mr McKay before he overpowered her.
The later court case found that Mrs Buchanan did not intend to kill or injure, but merely to stop the anonymous letters by scaring the McKays. Mrs Buchanan was found not guilty.
Economiser
Godward set up his own cycle business in 1908 and after a short time began importing Reo motor cars. He turned his attention to improving these and developed a carburettor in 1912 called the Eclipse Petrol Economiser. In 1913 he took his invention to London where he established the Godward Carburettor Company at Kingston upon Thames and patented the device in 1914. This venture proved less successful than he had hoped, so in 1916 Godward opened an office in New York, basing himself there.
In 1926 he developed an improved version of the carburettor named the Godward Vaporiser. The Vaporiser enabled motor vehicles to use fuel oil instead of petrol. The Mitten Company of Philadelphia, one of the largest public transport operators in the United States, adopted the invention. Some 580 buses and 3000 taxis were fitted with the vaporiser. It was said to increase horsepower by 15%.
The United States Army Transport section at Camp Holabird also successfully trialed the Vaporiser. In all Goddard created 72 different carburetors.
Demise
Godward lost heavily financially in the stock market crash of 1929. He did make a partial recovery from these losses and during his later years in the United States was recognised as one of the world's leading authorities on internal combustion engines. Godward died of a heart attack on 2 December 1936 on board the SS Mongolia while returning home to Invercargill. He had won a skipping contest on board the day before.
According to his biography there was speculation that Godward had another family in the United States. The family related a story of an American woman arriving at Rockhaven some time after Godward's death to collect a Ming vase she said was promised her. She was turned away.
See also
History of the internal combustion engine
References
^ a b c d e f g h Ernest Robert Godward, Te Ara - Encyclopedia of New Zealand, retrieved 28 September 2016
^ a b c d e f g h i j Truly a man of many talents, Allison Rudd, Otago Daily Times, 17 August 2013, retrieved 29 September 2016
^ Spiral hairpin, What the British Invented: From the Great to the Downright Bonkers, Gilly Pickup, Amberley Publishing Limited, 15 November 2015
^ Omnium Gatherum, Otago Daily Times, Issue 11521, 6 September 1899, page 6
^ Southland Times, Issue 18071, 14 February 1903, page 2
^ "Search the List | Rockhaven | Heritage New Zealand". www.heritage.org.nz. Retrieved 11 April 2018.
^ Coldstream Shooting Case, Southland Times, Issue 12197, 22 December 1908, page 4
^ Supreme Court, Southland Times, Issue 14047, 4 March 1909, page 2
^ Fuel oil for cars, The Bismarck Tribune, Bismarck, North Dakota, Saturday, April 27, 1929 - Page 6, retrieved 30 September 2016
^ 60-miles-an-hour tanks, Evening Post, Volume CVIII, Issue 88, 10 October 1929
^ Oil vapour as fuel, Evening Post, Volume CVII, Issue 61, 15 March 1929
^ Death at Sea, Evening Post, Volume CXXII, Issue 138, 8 December 1936
External links
The New Zealand Edge - Ernest Godward Archived 12 July 2009 at the Wayback Machine
Bibliography
Walker, S (2013). Ernest R Godward Inventor. River Press, Dunedin.
Walker, S (1998). Entry on Ernest Godward, Southern People, edited by Jane Thomson. Longacre Press.
Strachan, S. R. "Godward, Ernest Robert 1869–1936". Dictionary of New Zealand Biography. Ministry for Culture and Heritage. Retrieved 10 April 2011.
Riley, B (1995). Kiwi Ingenuity: A Book of New Zealand Ideas and Inventions. AIT Press, Auckland
Authority control databases International
FAST
ISNI
VIAF
WorldCat
National
United States
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[{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Ernest Robert Godward (7 April 1869 – 2 December 1936) was an English born inventor and engineer who lived in New Zealand, England, and the United States. He created the spiral hairpin and a type of carburettor called a petrol economizer, which increased engine performance and reduced fuel consumption.","title":"Ernest Godward"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1882_Horse-drawn_Shand,_Mason_%26_Co._steam_fire_engine_pic3.JPG"},{"link_name":"Marylebone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marylebone"},{"link_name":"London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TeAra-1"},{"link_name":"prep-school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preparatory_school_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"cabling ship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cable_layer"},{"link_name":"Nagasaki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagasaki"},{"link_name":"Vladivostok","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladivostok"},{"link_name":"Nicholas Hannen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_John_Hannen"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODT-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Shand, Mason and Co","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shand_Mason"},{"link_name":"hydraulic engineers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic_engineer"},{"link_name":"steam powered fire engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_apparatus"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TeAra-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODT-2"},{"link_name":"New Zealand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand"},{"link_name":"Port Chalmers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_Chalmers"},{"link_name":"Shaw, Savill & Albion Line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaw,_Savill_%26_Albion_Line"},{"link_name":"Dunedin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunedin"},{"link_name":"banjo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banjo"},{"link_name":"Invercargill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invercargill"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TeAra-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODT-2"}],"text":"1882 Shand Mason and Co fire engineGodward was born in Marylebone, London on 7 April 1869. He was the son of Henry Robert Godward, a fireman, and his wife, Sarah Ann Pattison.[1]When Godward was 12 he was sent to prep-school but ran away to sea reaching Japan where he worked on a cabling ship between Nagasaki and Vladivostok before he was returned home by the British Consul, Nicholas Hannen.[2][3] On his return he was apprenticed to Shand, Mason and Co in London where he trained as a mechanic. Shand Mason were a firm of hydraulic engineers and steam powered fire engine manufacturers. Quitting Shand Mason he returned to the sea in 1884 as a ship's steward.[1][2]In 1886 Godward emigrated to New Zealand arriving at Port Chalmers aboard the 1310 ton Shaw, Savill & Albion Line sailing ship Nelson on 31 December. During his time in Dunedin he learned to play the banjo and formed a music group called the Star Variety Company. He worked in the cycle trade for Sam Stedman before shifting to Invercargill in 1893. There he became a partner in the Southland Cycle Works (later Godward and McKenzie) of Dee Street. Southland Cycle Works made Sparrowhawk cycles. On 28 January 1896 he married Marguerita Florence Celena Treweek and the couple had 10 children. Nine of their own plus a niece of Marguerita's.[1][2]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"burglar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burglar"},{"link_name":"hedge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedge_(barrier)"},{"link_name":"bicycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicycle"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODT-2"},{"link_name":"spiral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiral"},{"link_name":"hairpin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hairpin_(fashion)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"spiral hairpin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiral_hairpin"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TeAra-1"}],"text":"Leaving the Southland Cycle Works in 1900 Godward embarked on inventing and manufacturing a wide range of everyday objects. Included among these were a non-slip egg-beater, a new post-hole borer, a new type of hair curler, a burglar-proof window and a hedge trimmer made from bicycle parts. He founded the Godward Spiral Pin and New Inventions Co Ltd which was a listed company on the New Zealand stock exchange.[2]Major financial success came in 1901 with the invention of the spiral hairpin he had patented in 1899.[4] Godward sold the American rights to the spiral hairpin for £20,000, which was a fortune at that time.[1]","title":"Inventions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"North Invercargill Borough Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=North_Invercargill_Borough_Council&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"portraits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portrait"},{"link_name":"landscapes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landscape_painting"},{"link_name":"musical instruments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_instrument"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TeAra-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODT-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODT-2"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"From 1903 to 1906 Godward served on the North Invercargill Borough Council, painted portraits and landscapes, played a variety of musical instruments, sang in local musical productions, and in 1908 was involved in Southland's first hot air ballooning. He was a skilled sportsman: cycling for the Invercargill Cycle Club, running, swimming and one of the founders of the Invercargill Amateur Swimming Club in 1903, rowing, and boxing. In 1909 Godward together with Robert Murie won a motor race from Invercargill to Dunedin and back.[1][2] A few weeks later a second race was run, with Godward and Murie crashing avoiding a dray. The race drew criticism from the Police, Automobile Association, and local Councils.[2][5]","title":"Political career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Queen Anne style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Anne_style_architecture"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"From 1905 to 1908 Godward built an impressive new house, Rockhaven at 397 Queens Drive, Invercargill. The house was designed by a relatively unknown architect, Peter Walker. The house is a significant example of Queen Anne style and carries a Category 2 Historic Place designation.His wife lived in Rockhaven until 1946 when it was sold to Invercargill farmer Harold Smith. The Smith's owned the house until 1977. The house remains a private residence and the garage where Godward worked was still standing in 2013.[6]","title":"Rockhaven"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"In 1908 Godward was a witness in the Coldstream shooting case. Maud Buchanan was accused of attempting to shoot Vera McKay. The Buchanans had been looking after the McKays' property while the McKays were in America. After the McKays returned, the Buchanans continued to reside at the property for a short time before returning to their own home. While they were at the McKays', Mrs Buchanan had had a falling out with Mrs McKay over a conversation that Mrs McKay had repeated to someone. After the Buchanans returned to their own home they began to receive anonymous letters which Mrs Buchanan considered were being sent by the McKays. Mrs Buchanan approached Mr McKay requesting he stop the letters and when he said he did not know where they were coming from Mrs Buchanan became upset.Later the same day the Buchanans and Godward were leaving the Buchanans' home, Coldstream, by car to attend a concert. On finding the exit gate closed Godward got down from the car and went to open it. While doing that he heard two shots which he initially thought were the car backfiring. Turning he saw Mrs Buchanan with a revolver pointing at Mrs McKay. She fired another shot, hitting Mrs McKay in the arm, and then two more at Mr McKay before he overpowered her.The later court case found that Mrs Buchanan did not intend to kill or injure, but merely to stop the anonymous letters by scaring the McKays. Mrs Buchanan was found not guilty.[7][8]","title":"Murder attempt"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Reo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/REO_Motor_Car_Company"},{"link_name":"London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TeAra-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODT-2"},{"link_name":"Philadelphia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphia"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Camp Holabird","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Holabird"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TeAra-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODT-2"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"Godward set up his own cycle business in 1908 and after a short time began importing Reo motor cars. He turned his attention to improving these and developed a carburettor in 1912 called the Eclipse Petrol Economiser. In 1913 he took his invention to London where he established the Godward Carburettor Company at Kingston upon Thames and patented the device in 1914. This venture proved less successful than he had hoped, so in 1916 Godward opened an office in New York, basing himself there.[1][2]In 1926 he developed an improved version of the carburettor named the Godward Vaporiser. The Vaporiser enabled motor vehicles to use fuel oil instead of petrol. The Mitten Company of Philadelphia, one of the largest public transport operators in the United States, adopted the invention. Some 580 buses and 3000 taxis were fitted with the vaporiser.[9] It was said to increase horsepower by 15%.The United States Army Transport section at Camp Holabird also successfully trialed the Vaporiser.[10] In all Goddard created 72 different carburetors.[1][2][11]","title":"Economiser"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"stock market crash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wall_Street_Crash_of_1929"},{"link_name":"SS Mongolia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_Mongolia_(1922)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODT-2"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TeAra-1"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODT-2"}],"text":"Godward lost heavily financially in the stock market crash of 1929. He did make a partial recovery from these losses and during his later years in the United States was recognised as one of the world's leading authorities on internal combustion engines. Godward died of a heart attack on 2 December 1936 on board the SS Mongolia while returning home to Invercargill. He had won a skipping contest on board the day before.[2][1][12]According to his biography there was speculation that Godward had another family in the United States. The family related a story of an American woman arriving at Rockhaven some time after Godward's death to collect a Ming vase she said was promised her. She was turned away.[2]","title":"Demise"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"Godward, Ernest Robert 1869–1936\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//teara.govt.nz/en/biographies/3g13"},{"link_name":"Dictionary of New Zealand Biography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_New_Zealand_Biography"},{"link_name":"Ministry for Culture and Heritage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_for_Culture_and_Heritage"},{"link_name":"Authority control databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5393139#identifiers"},{"link_name":"FAST","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//id.worldcat.org/fast/1586478/"},{"link_name":"ISNI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//isni.org/isni/0000000050784342"},{"link_name":"VIAF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//viaf.org/viaf/19194784"},{"link_name":"WorldCat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJqbt4YRdfGFK7bPY4FMyd"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.loc.gov/authorities/nb2004010288"}],"text":"Walker, S (2013). Ernest R Godward Inventor. River Press, Dunedin.\nWalker, S (1998). Entry on Ernest Godward, Southern People, edited by Jane Thomson. Longacre Press.\nStrachan, S. R. \"Godward, Ernest Robert 1869–1936\". Dictionary of New Zealand Biography. Ministry for Culture and Heritage. Retrieved 10 April 2011.\nRiley, B (1995). Kiwi Ingenuity: A Book of New Zealand Ideas and Inventions. AIT Press, AucklandAuthority control databases International\nFAST\nISNI\nVIAF\nWorldCat\nNational\nUnited States","title":"Bibliography"}]
|
[{"image_text":"1882 Shand Mason and Co fire engine","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/1882_Horse-drawn_Shand%2C_Mason_%26_Co._steam_fire_engine_pic3.JPG/250px-1882_Horse-drawn_Shand%2C_Mason_%26_Co._steam_fire_engine_pic3.JPG"}]
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[{"title":"History of the internal combustion engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_internal_combustion_engine"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Search the List | Rockhaven | Heritage New Zealand\". www.heritage.org.nz. Retrieved 11 April 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.heritage.org.nz/the-list/details/2509","url_text":"\"Search the List | Rockhaven | Heritage New Zealand\""}]},{"reference":"Strachan, S. R. \"Godward, Ernest Robert 1869–1936\". Dictionary of New Zealand Biography. Ministry for Culture and Heritage. Retrieved 10 April 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://teara.govt.nz/en/biographies/3g13","url_text":"\"Godward, Ernest Robert 1869–1936\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_New_Zealand_Biography","url_text":"Dictionary of New Zealand Biography"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_for_Culture_and_Heritage","url_text":"Ministry for Culture and Heritage"}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://www.teara.govt.nz/en/biographies/3g13/godward-ernest-robert","external_links_name":"Ernest Robert Godward"},{"Link":"https://www.odt.co.nz/lifestyle/magazine/truly-man-many-talents","external_links_name":"Truly a man of many talents"},{"Link":"http://www.heritage.org.nz/the-list/details/2509","external_links_name":"\"Search the List | Rockhaven | Heritage New Zealand\""},{"Link":"https://www.newspapers.com/image/55726695/?terms=%22Ernest%2BGodward%22","external_links_name":"Fuel oil for cars"},{"Link":"https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/EP19291010.2.172","external_links_name":"60-miles-an-hour tanks"},{"Link":"https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/EP19290315.2.171.2","external_links_name":"Oil vapour as fuel"},{"Link":"https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/EP19361208.2.81","external_links_name":"Death at Sea"},{"Link":"http://www.nzedge.com/heroes/godward.html","external_links_name":"The New Zealand Edge - Ernest Godward"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090712114927/http://www.nzedge.com/heroes/godward.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://teara.govt.nz/en/biographies/3g13","external_links_name":"\"Godward, Ernest Robert 1869–1936\""},{"Link":"http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1586478/","external_links_name":"FAST"},{"Link":"https://isni.org/isni/0000000050784342","external_links_name":"ISNI"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/19194784","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJqbt4YRdfGFK7bPY4FMyd","external_links_name":"WorldCat"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/nb2004010288","external_links_name":"United States"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exeter_Cathedral_astronomical_clock
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Exeter Cathedral astronomical clock
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["1 History and description","2 References"]
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Coordinates: 50°43′23″N 3°31′50″W / 50.723°N 3.5305°W / 50.723; -3.530515th century astronomical clock in Exeter Cathedral, England
Exeter Cathedral Astronomical Clock.
Early mechanism for the astronomical clock which was removed in 1885, but restored by John James Hall in its current position on the floor of the north transept in 1910.
The Exeter Cathedral Astronomical Clock is a fifteenth-century astronomical clock in Exeter Cathedral, England. It displays the hour of the day, the day of the lunar month and the phase of the moon. The modern clock mechanism was installed in 1885 by Gillett & Bland of Croydon, and restored in 1910.
History and description
The clock is thought to date from around 1484.
The outermost numbered circle of the main dial is decorated with a fleur-de-lis which represents the Sun, and which orbits the dial once every 24 hours. This indicates the hour of the day, counted from I to XII in Roman numerals in first the right and then the left hemispheres of the clockface. This is an example of a 24-hour analog dial. The tail of the Sun's fleur-de-lis points to the day in the lunar month on the inner numbered ring. The half-black, half-silver Moon inside the lunar month ring rotates on its axis to show the correct phase of the moon. The Earth is represented as a fixed golden ball in the centre of the dial. The Latin inscription "Pereunt et imputantur" below the main dial may be translated as "The hours pass and are reckoned to our account".
A small bell located behind the clock dial chimes the quarter-hours. On the hour, this is followed by the striking of the Peter Bell in the tower above.
In 1759 the smaller upper dial was added, with a single hand to indicate the minutes.
The clock-room is behind the dial on the north wall of the transept, and still houses the clock mechanism. Access is via a doorway visible in the stone wall directly beneath the clock. Legend suggests that the round hole cut in the bottom of the door was for the cathedral cat to gain entry to keep the clock clear of mice and rats. The modern clock mechanism was installed in 1885 by Gillett & Bland of Croydon.
The clock was restored in 1910 by John James Hall FRAS.
The clock is reputed to be the source of the nursery rhyme Hickory Dickory Dock, probably inspired by the round hole in the door described above.
References
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Exeter Cathedral astronomical clock.
^ The Unofficial Guide to England. Stephen Brewer. John Wiley & Sons. 2007
^ a b c "Explore The Exeter Cathedral Building: Astronomical Clock". Exeter Cathedral. Retrieved 16 September 2023.
^ a b c "Astronomical Clock". Exeter Cathedral. Retrieved 16 September 2023.
^ "Explore The Exeter Cathedral Building: Minstrels' Gallery". Exeter Cathedral. Retrieved 16 September 2023.
^ "Exeter Cathedral door hole could be world's oldest cat flap". BBC News. 31 August 2023. Retrieved 16 September 2023.
^ "Exeter Cathedral astronomical clock". Retrieved 16 September 2023.
^ "England's Oldest Clock". Aberdeen Journal. Aberdeen. 27 August 1910. Retrieved 15 September 2015 – via British Newspaper Archive.
^ Cathedral Cats. Richard Surman. HarperCollins. 2004
^ Blythe, Ronald. Circling Year: Perspectives from a Country Parish. p. 87. Hymns Ancient and Modern Ltd, 2001
50°43′23″N 3°31′50″W / 50.723°N 3.5305°W / 50.723; -3.5305
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[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Exeter_Cathedral_astronomical_clock.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Early_mechanism_for_the_Exeter_Cathedral_astronomical_clock_01.jpg"},{"link_name":"astronomical clock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_clock"},{"link_name":"Exeter Cathedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exeter_Cathedral"},{"link_name":"lunar month","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_month"},{"link_name":"phase of the moon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_of_the_moon"},{"link_name":"Gillett & Bland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gillett_%26_Bland"}],"text":"15th century astronomical clock in Exeter Cathedral, EnglandExeter Cathedral Astronomical Clock.Early mechanism for the astronomical clock which was removed in 1885, but restored by John James Hall in its current position on the floor of the north transept in 1910.The Exeter Cathedral Astronomical Clock is a fifteenth-century astronomical clock in Exeter Cathedral, England. It displays the hour of the day, the day of the lunar month and the phase of the moon. The modern clock mechanism was installed in 1885 by Gillett & Bland of Croydon, and restored in 1910.","title":"Exeter Cathedral astronomical clock"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"fleur-de-lis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fleur-de-lis"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"Roman numerals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_numerals"},{"link_name":"24-hour analog dial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/24-hour_analog_dial"},{"link_name":"lunar month","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_month"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"phase of the moon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_of_the_moon"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Gillett & Bland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gillett_%26_Bland"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"John James Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_James_Hall"},{"link_name":"FRAS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Astronomical_Society"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Hickory Dickory Dock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hickory_Dickory_Dock"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"The clock is thought to date from around 1484.[1]The outermost numbered circle of the main dial is decorated with a fleur-de-lis which represents the Sun, and which orbits the dial once every 24 hours.[2] This indicates the hour of the day, counted from I to XII in Roman numerals in first the right and then the left hemispheres of the clockface. This is an example of a 24-hour analog dial. The tail of the Sun's fleur-de-lis points to the day in the lunar month on the inner numbered ring.[2] The half-black, half-silver Moon inside the lunar month ring rotates on its axis to show the correct phase of the moon.[2] The Earth is represented as a fixed golden ball in the centre of the dial. The Latin inscription \"Pereunt et imputantur\" below the main dial may be translated as \"The hours pass and are reckoned to our account\".[3]A small bell located behind the clock dial chimes the quarter-hours. On the hour, this is followed by the striking of the Peter Bell in the tower above.[3]In 1759 the smaller upper dial was added, with a single hand to indicate the minutes.[3]The clock-room is behind the dial on the north wall of the transept, and still houses the clock mechanism.[4] Access is via a doorway visible in the stone wall directly beneath the clock. Legend suggests that the round hole cut in the bottom of the door was for the cathedral cat to gain entry to keep the clock clear of mice and rats.[5] The modern clock mechanism was installed in 1885 by Gillett & Bland of Croydon.[6]The clock was restored in 1910 by John James Hall FRAS.[7]The clock is reputed to be the source of the nursery rhyme Hickory Dickory Dock, probably inspired by the round hole in the door described above.[8][9]","title":"History and description"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolshevik
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Bolsheviks
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["1 History of the split","1.1 Vladimir Lenin's ideology in What Is to Be Done?","1.2 Second Party Congress","1.3 Etymology of Bolshevik and Menshevik","1.4 Demographics of the two factions","1.5 Beginning of the 1905 Revolution (1903–05)","1.6 Mensheviks (1906–07)","1.7 Split between Lenin and Bogdanov (1908–10)","1.8 Final attempt at party unity (1910)","1.9 Forming a separate party (1912)","2 Non-Russian/Soviet political groups having used the name \"Bolshevik\"","3 Derogatory usage of \"Bolshevik\"","4 See also","5 Notes","6 References","6.1 Sources","7 External links"]
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Faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party
This article is about the Bolshevik faction in the RSDLP 1903–1912. For the ideological movement, see Bolshevism. For other uses, see Bolshevik (disambiguation).
BolsheviksБольшевики1920 Bolshevik Party meeting: sitting (from left to right) are Yenukidze, Kalinin, Bukharin, Tomsky, Lashevich, Kamenev, Preobrazhensky, Serebryakov, Lenin and Rykov in frontSuccessorRussian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)Formation1903; 121 years ago (1903)FounderVladimir LeninDissolved1952; 72 years ago (1952)HeadquartersVariedProductsPravda (newspaper)LeaderVladimir LeninParent organizationRussian Social Democratic Labour PartyFormerly called"hards"
The Bolsheviks (Russian: большевики, bolsheviki; from большинство, bolshinstvo, 'majority'), led by Vladimir Lenin, were a far-left faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) which split with the Mensheviks at the Second Party Congress in 1903. The Bolshevik party, formally established in 1912, seized power in Russia in the October Revolution of 1917, and was later renamed the Russian Communist Party, All-Union Communist Party, and Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The party's ideology, based on Leninist and later Marxist–Leninist principles, is known as Bolshevism.
The origin of the split was Lenin's support for a smaller party of professional revolutionaries, as opposed to the Menshevik desire for a broad party membership. The influence of the factions fluctuated in the years up to 1912, when the RSDLP formally split into two parties. The Bolsheviks' political philosophy was based on the Leninist principles of vanguardism and democratic centralism. After the February Revolution of 1917, Lenin returned to Russia and issued his April Theses, which called for "no support for the Provisional Government" and "all power to the soviets". In the summer of 1917, especially after the July Days and Kornilov affair, large numbers of radicalized workers joined the Bolsheviks, which planned the October Revolution which overthrew the government. The party initially governed in coalition with the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries, but increasingly centralized power and suppressed opposition during the Russian Civil War, and after 1921 became the sole legal party in Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union. Under Joseph Stalin's leadership, the party became linked to his policies of "socialism in one country", rapid industrialization, collectivized agriculture, and centralized state control.
History of the split
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Vladimir Lenin's ideology in What Is to Be Done?
Bolshevik, Boris Kustodiev, 1920
Lenin's political pamphlet What Is to Be Done?, written in 1901, helped to precipitate the Bolsheviks' split from the Mensheviks. In Germany, the book was published in 1902, but in Russia, strict censorship outlawed its publication and distribution. One of the main points of Lenin's writing was that a revolution can only be achieved by a strong, professional leadership with deep dedication to Marxist theoretical principles and an organization that spanned through the whole of Russia, abandoning what Lenin called "artisanal work" towards a more organized revolutionary work. After the proposed revolution had successfully overthrown the Russian autocracy, this strong leadership would relinquish power and allow a Socialist party to fully develop within the principles of democratic centralism. Lenin said that if professional revolutionaries did not maintain influence over the fight of the workers, then that fight would steer away from the party's objective and carry on under the influence of opposing beliefs or even away from revolution entirely.
The pamphlet also showed that Lenin's view of a socialist intelligentsia was in line with Marxist theory. For example, Lenin agreed with the Marxist ideal of social classes ceasing to be and for the eventual "withering away of the state". Most party members considered unequal treatment of workers immoral and were loyal to the idea of a completely classless society. This pamphlet also showed that Lenin opposed another group of reformers, known as "Economists", who were for economic reform while leaving the government relatively unchanged and who, in Lenin's view, failed to recognize the importance of uniting the working population behind the party's cause.
Second Party Congress
At the 2nd Congress of the RSDLP, which was held in Brussels and then London during August 1903, Lenin and Julius Martov disagreed over the party membership rules. Lenin, who was supported by Georgy Plekhanov, wanted to limit membership to those who supported the party full-time and worked in complete obedience to the elected party leadership. Martov wanted to extend membership to anyone "who recognises the Party Programme and supports it by material means and by regular personal assistance under the direction of one of the party's organisations." Lenin believed his plan would develop a core group of professional revolutionaries who would devote their full time and energy towards developing the party into an organization capable of leading a successful proletarian revolution against the Tsarist autocracy.
The base of active and experienced members would be the recruiting ground for this professional core. Sympathizers would be left outside and the party would be organised based on the concept of democratic centralism. Martov, until then a close friend of Lenin, agreed with him that the core of the party should consist of professional revolutionaries, but he argued that party membership should be open to sympathizers, revolutionary workers, and other fellow travellers. The two had disagreed on the issue as early as March–May 1903, but it was not until the Congress that their differences became irreconcilable and split the party. At first, the disagreement appeared to be minor and inspired by personal conflicts. For example, Lenin's insistence on dropping less active editorial board members from Iskra or Martov's support for the Organizing Committee of the Congress which Lenin opposed. The differences grew and the split became irreparable.
Internal unrest also arose over the political structure that was best suited for Soviet power. As discussed in What Is To Be Done?, Lenin firmly believed that a rigid political structure was needed to effectively initiate a formal revolution. This idea was met with opposition from once close allies, including Martov, Plekhanov, Vera Zasulich, Leon Trotsky, and Pavel Axelrod. Plekhanov and Lenin's major dispute arose addressing the topic of nationalizing land or leaving it for private use. Lenin wanted to nationalize to aid in collectivization, whereas Plekhanov thought worker motivation would remain higher if individuals were able to maintain their own property. Those who opposed Lenin and wanted to continue on the socialist mode of production path towards complete socialism and disagreed with his strict party membership guidelines became known as "softs" while Lenin supporters became known as "hards".
Some of the factionalism could be attributed to Lenin's steadfast belief in his own opinion and what was described by Plekhanov as Lenin's inability to "bear opinions which were contrary to his own" and loyalty to his own self-envisioned utopia. Lenin was seen even by fellow party members as being so narrow-minded and unable to accept criticism that he believed that anyone who did not follow him was his enemy. Trotsky, one of Lenin's fellow revolutionaries, compared Lenin in 1904 to the French revolutionary Maximilien Robespierre.
Etymology of Bolshevik and Menshevik
The two factions of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) were originally known as hard (Lenin supporters) and soft (Martov supporters). In the 2nd Congress vote, Lenin's faction won votes on the majority of important issues, and soon came to be known as Bolsheviks, from the Russian bolshinstvo, 'majority'. Likewise, Martov's group came to be known as Mensheviks, from menshinstvo, 'minority'. However, Martov's supporters won the vote concerning the question of party membership, and neither Lenin nor Martov had a firm majority throughout the Congress as delegates left or switched sides. In the end, the Congress was evenly split between the two factions.
From 1907 onward, English-language articles sometimes used the term Maximalist for "Bolshevik" and Minimalist for "Menshevik", which proved to be confusing as there was also a "Maximalist" faction within the Russian Socialist Revolutionary Party in 1904–1906 (which, after 1906, formed a separate Union of Socialists-Revolutionaries Maximalists) and then again after 1917.
The Bolsheviks ultimately became the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The Bolsheviks, or Reds, came to power in Russia during the October Revolution phase of the 1917 Russian Revolution, and founded the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR). With the Reds defeating the Whites and others during the Russian Civil War of 1917–1922, the RSFSR became the chief constituent of the Soviet Union (USSR) in December 1922.
Demographics of the two factions
The average party member was very young: in 1907, 22% of Bolsheviks were under 20 years of age; 37% were 20–24 years of age; and 16% were 25–29 years of age. By 1905, 62% of the members were industrial workers (3% of the population in 1897). Twenty-two percent of Bolsheviks were gentry (1.7% of the total population) and 38% were uprooted peasants; compared with 19% and 26% for the Mensheviks. In 1907, 78.3% of the Bolsheviks were Russian and 10% were Jewish; compared to 34% and 20% for the Mensheviks. Total Bolshevik membership was 8,400 in 1905, 13,000 in 1906, and 46,100 by 1907; compared to 8,400, 18,000 and 38,200 for the Mensheviks. By 1910, both factions together had fewer than 100,000 members.
Beginning of the 1905 Revolution (1903–05)
Between 1903 and 1904, the two factions were in a state of flux, with many members changing sides. Plekhanov, the founder of Russian Marxism, who at first allied himself with Lenin and the Bolsheviks, had parted ways with them by 1904. Trotsky at first supported the Mensheviks, but left them in September 1904 over their insistence on an alliance with Russian liberals and their opposition to a reconciliation with Lenin and the Bolsheviks. He remained a self-described "non-factional social democrat" until August 1917, when he joined Lenin and the Bolsheviks, as their positions resembled his and he came to believe that Lenin was correct on the issue of the party.
All but one member of the RSDLP Central Committee were arrested in Moscow in early 1905. The remaining member, with the power of appointing a new committee, was won over by the Bolsheviks. The lines between the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks hardened in April 1905 when the Bolsheviks held a Bolsheviks-only meeting in London, which they called the 3rd Party Congress. The Mensheviks organised a rival conference and the split was thus finalized.
The Bolsheviks played a relatively minor role in the 1905 Revolution and were a minority in the Saint Petersburg Soviet of Workers' Deputies led by Trotsky. However, the less significant Moscow Soviet was dominated by the Bolsheviks. These Soviets became the model for those formed in 1917.
Mensheviks (1906–07)
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As the Russian Revolution of 1905 progressed, Bolsheviks, Mensheviks, and smaller non-Russian social democratic parties operating within the Russian Empire attempted to reunify at the 4th Congress of the RSDLP held in April 1906 at Folkets hus, Norra Bantorget, in Stockholm. When the Mensheviks made an alliance with the Jewish Bund, the Bolsheviks found themselves in a minority.
However, all factions retained their respective factional structure and the Bolsheviks formed the Bolshevik Centre, the de facto governing body of the Bolshevik faction within the RSDLP. At the 5th Congress held in London in May 1907, the Bolsheviks were in the majority, but the two factions continued functioning mostly independently of each other.
Split between Lenin and Bogdanov (1908–10)
Tensions had existed between Lenin and Alexander Bogdanov from as early as 1904. Lenin had fallen out with Nikolai Valentinov after Valentinov had introduced him to Ernst Mach's Empiriocriticism, a viewpoint that Bogdanov had been exploring and developing as Empiriomonism. Having worked as co-editor with Plekhanov, on Zarya, Lenin had come to agree with the Valentinov's rejection of Bogdanov's Empiriomonism.
With the defeat of the revolution in mid-1907 and the adoption of a new, highly restrictive election law, the Bolsheviks began debating whether to boycott the new parliament known as the Third Duma. Lenin, Grigory Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev, and others argued for participating in the Duma while Bogdanov, Anatoly Lunacharsky, Mikhail Pokrovsky, and others argued that the social democratic faction in the Duma should be recalled. The latter became known as "recallists" (Russian: otzovists). A smaller group within the Bolshevik faction demanded that the RSDLP Central Committee should give its sometimes unruly Duma faction an ultimatum, demanding complete subordination to all party decisions. This group became known as "ultimatists" and was generally allied with the recallists.
With most Bolshevik leaders either supporting Bogdanov or undecided by mid-1908 when the differences became irreconcilable, Lenin concentrated on undermining Bogdanov's reputation as a philosopher. In 1909, he published a scathing book of criticism entitled Materialism and Empirio-criticism (1909), assaulting Bogdanov's position and accusing him of philosophical idealism. In June 1909, Bogdanov proposed the formation of Party Schools as Proletarian Universities at a Bolshevik mini-conference in Paris organised by the editorial board of the Bolshevik magazine Proletary. However, this proposal was not adopted and Lenin tried to expel Bogdanov from the Bolshevik faction. Bogdanov was then involved with setting up Vpered, which ran the Capri Party School from August to December 1909.
Final attempt at party unity (1910)
With both Bolsheviks and Mensheviks weakened by splits within their ranks and by Tsarist repression, the two factions were tempted to try to reunite the party. In January 1910, Leninists, recallists, and various Menshevik factions held a meeting of the party's Central Committee in Paris. Kamenev and Zinoviev were dubious about the idea; but under pressure from conciliatory Bolsheviks like Victor Nogin, they were willing to give it a try.
One of the underlying reasons that prevented any reunification of the party was the Russian police. The police were able to infiltrate both parties' inner circles by sending in spies who then reported on the opposing party's intentions and hostilities. This allowed the tensions to remain high between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks and helped prevent their uniting.
Lenin was firmly opposed to any reunification but was outvoted within the Bolshevik leadership. The meeting reached a tentative agreement, and one of its provisions was to make Trotsky's Vienna-based Pravda, a party-financed central organ. Kamenev, Trotsky's brother-in-law who was with the Bolsheviks, was added to the editorial board; but the unification attempts failed in August 1910 when Kamenev resigned from the board amid mutual recriminations.
Forming a separate party (1912)
Leon Trotsky, Vladimir Lenin and Lev Kamenev
The factions permanently broke relations in January 1912 after the Bolsheviks organised a Bolsheviks-only Prague Party Conference and formally expelled Mensheviks and recallists from the party. As a result, they ceased to be a faction in the RSDLP and instead declared themselves an independent party, called Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks) – or RSDLP(b). Unofficially, the party has been referred to as the Bolshevik Party. Throughout the 20th century, the party adopted a number of different names. In 1918, RSDLP(b) became All-Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) and remained so until 1925. From 1925 to 1952, the name was All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) and from 1952 to 1991, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
As the party split became permanent, further divisions became evident. One of the most notable differences was how each faction decided to fund its revolution. The Mensheviks decided to fund their revolution through membership dues while Lenin often resorted to more drastic measures since he required a higher budget. One of the common methods the Bolsheviks used was committing bank robberies, one of which, in 1907, resulted in the party getting over 250,000 roubles, which is the equivalent of about $125,000. Bolsheviks were in constant need of money because Lenin practised his beliefs, expressed in his writings, that revolutions must be led by individuals who devote their entire lives to the cause. As compensation, he rewarded them with salaries for their sacrifice and dedication. This measure was taken to help ensure that the revolutionaries stayed focused on their duties and motivated them to perform their jobs. Lenin also used the party money to print and copy pamphlets which were distributed in cities and at political rallies in an attempt to expand their operations. Both factions received funds through donations from wealthy supporters.
The elections to the Russian Constituent Assembly took place in November 1917 in which the Bolsheviks came second with 23.9% of the vote and dissolved the Assembly in January 1918
Further differences in party agendas became evident as the beginning of World War I loomed near. Joseph Stalin was especially eager for the start of the war, hoping that it would turn into a war between classes or essentially a Russian Civil War. This desire for war was fuelled by Lenin's vision that the workers and peasants would resist joining the war effort and therefore be more compelled to join the socialist movement. Through the increase in support, Russia would then be forced to withdraw from the Allied powers in order to resolve her internal conflict. Unfortunately for the Bolsheviks, Lenin's assumptions were incorrect. Despite his and the party's attempts to push for a civil war through involvement in two conferences in 1915 and 1916 in Switzerland, the Bolsheviks were in the minority in calling for a ceasefire by the Imperial Russian Army in World War I.
Although the Bolshevik leadership had decided to form a separate party, convincing pro-Bolshevik workers within Russia to follow suit proved difficult. When the first meeting of the Fourth Duma was convened in late 1912, only one out of six Bolshevik deputies, Matvei Muranov (another one, Roman Malinovsky, was later exposed as an Okhrana agent), voted on 15 December 1912 to break from the Menshevik faction within the Duma. The Bolshevik leadership eventually prevailed, and the Bolsheviks formed their own Duma faction in September 1913.
One final difference between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks was how ferocious and tenacious the Bolshevik party was in order to achieve its goals, although Lenin was open minded to retreating from political ideals if he saw the guarantee of long-term gains benefiting the party. This practice was seen in the party's trying to recruit peasants and uneducated workers by promising them how glorious life would be after the revolution and granting them temporary concessions.
Bolshevik figures such as Anatoly Lunacharsky, Moisei Uritsky and Dmitry Manuilsky considered that Lenin’s influence on the Bolshevik party was decisive but the October insurrection was carried out according to Trotsky’s, not to Lenin’s plan.
In 1918, the party renamed itself the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) at Lenin's suggestion. In 1925, this was changed to All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks). At the 19th Party Congress in 1952 the Party was renamed the Communist Party of the Soviet Union at Stalin's suggestion.
Non-Russian/Soviet political groups having used the name "Bolshevik"
Bangladesh: Maoist Bolshevik Reorganisation Movement of the Purba Banglar Sarbahara Party
Burkina Faso: Burkinabé Bolshevik Party
India: Bolshevik Party of India
India/Sri Lanka: Bolshevik-Leninist Party of India, Ceylon and Burma
India: Revolutionary Socialist Party (Bolshevik)
Mexico: Bolshevik Communist Party
Senegal: Bolshevik Nuclei
South Africa: Bolsheviks Party of South Africa
Sri Lanka: Bolshevik Samasamaja Party
Turkey: Bolshevik Party (North Kurdistan – Turkey)
Derogatory usage of "Bolshevik"
"Down with Bolshevism. Bolshevism brings war and destruction, hunger and death", anti-Bolshevik German propaganda, 1919
Bolo was a derogatory expression for Bolsheviks used by British service personnel in the North Russian Expeditionary Force which intervened against the Red Army during the Russian Civil War. Adolf Hitler, Joseph Goebbels, and other Nazi leaders used it in reference to the worldwide political movement coordinated by the Comintern.
During the Cold War in the United Kingdom, trade union leaders and other leftists were sometimes derisively described as Bolshies. The usage is roughly equivalent to the term "commie", "Red", or "pinko" in the United States during the same period. The term Bolshie later became a slang term for anyone who was rebellious, aggressive, or truculent.
See also
Bolshevism
Left Socialist-Revolutionaries
Leninism
Marxism–Leninism
Old Bolshevik
Rabochaya Molva
Soviet Revolutionary Communists (Bolsheviks)
Trotskyism
Notes
^ Russian: большевики́, большеви́к (singular), romanized: bol'shevikí, bol'shevík; derived from bol'shinstvó (большинство́), "majority", literally meaning "one of the majority".
^ Derived from men'shinstvó (меньшинство́), "minority", which comes from mén'she (ме́ньше), "less".
^ After the split, the Bolshevik party was designated as RSDLP(b) (Russian: РСДРП(б)), where "b" stands for "Bolsheviks". Shortly after coming to power in November 1917, the party changed its name to the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (РКП(б)) and was generally known as the Communist Party after that point. However, it was not until 1952 that the party formally dropped the word "Bolshevik" from its name. See Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union article for the timeline of name changes.
References
^ (renamed the "Communist Party of the Soviet Union")
^ "Bolsheviki Seize State Buildings, Defying Kerensky". The New York Times. 7 November 1917. Archived from the original on 21 April 2017. Retrieved 22 December 2013.
^ a b Pipes 1995, p. 106.
^ Pipes 1995, pp. 21–30.
^ Service, Robert (2010). Lenin : a biography. London: Pan. p. 154. ISBN 978-0-33051838-3.
^ Pipes, Richard (1990). "Chapter 9: Lenin and the Origins of Bolshevism". The Russian Revolution. New York: Vintage Books.
^ Figes, Orlando (2014). "Chapter 1: The Start". Revolutionary Russia, 1891–1991: A History. New York: Metropolitan Books.
^ Getzler, Israel (2003) , Martov: A Political Biography of a Russian Social Democrat, Cambridge University Press, p. 78, ISBN 0-521-52602-7.
^ Stalin, Joseph. "History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolsheviks)". www.marxists.org. Archived from the original on 15 July 2018. Retrieved 3 May 2018.
^ Tucker 1975.
^ Tucker 1975, p. xxxviii.
^ Shub 1976, p. 76.
^ a b Pipes 1995, p. 104.
^ Shub 1976, p. 81.
^ Wilson, Edmund (1977). To the Finland Station. London: Fontana. p. 402. ISBN 0-00-632420-7.
^ Antonelli, Étienne. 1920. Bolshevik Russia, translated by C. A. Carroll. A. A. Knopf. p. 59: "the term 'Maximalist' rather widely used as a translation for 'Bolshevik' is historically false."
^ Ascher, Abraham, The Revolution of 1905, p. 4.
^ Cliff, Tony, Lenin and the Revolutionary Party, p. 37.
^ Pipes, Richard, The Russian Revolution, pp. 364–5.
^ Woods, Alan (6 May 1999). " History of the Bolshevik Party: Bolshevism – The Road to Revolution". In Defence of Marxism. Retrieved 10 October 2022.
^ Woods, Alan. Bolshevism The Road to Revolution.
^ McDaniel, Tim, Autocracy, capitalism, and revolution in Russia, p. 246.
^ Biggart, John (1989). Alexander Bogdanov, left-Bolshevism and the Proletkult 1904–1932. Norwich: University of East Angla. ASIN B001ON1IY4.
^ Wolfe, Bertram D. (1966). Three Who Made a Revolution. London: Penguin. p. 410. ISBN 0-14-020783-X.
^ Materialism & Empiriocriticism, Moscow: Zveno Publishers, May 1909, archived from the original on 18 January 2006, retrieved 25 March 2006.
^ Woods, Alan (1999), "Part Three: The Period of Reaction", Bolshevism: The Road to Revolution, Wellred, ISBN 1-900007-05-3, archived from the original on 29 April 2006, retrieved 25 March 2006.
^ Daniels, Robert V, ed. (1993), A Documentary History of Communism in Russia, UPNE, p. 33, ISBN 0-87451-616-1.
^ Marot, John Eric (July 1990). "Alexander Bogdanov, Vpered, and the Role of the Intellectual in the Workers' Movement". Russian Review. 49 (3 (Special Issue on Alexander Bogdanov)). Blackwell: 241–64. doi:10.2307/130152. JSTOR 130152.
^ Pipes 1995, p. 109.
^ a b c Pipes 1995, p. 108.
^ ORT-Ginzburg (2003). "The Constituent Assembly". St. Petersburg's Jews: Three Centuries of History. Archived from the original on 10 May 2018.
^ a b Pipes 1995, p. 111.
^ McKean, Robert B (1990), St. Petersburg Between the Revolutions: workers and revolutionaries, June 1907 – February 1917, New Haven: Yale University Press, pp. 140–1.
^ Deutscher, Isaac (5 January 2015). The Prophet: The Life of Leon Trotsky. Verso Books. p. 1283. ISBN 978-1-78168-721-5.
^ "North Russian Expeditionary Force 1919, Scrapbook Diary, Photographs, Mementoes", Naval History, retrieved 14 June 2012.
^ Collins Mini Dictionary, 1998.
^ "bolshie". The free dictionary. Archived from the original on 8 March 2014. Retrieved 8 March 2014.
Sources
See also: Bibliography of the Russian Revolution and Civil War
Pipes, Richard (1995), A concise History of the Russian Revolution, New York, ISBN 978-0-679-42277-8{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link).
Shub, David (1976), Lenin : a biography (rev. ed.), Harmondsworth: Penguin, ISBN 978-0-14020809-2.
Tucker, Robert (1975), The Lenin Anthology, New York: WW Norton & Co, ISBN 978-0-393-09236-3.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bolsheviks.
Wikiquote has quotations related to Bolsheviks.
Look up Bolshevik or Bolshevism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikisource has the text of the 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Bolshevism".
Woods, Alan (6 May 1999), Bolshevism, the Road to Revolution, Marxist.
"Chronology of the Bolshevik Party World History Database", Dates of History, archived from the original on 27 January 2012, retrieved 9 January 2007.
Brinton, Maurice, The Bolsheviks and Workers Control, Libcom.
The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism at Project Gutenberg by Bertrand Russell, November 1920.
Bobrovskaya, Cecilia, Twenty Years in Underground Russia: Memoirs of a Rank-and-File Bolshevik, Marxists, archived from the original on 25 February 2003.
Schulman, Jason (28 December 2017), "Bolshevism, Real and Imagined", Jacobin.
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For the ideological movement, see Bolshevism. For other uses, see Bolshevik (disambiguation).The Bolsheviks (Russian: большевики, bolsheviki; from большинство, bolshinstvo, 'majority'),[a] led by Vladimir Lenin, were a far-left faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) which split with the Mensheviks[b] at the Second Party Congress in 1903. The Bolshevik party, formally established in 1912, seized power in Russia in the October Revolution of 1917, and was later renamed the Russian Communist Party, All-Union Communist Party, and Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The party's ideology, based on Leninist and later Marxist–Leninist principles, is known as Bolshevism.The origin of the split was Lenin's support for a smaller party of professional revolutionaries, as opposed to the Menshevik desire for a broad party membership. The influence of the factions fluctuated in the years up to 1912, when the RSDLP formally split into two parties. The Bolsheviks' political philosophy was based on the Leninist principles of vanguardism and democratic centralism. After the February Revolution of 1917, Lenin returned to Russia and issued his April Theses, which called for \"no support for the Provisional Government\" and \"all power to the soviets\". In the summer of 1917, especially after the July Days and Kornilov affair, large numbers of radicalized workers joined the Bolsheviks, which planned the October Revolution which overthrew the government. The party initially governed in coalition with the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries, but increasingly centralized power and suppressed opposition during the Russian Civil War, and after 1921 became the sole legal party in Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union. Under Joseph Stalin's leadership, the party became linked to his policies of \"socialism in one country\", rapid industrialization, collectivized agriculture, and centralized state control.","title":"Bolsheviks"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History of the split"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kustodiev_The_Bolshevik.jpg"},{"link_name":"Boris Kustodiev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Kustodiev"},{"link_name":"What Is to Be Done?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Is_to_Be_Done%3F"},{"link_name":"Mensheviks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mensheviks"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Empire"},{"link_name":"Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Empire"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPipes1995106-5"},{"link_name":"revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolution"},{"link_name":"Socialist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialism"},{"link_name":"democratic centralism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_centralism"},{"link_name":"professional revolutionaries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professional_revolutionaries"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPipes1995106-5"},{"link_name":"intelligentsia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligentsia#Bolshevik_perspective"},{"link_name":"Marxist theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxist_Theory"},{"link_name":"Marxist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism"},{"link_name":"withering away of the state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Withering_away_of_the_state"},{"link_name":"classless society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classless_society"},{"link_name":"Economists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economism"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPipes199521%E2%80%9330-6"}],"sub_title":"Vladimir Lenin's ideology in What Is to Be Done?","text":"Bolshevik, Boris Kustodiev, 1920Lenin's political pamphlet What Is to Be Done?, written in 1901, helped to precipitate the Bolsheviks' split from the Mensheviks. In Germany, the book was published in 1902, but in Russia, strict censorship outlawed its publication and distribution.[3] One of the main points of Lenin's writing was that a revolution can only be achieved by a strong, professional leadership with deep dedication to Marxist theoretical principles and an organization that spanned through the whole of Russia, abandoning what Lenin called \"artisanal work\" towards a more organized revolutionary work. After the proposed revolution had successfully overthrown the Russian autocracy, this strong leadership would relinquish power and allow a Socialist party to fully develop within the principles of democratic centralism. Lenin said that if professional revolutionaries did not maintain influence over the fight of the workers, then that fight would steer away from the party's objective and carry on under the influence of opposing beliefs or even away from revolution entirely.[3]The pamphlet also showed that Lenin's view of a socialist intelligentsia was in line with Marxist theory. For example, Lenin agreed with the Marxist ideal of social classes ceasing to be and for the eventual \"withering away of the state\". Most party members considered unequal treatment of workers immoral and were loyal to the idea of a completely classless society. This pamphlet also showed that Lenin opposed another group of reformers, known as \"Economists\", who were for economic reform while leaving the government relatively unchanged and who, in Lenin's view, failed to recognize the importance of uniting the working population behind the party's cause.[4]","title":"History of the split"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"2nd Congress of the RSDLP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2nd_Congress_of_the_Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party"},{"link_name":"Brussels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brussels"},{"link_name":"London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London"},{"link_name":"Lenin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin"},{"link_name":"Julius Martov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Martov"},{"link_name":"Georgy Plekhanov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgi_Plekhanov"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"proletarian revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proletarian_revolution"},{"link_name":"Tsarist autocracy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsarist_autocracy"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"democratic centralism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_centralism"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Iskra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iskra"},{"link_name":"Soviet power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_power"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Plekhanov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgi_Plekhanov"},{"link_name":"Vera Zasulich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vera_Zasulich"},{"link_name":"Leon Trotsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Trotsky"},{"link_name":"Pavel Axelrod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pavel_Axelrod"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTETucker1975-12"},{"link_name":"page needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"},{"link_name":"nationalizing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalization"},{"link_name":"collectivization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"Plekhanov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgi_Plekhanov"},{"link_name":"socialist mode of production","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_mode_of_production"},{"link_name":"socialism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialism"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTETucker1975xxxviii-13"},{"link_name":"utopia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utopia"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShub197676-14"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPipes1995104-15"},{"link_name":"Trotsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Trotsky"},{"link_name":"Maximilien Robespierre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximilien_Robespierre"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPipes1995104-15"}],"sub_title":"Second Party Congress","text":"At the 2nd Congress of the RSDLP, which was held in Brussels and then London during August 1903, Lenin and Julius Martov disagreed over the party membership rules. Lenin, who was supported by Georgy Plekhanov, wanted to limit membership to those who supported the party full-time and worked in complete obedience to the elected party leadership. Martov wanted to extend membership to anyone \"who recognises the Party Programme and supports it by material means and by regular personal assistance under the direction of one of the party's organisations.\"[5] Lenin believed his plan would develop a core group of professional revolutionaries who would devote their full time and energy towards developing the party into an organization capable of leading a successful proletarian revolution against the Tsarist autocracy.[6][7]The base of active and experienced members would be the recruiting ground for this professional core. Sympathizers would be left outside and the party would be organised based on the concept of democratic centralism. Martov, until then a close friend of Lenin, agreed with him that the core of the party should consist of professional revolutionaries, but he argued that party membership should be open to sympathizers, revolutionary workers, and other fellow travellers. The two had disagreed on the issue as early as March–May 1903, but it was not until the Congress that their differences became irreconcilable and split the party.[8] At first, the disagreement appeared to be minor and inspired by personal conflicts. For example, Lenin's insistence on dropping less active editorial board members from Iskra or Martov's support for the Organizing Committee of the Congress which Lenin opposed. The differences grew and the split became irreparable.Internal unrest also arose over the political structure that was best suited for Soviet power.[9] As discussed in What Is To Be Done?, Lenin firmly believed that a rigid political structure was needed to effectively initiate a formal revolution. This idea was met with opposition from once close allies, including Martov, Plekhanov, Vera Zasulich, Leon Trotsky, and Pavel Axelrod.[10][page needed] Plekhanov and Lenin's major dispute arose addressing the topic of nationalizing land or leaving it for private use. Lenin wanted to nationalize to aid in collectivization, whereas Plekhanov thought worker motivation would remain higher if individuals were able to maintain their own property. Those who opposed Lenin and wanted to continue on the socialist mode of production path towards complete socialism and disagreed with his strict party membership guidelines became known as \"softs\" while Lenin supporters became known as \"hards\".[11]Some of the factionalism could be attributed to Lenin's steadfast belief in his own opinion and what was described by Plekhanov as Lenin's inability to \"bear opinions which were contrary to his own\" and loyalty to his own self-envisioned utopia.[12] Lenin was seen even by fellow party members as being so narrow-minded and unable to accept criticism that he believed that anyone who did not follow him was his enemy.[13] Trotsky, one of Lenin's fellow revolutionaries, compared Lenin in 1904 to the French revolutionary Maximilien Robespierre.[13]","title":"History of the split"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Russian Social Democratic Labour Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShub197681-16"},{"link_name":"Mensheviks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mensheviks"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Socialist Revolutionary Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_Revolutionary_Party"},{"link_name":"Union of Socialists-Revolutionaries Maximalists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_of_Socialists-Revolutionaries_Maximalists"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Communist Party of the Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"[c]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"October Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_Revolution"},{"link_name":"Russian Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Revolution"},{"link_name":"Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic"},{"link_name":"Whites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_movement"},{"link_name":"Russian Civil War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Civil_War"},{"link_name":"Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"}],"sub_title":"Etymology of Bolshevik and Menshevik","text":"The two factions of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) were originally known as hard (Lenin supporters) and soft (Martov supporters). In the 2nd Congress vote, Lenin's faction won votes on the majority of important issues,[14] and soon came to be known as Bolsheviks, from the Russian bolshinstvo, 'majority'. Likewise, Martov's group came to be known as Mensheviks, from menshinstvo, 'minority'.[15] However, Martov's supporters won the vote concerning the question of party membership, and neither Lenin nor Martov had a firm majority throughout the Congress as delegates left or switched sides. In the end, the Congress was evenly split between the two factions.From 1907 onward, English-language articles sometimes used the term Maximalist for \"Bolshevik\" and Minimalist for \"Menshevik\", which proved to be confusing as there was also a \"Maximalist\" faction within the Russian Socialist Revolutionary Party in 1904–1906 (which, after 1906, formed a separate Union of Socialists-Revolutionaries Maximalists) and then again after 1917.[16]The Bolsheviks ultimately became the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.[c] The Bolsheviks, or Reds, came to power in Russia during the October Revolution phase of the 1917 Russian Revolution, and founded the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR). With the Reds defeating the Whites and others during the Russian Civil War of 1917–1922, the RSFSR became the chief constituent of the Soviet Union (USSR) in December 1922.","title":"History of the split"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"industrial workers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_workers"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"gentry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentry"},{"link_name":"peasants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_peasants"},{"link_name":"Russian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russians"},{"link_name":"Jewish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Russia"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"sub_title":"Demographics of the two factions","text":"The average party member was very young: in 1907, 22% of Bolsheviks were under 20 years of age; 37% were 20–24 years of age; and 16% were 25–29 years of age. By 1905, 62% of the members were industrial workers (3% of the population in 1897).[17][18] Twenty-two percent of Bolsheviks were gentry (1.7% of the total population) and 38% were uprooted peasants; compared with 19% and 26% for the Mensheviks. In 1907, 78.3% of the Bolsheviks were Russian and 10% were Jewish; compared to 34% and 20% for the Mensheviks. Total Bolshevik membership was 8,400 in 1905, 13,000 in 1906, and 46,100 by 1907; compared to 8,400, 18,000 and 38,200 for the Mensheviks. By 1910, both factions together had fewer than 100,000 members.[19]","title":"History of the split"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"social democrat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_democracy"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"3rd Party Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3rd_Congress_of_the_Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party"},{"link_name":"1905 Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1905_Russian_Revolution"},{"link_name":"Saint Petersburg Soviet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Petersburg_Soviet"},{"link_name":"Moscow Soviet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_Soviet"},{"link_name":"Soviets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_(council)"}],"sub_title":"Beginning of the 1905 Revolution (1903–05)","text":"Between 1903 and 1904, the two factions were in a state of flux, with many members changing sides. Plekhanov, the founder of Russian Marxism, who at first allied himself with Lenin and the Bolsheviks, had parted ways with them by 1904. Trotsky at first supported the Mensheviks, but left them in September 1904 over their insistence on an alliance with Russian liberals and their opposition to a reconciliation with Lenin and the Bolsheviks. He remained a self-described \"non-factional social democrat\" until August 1917,[20][21] when he joined Lenin and the Bolsheviks, as their positions resembled his and he came to believe that Lenin was correct on the issue of the party.All but one member of the RSDLP Central Committee were arrested in Moscow in early 1905. The remaining member, with the power of appointing a new committee, was won over by the Bolsheviks.[22] The lines between the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks hardened in April 1905 when the Bolsheviks held a Bolsheviks-only meeting in London, which they called the 3rd Party Congress. The Mensheviks organised a rival conference and the split was thus finalized.The Bolsheviks played a relatively minor role in the 1905 Revolution and were a minority in the Saint Petersburg Soviet of Workers' Deputies led by Trotsky. However, the less significant Moscow Soviet was dominated by the Bolsheviks. These Soviets became the model for those formed in 1917.","title":"History of the split"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Russian Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Empire"},{"link_name":"4th Congress of the RSDLP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party"},{"link_name":"Folkets hus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folkets_hus"},{"link_name":"Norra Bantorget","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norra_Bantorget"},{"link_name":"Stockholm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockholm"},{"link_name":"Jewish Bund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Jewish_Labour_Bund_in_Lithuania,_Poland_and_Russia"},{"link_name":"Bolshevik Centre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolshevik_Centre"},{"link_name":"de facto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_facto"},{"link_name":"5th Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party"}],"sub_title":"Mensheviks (1906–07)","text":"As the Russian Revolution of 1905 progressed, Bolsheviks, Mensheviks, and smaller non-Russian social democratic parties operating within the Russian Empire attempted to reunify at the 4th Congress of the RSDLP held in April 1906 at Folkets hus, Norra Bantorget, in Stockholm. When the Mensheviks made an alliance with the Jewish Bund, the Bolsheviks found themselves in a minority.However, all factions retained their respective factional structure and the Bolsheviks formed the Bolshevik Centre, the de facto governing body of the Bolshevik faction within the RSDLP. At the 5th Congress held in London in May 1907, the Bolsheviks were in the majority, but the two factions continued functioning mostly independently of each other.","title":"History of the split"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Alexander Bogdanov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Bogdanov"},{"link_name":"Nikolai Valentinov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolai_Valentinov"},{"link_name":"Ernst Mach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Mach"},{"link_name":"Empiriocriticism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiriocriticism"},{"link_name":"Empiriomonism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Bogdanov#Bolshevism"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Left-Bol-26"},{"link_name":"Third Duma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Duma"},{"link_name":"Grigory Zinoviev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grigory_Zinoviev"},{"link_name":"Lev Kamenev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lev_Kamenev"},{"link_name":"Anatoly Lunacharsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatoly_Lunacharsky"},{"link_name":"Mikhail Pokrovsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Pokrovsky"},{"link_name":"Duma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duma"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"recallists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recallists"},{"link_name":"Russian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language"},{"link_name":"ultimatists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultimatists"},{"link_name":"Materialism and Empirio-criticism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_and_Empirio-criticism"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"philosophical idealism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_idealism"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Proletary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proletary"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Vpered","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vpered"},{"link_name":"Capri Party School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capri_Party_School"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"}],"sub_title":"Split between Lenin and Bogdanov (1908–10)","text":"Tensions had existed between Lenin and Alexander Bogdanov from as early as 1904. Lenin had fallen out with Nikolai Valentinov after Valentinov had introduced him to Ernst Mach's Empiriocriticism, a viewpoint that Bogdanov had been exploring and developing as Empiriomonism. Having worked as co-editor with Plekhanov, on Zarya, Lenin had come to agree with the Valentinov's rejection of Bogdanov's Empiriomonism.[23]With the defeat of the revolution in mid-1907 and the adoption of a new, highly restrictive election law, the Bolsheviks began debating whether to boycott the new parliament known as the Third Duma. Lenin, Grigory Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev, and others argued for participating in the Duma while Bogdanov, Anatoly Lunacharsky, Mikhail Pokrovsky, and others argued that the social democratic faction in the Duma should be recalled.[24] The latter became known as \"recallists\" (Russian: otzovists). A smaller group within the Bolshevik faction demanded that the RSDLP Central Committee should give its sometimes unruly Duma faction an ultimatum, demanding complete subordination to all party decisions. This group became known as \"ultimatists\" and was generally allied with the recallists.With most Bolshevik leaders either supporting Bogdanov or undecided by mid-1908 when the differences became irreconcilable, Lenin concentrated on undermining Bogdanov's reputation as a philosopher. In 1909, he published a scathing book of criticism entitled Materialism and Empirio-criticism (1909),[25] assaulting Bogdanov's position and accusing him of philosophical idealism.[26] In June 1909, Bogdanov proposed the formation of Party Schools as Proletarian Universities at a Bolshevik mini-conference in Paris organised by the editorial board of the Bolshevik magazine Proletary. However, this proposal was not adopted and Lenin tried to expel Bogdanov from the Bolshevik faction.[27] Bogdanov was then involved with setting up Vpered, which ran the Capri Party School from August to December 1909.[28]","title":"History of the split"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Victor Nogin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Nogin"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPipes1995109-32"},{"link_name":"Pravda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pravda"},{"link_name":"recriminations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recrimination"}],"sub_title":"Final attempt at party unity (1910)","text":"With both Bolsheviks and Mensheviks weakened by splits within their ranks and by Tsarist repression, the two factions were tempted to try to reunite the party. In January 1910, Leninists, recallists, and various Menshevik factions held a meeting of the party's Central Committee in Paris. Kamenev and Zinoviev were dubious about the idea; but under pressure from conciliatory Bolsheviks like Victor Nogin, they were willing to give it a try.One of the underlying reasons that prevented any reunification of the party was the Russian police. The police were able to infiltrate both parties' inner circles by sending in spies who then reported on the opposing party's intentions and hostilities.[29] This allowed the tensions to remain high between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks and helped prevent their uniting.Lenin was firmly opposed to any reunification but was outvoted within the Bolshevik leadership. The meeting reached a tentative agreement, and one of its provisions was to make Trotsky's Vienna-based Pravda, a party-financed central organ. Kamenev, Trotsky's brother-in-law who was with the Bolsheviks, was added to the editorial board; but the unification attempts failed in August 1910 when Kamenev resigned from the board amid mutual recriminations.","title":"History of the split"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Trotsky,_Lenin,_Kamenev_(1919).jpg"},{"link_name":"Leon Trotsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Trotsky"},{"link_name":"Vladimir Lenin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin"},{"link_name":"Lev Kamenev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lev_Kamenev"},{"link_name":"Prague Party Conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prague_Party_Conference"},{"link_name":"Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party_(Bolsheviks)"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPipes1995108-33"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPipes1995108-33"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Russian_Constituent_Assembly_Election_1917.svg"},{"link_name":"Russian Constituent Assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1917_Russian_Constituent_Assembly_election"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"Joseph Stalin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Stalin"},{"link_name":"war between classes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class_conflict"},{"link_name":"Russian Civil War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Civil_War"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPipes1995111-35"},{"link_name":"Allied powers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I"},{"link_name":"Imperial Russian Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Russian_Army"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPipes1995111-35"},{"link_name":"Matvei Muranov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matvei_Muranov"},{"link_name":"Roman Malinovsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Malinovsky"},{"link_name":"Okhrana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okhrana"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPipes1995108-33"},{"link_name":"Anatoly Lunacharsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatoly_Lunacharsky"},{"link_name":"Moisei Uritsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moisei_Uritsky"},{"link_name":"Dmitry Manuilsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dmitry_Manuilsky"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"19th Party Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/19th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union"}],"sub_title":"Forming a separate party (1912)","text":"Leon Trotsky, Vladimir Lenin and Lev KamenevThe factions permanently broke relations in January 1912 after the Bolsheviks organised a Bolsheviks-only Prague Party Conference and formally expelled Mensheviks and recallists from the party. As a result, they ceased to be a faction in the RSDLP and instead declared themselves an independent party, called Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks) – or RSDLP(b). Unofficially, the party has been referred to as the Bolshevik Party. Throughout the 20th century, the party adopted a number of different names. In 1918, RSDLP(b) became All-Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) and remained so until 1925. From 1925 to 1952, the name was All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) and from 1952 to 1991, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.As the party split became permanent, further divisions became evident. One of the most notable differences was how each faction decided to fund its revolution. The Mensheviks decided to fund their revolution through membership dues while Lenin often resorted to more drastic measures since he required a higher budget.[30] One of the common methods the Bolsheviks used was committing bank robberies, one of which, in 1907, resulted in the party getting over 250,000 roubles, which is the equivalent of about $125,000.[30] Bolsheviks were in constant need of money because Lenin practised his beliefs, expressed in his writings, that revolutions must be led by individuals who devote their entire lives to the cause. As compensation, he rewarded them with salaries for their sacrifice and dedication. This measure was taken to help ensure that the revolutionaries stayed focused on their duties and motivated them to perform their jobs. Lenin also used the party money to print and copy pamphlets which were distributed in cities and at political rallies in an attempt to expand their operations. Both factions received funds through donations from wealthy supporters.The elections to the Russian Constituent Assembly took place in November 1917 in which the Bolsheviks came second with 23.9% of the vote and dissolved the Assembly in January 1918[31]Further differences in party agendas became evident as the beginning of World War I loomed near. Joseph Stalin was especially eager for the start of the war, hoping that it would turn into a war between classes or essentially a Russian Civil War.[32] This desire for war was fuelled by Lenin's vision that the workers and peasants would resist joining the war effort and therefore be more compelled to join the socialist movement. Through the increase in support, Russia would then be forced to withdraw from the Allied powers in order to resolve her internal conflict. Unfortunately for the Bolsheviks, Lenin's assumptions were incorrect. Despite his and the party's attempts to push for a civil war through involvement in two conferences in 1915 and 1916 in Switzerland, the Bolsheviks were in the minority in calling for a ceasefire by the Imperial Russian Army in World War I.[32]Although the Bolshevik leadership had decided to form a separate party, convincing pro-Bolshevik workers within Russia to follow suit proved difficult. When the first meeting of the Fourth Duma was convened in late 1912, only one out of six Bolshevik deputies, Matvei Muranov (another one, Roman Malinovsky, was later exposed as an Okhrana agent), voted on 15 December 1912 to break from the Menshevik faction within the Duma.[33] The Bolshevik leadership eventually prevailed, and the Bolsheviks formed their own Duma faction in September 1913.One final difference between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks was how ferocious and tenacious the Bolshevik party was in order to achieve its goals, although Lenin was open minded to retreating from political ideals if he saw the guarantee of long-term gains benefiting the party. This practice was seen in the party's trying to recruit peasants and uneducated workers by promising them how glorious life would be after the revolution and granting them temporary concessions.[30]Bolshevik figures such as Anatoly Lunacharsky, Moisei Uritsky and Dmitry Manuilsky considered that Lenin’s influence on the Bolshevik party was decisive but the October insurrection was carried out according to Trotsky’s, not to Lenin’s plan.[34]In 1918, the party renamed itself the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) at Lenin's suggestion. In 1925, this was changed to All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks). At the 19th Party Congress in 1952 the Party was renamed the Communist Party of the Soviet Union at Stalin's suggestion.","title":"History of the split"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Maoist Bolshevik Reorganisation Movement of the Purba Banglar Sarbahara Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maoist_Bolshevik_Reorganisation_Movement_of_the_Purba_Banglar_Sarbahara_Party"},{"link_name":"Burkinabé Bolshevik Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burkinab%C3%A9_Bolshevik_Party"},{"link_name":"Bolshevik Party of India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolshevik_Party_of_India"},{"link_name":"Bolshevik-Leninist Party of India, Ceylon and Burma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolshevik-Leninist_Party_of_India,_Ceylon_and_Burma"},{"link_name":"Revolutionary Socialist Party (Bolshevik)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutionary_Socialist_Party_(Bolshevik)"},{"link_name":"Bolshevik Communist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolshevik_Communist_Party"},{"link_name":"Bolshevik Nuclei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolshevik_Nuclei"},{"link_name":"Bolsheviks Party of South Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolsheviks_Party_of_South_Africa"},{"link_name":"Bolshevik Samasamaja Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolshevik_Samasamaja_Party"},{"link_name":"Bolshevik Party (North Kurdistan – Turkey)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolshevik_Party_(North_Kurdistan_%E2%80%93_Turkey)"}],"text":"Bangladesh: Maoist Bolshevik Reorganisation Movement of the Purba Banglar Sarbahara Party\nBurkina Faso: Burkinabé Bolshevik Party\nIndia: Bolshevik Party of India\nIndia/Sri Lanka: Bolshevik-Leninist Party of India, Ceylon and Burma\nIndia: Revolutionary Socialist Party (Bolshevik)\nMexico: Bolshevik Communist Party\nSenegal: Bolshevik Nuclei\nSouth Africa: Bolsheviks Party of South Africa\nSri Lanka: Bolshevik Samasamaja Party\nTurkey: Bolshevik Party (North Kurdistan – Turkey)","title":"Non-Russian/Soviet political groups having used the name \"Bolshevik\""},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nieder_mit_dem_Bolschewismus._Bolschewismus_bringt_Krieg_und_Verderben,_Hunger_und_Tod_LCCN2004665807.jpg"},{"link_name":"anti-Bolshevik German propaganda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Bolshevik_propaganda"},{"link_name":"North Russian Expeditionary Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Russian_Expeditionary_Force"},{"link_name":"Red Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Army"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Adolf Hitler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Hitler"},{"link_name":"Joseph Goebbels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Goebbels"},{"link_name":"Nazi leaders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Nazi_Party_leaders_and_officials"},{"link_name":"Comintern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comintern"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Cold War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War"},{"link_name":"trade union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_unions_in_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"leftists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Left"},{"link_name":"commie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commie"},{"link_name":"pinko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinko"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"}],"text":"\"Down with Bolshevism. Bolshevism brings war and destruction, hunger and death\", anti-Bolshevik German propaganda, 1919Bolo was a derogatory expression for Bolsheviks used by British service personnel in the North Russian Expeditionary Force which intervened against the Red Army during the Russian Civil War.[35] Adolf Hitler, Joseph Goebbels, and other Nazi leaders used it in reference to the worldwide political movement coordinated by the Comintern.[36]During the Cold War in the United Kingdom, trade union leaders and other leftists were sometimes derisively described as Bolshies. The usage is roughly equivalent to the term \"commie\", \"Red\", or \"pinko\" in the United States during the same period. The term Bolshie later became a slang term for anyone who was rebellious, aggressive, or truculent.[37]","title":"Derogatory usage of \"Bolshevik\""},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"Russian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language"},{"link_name":"romanized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Russian"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-19"},{"link_name":"Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union"}],"text":"^ Russian: большевики́, большеви́к (singular), romanized: bol'shevikí, bol'shevík; derived from bol'shinstvó (большинство́), \"majority\", literally meaning \"one of the majority\".[2]\n\n^ Derived from men'shinstvó (меньшинство́), \"minority\", which comes from mén'she (ме́ньше), \"less\".\n\n^ After the split, the Bolshevik party was designated as RSDLP(b) (Russian: РСДРП(б)), where \"b\" stands for \"Bolsheviks\". Shortly after coming to power in November 1917, the party changed its name to the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (РКП(б)) and was generally known as the Communist Party after that point. However, it was not until 1952 that the party formally dropped the word \"Bolshevik\" from its name. See Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union article for the timeline of name changes.","title":"Notes"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Bolshevik, Boris Kustodiev, 1920","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Kustodiev_The_Bolshevik.jpg/220px-Kustodiev_The_Bolshevik.jpg"},{"image_text":"Leon Trotsky, Vladimir Lenin and Lev Kamenev","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Trotsky%2C_Lenin%2C_Kamenev_%281919%29.jpg/220px-Trotsky%2C_Lenin%2C_Kamenev_%281919%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"The elections to the Russian Constituent Assembly took place in November 1917 in which the Bolsheviks came second with 23.9% of the vote and dissolved the Assembly in January 1918[31]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Russian_Constituent_Assembly_Election_1917.svg/220px-Russian_Constituent_Assembly_Election_1917.svg.png"},{"image_text":"\"Down with Bolshevism. Bolshevism brings war and destruction, hunger and death\", anti-Bolshevik German propaganda, 1919","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Nieder_mit_dem_Bolschewismus._Bolschewismus_bringt_Krieg_und_Verderben%2C_Hunger_und_Tod_LCCN2004665807.jpg/272px-Nieder_mit_dem_Bolschewismus._Bolschewismus_bringt_Krieg_und_Verderben%2C_Hunger_und_Tod_LCCN2004665807.jpg"}]
|
[{"title":"Bolshevism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolshevism"},{"title":"Left Socialist-Revolutionaries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Left_Socialist-Revolutionaries"},{"title":"Leninism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leninism"},{"title":"Marxism–Leninism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism"},{"title":"Old Bolshevik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Bolshevik"},{"title":"Rabochaya Molva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabochaya_Molva"},{"title":"Soviet Revolutionary Communists (Bolsheviks)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Revolutionary_Communists_(Bolsheviks)"},{"title":"Trotskyism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trotskyism"}]
|
[{"reference":"\"Bolsheviki Seize State Buildings, Defying Kerensky\". The New York Times. 7 November 1917. Archived from the original on 21 April 2017. Retrieved 22 December 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/1107.html#article","url_text":"\"Bolsheviki Seize State Buildings, Defying Kerensky\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170421022753/http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/1107.html#article","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Service, Robert (2010). Lenin : a biography. London: Pan. p. 154. ISBN 978-0-33051838-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-33051838-3","url_text":"978-0-33051838-3"}]},{"reference":"Pipes, Richard (1990). \"Chapter 9: Lenin and the Origins of Bolshevism\". The Russian Revolution. New York: Vintage Books.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Figes, Orlando (2014). \"Chapter 1: The Start\". Revolutionary Russia, 1891–1991: A History. New York: Metropolitan Books.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Getzler, Israel (2003) [1967], Martov: A Political Biography of a Russian Social Democrat, Cambridge University Press, p. 78, ISBN 0-521-52602-7","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel_Getzler","url_text":"Getzler, Israel"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-52602-7","url_text":"0-521-52602-7"}]},{"reference":"Stalin, Joseph. \"History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolsheviks)\". www.marxists.org. Archived from the original on 15 July 2018. Retrieved 3 May 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1939/x01/index.htm","url_text":"\"History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolsheviks)\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180715121504/https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1939/x01/index.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Wilson, Edmund (1977). To the Finland Station. London: Fontana. p. 402. ISBN 0-00-632420-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Wilson","url_text":"Wilson, Edmund"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-00-632420-7","url_text":"0-00-632420-7"}]},{"reference":"Ascher, Abraham, The Revolution of 1905, p. 4","urls":[]},{"reference":"Cliff, Tony, Lenin and the Revolutionary Party, p. 37","urls":[]},{"reference":"Pipes, Richard, The Russian Revolution, pp. 364–5","urls":[]},{"reference":"Woods, Alan (6 May 1999). \"[Book] History of the Bolshevik Party: Bolshevism – The Road to Revolution\". In Defence of Marxism. Retrieved 10 October 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.marxist.com/bolshevism-the-road-to-revolution/3.-the-period-of-reaction.htm","url_text":"\"[Book] History of the Bolshevik Party: Bolshevism – The Road to Revolution\""}]},{"reference":"Woods, Alan. Bolshevism The Road to Revolution.","urls":[]},{"reference":"McDaniel, Tim, Autocracy, capitalism, and revolution in Russia, p. 246","urls":[]},{"reference":"Biggart, John (1989). Alexander Bogdanov, left-Bolshevism and the Proletkult 1904–1932. Norwich: University of East Angla. ASIN B001ON1IY4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASIN_(identifier)","url_text":"ASIN"},{"url":"https://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/B001ON1IY4","url_text":"B001ON1IY4"}]},{"reference":"Wolfe, Bertram D. (1966). Three Who Made a Revolution. London: Penguin. p. 410. ISBN 0-14-020783-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertram_Wolfe","url_text":"Wolfe, Bertram D."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-020783-X","url_text":"0-14-020783-X"}]},{"reference":"Materialism & Empiriocriticism, Moscow: Zveno Publishers, May 1909, archived from the original on 18 January 2006, retrieved 25 March 2006","urls":[{"url":"https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1908/mec/","url_text":"Materialism & Empiriocriticism"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060118084658/http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1908/mec/","url_text":"archived"}]},{"reference":"Woods, Alan (1999), \"Part Three: The Period of Reaction\", Bolshevism: The Road to Revolution, Wellred, ISBN 1-900007-05-3, archived from the original on 29 April 2006, retrieved 25 March 2006","urls":[{"url":"http://www.marxist.com/bolshevism/part3-5.html","url_text":"\"Part Three: The Period of Reaction\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-900007-05-3","url_text":"1-900007-05-3"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060429210437/http://www.marxist.com/bolshevism/part3-5.html","url_text":"archived"}]},{"reference":"Daniels, Robert V, ed. (1993), A Documentary History of Communism in Russia, UPNE, p. 33, ISBN 0-87451-616-1","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87451-616-1","url_text":"0-87451-616-1"}]},{"reference":"Marot, John Eric (July 1990). \"Alexander Bogdanov, Vpered, and the Role of the Intellectual in the Workers' Movement\". Russian Review. 49 (3 (Special Issue on Alexander Bogdanov)). Blackwell: 241–64. doi:10.2307/130152. JSTOR 130152.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F130152","url_text":"10.2307/130152"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/130152","url_text":"130152"}]},{"reference":"ORT-Ginzburg (2003). \"The Constituent Assembly\". St. Petersburg's Jews: Three Centuries of History. Archived from the original on 10 May 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.jewhistory.ort.spb.ru/eng/main/sprav.php?id=1374","url_text":"\"The Constituent Assembly\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180510185232/http://www.jewhistory.ort.spb.ru/eng/main/sprav.php?id=1374","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"McKean, Robert B (1990), St. Petersburg Between the Revolutions: workers and revolutionaries, June 1907 – February 1917, New Haven: Yale University Press, pp. 140–1","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_University_Press","url_text":"Yale University Press"}]},{"reference":"Deutscher, Isaac (5 January 2015). The Prophet: The Life of Leon Trotsky. Verso Books. p. 1283. ISBN 978-1-78168-721-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=YGznDwAAQBAJ&q=isaac+deutscher+trotsky+the+prophet","url_text":"The Prophet: The Life of Leon Trotsky"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78168-721-5","url_text":"978-1-78168-721-5"}]},{"reference":"\"North Russian Expeditionary Force 1919, Scrapbook Diary, Photographs, Mementoes\", Naval History, retrieved 14 June 2012","urls":[{"url":"http://www.naval-history.net/WW1z05NorthRussia.htm","url_text":"\"North Russian Expeditionary Force 1919, Scrapbook Diary, Photographs, Mementoes\""}]},{"reference":"\"bolshie\". The free dictionary. Archived from the original on 8 March 2014. Retrieved 8 March 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.thefreedictionary.com/bolshie","url_text":"\"bolshie\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140308163049/http://www.thefreedictionary.com/bolshie","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Pipes, Richard (1995), A concise History of the Russian Revolution, New York, ISBN 978-0-679-42277-8","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Pipes","url_text":"Pipes, Richard"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00pipe","url_text":"A concise History of the Russian Revolution"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-679-42277-8","url_text":"978-0-679-42277-8"}]},{"reference":"Shub, David (1976), Lenin : a biography (rev. ed.), Harmondsworth: Penguin, ISBN 978-0-14020809-2","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14020809-2","url_text":"978-0-14020809-2"}]},{"reference":"Tucker, Robert (1975), The Lenin Anthology, New York: WW Norton & Co, ISBN 978-0-393-09236-3","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_C._Tucker","url_text":"Tucker, Robert"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/leninanthology00leni","url_text":"The Lenin Anthology"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-09236-3","url_text":"978-0-393-09236-3"}]},{"reference":"Woods, Alan (6 May 1999), Bolshevism, the Road to Revolution, Marxist","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Woods_(political_theorist)","url_text":"Woods, Alan"},{"url":"http://www.marxist.com/bolshevism/","url_text":"Bolshevism, the Road to Revolution"}]},{"reference":"\"Chronology of the Bolshevik Party World History Database\", Dates of History, archived from the original on 27 January 2012, retrieved 9 January 2007","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120127163528/http://www.datesofhistory.com/Bolshevik-Party-Russia.general.html","url_text":"\"Chronology of the Bolshevik Party World History Database\""},{"url":"http://www.datesofhistory.com/Bolshevik-Party-Russia.general.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Brinton, Maurice, The Bolsheviks and Workers Control, Libcom","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Brinton","url_text":"Brinton, Maurice"},{"url":"http://libcom.org/library/the-bolsheviks-and-workers-control-solidarity-group","url_text":"The Bolsheviks and Workers Control"}]},{"reference":"Bobrovskaya, Cecilia, Twenty Years in Underground Russia: Memoirs of a Rank-and-File Bolshevik, Marxists, archived from the original on 25 February 2003","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cecilia_Bobrovskaya","url_text":"Bobrovskaya, Cecilia"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20030225053206/http://www.marxists.org/history/archive/bobrovskaya/twenty-years/","url_text":"Twenty Years in Underground Russia: Memoirs of a Rank-and-File Bolshevik"},{"url":"https://www.marxists.org/history/archive/bobrovskaya/twenty-years/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Schulman, Jason (28 December 2017), \"Bolshevism, Real and Imagined\", Jacobin","urls":[{"url":"https://jacobinmag.com/2017/12/lenin-russian-revolution-bolsheviks-democracy","url_text":"\"Bolshevism, Real and Imagined\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobin_(magazine)","url_text":"Jacobin"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Starvation
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Operation Starvation
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["1 Operation","2 Aftermath","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]
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World War II operation
For the spy novel, see Operation Starvation (novel).
Operation StarvationPart of the Pacific WarB-29 dropping sea mines over Japanese home watersDateApril 1945LocationJapanese territorial watersBelligerents
United States
Empire of JapanCommanders and leaders
Chester Nimitz
Koshirō OikawaCasualties and losses
15 aircraft lost
670 ships sunk or damaged, totaling 1,250,000+ tonsvteJapan campaign
Air raids
Doolittle Raid
Yawata
Nagaoka
Numazu
Tokyo
Meetinghouse
Nagoya
Osaka
Kobe
1st Kure
Sendai
Fukui
Fukuoka
Kōfu
Akita
Aomori
Gifu
Hamamatsu
Hiratsuka
Utsunomiya
Toyohashi
Toyokawa
Yokkaichi
Okazaki
Shizuoka
Kumagaya
Yokosuka
2nd Kure
Hiroshima and Nagasaki
Battles
Mariana Islands
Volcano and Ryukyu Islands
Starvation
Naval bombardments
Sagami Bay
South Sakhalin
Kuril Islands
Downfall (cancelled)
Hokkaido (cancelled)
vtePacific War
Central Pacific
Pearl Harbor
Marshalls–Gilberts raids
K
Doolittle Raid
Midway
Gilberts and Marshalls
Marianas and Palau
Volcano and Ryukyu
Truk
Ocean Island
Indian Ocean (1941–1945)
Japanese merchant raids
Andaman Islands
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Operation Starvation was a naval mining operation conducted in World War II by the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) to disrupt Japanese shipping.
Operation
The mission was initiated at the insistence of Admiral Chester Nimitz who wanted his naval operations augmented by an extensive mining of Japan conducted by the USAAF. While General Henry H. Arnold felt this was strictly a naval priority, he assigned General Curtis LeMay to carry it out.
LeMay assigned one group of about 160 aircraft of the 313th Bombardment Wing to the task, with orders to plant 2,000 mines in April 1945. The mining runs were made by individual B-29 Superfortresses at night at moderately low altitudes. Radar provided mine release information. The 313th Bombardment Wing received preliminary training in aerial mining theory while their B-29 aircraft received bomb-bay modification to carry mines. Individual aircrew were then given four to eight training flights involving five radar approaches on each flight and dummy mine drops on the last flight.
Beginning on 27 March 1,000 parachute-retarded influence mines with magnetic and acoustic detonators were initially dropped, followed by many more, including models with water pressure displacement detonators. This mining proved the most efficient means of destroying Japanese shipping during World War II. In terms of damage per unit of cost, it surpassed strategic bombing and the United States submarine campaign.
Eventually most of the major ports and straits of Japan were repeatedly mined, severely disrupting Japanese logistics and troop movements for the remainder of the war with 35 of 47 essential convoy routes having to be abandoned. For instance, shipping through Kobe declined by 85%, from 320,000 tons in March to only 44,000 tons in July. Operation Starvation sank more ship tonnage in the last six months of the war than the efforts of all other sources combined. The Twentieth Air Force flew 1,529 sorties and laid 12,135 mines in 26 fields on 46 separate missions. Mining demanded only 5.7% of the XXI Bomber Command's total sorties, and only 15 B-29s were lost in the effort. In return, mines sank or damaged 670 ships totaling more than 1,250,000 tons.
Aftermath
No.1-class auxiliary patrol boats played an active part in the post-war minesweeping effort
After the war, the commander of Japan's mine sweeping operations noted that he thought this mining campaign could have directly led to the defeat of Japan on its own had it begun earlier. Similar conclusions were reached by American analysts who reported in July 1946 in the Strategic Bombing Survey that it would have been more efficient to combine the United States' effective anti-shipping submarine effort with land- and carrier-based air power to strike harder against merchant shipping and begin a more extensive aerial mining campaign earlier in the war. This would have starved Japan, forcing an earlier end to the war.
See also
Air raids on Japan
Blockade of Germany (World War II)
References
^ Mason, Capt (USN) Gerald A. (February 2002). "Operation Starvation" (PDF). Air War College. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 January 2017. Retrieved 12 January 2022.
^ a b c d e Caldwell, Hamlin A., Jr., "Air Force Maritime Missions", United States Naval Institute Proceedings, October 1978, p. 33.
^ a b Caldwell, Hamlin A., Jr., "Air Force Maritime Missions", United States Naval Institute Proceedings, October 1978, p. 34.
^ Spector, Ronald H. (1985), Eagle Against the Sun: The American War with Japan, Free Press, pp. 505, ISBN 0-02-930360-5, citing
Craven, Wesley F.; Cate, James L. (eds.), The Pacific: Matterhorn to Nagasaki, June 1944 to August 1945, Vol. V of The Army Air Forces in World War II, University of Chicago Press, pp. 662–73.
^ United States Strategic Bombing Survey, Summary Report (Pacific War). July 1, 1946
External links
Mines Away!, by Major John S. Chilstrom, USAF, 1992 (PDF) (via archive.org)
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Sakhalin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_South_Sakhalin"},{"link_name":"Kuril Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_the_Kuril_Islands"},{"link_name":"Shumshu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Shumshu"},{"link_name":"Downfall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Downfall"},{"link_name":"Japanese surrender","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"Manchuria and Northern Korea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_War"},{"link_name":"Kantokuen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kantokuen"},{"link_name":"Manchuria (1945)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Manchuria"},{"link_name":"Mutanchiang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Mutanchiang"},{"link_name":"Chongjin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seishin_Operation"},{"link_name":"Second Sino-Japanese War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War"},{"link_name":"naval mining","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_mine"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"United States Army Air Forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces"}],"text":"For the spy novel, see Operation Starvation (novel).Operation StarvationPart of the Pacific WarB-29 dropping sea mines over Japanese home watersDateApril 1945LocationJapanese territorial watersBelligerents\n United States\n Empire of JapanCommanders and leaders\nChester Nimitz\nKoshirō OikawaCasualties and losses\n15 aircraft lost[1][page needed]\n670 ships sunk or damaged, totaling 1,250,000+ tonsvteJapan campaign\nAir raids\nDoolittle Raid\nYawata\nNagaoka\nNumazu\nTokyo\nMeetinghouse\nNagoya\nOsaka\nKobe\n1st Kure\nSendai\nFukui\nFukuoka\nKōfu\nAkita\nAomori\nGifu\nHamamatsu\nHiratsuka\nUtsunomiya\nToyohashi\nToyokawa\nYokkaichi\nOkazaki\nShizuoka\nKumagaya\nYokosuka\n2nd Kure\nHiroshima and Nagasaki\nBattles\nMariana Islands\nVolcano and Ryukyu Islands\nStarvation\nNaval bombardments\nSagami Bay\nSouth Sakhalin\nKuril Islands\nDownfall (cancelled)\nHokkaido (cancelled)\nvtePacific War\nCentral Pacific\nPearl Harbor\nMarshalls–Gilberts raids\nK\nDoolittle Raid\nMidway\nGilberts and Marshalls\nMarianas and Palau\nVolcano and Ryukyu\nTruk\nOcean Island\nIndian Ocean (1941–1945)\nJapanese merchant raids\nAndaman Islands\nHomfreyganj massacre\nChristmas Island\n1st Indian Ocean\nCeylon\nBay of Bengal\n2nd Indian Ocean\nSoutheast Asia\nIndochina (1940)\nFranco-Thai War\nThailand\nMalaya\nHong Kong\nSingapore\nIndochina (1945)\nMalacca Strait\nVietnam\nJurist\nTiderace\nZipper\nStrategic bombing (1944–45)\nBurma and India\nBurma (1941–42)\nBurma (1942–43)\nBurma and India (1944)\nBurma (1944–45)\nSouthwest Pacific\nDutch East Indies (1941–42)\nPhilippines (1941–42)\nRY\nSolomon Islands\nCoral Sea\nTimor\nAustralia\nNew Guinea\nNew Britain\nPhilippines (1944–45)\nBorneo (1945)\nNorth America\nEllwood\nAleutian Islands\nEstevan Point Lighthouse\nFort Stevens\nLookout Air Raids\nFire balloon bombs\nProject Hula\nPX\nJapan\nAir raids\nTokyo\nYokosuka\nKure\nHiroshima and Nagasaki\nMariana Islands\nVolcano and Ryukyu Islands\nStarvation\nNaval bombardments\nSagami Bay\nSouth Sakhalin\nKuril Islands\nShumshu\nDownfall\nJapanese surrender\nManchuria and Northern Korea\nKantokuen\nManchuria (1945)\nMutanchiang\nChongjin\n\nSecond Sino-Japanese WarOperation Starvation was a naval mining operation conducted in World War II by the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) to disrupt Japanese shipping.","title":"Operation Starvation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chester Nimitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chester_Nimitz"},{"link_name":"Henry H. Arnold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_H._Arnold"},{"link_name":"Curtis LeMay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curtis_LeMay"},{"link_name":"313th Bombardment Wing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/313th_Bombardment_Wing"},{"link_name":"B-29 Superfortresses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B-29_Superfortress"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-proceedings-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-proceedings-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-proceedings-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-proceedings-2"},{"link_name":"influence mines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influence_mine"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-p34-3"},{"link_name":"submarine campaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_submarines_in_the_Pacific_War"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-p34-3"},{"link_name":"Kobe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kobe"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Twentieth Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twentieth_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"sorties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sortie"},{"link_name":"XXI Bomber Command's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XXI_Bomber_Command"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-proceedings-2"}],"text":"The mission was initiated at the insistence of Admiral Chester Nimitz who wanted his naval operations augmented by an extensive mining of Japan conducted by the USAAF. While General Henry H. Arnold felt this was strictly a naval priority, he assigned General Curtis LeMay to carry it out.LeMay assigned one group of about 160 aircraft of the 313th Bombardment Wing to the task, with orders to plant 2,000 mines in April 1945. The mining runs were made by individual B-29 Superfortresses at night at moderately low altitudes.[2] Radar provided mine release information.[2] The 313th Bombardment Wing received preliminary training in aerial mining theory while their B-29 aircraft received bomb-bay modification to carry mines.[2] Individual aircrew were then given four to eight training flights involving five radar approaches on each flight and dummy mine drops on the last flight.[2]Beginning on 27 March 1,000 parachute-retarded influence mines with magnetic and acoustic detonators were initially dropped, followed by many more, including models with water pressure displacement detonators. This mining proved the most efficient means of destroying Japanese shipping during World War II.[3] In terms of damage per unit of cost, it surpassed strategic bombing and the United States submarine campaign.[3]Eventually most of the major ports and straits of Japan were repeatedly mined, severely disrupting Japanese logistics and troop movements for the remainder of the war with 35 of 47 essential convoy routes having to be abandoned. For instance, shipping through Kobe declined by 85%, from 320,000 tons in March to only 44,000 tons in July.[4] Operation Starvation sank more ship tonnage in the last six months of the war than the efforts of all other sources combined. The Twentieth Air Force flew 1,529 sorties and laid 12,135 mines in 26 fields on 46 separate missions. Mining demanded only 5.7% of the XXI Bomber Command's total sorties, and only 15 B-29s were lost in the effort. In return, mines sank or damaged 670 ships totaling more than 1,250,000 tons.[2]","title":"Operation"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IJN_auxiliary_partorl_boat_No173_1945.jpg"},{"link_name":"No.1-class auxiliary patrol boats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No.1-class_auxiliary_patrol_boat"},{"link_name":"mine sweeping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minesweeping"},{"link_name":"Strategic Bombing Survey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Strategic_Bombing_Survey"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"No.1-class auxiliary patrol boats played an active part in the post-war minesweeping effortAfter the war, the commander of Japan's mine sweeping operations noted that he thought this mining campaign could have directly led to the defeat of Japan on its own had it begun earlier. Similar conclusions were reached by American analysts who reported in July 1946 in the Strategic Bombing Survey that it would have been more efficient to combine the United States' effective anti-shipping submarine effort with land- and carrier-based air power to strike harder against merchant shipping and begin a more extensive aerial mining campaign earlier in the war. This would have starved Japan, forcing an earlier end to the war.[5]","title":"Aftermath"}]
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[{"image_text":"No.1-class auxiliary patrol boats played an active part in the post-war minesweeping effort","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/IJN_auxiliary_partorl_boat_No173_1945.jpg/220px-IJN_auxiliary_partorl_boat_No173_1945.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Air raids on Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_raids_on_Japan"},{"title":"Blockade of Germany (World War II)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blockade_of_Germany_(1939%E2%80%931945)"}]
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[{"reference":"Mason, Capt (USN) Gerald A. (February 2002). \"Operation Starvation\" (PDF). Air War College. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 January 2017. Retrieved 12 January 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170125013809/http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/awc/2002_mason.pdf","url_text":"\"Operation Starvation\""},{"url":"http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/awc/2002_mason.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Spector, Ronald H. (1985), Eagle Against the Sun: The American War with Japan, Free Press, pp. 505, ISBN 0-02-930360-5","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_H._Spector","url_text":"Spector, Ronald H."},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/unset0000unse_p8k8/page/505","url_text":"Eagle Against the Sun: The American War with Japan"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Press_(publisher)","url_text":"Free Press"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/unset0000unse_p8k8/page/505","url_text":"505"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-02-930360-5","url_text":"0-02-930360-5"}]},{"reference":"Craven, Wesley F.; Cate, James L. (eds.), The Pacific: Matterhorn to Nagasaki, June 1944 to August 1945, Vol. V of The Army Air Forces in World War II, University of Chicago Press, pp. 662–73","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press","url_text":"University of Chicago Press"}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170125013809/http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/awc/2002_mason.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Operation Starvation\""},{"Link":"http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/awc/2002_mason.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/unset0000unse_p8k8/page/505","external_links_name":"Eagle Against the Sun: The American War with Japan"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/unset0000unse_p8k8/page/505","external_links_name":"505"},{"Link":"http://www.anesi.com/ussbs01.htm","external_links_name":"United States Strategic Bombing Survey, Summary Report (Pacific War). July 1, 1946"},{"Link":"https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA425762.pdf","external_links_name":"Mines Away!"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%27t_Forget_the_Lyrics!
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Don't Forget the Lyrics!
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["1 Gameplay","2 International versions","2.1 Australia","2.2 Austria","2.3 Croatia","2.4 Denmark","2.5 France","2.6 Greece","2.7 India","2.8 Indonesia","2.9 Iran","2.10 Italy","2.11 Malaysia","2.12 Mexico","2.13 Norway","2.14 Poland","2.15 Singapore","2.16 Slovakia","2.17 Spain","2.18 Taiwan","2.19 United Kingdom","2.20 United States","2.21 Vietnam","3 See also","4 References"]
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For the original American version, see Don't Forget the Lyrics! (American game show).
Don't Forget the Lyrics!Created byJeff ApploffOriginal workDon't Forget the Lyrics! (United States)OwnerBanijayYears2007–present
Don't Forget the Lyrics! is an international music game show. The original American show aired on Fox from July 11, 2007, to June 19, 2009, and after a year off the air, a third overall season, and first as a syndicated show, began on June 15, 2010, in daytime syndication and in primetime on VH1 and in primetime on MyNetworkTV on October 5, 2010. On March 24, 2011, the show was canceled. A new primetime version, hosted by Niecy Nash, debuted on FOX on May 23, 2022. The show has spun off to numerous countries outside America using different top prize or game format.
The primary difference between Don't Forget the Lyrics! and other music-based game shows is that artistic talent (such as the ability to sing or dance in an aesthetically pleasing way) is irrelevant to the contestants' chances of winning. In the words of one of their commercials prior to the first airing, "You don't have to sing it well; you just have to sing it right".
Gameplay
Each game is played by a single contestant who earns money incrementally based on a payout ladder by completing missing song lyrics on up to ten songs, testing the contestant's memory on songs. The following description of the show is based primarily on the U.S. version of Don't Forget the Lyrics!, though the general format applies to all international versions.
The contestant is presented and chooses from a set of nine different genres. Two different songs (some versions presented three) were then presented to the contestant to choose one to sing, then the host inform on how many missing words the contestant must provide. The band or an ensemble will play the music and sings along, karaoke-style until the music stops, in which the monitor will display blank lines. In some versions such as Taiwan version, an alert marker will inform the contestant on the upcoming line. The contestant then fills in the missing lyrics (indicated in yellow text), and chose whether to risk their accumulated winnings by locking-in the lyrics (indicated in blue text). To advance to the next level, all the lyrics must be correct (indicated in green text) without singing any incorrect words (indicated in red text), otherwise the game ends and the contestant leaves with the last guaranteed amount or nothing depending on the level they lost. Before locking the lyrics, the contestant can end the game and leave with the current accumulated winnings won up to the point.
The contestant is also presented with three "Backups" that help the contestant but may only be used once throughout a game:
Backup Singer: The contestant receive assistance from one of two support members (or depending on version or game, an audience member or a team member) to help the contestant. The contestant may opt to choose their own lyrics or by going with their backup singer's lyrics if it is different.
Two Words: The contestant chooses any two of the missing words to complete the lyrics. In the Taiwanese version, Two Words backup provide only one missing word and is chosen at random.
Three Lines: The contestant is given a set of three lines, among which one line is correct; any common words that shares within the three lines are automatically highlighted green.
The contestant has no choice over the tenth and final song (usually with the generic genre mentioning the top prize amount, such as the "Million Dollar Song"), which is not revealed unless they risk their winnings and play on. In most versions, any unused backups before the final song are rendered unavailable to use. If the contestant completes the final lyric correctly, he or she wins the grand prize that varies from country to country.
In some versions, notably the Taiwanese version, the contestant is required to sing the lyrics correctly even during the sing-along, but missing too many lyrics while the music plays may prompt the player to stop singing and is given the option to either end the game or try again, or prematurely ending the game with the same penalty as incorrect lyrics given.
International versions
Currently airing franchise
Country
Name
Host
Channel
Premiere
Top prize
Algeria
اسمع صوتكEssma3 Saoutek
Brahim Ghazali
Samira TVZahra TV
January 20, 2020 (season 1)March 24, 2023 (season 2)
DA 1,000,000
Austria
Sing & Win
Rainhard Fendrich
ATV
March 6, 2008
€50,000
Canada
Don't Forget the Lyrics!
Mitchel Musso
MuchMore
On connaît la chanson!
Mario Tessier
TVA
September 25, 2011
Can$ 200,000
Chile
¡No te olvides de la canción!
Rafael Araneda
Chilevisión
August 6, 2012 – December 21, 2012
Ch$20,000,000
Croatia
Ne zaboravi stihove!
Igor Mešin
Nova TV
March 17, 2008
kn 500,000
Denmark
Så det synger
Michael Carøe
TV2
March 22, 2008
DKr 500,000
Egypt
فاكر ولا لأ؟Faker wella la?
Amir Karara
ERT 2NTN
2009
LE 250,000
France
N'oubliez pas les paroles!
Nagui
France 2
December 15, 2007 – present
€∞
Greece
Δεν εχω λογια!Den echo logia!
Giorgos Kapoutzidis
Mega Channel
2015–2016
€10,000
India
Bol Baby Bol
Adnan Sami
Life OK
November 9, 2007 – April 11, 2008
Rs. 2,500,000/-
Indonesia
Missing Lyrics
Irgi Achmad Fahrezi
Trans TV
2008–2010
Rp. 100,000,000
Iran
شعر یادت نرهSher yadet nare
Omid Khalili Tajrishi
Manoto 1
September 14, 2012
US$10,000
Italy
Canta e Vinci
Amadeus and Checco Zalone
Italia 1
2007–2008
€250,000
Don't Forget the Lyrics! - Stai sul pezzo
Gabriele Corsi
NOVE
February 7, 2022 – present
€5,000
Malaysia
Jangan Lupa Lirik!
Aznil Nawawi
Astro Ria
May 25, 2008 – 2011
RM 1,000,000
Mexico
¿Te la sabes? Cántala
Chuck Pereda
Azteca 7
October 10, 2007
Mex$500,000
Montenegro
Prave riječi
Nikola Đuričko
TV Vijesti
2012
€5,000
Myanmar
Don't Forget the Lyrics Myanmar
Kaung Htet Zaw
MRTV-4
2024 – present
Ks200,000
New Zealand
Don't Forget the Lyrics!
Television New Zealand
Nigeria
Don't Forget the Lyrics (Nigeria)
Kamal Salau
All Major stations (Nigeria)
2008
₦20,000,000
Norway
Kan du teksten?
Tshawe Baqwa and Yosef Wolde-Mariam
TV2
April 2008
NKr 500,000
Poland
Tak to leciało!
Maciej Miecznikowski
TVP2
March 9, 2008 – June 3, 2012
zł 150,000 (series 1–8)zł 100,000 (series 9)
Sławomir Zapała
September 4, 2022 – present
zł 100,000
Portugal
Não te Esqueças da Letra!
João Paulo Rodrigues
RTP1
March 13, 2021
€10,000
Russia
Из песни слов не выкинешьIz pesni slov ne vykinesh
Vyacheslav Manucharov
NTV
August 31, 2013
Main prize: Flat in Moscow
Singapore
Don't Forget the Lyrics!
Gurmit Singh Adrian Pang (Comic Mayham episode)
MediaCorp Channel 5
November 27, 2008
S$500,000
我要唱下去
Zeng Guo Cheng
MediaCorp Channel 8
August 25, 2009
我要唱下去 (名人版)
Mark Lee
June 1, 2010
S$50,000
Slovakia
LYRICS - Vyspievaj si milión!
Andrej Bičan
TV JOJ
February 22, 2008
Sk 1,000,000
Spain
¡No te olvides de la canción!
Àngel Llàcer
La Sexta
September 26, 2008
€100,000
Taiwan
百萬大歌星 Million Singer
Harlem Yu
TTV
May 10, 2008 – August 11, 2012
NT$300,000
Tunisia
لسه فاكرLessa faker
Sami Fehri
El Hiwar El Tounsi
September 22, 2015
DT 20,000
United Kingdom
Don't Forget the Lyrics!
Shane Richie
Sky1
May 11, 2008 – August 9, 2009
£250,000
United States
Don't Forget the Lyrics!
Wayne Brady
FOX
July 11, 2007 – June 19, 2009
US$1,000,000
Niecy Nash
May 23, 2022 – present
Mark McGrath
Syndication
June 15, 2010 – May 27, 2011
US$50,000
Vietnam
Trò chơi âm nhạc – Don't Forget the Lyrics!
Nguyên Khang Quốc Minh
VTV3
November 7, 2012 – December 30, 2015
100.000.000VND
Australia
The Australian version was rumoured to be airing on Network Ten in late 2008, with a jackpot of $A 500,000, after strong ratings to the US version over the summer non-ratings period. However, there has never been any confirmation and no production has begun. This may be due to lower ratings for episodes of the US version airing during the ratings period.
Austria
The Austrian version premiered on March 6, 2008, and aired on ATV titled Sing & Win. It is hosted by Rainhard Fendrich. The jackpot for this version is €50,000. So far, only one person managed to win the jackpot: the female singer Alexandra Poetzelsberger.
Croatia
The Croatian version premiered on March 17, 2008, and aired on Nova TV titled Ne zaboravi stihove!. It is hosted by Igor Mešin. The jackpot for this version is kn 500.000.
Denmark
The Danish version premiered 22 March 2008 (Easter Saturday) and aired on TV 2 Denmark titled Så det synger (So it sings). It is hosted by Michael Carøe. The jackpot for this version is DKr 500.000.
France
Main article: N'oubliez pas les paroles!
The French version premiered in December 2007 and aired on France 2, titled N'oubliez pas les paroles!. It is hosted by Nagui. The jackpot for this version is €100,000.
Since April 7, 2014, a new version is aired and the jackpot is now €20,000.
In the new version, there are 2 contestants and, at the end, only one (the finalist) can try to win at most €20,000, the other is eliminated. The finalist of the previous episode comes back in the next episode and tries to reach the final. When they lose, they keep all the money previously won.
In February 2020, Margaux E. became the candidate that won the biggest amount of money (€530,000). In March 2023, Louis won the biggest number of episodes (65).
A special episode, 100% Tubes, aired on 11 June 2016 featuring four pairs of celebrities playing for up to €150,000 to be split among their chosen charities. In the final round, Gérard Holtz (sports journalist for France 2) and Amir (French representative at the Eurovision Song Contest 2016) worked together to win €90,000 for the four charities.
Greece
The Greek version premiered in November 2015 and is airing on Mega Channel, titled Den Eho Logia (I Have No Words). It is hosted by Greek actor and scriptwriter, Giorgos Kapoutzidis. The jackpot for this version is €10,000.
India
The Indian version premiered on November 9, 2007, and aired on STAR One titled Bol Baby Bol. It is hosted by Adnan Sami The jackpot for this version is Rs. 2,500,000/-. They have had one winner of the grand prize so far.
Indonesia
An Indonesian version, titled Missing Lyrics, airs on Trans TV. The top prize for this version is Rp. 100,000,000 (about US$10,000).
Iran
The Iranian version of Don't Forget the Lyrics called "Sher yadet nare" premiered on September 14, 2012, and aired on Manoto 1. Hosted by Omid Khalili Tajrishi. فارسى The jackpot for this version is US$10,000.
Italy
Main article: Canta e Vinci
The Italian version aired for a pilot in December 2007 on Italia 1 titled Canta e Vinci, then it had a season split between Spring and Summer. It is hosted by Amadeus & Checco Zalone. The jackpot for this version is €250,000.
The game show has come back on the air from 7 February 2022, on Nove presented by Gabriele Corsi, aired from Monday to Friday in access prime time with the title Don't Forget the Lyrics! - Stai sul pezzo.
Malaysia
The Malaysian version premiered on May 25, 2008, and aired on Astro Ria titled Jangan Lupa Lirik!. It is hosted by Aznil Nawawi The jackpot for this version is RM 1,000,000.
Mexico
The Mexican version was aired on TV Azteca and it is called ¿Te la sabes? Cántala.
Norway
The Norwegian version is hosted by Tshawe Baqwa and Yosef Wolde-Mariam from the Norwegian hip hop/rap band Madcon. It is aired on TV 2 (Norway).
Poland
Main article: Tak to leciało!
The Polish version’s first edition premiered on March 9, 2008 on TVP2, and run for four years to May 2012. It was hosted by Maciej Miecznikowski. The top prize was zł 150,000 (100,000 in the last series). The show returned in September 2022 with new host, Sławomir Zapała (along with Magdalena Kajrowicz-Zapała as hostess). The top prize remained at a decreased level of zł 100,000.
Singapore
Main article: Don't Forget the Lyrics! (Singaporean game show)
The Singapore version, hosted by Singapore Idol host Gurmit Singh, premiered on 27 November 2008 on MediaCorp Channel 5. It airs every Thursday night at 8.00pm. Contestants will sing their way to the top prize of S$500,000 (S$50,000 for the second Chinese version).
Two Mandarin version of Don't Forget the Lyrics (Chinese: 我要唱下去) were aired, both airing on 8pm every Tuesdays. The first version premiered on 25 August 2009 was hosted by Taiwanese host Sam Tseng (Chinese: 曾國城), and the series produced 14 episodes, four of which were celebrity episodes. The second version which featured entirely celebrities premiered on 1 June 2010, and was hosted by Singaporean comedian Mark Lee.
Slovakia
The Slovak version premiered on February 22, 2008, and aired on TV JOJ titled LYRICS - Vyspievaj si milión!. It is hosted by Andrej Bičan. The jackpot for this version is now €100,000 because Slovakia is joining the Eurozone, which results in the 1,000,000 crown prize being dropped.
Spain
The Spanish version premiered in September 2008 with the name "No te olvides de la canción" (Don't forget the song). It is aired at La Sexta and hosted by Operación Triunfo academy's former director Àngel Llàcer. The jackpot prize is €100,000.
Taiwan
The Taiwan version is called "百萬大歌星" (Million Singer), hosted by Harlem Yu. This program is aired in Taiwan Television Enterprise, Ltd. (TTV) and TVBS Asia. The top prize is NT$300,000. The Taiwan version premiered on 10 May 2008 and ended on 11 August 2012. Unlike other versions, there is an alert system to indicate on the next line, and using a no-guarantee progression level (the contestant may not leave the game at any point, and the contestant loses half of the winnings won up to the point for any incorrect lyrics).
United Kingdom
Main article: Don't Forget the Lyrics! (UK)
The UK version premiered on May 11, 2008, and aired on Sky One titled Don't Forget the Lyrics!. It is hosted by Shane Richie. The jackpot for this version is £250,000.
United States
Main article: Don't Forget the Lyrics! (American game show)
There have been three U.S. versions of Don't Forget the Lyrics!
The original ran from July 11, 2007, to June 19, 2009, airing on Fox. It was hosted by Wayne Brady with a $1,000,000 jackpot.
The second version premiered in September 2010 as a daily syndicated game show from 20th Television, and was hosted by Mark McGrath with a $50,000 jackpot.
The revival version premiered on May 23, 2022, on Fox. It is hosted by Niecy Nash with a $1,000,000 jackpot.
Vietnam
Unlike some countries, the Vietnamese version of Don't Forget the Lyrics (Vietnamese: Đừng quên lời bài hát) served as the third version of VTV3's music gameshow Trò chơi Âm nhạc (lit. Music Game), after The Lyrics Board, which was the second version of this music gameshow. This version premiered on November 7, 2012 and aired on VTV3. It is hosted by Nguyên Khang. The jackpot for this version is 100.000.000VND.
See also
The Singing Bee (American game show) - another lyrics-themed game show
The Lyrics Board - another lyrics-themed game show
Beat Shazam - another music-related game show
I Can See Your Voice - another music-related game show
References
^ "Programmes". Banijay.
^ Δεν εχω λογια. Archived from the original on 2020-09-09. Retrieved 2015-10-02.
^ "Sławomir poprowadzi reaktywowany program "Tak to leciało!", emisja jesienią w TVP2". www.wirtualnemedia.pl (in Polish). Retrieved 2022-05-23.
^ "mSTAR Online - mstar.com.my". Archived from the original on April 18, 2009.
^ "'No te olvides de la canción' llega a laSexta el próximo viernes 26 de septiembre".
^ "Phiên bản mới của Trò chơi Âm nhạc sắp lên sóng". VTV Online. November 1, 2012.
vteDon't Forget the Lyrics! series
France
Italy
Malaysia
Poland
Singapore
United States
United Kingdom
vteBanijay EntertainmentPredecessors
Endemol Shine Group
Endemol
Shine Group
Zodiak Media
SubsidiariesAmericas
Bunim/Murray Productions
Endemol Shine North America
51 Minds Entertainment
Authentic Entertainment
Original Media
Europe
Adventure Line Productions (France)
Brainpool TV (Germany)
Metronome Film & Television (Nordics)
UK
The Comedy Unit
Dragonfly
Kudos
Shine TV
Simon's Cat Ltd.
Kindle Entertainment
Tiger Aspect Productions
Wild Mercury Productions
Yellow Bird (Sweden)
Zodiak Kids Studios
Asia-Pacific
Australia
Beyond International
Endemol Shine Australia
Screentime
Reshet (Israel; 33%)
Franchises
All Together Now
Beauty and the Geek
Big Brother
The Biggest Loser
Dating in the Dark
Deal or No Deal
Don't Forget the Lyrics!
The Face
Fear Factor
MasterChef
Popstars
Star Academy
The Summit
Survivor
Your Face Sounds Familiar
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Don't Forget the Lyrics! (American game show)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%27t_Forget_the_Lyrics!_(American_game_show)"},{"link_name":"American show","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%27t_Forget_the_Lyrics!_(U.S._game_show)"},{"link_name":"Fox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fox_Broadcasting_Company"},{"link_name":"VH1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VH1"},{"link_name":"MyNetworkTV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MyNetworkTV"}],"text":"For the original American version, see Don't Forget the Lyrics! (American game show).Don't Forget the Lyrics! is an international music game show. The original American show aired on Fox from July 11, 2007, to June 19, 2009, and after a year off the air, a third overall season, and first as a syndicated show, began on June 15, 2010, in daytime syndication and in primetime on VH1 and in primetime on MyNetworkTV on October 5, 2010. On March 24, 2011, the show was canceled. A new primetime version, hosted by Niecy Nash, debuted on FOX on May 23, 2022. The show has spun off to numerous countries outside America using different top prize or game format.The primary difference between Don't Forget the Lyrics! and other music-based game shows is that artistic talent (such as the ability to sing or dance in an aesthetically pleasing way) is irrelevant to the contestants' chances of winning. In the words of one of their commercials prior to the first airing, \"You don't have to sing it well; you just have to sing it right\".","title":"Don't Forget the Lyrics!"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"U.S. version","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%27t_Forget_the_Lyrics!_(American_game_show)"},{"link_name":"genres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_genre"}],"text":"Each game is played by a single contestant who earns money incrementally based on a payout ladder by completing missing song lyrics on up to ten songs, testing the contestant's memory on songs. The following description of the show is based primarily on the U.S. version of Don't Forget the Lyrics!, though the general format applies to all international versions.The contestant is presented and chooses from a set of nine different genres. Two different songs (some versions presented three) were then presented to the contestant to choose one to sing, then the host inform on how many missing words the contestant must provide. The band or an ensemble will play the music and sings along, karaoke-style until the music stops, in which the monitor will display blank lines. In some versions such as Taiwan version, an alert marker will inform the contestant on the upcoming line. The contestant then fills in the missing lyrics (indicated in yellow text), and chose whether to risk their accumulated winnings by locking-in the lyrics (indicated in blue text). To advance to the next level, all the lyrics must be correct (indicated in green text) without singing any incorrect words (indicated in red text), otherwise the game ends and the contestant leaves with the last guaranteed amount or nothing depending on the level they lost. Before locking the lyrics, the contestant can end the game and leave with the current accumulated winnings won up to the point.The contestant is also presented with three \"Backups\" that help the contestant but may only be used once throughout a game:Backup Singer: The contestant receive assistance from one of two support members (or depending on version or game, an audience member or a team member) to help the contestant. The contestant may opt to choose their own lyrics or by going with their backup singer's lyrics if it is different.\nTwo Words: The contestant chooses any two of the missing words to complete the lyrics. In the Taiwanese version, Two Words backup provide only one missing word and is chosen at random.\nThree Lines: The contestant is given a set of three lines, among which one line is correct; any common words that shares within the three lines are automatically highlighted green.The contestant has no choice over the tenth and final song (usually with the generic genre mentioning the top prize amount, such as the \"Million Dollar Song\"), which is not revealed unless they risk their winnings and play on. In most versions, any unused backups before the final song are rendered unavailable to use. If the contestant completes the final lyric correctly, he or she wins the grand prize that varies from country to country.In some versions, notably the Taiwanese version, the contestant is required to sing the lyrics correctly even during the sing-along, but missing too many lyrics while the music plays may prompt the player to stop singing and is given the option to either end the game or try again, or prematurely ending the game with the same penalty as incorrect lyrics given.","title":"Gameplay"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Currently airing franchise","title":"International versions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Network Ten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_Ten"}],"sub_title":"Australia","text":"The Australian version was rumoured to be airing on Network Ten in late 2008, with a jackpot of $A 500,000, after strong ratings to the US version over the summer non-ratings period. However, there has never been any confirmation and no production has begun. This may be due to lower ratings for episodes of the US version airing during the ratings period.","title":"International versions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ATV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATV_(Austria)"},{"link_name":"Rainhard Fendrich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rainhard_Fendrich"},{"link_name":"Alexandra Poetzelsberger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20110107132624/http://www.alexa-music.net/"}],"sub_title":"Austria","text":"The Austrian version premiered on March 6, 2008, and aired on ATV titled Sing & Win. It is hosted by Rainhard Fendrich. The jackpot for this version is €50,000. So far, only one person managed to win the jackpot: the female singer Alexandra Poetzelsberger.","title":"International versions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Nova TV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nova_TV_(Croatia)"},{"link_name":"kn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croatian_kuna"}],"sub_title":"Croatia","text":"The Croatian version premiered on March 17, 2008, and aired on Nova TV titled Ne zaboravi stihove!. It is hosted by Igor Mešin. The jackpot for this version is kn 500.000.","title":"International versions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"TV 2 Denmark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TV_2_(Denmark)"},{"link_name":"DKr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_krone"}],"sub_title":"Denmark","text":"The Danish version premiered 22 March 2008 (Easter Saturday) and aired on TV 2 Denmark titled Så det synger (So it sings). It is hosted by Michael Carøe. The jackpot for this version is DKr 500.000.","title":"International versions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"France 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France_2"},{"link_name":"Nagui","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagui"},{"link_name":"Gérard Holtz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_Holtz"},{"link_name":"Amir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amir_Haddad"},{"link_name":"Eurovision Song Contest 2016","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurovision_Song_Contest_2016"}],"sub_title":"France","text":"The French version premiered in December 2007 and aired on France 2, titled N'oubliez pas les paroles!. It is hosted by Nagui. The jackpot for this version is €100,000.\nSince April 7, 2014, a new version is aired and the jackpot is now €20,000.\nIn the new version, there are 2 contestants and, at the end, only one (the finalist) can try to win at most €20,000, the other is eliminated. The finalist of the previous episode comes back in the next episode and tries to reach the final. When they lose, they keep all the money previously won.In February 2020, Margaux E. became the candidate that won the biggest amount of money (€530,000). In March 2023, Louis won the biggest number of episodes (65).A special episode, 100% Tubes, aired on 11 June 2016 featuring four pairs of celebrities playing for up to €150,000 to be split among their chosen charities. In the final round, Gérard Holtz (sports journalist for France 2) and Amir (French representative at the Eurovision Song Contest 2016) worked together to win €90,000 for the four charities.","title":"International versions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mega Channel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mega_Channel"},{"link_name":"Giorgos Kapoutzidis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giorgos_Kapoutzidis"}],"sub_title":"Greece","text":"The Greek version premiered in November 2015 and is airing on Mega Channel, titled Den Eho Logia (I Have No Words). It is hosted by Greek actor and scriptwriter, Giorgos Kapoutzidis. The jackpot for this version is €10,000.","title":"International versions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"STAR One","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STAR_One"},{"link_name":"Adnan Sami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adnan_Sami"},{"link_name":"Rs.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_rupee"}],"sub_title":"India","text":"The Indian version premiered on November 9, 2007, and aired on STAR One titled Bol Baby Bol. It is hosted by Adnan Sami The jackpot for this version is Rs. 2,500,000/-. They have had one winner of the grand prize so far.","title":"International versions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Trans TV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans_TV"},{"link_name":"Rp.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesian_rupiah"}],"sub_title":"Indonesia","text":"An Indonesian version, titled Missing Lyrics, airs on Trans TV. The top prize for this version is Rp. 100,000,000 (about US$10,000).","title":"International versions"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Iran","text":"The Iranian version of Don't Forget the Lyrics called \"Sher yadet nare\" premiered on September 14, 2012, and aired on Manoto 1. Hosted by Omid Khalili Tajrishi. فارسى The jackpot for this version is US$10,000.","title":"International versions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Italia 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italia_1"}],"sub_title":"Italy","text":"The Italian version aired for a pilot in December 2007 on Italia 1 titled Canta e Vinci, then it had a season split between Spring and Summer. It is hosted by Amadeus & Checco Zalone. The jackpot for this version is €250,000.The game show has come back on the air from 7 February 2022, on Nove presented by Gabriele Corsi, aired from Monday to Friday in access prime time with the title Don't Forget the Lyrics! - Stai sul pezzo.","title":"International versions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Astro Ria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astro_Ria"},{"link_name":"Jangan Lupa Lirik!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jangan_Lupa_Lirik!"},{"link_name":"Aznil Nawawi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aznil_Nawawi"},{"link_name":"RM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysian_ringgit"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"sub_title":"Malaysia","text":"The Malaysian version premiered on May 25, 2008, and aired on Astro Ria titled Jangan Lupa Lirik!. It is hosted by Aznil Nawawi The jackpot for this version is RM 1,000,000.[4]","title":"International versions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"TV Azteca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TV_Azteca"}],"sub_title":"Mexico","text":"The Mexican version was aired on TV Azteca and it is called ¿Te la sabes? Cántala.","title":"International versions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Madcon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madcon"},{"link_name":"TV 2 (Norway)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TV_2_(Norway)"}],"sub_title":"Norway","text":"The Norwegian version is hosted by Tshawe Baqwa and Yosef Wolde-Mariam from the Norwegian hip hop/rap band Madcon. It is aired on TV 2 (Norway).","title":"International versions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"TVP2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TVP2"},{"link_name":"zł","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_zloty"}],"sub_title":"Poland","text":"The Polish version’s first edition premiered on March 9, 2008 on TVP2, and run for four years to May 2012. It was hosted by Maciej Miecznikowski. The top prize was zł 150,000 (100,000 in the last series). The show returned in September 2022 with new host, Sławomir Zapała (along with Magdalena Kajrowicz-Zapała as hostess). The top prize remained at a decreased level of zł 100,000.","title":"International versions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Gurmit Singh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gurmit_Singh"},{"link_name":"MediaCorp Channel 5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_5_(Singaporean_TV_channel)"},{"link_name":"S$","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore_dollar"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"Sam Tseng","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam_Tseng"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"Mark Lee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Lee_(Singaporean_actor)"}],"sub_title":"Singapore","text":"The Singapore version, hosted by Singapore Idol host Gurmit Singh, premiered on 27 November 2008 on MediaCorp Channel 5. It airs every Thursday night at 8.00pm. Contestants will sing their way to the top prize of S$500,000 (S$50,000 for the second Chinese version).Two Mandarin version of Don't Forget the Lyrics (Chinese: 我要唱下去) were aired, both airing on 8pm every Tuesdays. The first version premiered on 25 August 2009 was hosted by Taiwanese host Sam Tseng (Chinese: 曾國城), and the series produced 14 episodes, four of which were celebrity episodes. The second version which featured entirely celebrities premiered on 1 June 2010, and was hosted by Singaporean comedian Mark Lee.","title":"International versions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"TV JOJ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TV_JOJ"},{"link_name":"Eurozone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurozone"}],"sub_title":"Slovakia","text":"The Slovak version premiered on February 22, 2008, and aired on TV JOJ titled LYRICS - Vyspievaj si milión!. It is hosted by Andrej Bičan. The jackpot for this version is now €100,000 because Slovakia is joining the Eurozone, which results in the 1,000,000 crown prize being dropped.","title":"International versions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"La Sexta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Sexta"},{"link_name":"Operación Triunfo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operaci%C3%B3n_Triunfo_(Spain)"},{"link_name":"Àngel Llàcer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%80ngel_Ll%C3%A0cer"},{"link_name":"€","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euro"}],"sub_title":"Spain","text":"The Spanish version premiered in September 2008 with the name \"No te olvides de la canción\" (Don't forget the song).[5] It is aired at La Sexta and hosted by Operación Triunfo academy's former director Àngel Llàcer. The jackpot prize is €100,000.","title":"International versions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"百萬大歌星","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%99%BE%E8%90%AC%E5%A4%A7%E6%AD%8C%E6%98%9F"},{"link_name":"Harlem Yu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harlem_Yu"},{"link_name":"Taiwan Television Enterprise, Ltd.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan_Television"}],"sub_title":"Taiwan","text":"The Taiwan version is called \"百萬大歌星\" (Million Singer), hosted by Harlem Yu. This program is aired in Taiwan Television Enterprise, Ltd. (TTV) and TVBS Asia. The top prize is NT$300,000. The Taiwan version premiered on 10 May 2008 and ended on 11 August 2012. Unlike other versions, there is an alert system to indicate on the next line, and using a no-guarantee progression level (the contestant may not leave the game at any point, and the contestant loses half of the winnings won up to the point for any incorrect lyrics).","title":"International versions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sky One","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sky_One"},{"link_name":"Shane Richie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shane_Richie"}],"sub_title":"United Kingdom","text":"The UK version premiered on May 11, 2008, and aired on Sky One titled Don't Forget the Lyrics!. It is hosted by Shane Richie. The jackpot for this version is £250,000.","title":"International versions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fox_Broadcasting_Company"},{"link_name":"Wayne Brady","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayne_Brady"},{"link_name":"20th Television","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/20th_Television"},{"link_name":"Mark McGrath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_McGrath"},{"link_name":"Fox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fox_Broadcasting_Company"},{"link_name":"Niecy Nash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niecy_Nash"}],"sub_title":"United States","text":"There have been three U.S. versions of Don't Forget the Lyrics!The original ran from July 11, 2007, to June 19, 2009, airing on Fox. It was hosted by Wayne Brady with a $1,000,000 jackpot.\nThe second version premiered in September 2010 as a daily syndicated game show from 20th Television, and was hosted by Mark McGrath with a $50,000 jackpot.\nThe revival version premiered on May 23, 2022, on Fox. It is hosted by Niecy Nash with a $1,000,000 jackpot.","title":"International versions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"VTV3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VTV3"},{"link_name":"Trò chơi Âm nhạc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Music_Game_(Vietnamese_gameshow)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"The Lyrics Board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lyrics_Board"},{"link_name":"VTV3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VTV3"}],"sub_title":"Vietnam","text":"Unlike some countries, the Vietnamese version of Don't Forget the Lyrics (Vietnamese: Đừng quên lời bài hát) served as the third version of VTV3's music gameshow Trò chơi Âm nhạc (lit. Music Game),[6] after The Lyrics Board, which was the second version of this music gameshow. This version premiered on November 7, 2012 and aired on VTV3. It is hosted by Nguyên Khang. The jackpot for this version is 100.000.000VND.","title":"International versions"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"The Singing Bee (American game show)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Singing_Bee_(American_game_show)"},{"title":"The Lyrics Board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lyrics_Board"},{"title":"Beat Shazam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beat_Shazam"},{"title":"I Can See Your Voice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Can_See_Your_Voice"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Programmes\". Banijay.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.banijayrights.com/programmes/8128","url_text":"\"Programmes\""}]},{"reference":"Δεν εχω λογια. Archived from the original on 2020-09-09. Retrieved 2015-10-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200909204014/https://www.megatv.com/denexologia/","url_text":"Δεν εχω λογια"},{"url":"http://www.megatv.com/denexologia","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Sławomir poprowadzi reaktywowany program \"Tak to leciało!\", emisja jesienią w TVP2\". www.wirtualnemedia.pl (in Polish). Retrieved 2022-05-23.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wirtualnemedia.pl/artykul/tak-to-lecialo-slawomir-prowadzacy","url_text":"\"Sławomir poprowadzi reaktywowany program \"Tak to leciało!\", emisja jesienią w TVP2\""}]},{"reference":"\"mSTAR Online - mstar.com.my\". Archived from the original on April 18, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090418010106/http://mstar.com.my/cms/content.jsp?id=com.tms.cms.article.Article_efbe9b66-c0a85062-ee21f500-1ebcd565","url_text":"\"mSTAR Online - mstar.com.my\""},{"url":"http://mstar.com.my/cms/content.jsp?id=com.tms.cms.article.Article_efbe9b66-c0a85062-ee21f500-1ebcd565","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"'No te olvides de la canción' llega a laSexta el próximo viernes 26 de septiembre\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.formulatv.com/1,20080917,8820,1.html","url_text":"\"'No te olvides de la canción' llega a laSexta el próximo viernes 26 de septiembre\""}]},{"reference":"\"Phiên bản mới của Trò chơi Âm nhạc sắp lên sóng\". VTV Online. November 1, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://vtv.vn/am-nhac/phien-ban-moi-cua-tro-choi-am-nhac-sap-len-song-66247.htm","url_text":"\"Phiên bản mới của Trò chơi Âm nhạc sắp lên sóng\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luminosity
|
Luminosity
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["1 Measurement","2 Stellar luminosity","3 Radio luminosity","4 Luminosity formulae","5 Relationship to magnitude","6 See also","7 References","8 Further reading","9 External links"]
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Measurement of radiant electromagnetic power emitted by an object
For other uses, see Luminosity (disambiguation).
The Sun has an intrinsic luminosity of 3.83×1026 watts. In astronomy, this amount is equal to one solar luminosity, represented by the symbol L⊙. A star with four times the radiative power of the Sun has a luminosity of 4 L⊙.
Luminosity is an absolute measure of radiated electromagnetic energy (light) per unit time, and is synonymous with the radiant power emitted by a light-emitting object. In astronomy, luminosity is the total amount of electromagnetic energy emitted per unit of time by a star, galaxy, or other astronomical objects.
In SI units, luminosity is measured in joules per second, or watts. In astronomy, values for luminosity are often given in the terms of the luminosity of the Sun, L⊙. Luminosity can also be given in terms of the astronomical magnitude system: the absolute bolometric magnitude (Mbol) of an object is a logarithmic measure of its total energy emission rate, while absolute magnitude is a logarithmic measure of the luminosity within some specific wavelength range or filter band.
In contrast, the term brightness in astronomy is generally used to refer to an object's apparent brightness: that is, how bright an object appears to an observer. Apparent brightness depends on both the luminosity of the object and the distance between the object and observer, and also on any absorption of light along the path from object to observer. Apparent magnitude is a logarithmic measure of apparent brightness. The distance determined by luminosity measures can be somewhat ambiguous, and is thus sometimes called the luminosity distance.
Measurement
When not qualified, the term "luminosity" means bolometric luminosity, which is measured either in the SI units, watts, or in terms of solar luminosities (L☉). A bolometer is the instrument used to measure radiant energy over a wide band by absorption and measurement of heating. A star also radiates neutrinos, which carry off some energy (about 2% in the case of the Sun), contributing to the star's total luminosity. The IAU has defined a nominal solar luminosity of 3.828×1026 W to promote publication of consistent and comparable values in units of the solar luminosity.
While bolometers do exist, they cannot be used to measure even the apparent brightness of a star because they are insufficiently sensitive across the electromagnetic spectrum and because most wavelengths do not reach the surface of the Earth. In practice bolometric magnitudes are measured by taking measurements at certain wavelengths and constructing a model of the total spectrum that is most likely to match those measurements. In some cases, the process of estimation is extreme, with luminosities being calculated when less than 1% of the energy output is observed, for example with a hot Wolf-Rayet star observed only in the infrared. Bolometric luminosities can also be calculated using a bolometric correction to a luminosity in a particular passband.
The term luminosity is also used in relation to particular passbands such as a visual luminosity of K-band luminosity. These are not generally luminosities in the strict sense of an absolute measure of radiated power, but absolute magnitudes defined for a given filter in a photometric system. Several different photometric systems exist. Some such as the UBV or Johnson system are defined against photometric standard stars, while others such as the AB system are defined in terms of a spectral flux density.
Stellar luminosity
A star's luminosity can be determined from two stellar characteristics: size and effective temperature. The former is typically represented in terms of solar radii, R⊙, while the latter is represented in kelvins, but in most cases neither can be measured directly. To determine a star's radius, two other metrics are needed: the star's angular diameter and its distance from Earth. Both can be measured with great accuracy in certain cases, with cool supergiants often having large angular diameters, and some cool evolved stars having masers in their atmospheres that can be used to measure the parallax using VLBI. However, for most stars the angular diameter or parallax, or both, are far below our ability to measure with any certainty. Since the effective temperature is merely a number that represents the temperature of a black body that would reproduce the luminosity, it obviously cannot be measured directly, but it can be estimated from the spectrum.
An alternative way to measure stellar luminosity is to measure the star's apparent brightness and distance. A third component needed to derive the luminosity is the degree of interstellar extinction that is present, a condition that usually arises because of gas and dust present in the interstellar medium (ISM), the Earth's atmosphere, and circumstellar matter. Consequently, one of astronomy's central challenges in determining a star's luminosity is to derive accurate measurements for each of these components, without which an accurate luminosity figure remains elusive. Extinction can only be measured directly if the actual and observed luminosities are both known, but it can be estimated from the observed colour of a star, using models of the expected level of reddening from the interstellar medium.
In the current system of stellar classification, stars are grouped according to temperature, with the massive, very young and energetic Class O stars boasting temperatures in excess of 30,000 K while the less massive, typically older Class M stars exhibit temperatures less than 3,500 K. Because luminosity is proportional to temperature to the fourth power, the large variation in stellar temperatures produces an even vaster variation in stellar luminosity. Because the luminosity depends on a high power of the stellar mass, high mass luminous stars have much shorter lifetimes. The most luminous stars are always young stars, no more than a few million years for the most extreme. In the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, the x-axis represents temperature or spectral type while the y-axis represents luminosity or magnitude. The vast majority of stars are found along the main sequence with blue Class O stars found at the top left of the chart while red Class M stars fall to the bottom right. Certain stars like Deneb and Betelgeuse are found above and to the right of the main sequence, more luminous or cooler than their equivalents on the main sequence. Increased luminosity at the same temperature, or alternatively cooler temperature at the same luminosity, indicates that these stars are larger than those on the main sequence and they are called giants or supergiants.
Blue and white supergiants are high luminosity stars somewhat cooler than the most luminous main sequence stars. A star like Deneb, for example, has a luminosity around 200,000 L⊙, a spectral type of A2, and an effective temperature around 8,500 K, meaning it has a radius around 203 R☉ (1.41×1011 m). For comparison, the red supergiant Betelgeuse has a luminosity around 100,000 L⊙, a spectral type of M2, and a temperature around 3,500 K, meaning its radius is about 1,000 R☉ (7.0×1011 m). Red supergiants are the largest type of star, but the most luminous are much smaller and hotter, with temperatures up to 50,000 K and more and luminosities of several million L⊙, meaning their radii are just a few tens of R⊙. For example, R136a1 has a temperature over 46,000 K and a luminosity of more than 6,100,000 L⊙ (mostly in the UV), it is only 39 R☉ (2.7×1010 m).
Radio luminosity
The luminosity of a radio source is measured in W Hz−1, to avoid having to specify a bandwidth over which it is measured. The observed strength, or flux density, of a radio source is measured in Jansky where 1 Jy = 10−26 W m−2 Hz−1.
For example, consider a 10 W transmitter at a distance of 1 million metres, radiating over a bandwidth of 1 MHz. By the time that power has reached the observer, the power is spread over the surface of a sphere with area 4πr2 or about 1.26×1013 m2, so its flux density is 10 / 106 / (1.26×1013) W m−2 Hz−1 = 8×107 Jy.
More generally, for sources at cosmological distances, a k-correction must be made for the spectral index α of the source, and a relativistic correction must be made for the fact that the frequency scale in the emitted rest frame is different from that in the observer's rest frame. So the full expression for radio luminosity, assuming isotropic emission, is
L
ν
=
S
o
b
s
4
π
D
L
2
(
1
+
z
)
1
+
α
{\displaystyle L_{\nu }={\frac {S_{\mathrm {obs} }4\pi {D_{L}}^{2}}{(1+z)^{1+\alpha }}}}
where Lν is the luminosity in W Hz−1, Sobs is the observed flux density in W m−2 Hz−1, DL is the luminosity distance in metres, z is the redshift, α is the spectral index (in the sense
I
∝
ν
α
{\displaystyle I\propto {\nu }^{\alpha }}
, and in radio astronomy, assuming thermal emission the spectral index is typically equal to 2.)
For example, consider a 1 Jy signal from a radio source at a redshift of 1, at a frequency of 1.4 GHz.
Ned Wright's cosmology calculator calculates a luminosity distance for a redshift of 1 to be 6701 Mpc = 2×1026 m giving a radio luminosity of 10−26 × 4π(2×1026)2 / (1 + 1)(1 + 2) = 6×1026 W Hz−1.
To calculate the total radio power, this luminosity must be integrated over the bandwidth of the emission. A common assumption is to set the bandwidth to the observing frequency, which effectively assumes the power radiated has uniform intensity from zero frequency up to the observing frequency. In the case above, the total power is 4×1027 × 1.4×109 = 5.7×1036 W. This is sometimes expressed in terms of the total (i.e. integrated over all wavelengths) luminosity of the Sun which is 3.86×1026 W, giving a radio power of 1.5×1010 L⊙.
Luminosity formulae
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Point source S is radiating light equally in all directions. The amount passing through an area A varies with the distance of the surface from the light.
The Stefan–Boltzmann equation applied to a black body gives the value for luminosity for a black body, an idealized object which is perfectly opaque and non-reflecting:
L
=
σ
A
T
4
,
{\displaystyle L=\sigma AT^{4},}
where A is the surface area, T is the temperature (in kelvins) and σ is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant, with a value of 5.670374419...×10−8 W⋅m−2⋅K−4.
Imagine a point source of light of luminosity
L
{\displaystyle L}
that radiates equally in all directions. A hollow sphere centered on the point would have its entire interior surface illuminated. As the radius increases, the surface area will also increase, and the constant luminosity has more surface area to illuminate, leading to a decrease in observed brightness.
F
=
L
A
,
{\displaystyle F={\frac {L}{A}},}
where
A
{\displaystyle A}
is the area of the illuminated surface.
F
{\displaystyle F}
is the flux density of the illuminated surface.
The surface area of a sphere with radius r is
A
=
4
π
r
2
{\displaystyle A=4\pi r^{2}}
, so for stars and other point sources of light:
F
=
L
4
π
r
2
,
{\displaystyle F={\frac {L}{4\pi r^{2}}}\,,}
where
r
{\displaystyle r}
is the distance from the observer to the light source.
For stars on the main sequence, luminosity is also related to mass approximately as below:
L
L
⊙
≈
(
M
M
⊙
)
3.5
.
{\displaystyle {\frac {L}{L_{\odot }}}\approx {\left({\frac {M}{M_{\odot }}}\right)}^{3.5}.}
If we define
M
{\displaystyle M}
as the mass of the star in terms of solar masses, the above relationship can be simplified as follows:
L
≈
M
3.5
.
{\displaystyle L\approx M^{3.5}.}
Relationship to magnitude
Main article: Bolometric magnitude
Luminosity is an intrinsic measurable property of a star independent of distance. The concept of magnitude, on the other hand, incorporates distance. The apparent magnitude is a measure of the diminishing flux of light as a result of distance according to the inverse-square law. The Pogson logarithmic scale is used to measure both apparent and absolute magnitudes, the latter corresponding to the brightness of a star or other celestial body as seen if it would be located at an interstellar distance of 10 parsecs (3.1×1017 metres). In addition to this brightness decrease from increased distance, there is an extra decrease of brightness due to extinction from intervening interstellar dust.
By measuring the width of certain absorption lines in the stellar spectrum, it is often possible to assign a certain luminosity class to a star without knowing its distance. Thus a fair measure of its absolute magnitude can be determined without knowing its distance nor the interstellar extinction.
In measuring star brightnesses, absolute magnitude, apparent magnitude, and distance are interrelated parameters—if two are known, the third can be determined. Since the Sun's luminosity is the standard, comparing these parameters with the Sun's apparent magnitude and distance is the easiest way to remember how to convert between them, although officially, zero point values are defined by the IAU.
The magnitude of a star, a unitless measure, is a logarithmic scale of observed visible brightness. The apparent magnitude is the observed visible brightness from Earth which depends on the distance of the object. The absolute magnitude is the apparent magnitude at a distance of 10 pc (3.1×1017 m), therefore the bolometric absolute magnitude is a logarithmic measure of the bolometric luminosity.
The difference in bolometric magnitude between two objects is related to their luminosity ratio according to:
M
bol1
−
M
bol2
=
−
2.5
log
10
L
1
L
2
{\displaystyle M_{\text{bol1}}-M_{\text{bol2}}=-2.5\log _{10}{\frac {L_{\text{1}}}{L_{\text{2}}}}}
where:
M
bol1
{\displaystyle M_{\text{bol1}}}
is the bolometric magnitude of the first object
M
bol2
{\displaystyle M_{\text{bol2}}}
is the bolometric magnitude of the second object.
L
1
{\displaystyle L_{\text{1}}}
is the first object's bolometric luminosity
L
2
{\displaystyle L_{\text{2}}}
is the second object's bolometric luminosity
The zero point of the absolute magnitude scale is actually defined as a fixed luminosity of 3.0128×1028 W. Therefore, the absolute magnitude can be calculated from a luminosity in watts:
M
b
o
l
=
−
2.5
log
10
L
∗
L
0
≈
−
2.5
log
10
L
∗
+
71.1974
{\displaystyle M_{\mathrm {bol} }=-2.5\log _{10}{\frac {L_{*}}{L_{0}}}\approx -2.5\log _{10}L_{*}+71.1974}
where L0 is the zero point luminosity 3.0128×1028 W
and the luminosity in watts can be calculated from an absolute magnitude (although absolute magnitudes are often not measured relative to an absolute flux):
L
∗
=
L
0
×
10
−
0.4
M
b
o
l
{\displaystyle L_{*}=L_{0}\times 10^{-0.4M_{\mathrm {bol} }}}
See also
Glossary of astronomy
List of brightest stars
List of most luminous stars
Orders of magnitude (power)
Solar luminosity
References
^ "Luminosity | astronomy". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 24 June 2018.
^ "* Luminosity (Astronomy) - Definition, meaning - Online Encyclopedia". en.mimi.hu. Retrieved 24 June 2018.
^ Hopkins, Jeanne (1980). Glossary of Astronomy and Astrophysics (2nd ed.). The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-35171-1.
^ Morison, Ian (2013). Introduction to Astronomy and Cosmology. Wiley. p. 193. ISBN 978-1-118-68152-7.
^ Bahcall, John. "Solar Neutrino Viewgraphs". Institute for Advanced Study School of Natural Science. Retrieved 3 July 2012.
^ Mamajek, E. E.; Prsa, A.; Torres, G.; Harmanec, P.; Asplund, M.; Bennett, P. D.; Capitaine, N.; Christensen-Dalsgaard, J.; Depagne, E.; Folkner, W. M.; Haberreiter, M.; Hekker, S.; Hilton, J. L.; Kostov, V.; Kurtz, D. W.; Laskar, J.; Mason, B. D.; Milone, E. F.; Montgomery, M. M.; Richards, M. T.; Schou, J.; Stewart, S. G. (2015). "IAU 2015 Resolution B3 on Recommended Nominal Conversion Constants for Selected Solar and Planetary Properties". arXiv:1510.07674 .
^ Nieva, M.-F (2013). "Temperature, gravity, and bolometric correction scales for non-supergiant OB stars". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 550: A26. arXiv:1212.0928. Bibcode:2013A&A...550A..26N. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201219677. S2CID 119275940.
^ Buzzoni, A; Patelli, L; Bellazzini, M; Pecci, F. Fusi; Oliva, E (2010). "Bolometric correction and spectral energy distribution of cool stars in Galactic clusters". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 403 (3): 1592. arXiv:1002.1972. Bibcode:2010MNRAS.403.1592B. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2009.16223.x. S2CID 119181086.
^ "ASTR 5610, Majewski . Lecture Notes". www.faculty.virginia.edu. Archived from the original on 24 April 2021. Retrieved 3 February 2019.
^ Delfosse, Xavier; et al. (December 2000), "Accurate masses of very low mass stars. IV. Improved mass-luminosity relations", Astronomy and Astrophysics, 364: 217–224, arXiv:astro-ph/0010586, Bibcode:2000A&A...364..217D
^ a b "Luminosity of Stars". Australia Telescope National Facility. 12 July 2004. Archived from the original on 9 August 2014.
^ Karttunen, Hannu (2003). Fundamental Astronomy. Springer-Verlag. p. 289. ISBN 978-3-540-00179-9.
^ Ledrew, Glenn (February 2001). "The Real Starry Sky" (PDF). Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada. 95: 32–33. Bibcode:2001JRASC..95...32L. Retrieved 2 July 2012.
^ Doran, E. I.; Crowther, P. A.; de Koter, A.; Evans, C. J.; McEvoy, C.; Walborn, N. R.; Bastian, N.; Bestenlehner, J. M.; Gräfener, G.; Herrero, A.; Kohler, K.; Maiz Apellaniz, J.; Najarro, F.; Puls, J.; Sana, H.; Schneider, F. R. N.; Taylor, W. D.; van Loon, J. Th.; Vink, J. S. (2013). "The VLT-FLAMES Tarantula Survey - XI. A census of the hot luminous stars and their feedback in 30 Doradus". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 558: A134. arXiv:1308.3412v1. Bibcode:2013A&A...558A.134D. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201321824. S2CID 118510909.
^ Singal, J.; Petrosian, V.; Lawrence, A.; Stawarz, Ł. (20 December 2011). "On the Radio and Optical Luminosity Evolution of Quasars". The Astrophysical Journal. 743 (2): 104. arXiv:1101.2930. Bibcode:2011ApJ...743..104S. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/743/2/104. S2CID 10579880.
^ "2022 CODATA Value: Stefan–Boltzmann constant". The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty. NIST. May 2024. Retrieved 18 May 2024.
^ Joshua E. Barnes (18 February 2003). "The Inverse-Square Law". Institute for Astronomy - University of Hawaii. Retrieved 26 September 2012.
^ "Magnitude System". Astronomy Notes. 2 November 2010. Retrieved 2 July 2012.
^ "Absolute Magnitude". csep10.phys.utk.edu. Retrieved 2 February 2019.
Further reading
Böhm-Vitense, Erika (1989). "Chapter 6. The luminosities of the stars". Introduction to Stellar Astrophysics: Volume 1, Basic Stellar Observations and Data. Cambridge University Press. pp. 41–48. ISBN 978-0-521-34869-0.
External links
Look up luminosity in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Luminosity calculator
Ned Wright's cosmology calculator
University of Southampton radio luminosity calculator at the Wayback Machine (archived 8 May 2015)
Portals: Astronomy Stars Spaceflight Outer space Solar System
Authority control databases: National
Germany
Israel
United States
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In astronomy, this amount is equal to one solar luminosity, represented by the symbol L⊙. A star with four times the radiative power of the Sun has a luminosity of 4 L⊙.Luminosity is an absolute measure of radiated electromagnetic energy (light) per unit time, and is synonymous with the radiant power emitted by a light-emitting object.[1][2] In astronomy, luminosity is the total amount of electromagnetic energy emitted per unit of time by a star, galaxy, or other astronomical objects.[3][4]In SI units, luminosity is measured in joules per second, or watts. In astronomy, values for luminosity are often given in the terms of the luminosity of the Sun, L⊙. Luminosity can also be given in terms of the astronomical magnitude system: the absolute bolometric magnitude (Mbol) of an object is a logarithmic measure of its total energy emission rate, while absolute magnitude is a logarithmic measure of the luminosity within some specific wavelength range or filter band.In contrast, the term brightness in astronomy is generally used to refer to an object's apparent brightness: that is, how bright an object appears to an observer. Apparent brightness depends on both the luminosity of the object and the distance between the object and observer, and also on any absorption of light along the path from object to observer. Apparent magnitude is a logarithmic measure of apparent brightness. 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A bolometer is the instrument used to measure radiant energy over a wide band by absorption and measurement of heating. A star also radiates neutrinos, which carry off some energy (about 2% in the case of the Sun), contributing to the star's total luminosity.[5] The IAU has defined a nominal solar luminosity of 3.828×1026 W to promote publication of consistent and comparable values in units of the solar luminosity.[6]While bolometers do exist, they cannot be used to measure even the apparent brightness of a star because they are insufficiently sensitive across the electromagnetic spectrum and because most wavelengths do not reach the surface of the Earth. In practice bolometric magnitudes are measured by taking measurements at certain wavelengths and constructing a model of the total spectrum that is most likely to match those measurements. In some cases, the process of estimation is extreme, with luminosities being calculated when less than 1% of the energy output is observed, for example with a hot Wolf-Rayet star observed only in the infrared. Bolometric luminosities can also be calculated using a bolometric correction to a luminosity in a particular passband.[7][8]The term luminosity is also used in relation to particular passbands such as a visual luminosity of K-band luminosity.[9] These are not generally luminosities in the strict sense of an absolute measure of radiated power, but absolute magnitudes defined for a given filter in a photometric system. Several different photometric systems exist. Some such as the UBV or Johnson system are defined against photometric standard stars, while others such as the AB system are defined in terms of a spectral flux density.[10]","title":"Measurement"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"effective temperature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effective_temperature"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AUSTRALIA2004-11"},{"link_name":"radii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radius"},{"link_name":"kelvins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin"},{"link_name":"angular diameter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_diameter"},{"link_name":"masers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrophysical_maser"},{"link_name":"VLBI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VLBI"},{"link_name":"interstellar extinction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_(astronomy)"},{"link_name":"interstellar medium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstellar_medium"},{"link_name":"Earth's atmosphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere"},{"link_name":"circumstellar matter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumstellar_dust"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KARTTUNEN1-12"},{"link_name":"stellar classification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_classification"},{"link_name":"Class O","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/O-type_main_sequence_star"},{"link_name":"K","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin"},{"link_name":"Class M","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_classification#Class_M"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LEDREW1-13"},{"link_name":"Hertzsprung–Russell diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hertzsprung%E2%80%93Russell_diagram"},{"link_name":"main sequence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_sequence"},{"link_name":"Deneb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deneb"},{"link_name":"Betelgeuse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betelgeuse"},{"link_name":"Deneb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deneb"},{"link_name":"R☉","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_radius"},{"link_name":"m","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metre"},{"link_name":"Betelgeuse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betelgeuse"},{"link_name":"R☉","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_radius"},{"link_name":"m","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metre"},{"link_name":"R136a1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R136a1"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-census-14"},{"link_name":"R☉","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_radius"},{"link_name":"m","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metre"}],"text":"A star's luminosity can be determined from two stellar characteristics: size and effective temperature.[11] The former is typically represented in terms of solar radii, R⊙, while the latter is represented in kelvins, but in most cases neither can be measured directly. To determine a star's radius, two other metrics are needed: the star's angular diameter and its distance from Earth. Both can be measured with great accuracy in certain cases, with cool supergiants often having large angular diameters, and some cool evolved stars having masers in their atmospheres that can be used to measure the parallax using VLBI. However, for most stars the angular diameter or parallax, or both, are far below our ability to measure with any certainty. Since the effective temperature is merely a number that represents the temperature of a black body that would reproduce the luminosity, it obviously cannot be measured directly, but it can be estimated from the spectrum.An alternative way to measure stellar luminosity is to measure the star's apparent brightness and distance. A third component needed to derive the luminosity is the degree of interstellar extinction that is present, a condition that usually arises because of gas and dust present in the interstellar medium (ISM), the Earth's atmosphere, and circumstellar matter. Consequently, one of astronomy's central challenges in determining a star's luminosity is to derive accurate measurements for each of these components, without which an accurate luminosity figure remains elusive.[12] Extinction can only be measured directly if the actual and observed luminosities are both known, but it can be estimated from the observed colour of a star, using models of the expected level of reddening from the interstellar medium.In the current system of stellar classification, stars are grouped according to temperature, with the massive, very young and energetic Class O stars boasting temperatures in excess of 30,000 K while the less massive, typically older Class M stars exhibit temperatures less than 3,500 K. Because luminosity is proportional to temperature to the fourth power, the large variation in stellar temperatures produces an even vaster variation in stellar luminosity.[13] Because the luminosity depends on a high power of the stellar mass, high mass luminous stars have much shorter lifetimes. The most luminous stars are always young stars, no more than a few million years for the most extreme. In the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, the x-axis represents temperature or spectral type while the y-axis represents luminosity or magnitude. The vast majority of stars are found along the main sequence with blue Class O stars found at the top left of the chart while red Class M stars fall to the bottom right. Certain stars like Deneb and Betelgeuse are found above and to the right of the main sequence, more luminous or cooler than their equivalents on the main sequence. Increased luminosity at the same temperature, or alternatively cooler temperature at the same luminosity, indicates that these stars are larger than those on the main sequence and they are called giants or supergiants.Blue and white supergiants are high luminosity stars somewhat cooler than the most luminous main sequence stars. A star like Deneb, for example, has a luminosity around 200,000 L⊙, a spectral type of A2, and an effective temperature around 8,500 K, meaning it has a radius around 203 R☉ (1.41×1011 m). For comparison, the red supergiant Betelgeuse has a luminosity around 100,000 L⊙, a spectral type of M2, and a temperature around 3,500 K, meaning its radius is about 1,000 R☉ (7.0×1011 m). Red supergiants are the largest type of star, but the most luminous are much smaller and hotter, with temperatures up to 50,000 K and more and luminosities of several million L⊙, meaning their radii are just a few tens of R⊙. For example, R136a1 has a temperature over 46,000 K and a luminosity of more than 6,100,000 L⊙[14] (mostly in the UV), it is only 39 R☉ (2.7×1010 m).","title":"Stellar luminosity"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"radio source","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_radio_source"},{"link_name":"bandwidth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandwidth_(signal_processing)"},{"link_name":"flux density","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flux_density"},{"link_name":"Jansky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jansky"},{"link_name":"k-correction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K-correction"},{"link_name":"rest frame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rest_frame"},{"link_name":"rest frame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rest_frame"},{"link_name":"isotropic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotropic"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"redshift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redshift"},{"link_name":"Ned Wright's cosmology calculator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/CosmoCalc.html"},{"link_name":"luminosity distance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luminosity_distance"},{"link_name":"Sun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun"}],"text":"The luminosity of a radio source is measured in W Hz−1, to avoid having to specify a bandwidth over which it is measured. The observed strength, or flux density, of a radio source is measured in Jansky where 1 Jy = 10−26 W m−2 Hz−1.For example, consider a 10 W transmitter at a distance of 1 million metres, radiating over a bandwidth of 1 MHz. By the time that power has reached the observer, the power is spread over the surface of a sphere with area 4πr2 or about 1.26×1013 m2, so its flux density is 10 / 106 / (1.26×1013) W m−2 Hz−1 = 8×107 Jy.More generally, for sources at cosmological distances, a k-correction must be made for the spectral index α of the source, and a relativistic correction must be made for the fact that the frequency scale in the emitted rest frame is different from that in the observer's rest frame. So the full expression for radio luminosity, assuming isotropic emission, isL\n \n ν\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n \n S\n \n \n o\n b\n s\n \n \n \n 4\n π\n \n \n \n D\n \n L\n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n (\n 1\n +\n z\n \n )\n \n 1\n +\n α\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle L_{\\nu }={\\frac {S_{\\mathrm {obs} }4\\pi {D_{L}}^{2}}{(1+z)^{1+\\alpha }}}}LνW Hz−1Sobsflux densityW m−2 Hz−1DLluminosity distancezαspectral indexI\n ∝\n \n \n ν\n \n \n α\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle I\\propto {\\nu }^{\\alpha }}equal to 2.[15]For example, consider a 1 Jy signal from a radio source at a redshift of 1, at a frequency of 1.4 GHz.\nNed Wright's cosmology calculator calculates a luminosity distance for a redshift of 1 to be 6701 Mpc = 2×1026 m giving a radio luminosity of 10−26 × 4π(2×1026)2 / (1 + 1)(1 + 2) = 6×1026 W Hz−1.To calculate the total radio power, this luminosity must be integrated over the bandwidth of the emission. A common assumption is to set the bandwidth to the observing frequency, which effectively assumes the power radiated has uniform intensity from zero frequency up to the observing frequency. In the case above, the total power is 4×1027 × 1.4×109 = 5.7×1036 W. This is sometimes expressed in terms of the total (i.e. integrated over all wavelengths) luminosity of the Sun which is 3.86×1026 W, giving a radio power of 1.5×1010 L⊙.","title":"Radio luminosity"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Inverse_square_law.svg"},{"link_name":"Stefan–Boltzmann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stefan%E2%80%93Boltzmann_law"},{"link_name":"black body","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_body"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AUSTRALIA2004-11"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-physconst-sigma-16"},{"link_name":"sphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphere"},{"link_name":"flux density","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flux_density"},{"link_name":"main sequence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_sequence"},{"link_name":"related to mass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass%E2%80%93luminosity_relation"},{"link_name":"solar masses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_mass"}],"text":"Point source S is radiating light equally in all directions. The amount passing through an area A varies with the distance of the surface from the light.The Stefan–Boltzmann equation applied to a black body gives the value for luminosity for a black body, an idealized object which is perfectly opaque and non-reflecting:[11]L\n =\n σ\n A\n \n T\n \n 4\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle L=\\sigma AT^{4},}ATσStefan–Boltzmann constant5.670374419...×10−8 W⋅m−2⋅K−4[16]Imagine a point source of light of luminosity \n \n \n \n L\n \n \n {\\displaystyle L}\n \n that radiates equally in all directions. A hollow sphere centered on the point would have its entire interior surface illuminated. As the radius increases, the surface area will also increase, and the constant luminosity has more surface area to illuminate, leading to a decrease in observed brightness.F\n =\n \n \n L\n A\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F={\\frac {L}{A}},}A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A}\n \n is the area of the illuminated surface.\n\n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F}\n \n is the flux density of the illuminated surface.The surface area of a sphere with radius r is \n \n \n \n A\n =\n 4\n π\n \n r\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle A=4\\pi r^{2}}\n \n, so for stars and other point sources of light:F\n =\n \n \n L\n \n 4\n π\n \n r\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F={\\frac {L}{4\\pi r^{2}}}\\,,}r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle r}For stars on the main sequence, luminosity is also related to mass approximately as below:L\n \n L\n \n ⊙\n \n \n \n \n ≈\n \n \n \n (\n \n \n M\n \n M\n \n ⊙\n \n \n \n \n )\n \n \n \n 3.5\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\frac {L}{L_{\\odot }}}\\approx {\\left({\\frac {M}{M_{\\odot }}}\\right)}^{3.5}.}If we define \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n {\\displaystyle M}\n \n as the mass of the star in terms of solar masses, the above relationship can be simplified as follows:L\n ≈\n \n M\n \n 3.5\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle L\\approx M^{3.5}.}","title":"Luminosity formulae"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"apparent magnitude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apparent_magnitude"},{"link_name":"inverse-square law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse-square_law"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HAWAII2003-17"},{"link_name":"celestial body","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celestial_body"},{"link_name":"parsecs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parsec"},{"link_name":"metres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metre"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ASTRONOTES1-18"},{"link_name":"stellar spectrum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_classification"},{"link_name":"unitless","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unitless"},{"link_name":"Earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth"},{"link_name":"pc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parsec"},{"link_name":"m","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metre"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"text":"Luminosity is an intrinsic measurable property of a star independent of distance. The concept of magnitude, on the other hand, incorporates distance. The apparent magnitude is a measure of the diminishing flux of light as a result of distance according to the inverse-square law.[17] The Pogson logarithmic scale is used to measure both apparent and absolute magnitudes, the latter corresponding to the brightness of a star or other celestial body as seen if it would be located at an interstellar distance of 10 parsecs (3.1×1017 metres). In addition to this brightness decrease from increased distance, there is an extra decrease of brightness due to extinction from intervening interstellar dust.[18]By measuring the width of certain absorption lines in the stellar spectrum, it is often possible to assign a certain luminosity class to a star without knowing its distance. Thus a fair measure of its absolute magnitude can be determined without knowing its distance nor the interstellar extinction.In measuring star brightnesses, absolute magnitude, apparent magnitude, and distance are interrelated parameters—if two are known, the third can be determined. Since the Sun's luminosity is the standard, comparing these parameters with the Sun's apparent magnitude and distance is the easiest way to remember how to convert between them, although officially, zero point values are defined by the IAU.The magnitude of a star, a unitless measure, is a logarithmic scale of observed visible brightness. The apparent magnitude is the observed visible brightness from Earth which depends on the distance of the object. The absolute magnitude is the apparent magnitude at a distance of 10 pc (3.1×1017 m), therefore the bolometric absolute magnitude is a logarithmic measure of the bolometric luminosity.The difference in bolometric magnitude between two objects is related to their luminosity ratio according to:[19]M\n \n bol1\n \n \n −\n \n M\n \n bol2\n \n \n =\n −\n 2.5\n \n log\n \n 10\n \n \n \n \n \n \n L\n \n 1\n \n \n \n L\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle M_{\\text{bol1}}-M_{\\text{bol2}}=-2.5\\log _{10}{\\frac {L_{\\text{1}}}{L_{\\text{2}}}}}where:M\n \n bol1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle M_{\\text{bol1}}}\n \n is the bolometric magnitude of the first object\n\n \n \n \n \n M\n \n bol2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle M_{\\text{bol2}}}\n \n is the bolometric magnitude of the second object.\n\n \n \n \n \n L\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle L_{\\text{1}}}\n \n is the first object's bolometric luminosity\n\n \n \n \n \n L\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle L_{\\text{2}}}\n \n is the second object's bolometric luminosityThe zero point of the absolute magnitude scale is actually defined as a fixed luminosity of 3.0128×1028 W. Therefore, the absolute magnitude can be calculated from a luminosity in watts:M\n \n \n b\n o\n l\n \n \n \n =\n −\n 2.5\n \n log\n \n 10\n \n \n \n \n \n \n L\n \n ∗\n \n \n \n L\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n ≈\n −\n 2.5\n \n log\n \n 10\n \n \n \n \n L\n \n ∗\n \n \n +\n 71.1974\n \n \n {\\displaystyle M_{\\mathrm {bol} }=-2.5\\log _{10}{\\frac {L_{*}}{L_{0}}}\\approx -2.5\\log _{10}L_{*}+71.1974}L03.0128×1028 Wand the luminosity in watts can be calculated from an absolute magnitude (although absolute magnitudes are often not measured relative to an absolute flux):L\n \n ∗\n \n \n =\n \n L\n \n 0\n \n \n ×\n \n 10\n \n −\n 0.4\n \n M\n \n \n b\n o\n l\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle L_{*}=L_{0}\\times 10^{-0.4M_{\\mathrm {bol} }}}","title":"Relationship to magnitude"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"Chapter 6. The luminosities of the stars\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=JWrtilsCycQC&pg=PA41"},{"link_name":"Cambridge University Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-521-34869-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-34869-0"}],"text":"Böhm-Vitense, Erika (1989). \"Chapter 6. The luminosities of the stars\". Introduction to Stellar Astrophysics: Volume 1, Basic Stellar Observations and Data. Cambridge University Press. pp. 41–48. ISBN 978-0-521-34869-0.","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"The Sun has an intrinsic luminosity of 3.83×1026 watts. In astronomy, this amount is equal to one solar luminosity, represented by the symbol L⊙. A star with four times the radiative power of the Sun has a luminosity of 4 L⊙.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/The_Sun_in_white_light.jpg/220px-The_Sun_in_white_light.jpg"},{"image_text":"Point source S is radiating light equally in all directions. The amount passing through an area A varies with the distance of the surface from the light.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Inverse_square_law.svg/220px-Inverse_square_law.svg.png"}]
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[{"title":"Glossary of astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy"},{"title":"List of brightest stars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_brightest_stars"},{"title":"List of most luminous stars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_most_luminous_stars"},{"title":"Orders of magnitude (power)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(power)"},{"title":"Solar luminosity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_luminosity"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Luminosity | astronomy\". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 24 June 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britannica.com/science/luminosity","url_text":"\"Luminosity | astronomy\""}]},{"reference":"\"* Luminosity (Astronomy) - Definition, meaning - Online Encyclopedia\". en.mimi.hu. Retrieved 24 June 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.mimi.hu/astronomy/luminosity.html","url_text":"\"* Luminosity (Astronomy) - Definition, meaning - Online Encyclopedia\""}]},{"reference":"Hopkins, Jeanne (1980). Glossary of Astronomy and Astrophysics (2nd ed.). The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-35171-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_University_of_Chicago_Press","url_text":"The University of Chicago Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-35171-1","url_text":"978-0-226-35171-1"}]},{"reference":"Morison, Ian (2013). Introduction to Astronomy and Cosmology. Wiley. p. 193. ISBN 978-1-118-68152-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Fh_yo8Jv7t8C&pg=PT193","url_text":"Introduction to Astronomy and Cosmology"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-68152-7","url_text":"978-1-118-68152-7"}]},{"reference":"Bahcall, John. \"Solar Neutrino Viewgraphs\". Institute for Advanced Study School of Natural Science. Retrieved 3 July 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_N._Bahcall","url_text":"Bahcall, John"},{"url":"http://www.sns.ias.edu/~jnb/SNviewgraphs/snviewgraphs.html","url_text":"\"Solar Neutrino Viewgraphs\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Advanced_Study","url_text":"Institute for Advanced Study"}]},{"reference":"Mamajek, E. E.; Prsa, A.; Torres, G.; Harmanec, P.; Asplund, M.; Bennett, P. D.; Capitaine, N.; Christensen-Dalsgaard, J.; Depagne, E.; Folkner, W. M.; Haberreiter, M.; Hekker, S.; Hilton, J. L.; Kostov, V.; Kurtz, D. W.; Laskar, J.; Mason, B. D.; Milone, E. F.; Montgomery, M. M.; Richards, M. T.; Schou, J.; Stewart, S. G. (2015). \"IAU 2015 Resolution B3 on Recommended Nominal Conversion Constants for Selected Solar and Planetary Properties\". arXiv:1510.07674 [astro-ph.SR].","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/1510.07674","url_text":"1510.07674"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/archive/astro-ph.SR","url_text":"astro-ph.SR"}]},{"reference":"Nieva, M.-F (2013). \"Temperature, gravity, and bolometric correction scales for non-supergiant OB stars\". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 550: A26. arXiv:1212.0928. Bibcode:2013A&A...550A..26N. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201219677. S2CID 119275940.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/1212.0928","url_text":"1212.0928"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013A&A...550A..26N","url_text":"2013A&A...550A..26N"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1051%2F0004-6361%2F201219677","url_text":"10.1051/0004-6361/201219677"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119275940","url_text":"119275940"}]},{"reference":"Buzzoni, A; Patelli, L; Bellazzini, M; Pecci, F. Fusi; Oliva, E (2010). \"Bolometric correction and spectral energy distribution of cool stars in Galactic clusters\". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 403 (3): 1592. arXiv:1002.1972. Bibcode:2010MNRAS.403.1592B. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2009.16223.x. S2CID 119181086.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/1002.1972","url_text":"1002.1972"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010MNRAS.403.1592B","url_text":"2010MNRAS.403.1592B"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2966.2009.16223.x","url_text":"10.1111/j.1365-2966.2009.16223.x"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119181086","url_text":"119181086"}]},{"reference":"\"ASTR 5610, Majewski [SPRING 2016]. Lecture Notes\". www.faculty.virginia.edu. Archived from the original on 24 April 2021. Retrieved 3 February 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210424171700/https://faculty.virginia.edu/ASTR5610/lectures/LECTURE2/lec2a.html","url_text":"\"ASTR 5610, Majewski [SPRING 2016]. Lecture Notes\""},{"url":"http://www.faculty.virginia.edu/ASTR5610/lectures/LECTURE2/lec2a.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Delfosse, Xavier; et al. (December 2000), \"Accurate masses of very low mass stars. IV. Improved mass-luminosity relations\", Astronomy and Astrophysics, 364: 217–224, arXiv:astro-ph/0010586, Bibcode:2000A&A...364..217D","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0010586","url_text":"astro-ph/0010586"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000A&A...364..217D","url_text":"2000A&A...364..217D"}]},{"reference":"\"Luminosity of Stars\". Australia Telescope National Facility. 12 July 2004. Archived from the original on 9 August 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140809144429/http://www.atnf.csiro.au/outreach//education/senior/astrophysics/photometry_luminosity.html","url_text":"\"Luminosity of Stars\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia_Telescope_National_Facility","url_text":"Australia Telescope National Facility"},{"url":"http://outreach.atnf.csiro.au/education/senior/astrophysics/photometry_luminosity.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Karttunen, Hannu (2003). Fundamental Astronomy. Springer-Verlag. p. 289. ISBN 978-3-540-00179-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=OEhHqwW-kgQC","url_text":"Fundamental Astronomy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer-Verlag","url_text":"Springer-Verlag"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-00179-9","url_text":"978-3-540-00179-9"}]},{"reference":"Ledrew, Glenn (February 2001). \"The Real Starry Sky\" (PDF). Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada. 95: 32–33. Bibcode:2001JRASC..95...32L. Retrieved 2 July 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?2001JRASC..95...32L&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper=YES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf","url_text":"\"The Real Starry Sky\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001JRASC..95...32L","url_text":"2001JRASC..95...32L"}]},{"reference":"Doran, E. 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Lecture Notes\""},{"Link":"http://www.faculty.virginia.edu/ASTR5610/lectures/LECTURE2/lec2a.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0010586","external_links_name":"astro-ph/0010586"},{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000A&A...364..217D","external_links_name":"2000A&A...364..217D"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140809144429/http://www.atnf.csiro.au/outreach//education/senior/astrophysics/photometry_luminosity.html","external_links_name":"\"Luminosity of Stars\""},{"Link":"http://outreach.atnf.csiro.au/education/senior/astrophysics/photometry_luminosity.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=OEhHqwW-kgQC","external_links_name":"Fundamental Astronomy"},{"Link":"http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?2001JRASC..95...32L&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper=YES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf","external_links_name":"\"The Real Starry Sky\""},{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001JRASC..95...32L","external_links_name":"2001JRASC..95...32L"},{"Link":"https://arxiv.org/abs/1308.3412v1","external_links_name":"1308.3412v1"},{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013A&A...558A.134D","external_links_name":"2013A&A...558A.134D"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1051%2F0004-6361%2F201321824","external_links_name":"10.1051/0004-6361/201321824"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:118510909","external_links_name":"118510909"},{"Link":"https://arxiv.org/abs/1101.2930","external_links_name":"1101.2930"},{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011ApJ...743..104S","external_links_name":"2011ApJ...743..104S"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0004-637X%2F743%2F2%2F104","external_links_name":"10.1088/0004-637X/743/2/104"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:10579880","external_links_name":"10579880"},{"Link":"https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?sigma","external_links_name":"\"2022 CODATA Value: Stefan–Boltzmann constant\""},{"Link":"http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/~barnes/ASTR110L_S03/inversesquare.html","external_links_name":"\"The Inverse-Square Law\""},{"Link":"http://www.astronomynotes.com/starprop/s4.htm","external_links_name":"\"Magnitude System\""},{"Link":"http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/OJTA2dev/ojta/c2c/ordinary_stars/magnitudes/absolute_tl.html","external_links_name":"\"Absolute Magnitude\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=JWrtilsCycQC&pg=PA41","external_links_name":"\"Chapter 6. The luminosities of the stars\""},{"Link":"https://www.fxsolver.com/browse/formulas/Luminosity+of+a+Star","external_links_name":"Luminosity calculator"},{"Link":"http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/CosmoCalc.html","external_links_name":"Ned Wright's cosmology calculator"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150508152746/http://www.astro.soton.ac.uk/~td/flux_convert.html","external_links_name":"University of Southampton radio luminosity calculator"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/4167472-8","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007292431505171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85016918","external_links_name":"United States"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_Globe
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Shakespeare's Globe
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["1 Background","2 Planning and construction","3 Personnel","4 Location and features","5 Productions","6 Sam Wanamaker Playhouse","7 Read Not Dead","8 Globe on Screen","9 Other replicas","10 See also (period theatres)","11 Notes","12 Further reading","13 External links"]
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Coordinates: 51°30′29″N 0°5′50″W / 51.50806°N 0.09722°W / 51.50806; -0.09722Theatre in London, England
Shakespeare's GlobeThe GlobeShakespeare's Globe in August 2014Shakespeare's GlobeLocation within City of LondonAddressNew Globe WalkLondon, SE1United KingdomCoordinates51°30′29″N 0°5′50″W / 51.50806°N 0.09722°W / 51.50806; -0.09722Public transit Blackfriars
Mansion House
London BridgeOwnerThe Shakespeare Globe TrustConstructionOpenedJune 1997Years active1997–presentArchitectPentagramWebsiteshakespearesglobe.com
Shakespeare's Globe is a realistic true-to-history reconstruction of the Globe Theatre, an Elizabethan playhouse first built in 1599 for which William Shakespeare wrote his plays. Like the original, it is located on the south bank of the River Thames, in Southwark, London. The reconstruction was completed in 1997 and while concentrating on Shakespeare's work also hosts a variety of other theatrical productions. Part of the Globe's complex also hosts the Sam Wanamaker Playhouse for smaller, indoor productions, in a setting which also recalls the period.
Background
The original globe
theatre was built in 1599 by the Lord Chamberlain's Men, destroyed by a fire in 1613, rebuilt in 1614, and then demolished in 1644. The modern Globe Theatre is an academic approximation based on available evidence of the 1599 and 1614 buildings. It is considered quite realistic, though modern safety requirements mean that it accommodates only 1,400 spectators compared to the original theatre's 3,000.
The modern Shakespeare's Globe was founded by the actor and director Sam Wanamaker, and built about 230 metres (750 ft) from the site of the original theatre in the historic open-air style. It opened to the public in 1997, with a production of Henry V.
Michelle Terry currently serves as artistic director. She is the second actor-manager in charge of the organisation, following Mark Rylance, the founding artistic director.
Elevated view of the Globe
The Globe set up for a performance of Romeo and Juliet (2019)
The site also includes the Sam Wanamaker Playhouse, an indoor theatre which opened in January 2014. This is a smaller, candle-lit space based on historic plans for an indoor playhouse of Jacobean era London (possibly Blackfriars Theatre).
The Shakespeare's Globe Studios, an educational and rehearsal studio complex, is situated just around the corner from the main site.
Planning and construction
In 1970, American actor and director Sam Wanamaker founded the Shakespeare Globe Trust and the International Shakespeare Globe Centre, with the objective of building a faithful recreation of Shakespeare's Globe close to its original location at Bankside, Southwark. This inspired the founding of a number of Shakespeare's Globe Centres around the world, an activity in which Wanamaker also participated.
Stage and galleries
Many people maintained that a faithful Globe reconstruction was impossible to achieve due to the complications in the 16th-century design and modern fire safety requirements; however, Wanamaker and his associate Diana Devlin persevered in their vision for over 20 years to create the theatre. A new Globe theatre was eventually built according to a design based on the research of historical adviser John Orrell.
It was Wanamaker's wish that the new building recreate the Globe as it existed during most of Shakespeare's time there; that is, the 1599 building rather than its 1614 replacement. A study was made of what was known of the construction of The Theatre, the building from which the 1599 Globe obtained much of its timber, as a starting point for the modern building's design. To this were added: examinations of other surviving London buildings from the latter part of the 16th century; comparisons with other theatres of the period (particularly the Fortune Playhouse, for which the building contract survives); and contemporary drawings and descriptions of the first Globe. For practical reasons, some features of the 1614 rebuilding were incorporated into the modern design, such as the external staircases. The design team consisted of architect Theo Crosby of Pentagram, structural and services engineer Buro Happold, and quantity surveyors from Boyden & Co. The construction, building research and historic design details were undertaken by McCurdy & Co.
In 1994, the name "Globe Theatre" was used by one of the theatres in Shaftesbury Avenue; to make the name available and to avoid confusion, that year it was renamed as the Gielgud Theatre.
The theatre opened in 1997 under the name "Shakespeare's Globe Theatre", and has staged plays every summer.
Personnel
Mark Rylance became the first artistic director in 1995 and was succeeded by Dominic Dromgoole in 2006. In January 2016, Emma Rice began her term as the Globe's third artistic director, but in October 2016 announced her decision to resign from the position. On 24 July 2017 her successor was announced to be the actor and writer Michelle Terry.
Location and features
The theatre is located on Bankside, about 230 metres (750 ft) from the original site—measured from centre to centre. Listed Georgian townhouses now occupy part of the original site and could not be considered for removal. Like the original Globe, the modern theatre has a thrust stage that projects into a large circular yard surrounded by three tiers of raked seating. The only covered parts of the amphitheatre are the stage and the seating areas.
The reconstruction was carefully researched so that the new building would be as faithful a replica of the original as possible. This was aided by the discovery of the remains of the original Rose Theatre, a nearby neighbour to the Globe, as final plans were being made for the site and structure.
The building itself is constructed entirely of English oak, with mortise and tenon joints and is, in this sense, an "authentic" 16th-century timber-framed building as no structural steel was used. The seats are simple benches (though cushions can be hired for performances) and the Globe has what has been claimed to be the first and only thatched roof permitted in London since the Great Fire of London in 1666. The modern thatch is well protected by fire retardants, and sprinklers on the roof ensure further protection against fire. The pit has a concrete surface, as opposed to earthen-ground covered with strewn rush from the original theatre. The theatre has extensive backstage support areas for actors and musicians, and is attached to a modern lobby, restaurant, gift shop and visitor centre. Seating capacity is 873 with an additional 700 "Groundlings" standing in the yard, making up an audience about half the size of a typical audience in Shakespeare's time.
Productions
Plays are staged during the summer, usually between May and the first week of October; in the winter, the theatre is used for educational purposes. Tours are available all year round. Some productions are filmed and released to cinemas as Globe on Screen productions (usually in the year following the live production), and on DVD and Blu-ray.
For its first 18 seasons, performances were engineered to duplicate the original environment of Shakespeare's Globe; there were no spotlights, and plays were staged during daylight hours and in the evenings (with the help of interior floodlights), there were no microphones, speakers or amplification. All music was performed live, most often on period instruments; and the actors and the audience could see and interact easily with each other, adding to the feeling of a shared experience and of a community event.
Typically, performances have been created in the spirit of experimentation to explore the original playing conditions of the 1599 Globe. Modern and conventional theatre technology such as spotlights and microphones were not used during this period. Beginning in the 2016 season, the new artistic director, Emma Rice, began experimenting with the theatre space by installing a temporary lighting and sound rig. The current artistic director, Michelle Terry, has brought back the experimentation on original playing conditions.
The Globe operates without any public subsidy and generates £24 million in revenue per year.
Acting and design students from the Mason Gross School of the Arts at New Jersey's Rutgers University study abroad at the theater as part of the Rutgers Conservatory at Shakespeare's Globe, a longstanding partnership between the institutions.
Sam Wanamaker Playhouse
Main article: Sam Wanamaker Playhouse
Adjacent to the Globe is the Sam Wanamaker Playhouse, an indoor theatre modelled after a Jacobean-era theatre and used for performances during the winter months when the main theatre cannot be used.
Read Not Dead
Read Not Dead is a series of play readings, or staged "performances with scripts" that have been presented as part of the educational programme of Shakespeare's Globe since 1995. The plays selected are those that were written between 1576 and 1642 by Shakespeare's contemporaries or near contemporaries. These readings are performed at Shakespeare's Globe Studios as well as other theatres, halls, festivals and fields nationwide.
In 2013 there were Read Not Dead performances at the Wilderness Festival and at the Glastonbury Festival. In 2014, the final production in Read not Dead's first season was performed at the Sam Wanamaker Playhouse, which is the indoor Jacobean style theatre. The play selected for that occasion was Robert Daborne's A Christian Turn'd Turk.
Globe on Screen
The Globe's productions are often screened in cinemas and released on DVD and Blu-ray. In 2015, the venue launched Globe Player, a video-on-demand service enabling viewers to watch the plays on laptops and mobile devices. The theatre was the first in the world to make its plays available as video-on-demand.
Other replicas
Replicas and free interpretations of the Globe have been built around the world:
Argentina
Argentina: Teatro Shakespeare.
Teatro Shakespeare (Buenos Aires, Argentina)
Germany
Globe-Theater, Schwäbisch Hall, Baden-Württemberg, Germany
Neuss am Rhein: Globe Neuss
Rust, Baden, Germany: in the Europa-Park
Schwäbisch Hall, Baden-Württemberg: houses a replica of the interior of the Globe Theatre.
Italy
Rome: Globe Theatre
The interior of "Silvano Toti Globe Theatre", Rome
Japan
Tokyo: Panasonic Globe Theatre
Tokyo: Meisei University's Shakespeare Hall, at its Hino campus
New Zealand
Auckland: Pop-up Globe
United States
Ashland, Oregon: Allen Elizabethan Theatre
Austin, Texas: Curtain Theatre
Cedar City, Utah: Adams Shakespearean Theatre
Dallas, Texas: Old Globe Theatre
Odessa, Texas: Globe of the Great Southwest
San Diego, California: Old Globe Theatre
Williamsburg, Virginia: Globe Theatre, in Busch Gardens Williamsburg
Twin Lake, Michigan: Blue Lake Fine Arts Camp, The Rose Playhouse.
Hempsted, New York: Hofstra University, Pop-up Globe
See also (period theatres)
London portal
Curtain Theatre
The Rose
Notes
^ Mulryne, J. R. Shewing, Margaret. Gurr, Andrew. Shakespeare's Globe Rebuilt. Cambridge University Press (1997) ISBN 978-0521599887 p. 21
^ Steves, Rick. Openshaw, Gene. Rick Steves London 2015. Avalon Travel (2014) ISBN 978-1612389769
^ "Diana Devlin obituary". The Guardian. Retrieved 30 November 2022.
^ Martin, Douglas (30 October 2008). "John Orrell, 68, Historian on New Globe Theater, Dies". New York Times. Archived from the original on 18 January 2008. Retrieved 11 December 2007.
^ Gurr, Andrew (1997). "Shakespeare's Globe: a history of reconstruction". In Mulryne, J. R.; Shewring, Margaret (eds.). Shakespeare's Globe Rebuilt. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p. 38. ISBN 0-521-59988-1.
^ Greenfield, Jon (1997). "Timber framing, the two bays and after". In Mulryne, J. R.; Shewring, Margaret (eds.). Shakespeare's Globe Rebuilt. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 102–3. ISBN 0-521-59988-1.
^ Bowsher, Julian; Miller, Pat (2010). "The New Globe". The Rose and the Globe – playhouses of Shakespeare's Bankside, Southwark. Museum of London. p. 162. ISBN 978-1-901992-85-4.
^ a b c d McCurdy, Peter. "The Reconstruction of the Globe Theatre". McCurdy & Co. Ltd. Archived from the original on 18 January 2008.
^ Lloyd, Matthew (2019). "The Gielgud Theatre, Shaftesbury Avenue, London: Formerly – The Hicks Theatre / The Globe Theatre". arthurlloyd.co.uk. Retrieved 26 November 2019.
^ Phelan, Peggy (2006). Hodgdon, Barbara; Worthen, William B (eds.). A Companion to Shakespeare And Performance. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers. p. 14. ISBN 1-4051-1104-6.
^ "Dominic Dromgoole appointed Artistic Director". The Shakespeare Globe Trust. Archived from the original on 20 March 2007. Retrieved 19 March 2007.
^ BBC Radio 4, "New Globe director on changes to Shakespeare", Best of Today, 5 January May 2016.
^ Hemley, Matthew (25 October 2016). "Emma Rice departure: the industry reacts to 'backwards step' and Globe's 'loss of nerve'". The Stage.
^ Ellis, David (25 October 2016). "Emma Rice to stand down from the Globe as board choose to return to old style". Evening Standard.
^ "Michelle Terry is the New Artistic Director of Shakespeare's Globe". Shakespeare's Globe Blog. Archived from the original on 26 July 2017. Retrieved 24 July 2017.
^ Measured using Google Earth.
^ This number can be derived by counting all seats on the detailed seating plans that are shown after selecting an event and start the booking procedure at "Shakespeare's Globe Theatre, London". online. Shakespeare's Globe Theatre, London. 2009. Archived from the original on 25 October 2016. Retrieved 29 November 2009. and adding another 20 for the "Gentlemen's Rooms" ("Shakespeare's Globe". Gentlemen's Rooms. Shakespeare's Globe Theatre, London. 2009. Retrieved 29 November 2009.)
^ "Shakespeare's Globe :: Seating Plan and Ticket Prices". Shakespeare's Globe. 2009. Retrieved 2 August 2009.
^ "Globe director Michelle Terry on untapped potential in Shakespeare's great plays". Financial Times. 11 January 2019. Archived from the original on 11 December 2022. Retrieved 31 July 2019.
^ "Annual Review 2018" (PDF). Shakespeare's Globe. Retrieved 31 July 2019.
^ "The Boar". theboar.org.
^ "Rutgers Celebrates 20 Years at Shakespeare's Globe Theatre in London". www.rutgers.edu.
^ Read Not Dead. Shakespeare's Globe. Archived 23 June 2013.
^ Read Not Dead On The Road. Shakespeare's Globe. Archived 30 May 2014.
^ Kirwan, Peter (6 October 2014). "Bardathon Review of Christian Turn'd Turk". Retrieved 7 October 2014.
^ "Shakespeare on demand: Globe theatre launches digital player". The Guardian. Press Association. 4 November 2014. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 31 July 2019.
^ "Teatro Shakespeare -". www.teatroshakespeare.com.
^ "It's All Shakespeare! – The Globe and its Festival. – Shakespeare-Festival Neuss". www.shakespeare-festival.de.
^ Willey, David ( 14 October 2003), "Italy gets Globe Theatre replica", BBC News.
^ "Shakespeare Hall". MEISEI University.
^ "Company". Oregon Shakespeare Festival.
^ The Globe Theatre, 1936 Texas Centennial Exposition at State Fair Dallas
^ The Old Globe, San Diego.
^ "Shows". Archived from the original on 14 April 2008. Retrieved 8 April 2008.
^ "Rose Theater". Blue Lake. Retrieved 10 July 2018.
Further reading
Carson, Christie and Karim Cooper Shakespeare's Globe: A theatrical Experiment Cambridge University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0521701662
Day, Barry: This Wooden 'O': Shakespeare's Globe Reborn. Oberon Books, London, 1997. ISBN 1-870259-99-8.
Fiorillo, Ezio, Shakespeare’s Globe. As You Like It, aut Enim Interpretari Placet, Translation by Jackie Little, All’insegna del Matamoros, Algua (Bergamo) 2013. ISBN 978-88-907489-2-9
King, T. J. (1971). Shakespearean Staging, 1599–1642. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-80490-2.
Rylance, Mark: Play: A Recollection in Pictures and Words of the First Five Years of Play at Shakespeares's Globe Theatre. Photogr.: Sheila Burnett, Donald Cooper, Richard Kolina, John Tramper. Shakespeare's Globe Publ., London, 2003. ISBN 0-9536480-4-4.
Nagler, A. M. (1958). Shakespeare's Stage. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-02689-7.
Schoenbaum, Samuel (1991). Shakespeare's Lives. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-818618-5.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Shakespeare's Globe.
Audio description of Shakespeare's Globe by Alison Balsom.
Audio description of the gates of the theatre by Mark Rylance
Shakespeare's Globe
Shakespeare's Globe pre-theatre drinks and bar restaurant
Shakespeare's Globe at Google Cultural Institute
Plays performed at the reconstructed Globe (by season) (Shakespeare's Globe)
April 2012 BBC Radio 4 The Reunion programme about the building of Shakespeare's Globe
Globe Theatre Study Guide
Building a Piece of History The Story of the New Globe Theatre By Zachary T. Oser
Satellite photo of the rebuilt Globe Theatre
Rose Theatre Website
Entertainment at The Globe in Shakespeare's time
3D Model of Globe Theatre done by Wesleyan University's Learning Objects Studio
Shakespeare's Globe at the Shakespeare Resource Center
Doctor Who Episode guide for 'The Shakespeare Code'
Shakespeare's Globe 2008 'Totus Mundus' season
Tokyo Globe Theatre (Japanese only)
Teatro Shakespeare Buenos Aires (Mobile construction that evokes an Elizabethan Theatre)
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Globe Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globe_Theatre"},{"link_name":"William Shakespeare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespeare"},{"link_name":"River Thames","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Thames"},{"link_name":"Southwark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southwark"},{"link_name":"Sam Wanamaker Playhouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam_Wanamaker_Playhouse"}],"text":"Theatre in London, EnglandShakespeare's Globe is a realistic true-to-history reconstruction of the Globe Theatre, an Elizabethan playhouse first built in 1599 for which William Shakespeare wrote his plays. Like the original, it is located on the south bank of the River Thames, in Southwark, London. The reconstruction was completed in 1997 and while concentrating on Shakespeare's work also hosts a variety of other theatrical productions. Part of the Globe's complex also hosts the Sam Wanamaker Playhouse for smaller, indoor productions, in a setting which also recalls the period.","title":"Shakespeare's Globe"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Sam Wanamaker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam_Wanamaker"},{"link_name":"Henry V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_V_(play)"},{"link_name":"Michelle Terry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelle_Terry"},{"link_name":"Mark Rylance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Rylance"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shakespeare%C2%B4s_Globe_(8162111781).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shakespeares_Globe_Romeo_and_Juliet_2019.JPG"},{"link_name":"Romeo and Juliet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romeo_and_Juliet"},{"link_name":"Sam Wanamaker Playhouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam_Wanamaker_Playhouse"},{"link_name":"Jacobean era","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobean_era"},{"link_name":"Blackfriars Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackfriars_Theatre"}],"text":"The original globe \ntheatre was built in 1599 by the Lord Chamberlain's Men, destroyed by a fire in 1613, rebuilt in 1614, and then demolished in 1644. The modern Globe Theatre is an academic approximation based on available evidence of the 1599 and 1614 buildings. It is considered quite realistic, though modern safety requirements mean that it accommodates only 1,400 spectators compared to the original theatre's 3,000.[1][2]The modern Shakespeare's Globe was founded by the actor and director Sam Wanamaker, and built about 230 metres (750 ft) from the site of the original theatre in the historic open-air style. It opened to the public in 1997, with a production of Henry V.Michelle Terry currently serves as artistic director. She is the second actor-manager in charge of the organisation, following Mark Rylance, the founding artistic director.Elevated view of the GlobeThe Globe set up for a performance of Romeo and Juliet (2019)The site also includes the Sam Wanamaker Playhouse, an indoor theatre which opened in January 2014. This is a smaller, candle-lit space based on historic plans for an indoor playhouse of Jacobean era London (possibly Blackfriars Theatre).The Shakespeare's Globe Studios, an educational and rehearsal studio complex, is situated just around the corner from the main site.","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sam Wanamaker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam_Wanamaker"},{"link_name":"Bankside","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bankside"},{"link_name":"Shakespeare's Globe Centres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_Globe_Centres"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Globe_Theatre,_Panorama_Innenraum,_London.jpg"},{"link_name":"Diana Devlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diana_Devlin"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Devlin-3"},{"link_name":"John Orrell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Orrell"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"The Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Theatre"},{"link_name":"Fortune Playhouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortune_Playhouse"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Theo Crosby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theo_Crosby"},{"link_name":"Pentagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentagram_(design_studio)"},{"link_name":"Buro Happold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buro_Happold"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PMcC-8"},{"link_name":"Shaftesbury Avenue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaftesbury_Avenue"},{"link_name":"Gielgud Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gielgud_Theatre"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WorthenHodgdon2006-10"}],"text":"In 1970, American actor and director Sam Wanamaker founded the Shakespeare Globe Trust and the International Shakespeare Globe Centre, with the objective of building a faithful recreation of Shakespeare's Globe close to its original location at Bankside, Southwark. This inspired the founding of a number of Shakespeare's Globe Centres around the world, an activity in which Wanamaker also participated.Stage and galleriesMany people maintained that a faithful Globe reconstruction was impossible to achieve due to the complications in the 16th-century design and modern fire safety requirements; however, Wanamaker and his associate Diana Devlin persevered in their vision for over 20 years to create the theatre.[3] A new Globe theatre was eventually built according to a design based on the research of historical adviser John Orrell.[4]It was Wanamaker's wish that the new building recreate the Globe as it existed during most of Shakespeare's time there; that is, the 1599 building rather than its 1614 replacement.[5] A study was made of what was known of the construction of The Theatre, the building from which the 1599 Globe obtained much of its timber, as a starting point for the modern building's design. To this were added: examinations of other surviving London buildings from the latter part of the 16th century; comparisons with other theatres of the period (particularly the Fortune Playhouse, for which the building contract survives); and contemporary drawings and descriptions of the first Globe.[6] For practical reasons, some features of the 1614 rebuilding were incorporated into the modern design, such as the external staircases.[7] The design team consisted of architect Theo Crosby of Pentagram, structural and services engineer Buro Happold, and quantity surveyors from Boyden & Co. The construction, building research and historic design details were undertaken by McCurdy & Co.[8]In 1994, the name \"Globe Theatre\" was used by one of the theatres in Shaftesbury Avenue; to make the name available and to avoid confusion, that year it was renamed as the Gielgud Theatre.[9]The theatre opened in 1997[10] under the name \"Shakespeare's Globe Theatre\", and has staged plays every summer.","title":"Planning and construction"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mark Rylance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Rylance"},{"link_name":"artistic director","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artistic_director"},{"link_name":"Dominic Dromgoole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominic_Dromgoole"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Emma Rice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emma_Rice_(director)"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BBC_Radio_4-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Michelle Terry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelle_Terry"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"Mark Rylance became the first artistic director in 1995 and was succeeded by Dominic Dromgoole in 2006.[11] In January 2016, Emma Rice began her term as the Globe's third artistic director,[12] but in October 2016 announced her decision to resign from the position.[13][14] On 24 July 2017 her successor was announced to be the actor and writer Michelle Terry.[15]","title":"Personnel"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bankside","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bankside"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"thrust stage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrust_stage"},{"link_name":"Rose Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Rose_(theatre)"},{"link_name":"English oak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quercus_robur"},{"link_name":"mortise and tenon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortise_and_tenon"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PMcC-8"},{"link_name":"thatched roof","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thatched_roof"},{"link_name":"Great Fire of London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Fire_of_London"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PMcC-8"},{"link_name":"sprinklers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_sprinkler_system"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PMcC-8"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Groundlings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groundling"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"text":"The theatre is located on Bankside, about 230 metres (750 ft) from the original site—measured from centre to centre.[16] Listed Georgian townhouses now occupy part of the original site and could not be considered for removal. Like the original Globe, the modern theatre has a thrust stage that projects into a large circular yard surrounded by three tiers of raked seating. The only covered parts of the amphitheatre are the stage and the seating areas.The reconstruction was carefully researched so that the new building would be as faithful a replica of the original as possible. This was aided by the discovery of the remains of the original Rose Theatre, a nearby neighbour to the Globe, as final plans were being made for the site and structure.The building itself is constructed entirely of English oak, with mortise and tenon joints[8] and is, in this sense, an \"authentic\" 16th-century timber-framed building as no structural steel was used. The seats are simple benches (though cushions can be hired for performances) and the Globe has what has been claimed to be the first and only thatched roof permitted in London since the Great Fire of London in 1666.[8] The modern thatch is well protected by fire retardants, and sprinklers on the roof ensure further protection against fire. The pit has a concrete surface,[8] as opposed to earthen-ground covered with strewn rush from the original theatre. The theatre has extensive backstage support areas for actors and musicians, and is attached to a modern lobby, restaurant, gift shop and visitor centre. Seating capacity is 873[17] with an additional 700 \"Groundlings\" standing in the yard,[18] making up an audience about half the size of a typical audience in Shakespeare's time.","title":"Location and features"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Guardian-20"},{"link_name":"Mason Gross School of the Arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mason_Gross_School_of_the_Arts"},{"link_name":"New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"Rutgers University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutgers_University"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"text":"Plays are staged during the summer, usually between May and the first week of October; in the winter, the theatre is used for educational purposes. Tours are available all year round. Some productions are filmed and released to cinemas as Globe on Screen productions (usually in the year following the live production), and on DVD and Blu-ray.For its first 18 seasons, performances were engineered to duplicate the original environment of Shakespeare's Globe; there were no spotlights, and plays were staged during daylight hours and in the evenings (with the help of interior floodlights), there were no microphones, speakers or amplification. All music was performed live, most often on period instruments; and the actors and the audience could see and interact easily with each other, adding to the feeling of a shared experience and of a community event.Typically, performances have been created in the spirit of experimentation to explore the original playing conditions of the 1599 Globe. Modern and conventional theatre technology such as spotlights and microphones were not used during this period. Beginning in the 2016 season, the new artistic director, Emma Rice, began experimenting with the theatre space by installing a temporary lighting and sound rig. The current artistic director, Michelle Terry, has brought back the experimentation on original playing conditions.[19]The Globe operates without any public subsidy and generates £24 million in revenue per year.[20]Acting and design students from the Mason Gross School of the Arts at New Jersey's Rutgers University study abroad at the theater as part of the Rutgers Conservatory at Shakespeare's Globe, a longstanding partnership between the institutions.[21][22]","title":"Productions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sam Wanamaker Playhouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam_Wanamaker_Playhouse"}],"text":"Adjacent to the Globe is the Sam Wanamaker Playhouse, an indoor theatre modelled after a Jacobean-era theatre and used for performances during the winter months when the main theatre cannot be used.","title":"Sam Wanamaker Playhouse"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Read.Dead-23"},{"link_name":"Glastonbury Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glastonbury_Festival"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Read.Road-24"},{"link_name":"Robert Daborne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Daborne"},{"link_name":"A Christian Turn'd Turk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Christian_Turn%27d_Turk"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RND2014-25"}],"text":"Read Not Dead is a series of play readings, or staged \"performances with scripts\" that have been presented as part of the educational programme of Shakespeare's Globe since 1995. The plays selected are those that were written between 1576 and 1642 by Shakespeare's contemporaries or near contemporaries. These readings are performed at Shakespeare's Globe Studios as well as other theatres, halls, festivals and fields nationwide.[23]In 2013 there were Read Not Dead performances at the Wilderness Festival and at the Glastonbury Festival.[24] In 2014, the final production in Read not Dead's first season was performed at the Sam Wanamaker Playhouse, which is the indoor Jacobean style theatre. The play selected for that occasion was Robert Daborne's A Christian Turn'd Turk.[25]","title":"Read Not Dead"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"text":"The Globe's productions are often screened in cinemas and released on DVD and Blu-ray. In 2015, the venue launched Globe Player, a video-on-demand service enabling viewers to watch the plays on laptops and mobile devices. The theatre was the first in the world to make its plays available as video-on-demand.[26]","title":"Globe on Screen"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Argentina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buenos_Aires"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Teatro_shakespeare.png"},{"link_name":"Buenos Aires","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buenos_Aires"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Schw%C3%A4bisch_Hall_Globe-Theater_2000_by-RaBoe.jpg"},{"link_name":"Schwäbisch Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schw%C3%A4bisch_Hall"},{"link_name":"Baden-Württemberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baden-W%C3%BCrttemberg"},{"link_name":"Neuss am Rhein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuss"},{"link_name":"Globe Neuss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespeare-Festival_Neuss"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Rust, Baden, Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rust_(Baden)"},{"link_name":"Europa-Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europa-Park"},{"link_name":"Schwäbisch Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schw%C3%A4bisch_Hall"},{"link_name":"Rome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TeatroaVilla_Borghese2.JPG"},{"link_name":"Tokyo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo"},{"link_name":"Panasonic Globe Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panasonic_Globe_Theatre"},{"link_name":"Tokyo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Auckland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auckland"},{"link_name":"Pop-up Globe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pop-up_Globe"},{"link_name":"Ashland, Oregon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashland,_Oregon"},{"link_name":"Allen Elizabethan Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen_Elizabethan_Theatre"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Austin, Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austin,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Cedar City, Utah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cedar_City,_Utah"},{"link_name":"Adams Shakespearean Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utah_Shakespearean_Festival"},{"link_name":"Dallas, Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dallas,_Texas"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Odessa, Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odessa,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Globe of the Great Southwest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globe_of_the_Great_Southwest"},{"link_name":"San Diego, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Diego"},{"link_name":"Old Globe Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Globe_Theatre"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Williamsburg, Virginia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Williamsburg,_Virginia"},{"link_name":"Busch Gardens Williamsburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Busch_Gardens_Williamsburg"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Twin Lake, Michigan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twin_Lake,_Michigan"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"}],"text":"Replicas and free interpretations of the Globe have been built around the world:ArgentinaArgentina: Teatro Shakespeare.[27]Teatro Shakespeare (Buenos Aires, Argentina)GermanyGlobe-Theater, Schwäbisch Hall, Baden-Württemberg, GermanyNeuss am Rhein: Globe Neuss[28]\nRust, Baden, Germany: in the Europa-Park\nSchwäbisch Hall, Baden-Württemberg: houses a replica of the interior of the Globe Theatre.ItalyRome: Globe Theatre[29]The interior of \"Silvano Toti Globe Theatre\", RomeJapanTokyo: Panasonic Globe Theatre\nTokyo: Meisei University's Shakespeare Hall, at its Hino campus[30]New ZealandAuckland: Pop-up GlobeUnited StatesAshland, Oregon: Allen Elizabethan Theatre[31]\nAustin, Texas: Curtain Theatre\nCedar City, Utah: Adams Shakespearean Theatre\nDallas, Texas: Old Globe Theatre[32]\nOdessa, Texas: Globe of the Great Southwest\nSan Diego, California: Old Globe Theatre[33]\nWilliamsburg, Virginia: Globe Theatre, in Busch Gardens Williamsburg[34]\nTwin Lake, Michigan: Blue Lake Fine Arts Camp, The Rose Playhouse.[35]\nHempsted, New York: Hofstra University, Pop-up Globe","title":"Other replicas"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Clock_Tower_-_Palace_of_Westminster,_London_-_May_2007_icon.png"},{"link_name":"London portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:London"},{"link_name":"Curtain Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curtain_Theatre"},{"link_name":"The Rose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Rose_(theatre)"}],"text":"London portalCurtain Theatre\nThe Rose","title":"See also (period theatres)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0521599887","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521599887"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1612389769","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1612389769"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Devlin_3-0"},{"link_name":"\"Diana Devlin 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London\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20161025235618/http://tickets.shakespeares-globe.org/"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//tickets.shakespeares-globe.org/"},{"link_name":"\"Shakespeare's Globe\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.shakespeares-globe.org/theatre/hospitality/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-18"},{"link_name":"\"Shakespeare's Globe :: Seating Plan and Ticket Prices\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.shakespeares-globe.org/theatre/boxoffice/seatingplanandticketprices/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-19"},{"link_name":"\"Globe director Michelle Terry on untapped potential in Shakespeare's great 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Dead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20130623054750/http://www.shakespearesglobe.com/education/events/performances/read-not-dead"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Read.Road_24-0"},{"link_name":"Read Not Dead On The Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20140530081251/http://www.shakespearesglobe.com/education/events/performances/read-not-dead/on-the-road"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-RND2014_25-0"},{"link_name":"\"Bardathon Review of Christian Turn'd Turk\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//blogs.nottingham.ac.uk/bardathon/2014/10/06/a-christian-turnd-turk-read-not-dead-the-sam-wanamaker-playhouse/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-26"},{"link_name":"\"Shakespeare on demand: Globe theatre launches digital player\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.theguardian.com/culture/2014/nov/04/shakespeare-on-demand"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0261-3077","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-27"},{"link_name":"\"Teatro Shakespeare -\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.teatroshakespeare.com"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-28"},{"link_name":"\"It's All Shakespeare! – The Globe and its Festival. – Shakespeare-Festival Neuss\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.shakespeare-festival.de/en/globe/Its-All-Shakespeare-The-Globe-and-its-Festival--85/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-29"},{"link_name":"\"Italy gets Globe Theatre replica\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3190268.stm"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-30"},{"link_name":"\"Shakespeare Hall\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.meisei-u.ac.jp/english/facilities/sha.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-31"},{"link_name":"\"Company\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.osfashland.org/about/our-history/performance-spaces/elizabethan-stage.aspx"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-32"},{"link_name":"The Globe Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.smu.edu/News/2008/state-fair-29sept2008/state-fair-globe-theatre.aspx"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-33"},{"link_name":"The Old Globe, San Diego","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.theoldglobe.org/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-34"},{"link_name":"\"Shows\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20080414235920/http://www.buschgardens.com/BGW/as_haunted_lighthouse.aspx"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.buschgardens.com/bgw/as_haunted_lighthouse.aspx"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-35"},{"link_name":"\"Rose Theater\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//bluelake.org/summercamp/majors/theater.php"}],"text":"^ Mulryne, J. R. Shewing, Margaret. Gurr, Andrew. Shakespeare's Globe Rebuilt. Cambridge University Press (1997) ISBN 978-0521599887 p. 21\n\n^ Steves, Rick. Openshaw, Gene. Rick Steves London 2015. Avalon Travel (2014) ISBN 978-1612389769\n\n^ \"Diana Devlin obituary\". The Guardian. Retrieved 30 November 2022.\n\n^ Martin, Douglas (30 October 2008). \"John Orrell, 68, Historian on New Globe Theater, Dies\". New York Times. Archived from the original on 18 January 2008. Retrieved 11 December 2007.\n\n^ Gurr, Andrew (1997). \"Shakespeare's Globe: a history of reconstruction\". In Mulryne, J. R.; Shewring, Margaret (eds.). Shakespeare's Globe Rebuilt. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p. 38. ISBN 0-521-59988-1.\n\n^ Greenfield, Jon (1997). \"Timber framing, the two bays and after\". In Mulryne, J. R.; Shewring, Margaret (eds.). Shakespeare's Globe Rebuilt. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 102–3. ISBN 0-521-59988-1.\n\n^ Bowsher, Julian; Miller, Pat (2010). \"The New Globe\". The Rose and the Globe – playhouses of Shakespeare's Bankside, Southwark. Museum of London. p. 162. ISBN 978-1-901992-85-4.\n\n^ a b c d McCurdy, Peter. \"The Reconstruction of the Globe Theatre\". McCurdy & Co. Ltd. Archived from the original on 18 January 2008.\n\n^ Lloyd, Matthew (2019). \"The Gielgud Theatre, Shaftesbury Avenue, London: Formerly – The Hicks Theatre / The Globe Theatre\". arthurlloyd.co.uk. Retrieved 26 November 2019.\n\n^ Phelan, Peggy (2006). Hodgdon, Barbara; Worthen, William B (eds.). A Companion to Shakespeare And Performance. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers. p. 14. ISBN 1-4051-1104-6.\n\n^ \"Dominic Dromgoole appointed Artistic Director\". The Shakespeare Globe Trust. Archived from the original on 20 March 2007. Retrieved 19 March 2007.\n\n^ BBC Radio 4, \"New Globe director on changes to Shakespeare\", Best of Today, 5 January May 2016.\n\n^ Hemley, Matthew (25 October 2016). \"Emma Rice departure: the industry reacts to 'backwards step' and Globe's 'loss of nerve'\". The Stage.\n\n^ Ellis, David (25 October 2016). \"Emma Rice to stand down from the Globe as board choose to return to old style\". Evening Standard.\n\n^ \"Michelle Terry is the New Artistic Director of Shakespeare's Globe\". Shakespeare's Globe Blog. Archived from the original on 26 July 2017. Retrieved 24 July 2017.\n\n^ Measured using Google Earth.\n\n^ This number can be derived by counting all seats on the detailed seating plans that are shown after selecting an event and start the booking procedure at \"Shakespeare's Globe Theatre, London\". online. Shakespeare's Globe Theatre, London. 2009. Archived from the original on 25 October 2016. Retrieved 29 November 2009. and adding another 20 for the \"Gentlemen's Rooms\" (\"Shakespeare's Globe\". Gentlemen's Rooms. Shakespeare's Globe Theatre, London. 2009. Retrieved 29 November 2009.)\n\n^ \"Shakespeare's Globe :: Seating Plan and Ticket Prices\". Shakespeare's Globe. 2009. Retrieved 2 August 2009.\n\n^ \"Globe director Michelle Terry on untapped potential in Shakespeare's great plays\". Financial Times. 11 January 2019. Archived from the original on 11 December 2022. Retrieved 31 July 2019.\n\n^ \"Annual Review 2018\" (PDF). Shakespeare's Globe. Retrieved 31 July 2019.\n\n^ \"The Boar\". theboar.org.\n\n^ \"Rutgers Celebrates 20 Years at Shakespeare's Globe Theatre in London\". www.rutgers.edu.\n\n^ Read Not Dead. Shakespeare's Globe. Archived 23 June 2013.\n\n^ Read Not Dead On The Road. Shakespeare's Globe. Archived 30 May 2014.\n\n^ Kirwan, Peter (6 October 2014). \"Bardathon Review of Christian Turn'd Turk\". Retrieved 7 October 2014.\n\n^ \"Shakespeare on demand: Globe theatre launches digital player\". The Guardian. Press Association. 4 November 2014. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 31 July 2019.\n\n^ \"Teatro Shakespeare -\". www.teatroshakespeare.com.\n\n^ \"It's All Shakespeare! – The Globe and its Festival. – Shakespeare-Festival Neuss\". www.shakespeare-festival.de.\n\n^ Willey, David ( 14 October 2003), \"Italy gets Globe Theatre replica\", BBC News.\n\n^ \"Shakespeare Hall\". MEISEI University.\n\n^ \"Company\". Oregon Shakespeare Festival.\n\n^ The Globe Theatre, 1936 Texas Centennial Exposition at State Fair Dallas\n\n^ The Old Globe, San Diego.\n\n^ \"Shows\". Archived from the original on 14 April 2008. Retrieved 8 April 2008.\n\n^ \"Rose Theater\". Blue Lake. Retrieved 10 July 2018.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0521701662","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521701662"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-870259-99-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-870259-99-8"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-88-907489-2-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-907489-2-9"},{"link_name":"King, T. J.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_J._King_Jr."},{"link_name":"Shakespearean Staging, 1599–1642","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/shakespeareansta0000king"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-674-80490-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-80490-2"},{"link_name":"Rylance, Mark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Rylance"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-9536480-4-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9536480-4-4"},{"link_name":"Shakespeare's Stage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/shakespearesstag0000nagl"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-300-02689-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-02689-7"},{"link_name":"Schoenbaum, Samuel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Schoenbaum"},{"link_name":"Shakespeare's Lives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/shakespeareslive00scho_0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-19-818618-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-818618-5"}],"text":"Carson, Christie and Karim Cooper Shakespeare's Globe: A theatrical Experiment Cambridge University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0521701662\nDay, Barry: This Wooden 'O': Shakespeare's Globe Reborn. Oberon Books, London, 1997. ISBN 1-870259-99-8.\nFiorillo, Ezio, Shakespeare’s Globe. As You Like It, aut Enim Interpretari Placet, Translation by Jackie Little, All’insegna del Matamoros, Algua (Bergamo) 2013. ISBN 978-88-907489-2-9\nKing, T. J. (1971). Shakespearean Staging, 1599–1642. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-80490-2.\nRylance, Mark: Play: A Recollection in Pictures and Words of the First Five Years of Play at Shakespeares's Globe Theatre. Photogr.: Sheila Burnett, Donald Cooper, Richard Kolina, John Tramper. Shakespeare's Globe Publ., London, 2003. ISBN 0-9536480-4-4.\nNagler, A. M. (1958). Shakespeare's Stage. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-02689-7.\nSchoenbaum, Samuel (1991). Shakespeare's Lives. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-818618-5.","title":"Further reading"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Elevated view of the Globe","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Shakespeare%C2%B4s_Globe_%288162111781%29.jpg/220px-Shakespeare%C2%B4s_Globe_%288162111781%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Globe set up for a performance of Romeo and Juliet (2019)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Shakespeares_Globe_Romeo_and_Juliet_2019.JPG/220px-Shakespeares_Globe_Romeo_and_Juliet_2019.JPG"},{"image_text":"Stage and galleries","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/The_Globe_Theatre%2C_Panorama_Innenraum%2C_London.jpg/440px-The_Globe_Theatre%2C_Panorama_Innenraum%2C_London.jpg"},{"image_text":"Teatro Shakespeare (Buenos Aires, Argentina)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Teatro_shakespeare.png/220px-Teatro_shakespeare.png"},{"image_text":"Globe-Theater, Schwäbisch Hall, Baden-Württemberg, Germany","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Schw%C3%A4bisch_Hall_Globe-Theater_2000_by-RaBoe.jpg/220px-Schw%C3%A4bisch_Hall_Globe-Theater_2000_by-RaBoe.jpg"},{"image_text":"The interior of \"Silvano Toti Globe Theatre\", Rome","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/TeatroaVilla_Borghese2.JPG/220px-TeatroaVilla_Borghese2.JPG"},{"image_text":"Audio description of Shakespeare's Globe by Alison Balsom."},{"image_text":"Audio description of the gates of the theatre by Mark Rylance"}]
| null |
[{"reference":"\"Diana Devlin obituary\". The Guardian. Retrieved 30 November 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/global/2020/oct/12/diana-devlin-obituary","url_text":"\"Diana Devlin obituary\""}]},{"reference":"Martin, Douglas (30 October 2008). \"John Orrell, 68, Historian on New Globe Theater, Dies\". New York Times. Archived from the original on 18 January 2008. Retrieved 11 December 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080118210341/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DEFD6133DF93BA1575AC0A9659C8B63&n=Top%2FReference%2FTimes%20Topics%2FSubjects%2FD%2FDeaths%20%28Obituaries%29","url_text":"\"John Orrell, 68, Historian on New Globe Theater, Dies\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Times","url_text":"New York Times"},{"url":"https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DEFD6133DF93BA1575AC0A9659C8B63&n=Top/Reference/Times%20Topics/Subjects/D/Deaths%20(Obituaries)","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Gurr, Andrew (1997). \"Shakespeare's Globe: a history of reconstruction\". In Mulryne, J. R.; Shewring, Margaret (eds.). Shakespeare's Globe Rebuilt. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p. 38. ISBN 0-521-59988-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Gurr","url_text":"Gurr, Andrew"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780521599887","url_text":"Shakespeare's Globe Rebuilt"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780521599887/page/38","url_text":"38"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-59988-1","url_text":"0-521-59988-1"}]},{"reference":"Greenfield, Jon (1997). \"Timber framing, the two bays and after\". In Mulryne, J. R.; Shewring, Margaret (eds.). Shakespeare's Globe Rebuilt. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 102–3. ISBN 0-521-59988-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780521599887","url_text":"Shakespeare's Globe Rebuilt"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780521599887/page/102","url_text":"102–3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-59988-1","url_text":"0-521-59988-1"}]},{"reference":"Bowsher, Julian; Miller, Pat (2010). \"The New Globe\". The Rose and the Globe – playhouses of Shakespeare's Bankside, Southwark. Museum of London. p. 162. ISBN 978-1-901992-85-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_London","url_text":"Museum of London"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-901992-85-4","url_text":"978-1-901992-85-4"}]},{"reference":"McCurdy, Peter. \"The Reconstruction of the Globe Theatre\". McCurdy & Co. Ltd. Archived from the original on 18 January 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080118155047/http://www.mccurdyco.com/globepm.html","url_text":"\"The Reconstruction of the Globe Theatre\""},{"url":"http://www.mccurdyco.com/globepm.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Lloyd, Matthew (2019). \"The Gielgud Theatre, Shaftesbury Avenue, London: Formerly – The Hicks Theatre / The Globe Theatre\". arthurlloyd.co.uk. Retrieved 26 November 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.arthurlloyd.co.uk/GielgudTheatre.htm","url_text":"\"The Gielgud Theatre, Shaftesbury Avenue, London: Formerly – The Hicks Theatre / The Globe Theatre\""}]},{"reference":"Phelan, Peggy (2006). Hodgdon, Barbara; Worthen, William B (eds.). A Companion to Shakespeare And Performance. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers. p. 14. ISBN 1-4051-1104-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peggy_Phelan","url_text":"Phelan, Peggy"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/companiontoshake0000unse_r8v5/page/14","url_text":"A Companion to Shakespeare And Performance"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/companiontoshake0000unse_r8v5/page/14","url_text":"14"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4051-1104-6","url_text":"1-4051-1104-6"}]},{"reference":"\"Dominic Dromgoole appointed Artistic Director\". The Shakespeare Globe Trust. Archived from the original on 20 March 2007. Retrieved 19 March 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070320151259/http://www.shakespeares-globe.org/information/latestnews/20061030/3524/","url_text":"\"Dominic Dromgoole appointed Artistic Director\""},{"url":"http://www.shakespeares-globe.org/information/latestnews/20061030/3524/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Hemley, Matthew (25 October 2016). \"Emma Rice departure: the industry reacts to 'backwards step' and Globe's 'loss of nerve'\". The Stage.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thestage.co.uk/news/2016/emma-rice-the-industry-reacts-to/","url_text":"\"Emma Rice departure: the industry reacts to 'backwards step' and Globe's 'loss of nerve'\""}]},{"reference":"Ellis, David (25 October 2016). \"Emma Rice to stand down from the Globe as board choose to return to old style\". Evening Standard.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.standard.co.uk/goingout/theatre/emma-rice-to-stand-down-from-the-globe-a3378056.html","url_text":"\"Emma Rice to stand down from the Globe as board choose to return to old style\""}]},{"reference":"\"Michelle Terry is the New Artistic Director of Shakespeare's Globe\". Shakespeare's Globe Blog. Archived from the original on 26 July 2017. Retrieved 24 July 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170726222926/http://blog.shakespearesglobe.com/post/163360048328/michelle-terry-is-the-new-artistic-director-of","url_text":"\"Michelle Terry is the New Artistic Director of Shakespeare's Globe\""},{"url":"http://blog.shakespearesglobe.com/post/163360048328/michelle-terry-is-the-new-artistic-director-of","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Shakespeare's Globe Theatre, London\". online. Shakespeare's Globe Theatre, London. 2009. Archived from the original on 25 October 2016. Retrieved 29 November 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161025235618/http://tickets.shakespeares-globe.org/","url_text":"\"Shakespeare's Globe Theatre, London\""},{"url":"https://tickets.shakespeares-globe.org/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Shakespeare's Globe\". Gentlemen's Rooms. Shakespeare's Globe Theatre, London. 2009. Retrieved 29 November 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.shakespeares-globe.org/theatre/hospitality/","url_text":"\"Shakespeare's Globe\""}]},{"reference":"\"Shakespeare's Globe :: Seating Plan and Ticket Prices\". Shakespeare's Globe. 2009. Retrieved 2 August 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.shakespeares-globe.org/theatre/boxoffice/seatingplanandticketprices/","url_text":"\"Shakespeare's Globe :: Seating Plan and Ticket Prices\""}]},{"reference":"\"Globe director Michelle Terry on untapped potential in Shakespeare's great plays\". Financial Times. 11 January 2019. Archived from the original on 11 December 2022. Retrieved 31 July 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ft.com/content/6d193852-1369-11e9-a168-d45595ad076d","url_text":"\"Globe director Michelle Terry on untapped potential in Shakespeare's great plays\""},{"url":"https://ghostarchive.org/archive/Rr6S2","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Annual Review 2018\" (PDF). Shakespeare's Globe. Retrieved 31 July 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://cdn.shakespearesglobe.com/uploads/2019/05/Annual-Review-2018.pdf","url_text":"\"Annual Review 2018\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Boar\". theboar.org.","urls":[{"url":"https://theboar.org/2018/03/shakespeare-globe-students/","url_text":"\"The Boar\""}]},{"reference":"\"Rutgers Celebrates 20 Years at Shakespeare's Globe Theatre in London\". www.rutgers.edu.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rutgers.edu/news/rutgers-celebrates-20-years-shakespeares-globe-theatre-london","url_text":"\"Rutgers Celebrates 20 Years at Shakespeare's Globe Theatre in London\""}]},{"reference":"Kirwan, Peter (6 October 2014). \"Bardathon Review of Christian Turn'd Turk\". Retrieved 7 October 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://blogs.nottingham.ac.uk/bardathon/2014/10/06/a-christian-turnd-turk-read-not-dead-the-sam-wanamaker-playhouse/","url_text":"\"Bardathon Review of Christian Turn'd Turk\""}]},{"reference":"\"Shakespeare on demand: Globe theatre launches digital player\". The Guardian. Press Association. 4 November 2014. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 31 July 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2014/nov/04/shakespeare-on-demand","url_text":"\"Shakespeare on demand: Globe theatre launches digital player\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077","url_text":"0261-3077"}]},{"reference":"\"Teatro Shakespeare -\". www.teatroshakespeare.com.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.teatroshakespeare.com/","url_text":"\"Teatro Shakespeare -\""}]},{"reference":"\"It's All Shakespeare! – The Globe and its Festival. – Shakespeare-Festival Neuss\". www.shakespeare-festival.de.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.shakespeare-festival.de/en/globe/Its-All-Shakespeare-The-Globe-and-its-Festival--85/","url_text":"\"It's All Shakespeare! – The Globe and its Festival. – Shakespeare-Festival Neuss\""}]},{"reference":"\"Shakespeare Hall\". MEISEI University.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.meisei-u.ac.jp/english/facilities/sha.html","url_text":"\"Shakespeare Hall\""}]},{"reference":"\"Company\". Oregon Shakespeare Festival.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.osfashland.org/about/our-history/performance-spaces/elizabethan-stage.aspx","url_text":"\"Company\""}]},{"reference":"\"Shows\". Archived from the original on 14 April 2008. Retrieved 8 April 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080414235920/http://www.buschgardens.com/BGW/as_haunted_lighthouse.aspx","url_text":"\"Shows\""},{"url":"http://www.buschgardens.com/bgw/as_haunted_lighthouse.aspx","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Rose Theater\". Blue Lake. Retrieved 10 July 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://bluelake.org/summercamp/majors/theater.php","url_text":"\"Rose Theater\""}]},{"reference":"King, T. J. (1971). Shakespearean Staging, 1599–1642. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-80490-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_J._King_Jr.","url_text":"King, T. J."},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/shakespeareansta0000king","url_text":"Shakespearean Staging, 1599–1642"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-80490-2","url_text":"0-674-80490-2"}]},{"reference":"Nagler, A. M. (1958). Shakespeare's Stage. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-02689-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/shakespearesstag0000nagl","url_text":"Shakespeare's Stage"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-02689-7","url_text":"0-300-02689-7"}]},{"reference":"Schoenbaum, Samuel (1991). Shakespeare's Lives. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-818618-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Schoenbaum","url_text":"Schoenbaum, Samuel"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/shakespeareslive00scho_0","url_text":"Shakespeare's Lives"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-818618-5","url_text":"0-19-818618-5"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wuzurgan
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Wuzurgan
|
["1 Etymology","2 History","3 References","4 Sources"]
|
Third class-rank of the Sasanian aristocracy
Wuzurgan (Middle Persian: 𐭥𐭰𐭥𐭫𐭢, meaning "grandees" or the "great ones"), also known by its Modern Persian form of Bozorgan (بزرگان), was the name of the high nobility and the third class-rank of the four of the Sasanian aristocracy. After the fall of the Sasanian Empire, they reappear under the Dabuyid dynasty.
Etymology
The word is the plural form of the word wuzurg (meaning ”big, great”), which is derived from the Old Persian word vazarka, which is in turn derived from the Proto-Indo-European word weǵ (meaning “to be strong, lively, awake”).
History
The Sarab-e Bahram relief of Bahram II surrounded by grandees, Kartir and Papak being on his left.
The wuzurgan are first mentioned in the early Sasanian period and appear in Shapur I's inscription in Hajjiabad. They played an important and prominent role in Sasanian politics, and seem to have held much influence. High-ranking members of the wuzurgan were present at the coronation of the Sasanian kings. Every time there was a dispute about choosing a Sasanian king, the objective of the wuzurgan was to elect a Sasanian king. After the death of Hormizd II in 309, the wuzurgan elected the latter's son Shapur II, who at that time was still in his mother's womb, as the king of the Sasanian Empire. Shapur's death in 379 marked the start of a 125-year conflict between the wuzurgan and the Sasanian kings, who both struggled for power over Iran.
During the reign of Yazdegerd I (r. 399–420), the wuzurgan were treated badly, and after the latter's death in 420, they expelled all his sons and elected his nephew Khosrow as the ruler of the Sasanian Empire. Nevertheless, they later made an agreement with Yazdegerd's son Bahram V, and recognized him as king of the Sasanian Empire. After Peroz I's disastrous campaign against the Hephthalites, which resulted in his death and the death of many of the wuzurgan, his brother Balash was elected by nobility as the king of the Sasanian Empire. However, in reality it was Sukhra, an Iranian nobleman from the House of Karen, who held power over the empire. Even the wuzurgan were under his control. Balash's reign eventually proved disastrous, and as a result he was replaced by Peroz's son Kavadh I.
Kavadh I, during his reign, began worshiping Mazdakism, a modified version of Zoroastrianism with influences from Manichaeism. The wuzurgan responded by siding with the Zoroastrian clergy, and had him imprisoned in 496, replacing him with his brother Djamasp. Gushnaspdad, the kanarang of the Sasanian Empire, later urged the wuzurgan and other noble classes to execute Kavadh I, which they, however, refused to do. The grandson of Kavadh I, Hormizd IV, because of his bad treatment of the wuzurgan and other high-class noble families, was in 590 deposed by a coup under the two Ispahbudhan brothers Vistahm and Vinduyih, who made Hormizd's son Khosrow II the new ruler of the Sasanian Empire. However, the wuzurgan and other nobles later became displeased with Khosrow II, and in 628 had him deposed in favor of his son Kavadh II.
After the death of Kavadh II, the wuzurgan elected the latter's son Ardashir III, who was only a mere child. During his reign, his minister Mah-Adhur Gushnasp, who was part of the wuzurgan class, in reality, controlled the Sasanian Empire. During the Arab conquest of Iran, a Sasanian general named Bahman Jadhuyih, who was the head of an army numbering 30,000 of the wuzurgan, defeated the Arabs at the Battle of the Bridge in 634. Nevertheless, the Arabs won several other victories against the Sasanian Empire, and by 651 had all of Iran under their control.
The wuzurgan are later mentioned during the reign of the Dabuyid ruler Khurshid (r. 740–760), where they along with the local population of Tabaristan were oppressed by Khurshid's general Karin. After the fall of the Dabuyid dynasty in 760, the wuzurgan are no longer mentioned in any sources.
References
^ a b c d e f g Tafazzoli 1989, p. 427.
^ Pourshariati 2008, p. 58.
^ Pourshariati 2008, p. 66.
^ Pourshariati 2008, p. 384.
^ Pourshariati 2008, p. 77.
^ Frye 1984, p. 322.
^ Pourshariati 2008, p. 123.
^ Pourshariati 2008, p. 148.
^ Pourshariati 2008, p. 217.
^ Pourshariati 2008, pp. 314–315.
Sources
Pourshariati, Parvaneh (2008). Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire: The Sasanian-Parthian Confederacy and the Arab Conquest of Iran. London and New York: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84511-645-3.
Tafazzoli, Ahmad (1989). "BOZORGĀN". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. IV, Fasc. 4. Ahmad Tafazzoli. p. 427.
Frye, Richard Nelson (1984). The History of Ancient Iran. C.H.Beck. pp. 1–411. ISBN 9783406093975. The history of ancient iran.
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Middle Persian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Persian_language"},{"link_name":"Modern Persian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_Persian"},{"link_name":"Sasanian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanian_Empire"},{"link_name":"Dabuyid dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dabuyid_dynasty"}],"text":"Wuzurgan (Middle Persian: 𐭥𐭰𐭥𐭫𐭢, meaning \"grandees\" or the \"great ones\"), also known by its Modern Persian form of Bozorgan (بزرگان), was the name of the high nobility and the third class-rank of the four of the Sasanian aristocracy. After the fall of the Sasanian Empire, they reappear under the Dabuyid dynasty.","title":"Wuzurgan"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Old Persian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Persian"},{"link_name":"Proto-Indo-European","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language"}],"text":"The word is the plural form of the word wuzurg (meaning ”big, great”), which is derived from the Old Persian word vazarka, which is in turn derived from the Proto-Indo-European word weǵ (meaning “to be strong, lively, awake”).","title":"Etymology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sarab_Bahram_relief.jpg"},{"link_name":"Sarab-e Bahram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarab-e_Bahram"},{"link_name":"Bahram II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahram_II"},{"link_name":"Kartir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kartir"},{"link_name":"Shapur I's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shapur_I"},{"link_name":"Hajjiabad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hajjiabad,_Marvdasht"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTETafazzoli1989427-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTETafazzoli1989427-1"},{"link_name":"Hormizd II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hormizd_II"},{"link_name":"Shapur II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shapur_II"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati200858-2"},{"link_name":"Yazdegerd I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yazdegerd_I"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati200866-3"},{"link_name":"Khosrow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khosrow_the_Usurper"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTETafazzoli1989427-1"},{"link_name":"Bahram V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahram_V"},{"link_name":"Peroz I's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peroz_I"},{"link_name":"disastrous campaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Herat_(484)"},{"link_name":"Hephthalites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hephthalites"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008384-4"},{"link_name":"Balash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balash"},{"link_name":"Sukhra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sukhra"},{"link_name":"Iranian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_peoples"},{"link_name":"House of Karen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Karen"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati200877-5"},{"link_name":"Kavadh I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kavadh_I"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrye1984322-6"},{"link_name":"Mazdakism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazdak"},{"link_name":"Zoroastrianism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoroastrianism"},{"link_name":"Manichaeism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manichaeism"},{"link_name":"Djamasp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djamasp"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTETafazzoli1989427-1"},{"link_name":"Gushnaspdad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gushnaspdad"},{"link_name":"kanarang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanarang"},{"link_name":"Hormizd IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hormizd_IV"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008123-7"},{"link_name":"Ispahbudhan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Ispahbudhan"},{"link_name":"Vistahm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vistahm"},{"link_name":"Vinduyih","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinduyih"},{"link_name":"Khosrow II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khosrow_II"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTETafazzoli1989427-1"},{"link_name":"Kavadh II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kavadh_II"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTETafazzoli1989427-1"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008148-8"},{"link_name":"Ardashir III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ardashir_III"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTETafazzoli1989427-1"},{"link_name":"Mah-Adhur Gushnasp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mah-Adhur_Gushnasp"},{"link_name":"Arab conquest of Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_conquest_of_Iran"},{"link_name":"Bahman Jadhuyih","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahman_Jadhuyih"},{"link_name":"Battle of the Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bridge"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008217-9"},{"link_name":"Dabuyid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dabuyid_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Khurshid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khurshid_of_Tabaristan"},{"link_name":"Tabaristan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabaristan"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008314%E2%80%93315-10"}],"text":"The Sarab-e Bahram relief of Bahram II surrounded by grandees, Kartir and Papak being on his left.The wuzurgan are first mentioned in the early Sasanian period and appear in Shapur I's inscription in Hajjiabad. They played an important and prominent role in Sasanian politics, and seem to have held much influence. High-ranking members of the wuzurgan were present at the coronation of the Sasanian kings.[1] Every time there was a dispute about choosing a Sasanian king, the objective of the wuzurgan was to elect a Sasanian king.[1] After the death of Hormizd II in 309, the wuzurgan elected the latter's son Shapur II, who at that time was still in his mother's womb, as the king of the Sasanian Empire. Shapur's death in 379 marked the start of a 125-year conflict between the wuzurgan and the Sasanian kings, who both struggled for power over Iran.[2]During the reign of Yazdegerd I (r. 399–420), the wuzurgan were treated badly,[3] and after the latter's death in 420, they expelled all his sons and elected his nephew Khosrow as the ruler of the Sasanian Empire.[1] Nevertheless, they later made an agreement with Yazdegerd's son Bahram V, and recognized him as king of the Sasanian Empire. After Peroz I's disastrous campaign against the Hephthalites, which resulted in his death and the death of many of the wuzurgan,[4] his brother Balash was elected by nobility as the king of the Sasanian Empire. However, in reality it was Sukhra, an Iranian nobleman from the House of Karen, who held power over the empire. Even the wuzurgan were under his control.[5] Balash's reign eventually proved disastrous, and as a result he was replaced by Peroz's son Kavadh I.[6]Kavadh I, during his reign, began worshiping Mazdakism, a modified version of Zoroastrianism with influences from Manichaeism. The wuzurgan responded by siding with the Zoroastrian clergy, and had him imprisoned in 496, replacing him with his brother Djamasp.[1] Gushnaspdad, the kanarang of the Sasanian Empire, later urged the wuzurgan and other noble classes to execute Kavadh I, which they, however, refused to do. The grandson of Kavadh I, Hormizd IV, because of his bad treatment of the wuzurgan and other high-class noble families,[7] was in 590 deposed by a coup under the two Ispahbudhan brothers Vistahm and Vinduyih, who made Hormizd's son Khosrow II the new ruler of the Sasanian Empire.[1] However, the wuzurgan and other nobles later became displeased with Khosrow II, and in 628 had him deposed in favor of his son Kavadh II.[1][8]After the death of Kavadh II, the wuzurgan elected the latter's son Ardashir III,[1] who was only a mere child. During his reign, his minister Mah-Adhur Gushnasp, who was part of the wuzurgan class, in reality, controlled the Sasanian Empire. During the Arab conquest of Iran, a Sasanian general named Bahman Jadhuyih, who was the head of an army numbering 30,000 of the wuzurgan, defeated the Arabs at the Battle of the Bridge in 634.[9] Nevertheless, the Arabs won several other victories against the Sasanian Empire, and by 651 had all of Iran under their control.The wuzurgan are later mentioned during the reign of the Dabuyid ruler Khurshid (r. 740–760), where they along with the local population of Tabaristan were oppressed by Khurshid's general Karin.[10] After the fall of the Dabuyid dynasty in 760, the wuzurgan are no longer mentioned in any sources.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire: The Sasanian-Parthian Confederacy and the Arab Conquest of Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=I-xtAAAAMAAJ"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-84511-645-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84511-645-3"},{"link_name":"Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. IV, Fasc. 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bozorgan-mpers"},{"link_name":"Frye, Richard Nelson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Nelson_Frye"},{"link_name":"The History of Ancient Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/historyofancient0000frye"},{"link_name":"1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/historyofancient0000frye/page/n20"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9783406093975","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783406093975"}],"text":"Pourshariati, Parvaneh (2008). Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire: The Sasanian-Parthian Confederacy and the Arab Conquest of Iran. London and New York: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84511-645-3.\nTafazzoli, Ahmad (1989). \"BOZORGĀN\". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. IV, Fasc. 4. Ahmad Tafazzoli. p. 427.\nFrye, Richard Nelson (1984). The History of Ancient Iran. C.H.Beck. pp. 1–411. ISBN 9783406093975. The history of ancient iran.","title":"Sources"}]
|
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| null |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Syria
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Roman Syria
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["1 Provincia Syria","2 Aftermath","2.1 Division into Coele Syria and Syria Phoenice","2.2 Dominate reform","2.3 Syria in the Byzantine Empire","3 Demographics","4 Identity","5 Episcopal sees","6 See also","7 References","8 Sources","9 External links"]
|
Coordinates: 36°12′N 36°09′E / 36.200°N 36.150°E / 36.200; 36.150Roman province located in modern-day Turkey, Syria, and Lebanon
For other uses, see Syria (disambiguation).
You can help expand this article with text translated from the corresponding article in Italian. (February 2024) Click for important translation instructions.
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Provincia Syriaἐπαρχία Συρίαςeparchía SyríasProvince of the Roman Empire64 BC–198 ADRoman Syria highlighted in 125 ADCapitalAntioch(modern-day Antakya, Hatay, Turkey)History • Conquest of Coele-Syria by Pompey 64 BC• Province divided into Coele Syria and Phoenice 198 AD
Preceded by
Succeeded by
Seleucis of Syria
Coele-Syria
Herodian Tetrarchy ∟Iturea ∟Trachonitis
Coele Syria (Roman province)
Phoenice (Roman province)
Today part of
Syria
Lebanon
Turkey
Roman Syria was an early Roman province annexed to the Roman Republic in 64 BC by Pompey in the Third Mithridatic War following the defeat of King of Armenia Tigranes the Great, who had become the protector of the Hellenistic kingdom of Syria.
Following the partition of the Herodian Kingdom of Judea into a tetrarchy in 4 BC, it was gradually absorbed into Roman provinces, with Roman Syria annexing Iturea and Trachonitis. By the late 2nd century AD, the province was divided into Coele Syria and Syria Phoenice.
Provincia Syria
The ancient city of Palmyra was an important trading center and possibly Roman Syria's most prosperous city
The Roman empire in the time of Hadrian (ruled 117–138 AD), showing, in western Asia, the imperial province of Syria (Syria/Lebanon), with four legions deployed in 125 AD. (During the Principate)
Syria was annexed to the Roman Republic in 64 BC, when Pompey the Great had the Seleucid king Antiochus XIII Asiaticus executed and deposed his successor Philip II Philoromaeus. Pompey appointed Marcus Aemilius Scaurus to the post of governor of Syria.
Following the fall of the Roman Republic and its transformation into the Roman Empire, Syria became a Roman imperial province, governed by a Legate. During the early empire, the Roman army in Syria accounted for three legions with auxiliaries who defended the border with Parthia.
In 6 AD, Emperor Augustus deposed the ethnarch Herod Archelaus and united Judea, Samaria and Idumea into the Roman province of Judea; such province was placed under the direct authority of the Legate of Syria Publius Sulpicius Quirinius, who appointed Coponius as Prefect of Judea. Following the death of Herod Philip II (34 AD) and the removal of Herod Antipas (39 AD) Ituraea, Trachonitis, Galilee and Perea were also transferred under the jurisdiction of the province of Syria.
From 37 to 41 AD, much of the southern region was separated from Syria and transformed into a client kingdom under Herod Agrippa I. After Agrippa's death, his kingdom was gradually re-absorbed into the Roman Empire, until it was officially transformed into a Roman province following the death of Herod Agrippa II.
Syrian province forces were directly engaged in the First Jewish–Roman War of 66–70 AD. In 66 AD, Cestius Gallus, legate of Syria, brought the Syrian army, based on Legio XII Fulminata, reinforced by auxiliary troops, to restore order in Judaea and quell the revolt. The legion, however, was ambushed and destroyed by Jewish rebels at the Battle of Beth Horon, a result that shocked the Roman leadership. The future emperor Vespasian was then put in charge of subduing the Jewish revolt. In the summer of 69, Vespasian, with the Syrian units supporting him, launched his bid to become Roman emperor. He defeated his rival Vitellius and ruled as emperor for ten years when he was succeeded by his son Titus.
Based on an inscription recovered from Dor in 1948, Gargilius Antiquus was known to have been the governor of a province in the eastern part of the Empire, possibly Syria, between his consulate and governing Asia. In November 2016, an inscription in Greek was recovered off the coast of Dor by Haifa University underwater archaeologists, which attests that Antiquus was governor of the province of Judea between 120 and 130, possibly prior to the Bar Kokhba revolt.
As related by Theodor Mommsen,
The governor of Syria retained the civil administration of the whole large province undiminished, and held for long alone in all Asia a command of the first rank. It was only in the course of the second century that a diminution of his prerogatives occurred, when Hadrian took one of the four legions from the governor of Syria and handed it over to the governor of Palestine.
Aftermath
Division into Coele Syria and Syria Phoenice
Main articles: Coele Syria (Roman province) and Syria Phoenice
Provincia Coele Syriaἐπαρχία Κοίλης ΣυρίαςProvince of the Roman Empire198–end of 4th centuryRoman Empire in 210CapitalAntiochHistory • Established 198• Disestablished end of 4th century
Preceded by
Succeeded by
Syria (Roman province)
Syria Prima
Syria Secunda
Today part of
Syria
Turkey
Provincia Syria PhoeniceProvince of the Roman Empire198–end of 4th centuryRoman Empire in 210CapitalTyreHistory • Established 198• Disestablished end of 4th century
Preceded by
Succeeded by
Syria (Roman province)
Syria Palaestina
Phoenice Paralia
Phoenice Libanensis
Septimius Severus divided the province of Syria proper into Syria Coele and Syria Phoenice, with Antioch and Tyre as their respective provincial capitals.
As related by Theodor Mommsen,
It was Severus who at length withdrew the first place in the Roman military hierarchy from the Syrian governor. After having subdued the province—which had wished at that time to make Niger emperor, as it had formerly done with its governor Vespasian—amidst resistance from the capital Antioch in particular, he ordained its partition into a northern and a southern half, and gave to the governor of the former, which was called Coele-Syria, two legions, to the governor of the latter, the province of Syro-Phoenicia, one .
From the later 2nd century, the Roman Senate included several notable Syrians, including Claudius Pompeianus and Avidius Cassius.
Syria was of crucial strategic importance during the Crisis of the Third Century. In 244 AD, Rome was ruled by a native Syrian from Philippopolis (modern day Shahba) in the province of Arabia Petraea. The emperor was Marcus Iulius Philippus, more commonly known as Philip the Arab. Philip became the 33rd emperor of Rome upon its millennial celebration.
Roman Syria was invaded in 252/253 (the date is disputed) after a Roman field army was destroyed in the Battle of Barbalissos by the King of Persia Shapur I which left the Euphrates river unguarded and the region was pillaged by the Persians. In 259/260 a similar event happened when Shapur I again defeated a Roman field army and captured the Roman emperor, Valerian, alive at the Battle of Edessa. Again, Roman Syria suffered as cities were captured, sacked and pillaged.
From 268 to 273, Syria was part of the breakaway Palmyrene Empire.
The 'Orient' in the time of Septimius Severus c. 200 AD
Coele Syria
Provincia Syria Coele
Phoenicia
Provincia Syria Phoenice
Palaestina
Provincia Syria Palaestina
Arabia
Provincia Arabia Petraea
Dominate reform
Following the reforms of Diocletian, Syria Coele became part of the Diocese of the East. Sometime between 330 and 350 (likely c. 341), the province of Euphratensis was created out of the territory of Syria Coele along the western bank of the Euphrates and the former Kingdom of Commagene, with Hierapolis as its capital.
Syria in the Byzantine Empire
Further information: History of the Byzantine Empire
20 square meter Byzantine era mosaic found in Maryamin, Syria, currently located in the Hama museum
After c. 415, Syria Coele was further subdivided into Syria I (or Syria Prima), with its capital remaining at Antioch, and Syria II (Syria Secunda) or Syria Salutaris, with its capital at Apamea on the Orontes. In 528, Justinian I carved out the small coastal province Theodorias out of territory from both provinces.
Church of Saint Simeon Stylites, one of the oldest surviving churches in the world
The region remained one of the most important provinces of the Byzantine Empire. It was occupied by the Sasanians between 609 and 628, then reconquered by the emperor Heraclius, but lost again to the advancing Muslims after the Battle of Yarmouk and the fall of Antioch.
The city of Antioch was reconquered by Nikephorus Phocas in 963, along with other parts of the country, at that time under the Hamdanids, although still under the official suzerainty of the Abbasid caliphs and also claimed by the Fatimid caliphs. After emperor John Kurkuas failed to conquer Syria up to Jerusalem, a Muslim reconquest of Syria followed in the late 970s undertaken by the Fatimid Caliphate that resulted in the ousting of the Byzantines from most parts of Syria. However, Antioch and other northern parts of Syria remained in the empire and other parts were under the protection of the emperors through their Hamdanid, Mirdasid, and Marwanid proxies, until the Seljuk arrival, who after three decades of incursions, conquered Antioch in 1084. Antioch was captured again during the 12th century by the revived armies of the Comnenii. However, by that time the city was regarded as part of Asia Minor and not of Syria.
Demographics
Provinicia Syria had a diverse demographic distribution. The rural inland was mostly populated by Aramaic speakers descended from various West Semitic peoples who inhabited Syria. Arabs were settled throughout Hauran, Trachonitis and Emesa which they controlled. Arabs were also part of Palmyra's composition, which included Aramaeans, Arabs and Amorites. The Phoenician coast maintained a Phoenician-speaking majority well into the end of 2nd century, and their main urban centers included Tyre, Sidon and Berytus.
On the other hand, Greeks comprised a majority in Hellenistic urban centers such Antioch, Apamea, Cyrrhus and the Decapolis, which had been settled by Greeks under Seleucid patronage.
Estimates for the population of the entire Levant in the 1st century vary from 3.5–4 million to 6 million, levels only matched even by 19th century levels. Urban centers peaked and so did population density in the rural settlements. Antioch and Palmyra reached a peak of 200,000–250,000 inhabitants, while Apamea counted 117,000 'free citizens' circa AD 6. Combined with their dependancies and villages, Apamea and Cyrrhus may have counted as high as 500,000 each. The Syrian Coastal Mountain Range, marginal hill country, were less densely settled and had a population of around 40–50,000.
Identity
The inhabitants of Syria adopted Greek customs while maintaining elements of Near Eastern culture. The continuity of pre-Hellenistic cultures was inconsistent across different regions, and where it existed, it varied, including Aramean, Phoenician, and neo-Hittite influences. However, many areas documented exclusively Greek elements.
In contrast to Jews, who shared collective historical memories, Syrians lacked a unified cultural or social identity. The unifying aspects in Roman Syria were Greek civic structures and narratives promoted by Roman imperial rule, suggesting that Syrian culture was largely defined through Greek and Roman influences. The term 'Syrian' therefore primarily functioned as a geographical designation.
Episcopal sees
Ancient episcopal sees of the late Roman province of Syria Prima (I) listed in the Annuario Pontificio as titular sees:
Anasartha (Khanasir)
Barcusus (Baquza or Banqusa)
Beroea (Aleppo)
Chalcis in Syria (Qinnasrin)
Gabala (Jableh)
Gabula (at the marsh of Al-Jabbul)
Gindarus (Jandairis)
Laodicea in Syria (Latakia)
Salamias (Salamiyah)
Seleucia Pieria
Ancient episcopal sees of the late Roman province of Syria Secunda (II) listed in the Annuario Pontificio as titular sees:
Apamea in Syria, the Metropolitan Archdiocese
Arethusa (Al-Rastan)
Balanea (Baniyas)
Epiphania in Syria (Hama)
Larissa in Syria (Shaizar)
Mariamme (Maryamin)
Raphanea
Seleucobelus (Seleucopolis)
See also
History of Syria
Ottoman Syria
Assyria (Roman province)
List of governors of Roman Syria
References
^ Sicker, Martin (2001). Between Rome and Jerusalem: 300 Years of Roman-Judaean Relations. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-275-97140-3.
^ Dov Gera and Hannah M. Cotton, "A Dedication from Dor to a Governor of Syria", Israel Exploration Journal, 41 (1991), pp. 258–66
^ Divers Find Unexpected Roman Inscription From the Eve of Bar-Kochba Revolt Haaretz.com (Last accessed 6 June 2017)
^ a b Mommsen 1886, pp. 117–118.
^ Marquardt 1892, p. 373: "Tandis que la Judée ou Syria Palaestina demeurait ainsi séparée de la Syrie depuis l'an 66 après J.-C., la Syrie elle-même fut plus tard divisée en deux provinces : la Syria magna ou Syria Coele, et la Syria Phoenice".
^ Adkins & Adkins 1998, p. 121: "Septimius Severus divided the remaining province into Syria Coele and Syria Phoenice".
^ Cohen, Getzel M. (3 October 2006). The Hellenistic Settlements in Syria, the Red Sea Basin, and North Africa. University of California Press. p. 40, note 63. ISBN 978-0-520-93102-2. In 194 A.D. The emperor Septimus Severus divided the province of Syria and made the northern part into a separate province called Coele Syria.
^ a b c Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford University Press. p. 1999. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6.
^ Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford University Press. p. 748. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6.
^ Howard-Johnson, James D. (2006). East Rome, Sasanian Persia and the End of Antiquity. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-86078-992-5.
^ Antony, Sean (2006). Muhammad and the Empires of Faith: The Making of the Prophet of Islam. University of California Press. p. 184. ISBN 978-0-520-34041-1.
^ Stoneman, Richard (1994) . Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt Against Rome. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-08315-2.
^ Cohen, Getzel M. (2006). The Hellenistic Settlements in Syria, the Red Sea Basin, and North Africa. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520931022.
^ Kennedy, David L. "Demography, the Population of Syria and the Census of Q. Aemilius Secundus". Academia.
^ a b Andrade, Nathanael J., ed. (2013), "Introduction", Syrian Identity in the Greco-Roman World, Greek Culture in the Roman World, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 10–11, doi:10.1017/cbo9780511997808.003, ISBN 978-0-511-99780-8, retrieved 2024-02-04
^ a b Annuario Pontificio 2013 (Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2013 ISBN 978-88-209-9070-1), "Sedi titolari", pp. 819-1013
Sources
Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy A. (1998). Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. ISBN 978-0-19-512332-6.
Marquardt, Joachim (1892). L'organisation de l'Empire romain.
Mommsen, Theodor (1886). The History of Rome. R. Bentley.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Syria (Roman province).
Bagnall, R., J. Drinkwater, A. Esmonde-Cleary, W. Harris, R. Knapp, S. Mitchell, S. Parker, C. Wells, J. Wilkes, R. Talbert, M. E. Downs, M. Joann McDaniel, B. Z. Lund, T. Elliott, S. Gillies (30 January 2018). "Places: 981550 (Syria)". Pleiades. Retrieved March 8, 2012.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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36°12′N 36°09′E / 36.200°N 36.150°E / 36.200; 36.150
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Syria (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Roman province","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_province"},{"link_name":"Roman Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Republic"},{"link_name":"Pompey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompey"},{"link_name":"Third Mithridatic War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Mithridatic_War"},{"link_name":"King of Armenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)"},{"link_name":"Tigranes the Great","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tigranes_the_Great"},{"link_name":"Syria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seleucid_Empire"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Books.google.co.uk-1"},{"link_name":"Herodian Kingdom of Judea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodian_Kingdom_of_Judea"},{"link_name":"tetrarchy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodian_Tetrarchy"},{"link_name":"Iturea and Trachonitis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iturea_and_Trachonitis_(tetrarchy)"},{"link_name":"Coele Syria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coele_Syria_(Roman_province)"},{"link_name":"Syria Phoenice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenice_(Roman_province)"}],"text":"Roman province located in modern-day Turkey, Syria, and LebanonFor other uses, see Syria (disambiguation).Roman Syria was an early Roman province annexed to the Roman Republic in 64 BC by Pompey in the Third Mithridatic War following the defeat of King of Armenia Tigranes the Great, who had become the protector of the Hellenistic kingdom of Syria.[1]Following the partition of the Herodian Kingdom of Judea into a tetrarchy in 4 BC, it was gradually absorbed into Roman provinces, with Roman Syria annexing Iturea and Trachonitis. By the late 2nd century AD, the province was divided into Coele Syria and Syria Phoenice.","title":"Roman Syria"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Scene_of_the_Theater_in_Palmyra.JPG"},{"link_name":"Palmyra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roman_Empire_125.png"},{"link_name":"Hadrian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadrian"},{"link_name":"imperial province","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_province"},{"link_name":"legions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_legion"},{"link_name":"annexed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompey%27s_Eastern_Settlement"},{"link_name":"Roman Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Republic"},{"link_name":"Pompey the Great","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompey"},{"link_name":"Seleucid king","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seleucid_Empire"},{"link_name":"Antiochus XIII Asiaticus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiochus_XIII_Asiaticus"},{"link_name":"Philip II Philoromaeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_II_Philoromaeus"},{"link_name":"Marcus Aemilius Scaurus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aemilius_Scaurus_(praetor_56_BC)"},{"link_name":"fall of the Roman Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_the_Roman_Republic"},{"link_name":"Roman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Legate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legatus"},{"link_name":"Parthia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthia"},{"link_name":"Augustus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus"},{"link_name":"ethnarch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnarch"},{"link_name":"Herod Archelaus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herod_Archelaus"},{"link_name":"Judea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judea"},{"link_name":"Samaria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samaria"},{"link_name":"Idumea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idumea"},{"link_name":"Roman province of Judea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judea_(Roman_province)"},{"link_name":"Publius Sulpicius Quirinius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publius_Sulpicius_Quirinius"},{"link_name":"Coponius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coponius"},{"link_name":"Prefect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefect"},{"link_name":"Herod Philip II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_the_Tetrarch"},{"link_name":"Herod Antipas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herod_Antipas"},{"link_name":"Ituraea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iturea"},{"link_name":"Trachonitis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trachonitis"},{"link_name":"Galilee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galilee"},{"link_name":"Perea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perea"},{"link_name":"client kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Client_kingdom"},{"link_name":"Herod Agrippa I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herod_Agrippa"},{"link_name":"Herod Agrippa II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herod_Agrippa_II"},{"link_name":"First Jewish–Roman War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_War"},{"link_name":"Cestius Gallus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cestius_Gallus"},{"link_name":"Legio XII Fulminata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legio_XII_Fulminata"},{"link_name":"Battle of Beth Horon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Beth_Horon_(66)"},{"link_name":"Vespasian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vespasian"},{"link_name":"Vitellius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitellius"},{"link_name":"Titus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titus"},{"link_name":"Dor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tel_Dor"},{"link_name":"Gargilius Antiquus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintus_Coredius_Gallus_Gargilius_Antiquus"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gera-Cotton-2"},{"link_name":"Haifa University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haifa_University"},{"link_name":"Judea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judea_(Roman_province)"},{"link_name":"Bar Kokhba revolt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Theodor Mommsen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Mommsen"},{"link_name":"Hadrian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadrian"},{"link_name":"one of the four legions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legio_III_Gallica"},{"link_name":"Palestine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria_Palaestina"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mommsen_1886_117%E2%80%93118-4"}],"text":"The ancient city of Palmyra was an important trading center and possibly Roman Syria's most prosperous cityThe Roman empire in the time of Hadrian (ruled 117–138 AD), showing, in western Asia, the imperial province of Syria (Syria/Lebanon), with four legions deployed in 125 AD. (During the Principate)Syria was annexed to the Roman Republic in 64 BC, when Pompey the Great had the Seleucid king Antiochus XIII Asiaticus executed and deposed his successor Philip II Philoromaeus. Pompey appointed Marcus Aemilius Scaurus to the post of governor of Syria.Following the fall of the Roman Republic and its transformation into the Roman Empire, Syria became a Roman imperial province, governed by a Legate. During the early empire, the Roman army in Syria accounted for three legions with auxiliaries who defended the border with Parthia.In 6 AD, Emperor Augustus deposed the ethnarch Herod Archelaus and united Judea, Samaria and Idumea into the Roman province of Judea; such province was placed under the direct authority of the Legate of Syria Publius Sulpicius Quirinius, who appointed Coponius as Prefect of Judea. Following the death of Herod Philip II (34 AD) and the removal of Herod Antipas (39 AD) Ituraea, Trachonitis, Galilee and Perea were also transferred under the jurisdiction of the province of Syria.From 37 to 41 AD, much of the southern region was separated from Syria and transformed into a client kingdom under Herod Agrippa I. After Agrippa's death, his kingdom was gradually re-absorbed into the Roman Empire, until it was officially transformed into a Roman province following the death of Herod Agrippa II.Syrian province forces were directly engaged in the First Jewish–Roman War of 66–70 AD. In 66 AD, Cestius Gallus, legate of Syria, brought the Syrian army, based on Legio XII Fulminata, reinforced by auxiliary troops, to restore order in Judaea and quell the revolt. The legion, however, was ambushed and destroyed by Jewish rebels at the Battle of Beth Horon, a result that shocked the Roman leadership. The future emperor Vespasian was then put in charge of subduing the Jewish revolt. In the summer of 69, Vespasian, with the Syrian units supporting him, launched his bid to become Roman emperor. He defeated his rival Vitellius and ruled as emperor for ten years when he was succeeded by his son Titus.Based on an inscription recovered from Dor in 1948, Gargilius Antiquus was known to have been the governor of a province in the eastern part of the Empire, possibly Syria, between his consulate and governing Asia.[2] In November 2016, an inscription in Greek was recovered off the coast of Dor by Haifa University underwater archaeologists, which attests that Antiquus was governor of the province of Judea between 120 and 130, possibly prior to the Bar Kokhba revolt.[3]As related by Theodor Mommsen,The governor of Syria retained the civil administration of the whole large province undiminished, and held for long alone in all Asia a command of the first rank. [...] It was only in the course of the second century that a diminution of his prerogatives occurred, when Hadrian took one of the four legions from the governor of Syria and handed it over to the governor of Palestine.[4]","title":"Provincia Syria"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Aftermath"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Septimius Severus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septimius_Severus"},{"link_name":"Syria Coele","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coele_Syria_(Roman_province)"},{"link_name":"Syria Phoenice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria_Phoenice"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Tyre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon"},{"link_name":"Theodor Mommsen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Mommsen"},{"link_name":"Severus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septimius_Severus"},{"link_name":"Niger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pescennius_Niger"},{"link_name":"Vespasian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vespasian"},{"link_name":"Coele-Syria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coele_Syria_(Roman_province)"},{"link_name":"Syro-Phoenicia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria_Phoenice"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mommsen_1886_117%E2%80%93118-4"},{"link_name":"Roman Senate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Senate"},{"link_name":"Claudius Pompeianus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claudius_Pompeianus"},{"link_name":"Avidius Cassius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avidius_Cassius"},{"link_name":"Crisis of the Third Century","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century"},{"link_name":"Shahba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahba"},{"link_name":"Philip the Arab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_the_Arab"},{"link_name":"Battle of Barbalissos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Barbalissos"},{"link_name":"Shapur I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shapur_I"},{"link_name":"Shapur I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shapur_I"},{"link_name":"Battle of Edessa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Edessa"},{"link_name":"Palmyrene Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire"}],"sub_title":"Division into Coele Syria and Syria Phoenice","text":"Septimius Severus divided the province of Syria proper into Syria Coele and Syria Phoenice,[5][6] with Antioch and Tyre as their respective provincial capitals.As related by Theodor Mommsen,It was Severus who at length withdrew the first place in the Roman military hierarchy from the Syrian governor. After having subdued the province—which had wished at that time to make Niger emperor, as it had formerly done with its governor Vespasian—amidst resistance from the capital Antioch in particular, he ordained its partition into a northern and a southern half, and gave to the governor of the former, which was called Coele-Syria, two legions, to the governor of the latter, the province of Syro-Phoenicia, one [legion].[4]From the later 2nd century, the Roman Senate included several notable Syrians, including Claudius Pompeianus and Avidius Cassius.Syria was of crucial strategic importance during the Crisis of the Third Century. In 244 AD, Rome was ruled by a native Syrian from Philippopolis (modern day Shahba) in the province of Arabia Petraea. The emperor was Marcus Iulius Philippus, more commonly known as Philip the Arab. Philip became the 33rd emperor of Rome upon its millennial celebration.Roman Syria was invaded in 252/253 (the date is disputed) after a Roman field army was destroyed in the Battle of Barbalissos by the King of Persia Shapur I which left the Euphrates river unguarded and the region was pillaged by the Persians. In 259/260 a similar event happened when Shapur I again defeated a Roman field army and captured the Roman emperor, Valerian, alive at the Battle of Edessa. Again, Roman Syria suffered as cities were captured, sacked and pillaged.From 268 to 273, Syria was part of the breakaway Palmyrene Empire.","title":"Aftermath"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Diocletian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocletian"},{"link_name":"Diocese of the East","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocese_of_the_East"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODB1999-8"},{"link_name":"Euphratensis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphratensis"},{"link_name":"Euphrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphrates"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Commagene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Commagene"},{"link_name":"Hierapolis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manbij"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"sub_title":"Dominate reform","text":"Following the reforms of Diocletian, Syria Coele became part of the Diocese of the East.[8] Sometime between 330 and 350 (likely c. 341), the province of Euphratensis was created out of the territory of Syria Coele along the western bank of the Euphrates and the former Kingdom of Commagene, with Hierapolis as its capital.[9]","title":"Aftermath"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"History of the Byzantine Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Byzantine_Empire"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mosaic_of_the_Female_Musicians.jpg"},{"link_name":"Byzantine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire"},{"link_name":"Maryamin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maryamin,_Homs"},{"link_name":"Syria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria"},{"link_name":"Syria Prima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria_Prima"},{"link_name":"Antioch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antioch"},{"link_name":"Apamea on the Orontes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apamea_on_the_Orontes"},{"link_name":"Justinian I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justinian_I"},{"link_name":"Theodorias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodorias_(province)"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODB1999-8"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Church_of_Saint_Simeon_Stylites_17.jpg"},{"link_name":"Church of Saint Simeon Stylites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_Saint_Simeon_Stylites"},{"link_name":"Byzantine Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire"},{"link_name":"occupied","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_602%E2%80%93628"},{"link_name":"Sasanians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanians"},{"link_name":"Heraclius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heraclius"},{"link_name":"advancing Muslims","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant"},{"link_name":"Battle of Yarmouk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Yarmouk"},{"link_name":"fall of Antioch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Iron_Bridge"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODB1999-8"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Antioch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antioch"},{"link_name":"Nikephorus Phocas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikephoros_II_Phokas"},{"link_name":"Hamdanids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamdanids"},{"link_name":"Abbasid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasids"},{"link_name":"Fatimid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatimids"},{"link_name":"John Kurkuas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_I_Tzimiskes"},{"link_name":"emperors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonian_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Mirdasid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirdasid_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Marwanid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marwanids_(Diyar_Bakr)"},{"link_name":"Seljuk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seljuq_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Comnenii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Komnenos_dynasty"}],"sub_title":"Syria in the Byzantine Empire","text":"Further information: History of the Byzantine Empire20 square meter Byzantine era mosaic found in Maryamin, Syria, currently located in the Hama museumAfter c. 415, Syria Coele was further subdivided into Syria I (or Syria Prima), with its capital remaining at Antioch, and Syria II (Syria Secunda) or Syria Salutaris, with its capital at Apamea on the Orontes. In 528, Justinian I carved out the small coastal province Theodorias out of territory from both provinces.[8]Church of Saint Simeon Stylites, one of the oldest surviving churches in the worldThe region remained one of the most important provinces of the Byzantine Empire. It was occupied by the Sasanians between 609 and 628, then reconquered by the emperor Heraclius, but lost again to the advancing Muslims after the Battle of Yarmouk and the fall of Antioch.[8][10][11]\nThe city of Antioch was reconquered by Nikephorus Phocas in 963, along with other parts of the country, at that time under the Hamdanids, although still under the official suzerainty of the Abbasid caliphs and also claimed by the Fatimid caliphs. After emperor John Kurkuas failed to conquer Syria up to Jerusalem, a Muslim reconquest of Syria followed in the late 970s undertaken by the Fatimid Caliphate that resulted in the ousting of the Byzantines from most parts of Syria. However, Antioch and other northern parts of Syria remained in the empire and other parts were under the protection of the emperors through their Hamdanid, Mirdasid, and Marwanid proxies, until the Seljuk arrival, who after three decades of incursions, conquered Antioch in 1084. Antioch was captured again during the 12th century by the revived armies of the Comnenii. However, by that time the city was regarded as part of Asia Minor and not of Syria.","title":"Aftermath"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Aramaic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramaic"},{"link_name":"West Semitic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Semitic_languages"},{"link_name":"Arabs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Arabs"},{"link_name":"Hauran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hauran"},{"link_name":"Trachonitis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trachonitis"},{"link_name":"Emesa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homs"},{"link_name":"Palmyra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra"},{"link_name":"Amorites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorites"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Phoenician","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenicia"},{"link_name":"Phoenician","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenician_language"},{"link_name":"Tyre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon"},{"link_name":"Sidon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidon"},{"link_name":"Berytus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berytus"},{"link_name":"Greeks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece"},{"link_name":"Antioch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antioch"},{"link_name":"Apamea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apamea,_Syria"},{"link_name":"Cyrrhus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrrhus"},{"link_name":"Decapolis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decapolis"},{"link_name":"Seleucid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seleucid_Empire"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Levant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levant"},{"link_name":"Antioch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antioch"},{"link_name":"Palmyra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra"},{"link_name":"Syrian Coastal Mountain Range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Coastal_Mountain_Range"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"Provinicia Syria had a diverse demographic distribution. The rural inland was mostly populated by Aramaic speakers descended from various West Semitic peoples who inhabited Syria. Arabs were settled throughout Hauran, Trachonitis and Emesa which they controlled. Arabs were also part of Palmyra's composition, which included Aramaeans, Arabs and Amorites.[12] The Phoenician coast maintained a Phoenician-speaking majority well into the end of 2nd century, and their main urban centers included Tyre, Sidon and Berytus.On the other hand, Greeks comprised a majority in Hellenistic urban centers such Antioch, Apamea, Cyrrhus and the Decapolis, which had been settled by Greeks under Seleucid patronage.[13]Estimates for the population of the entire Levant in the 1st century vary from 3.5–4 million to 6 million, levels only matched even by 19th century levels. Urban centers peaked and so did population density in the rural settlements. Antioch and Palmyra reached a peak of 200,000–250,000 inhabitants, while Apamea counted 117,000 'free citizens' circa AD 6. Combined with their dependancies and villages, Apamea and Cyrrhus may have counted as high as 500,000 each. The Syrian Coastal Mountain Range, marginal hill country, were less densely settled and had a population of around 40–50,000.[14]","title":"Demographics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Greek customs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenization"},{"link_name":"Near Eastern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Near_East"},{"link_name":"Aramean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arameans"},{"link_name":"Phoenician","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenicia"},{"link_name":"neo-Hittite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Hittite"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-15"},{"link_name":"Jews","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jews"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-15"}],"text":"The inhabitants of Syria adopted Greek customs while maintaining elements of Near Eastern culture. The continuity of pre-Hellenistic cultures was inconsistent across different regions, and where it existed, it varied, including Aramean, Phoenician, and neo-Hittite influences. However, many areas documented exclusively Greek elements.[15]In contrast to Jews, who shared collective historical memories, Syrians lacked a unified cultural or social identity. The unifying aspects in Roman Syria were Greek civic structures and narratives promoted by Roman imperial rule, suggesting that Syrian culture was largely defined through Greek and Roman influences. The term 'Syrian' therefore primarily functioned as a geographical designation.[15]","title":"Identity"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Roman province","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_province"},{"link_name":"Annuario Pontificio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annuario_Pontificio"},{"link_name":"titular sees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titular_see"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AP-16"},{"link_name":"Anasartha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anasartha"},{"link_name":"Barcusus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Barcusus_(titular_see)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Banqusa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_Cities#Harim_Mountains_(Mount_B%C4%81r%C4%ABsh%C4%81_and_Mount_A%CA%BBl%C4%81)"},{"link_name":"Beroea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleppo"},{"link_name":"Chalcis in Syria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcis_in_Syria"},{"link_name":"Gabala","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jableh"},{"link_name":"Gabula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabula_(Syria)"},{"link_name":"Gindarus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gindarus"},{"link_name":"Laodicea in Syria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laodicea_in_Syria"},{"link_name":"Salamias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salamias"},{"link_name":"Seleucia Pieria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seleucia_Pieria"},{"link_name":"Annuario Pontificio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annuario_Pontificio"},{"link_name":"titular sees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titular_see"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AP-16"},{"link_name":"Apamea in Syria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apamea,_Syria"},{"link_name":"Arethusa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arethusa_(see)"},{"link_name":"Balanea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balanea"},{"link_name":"Epiphania in Syria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hama"},{"link_name":"Larissa in Syria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larissa_in_Syria"},{"link_name":"Mariamme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariamme"},{"link_name":"Raphanea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raphanea"},{"link_name":"Seleucobelus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seleucobelus"}],"text":"Ancient episcopal sees of the late Roman province of Syria Prima (I) listed in the Annuario Pontificio as titular sees:[16]Anasartha (Khanasir)\nBarcusus (Baquza or Banqusa)\nBeroea (Aleppo)\nChalcis in Syria (Qinnasrin)\nGabala (Jableh)\nGabula (at the marsh of Al-Jabbul)\nGindarus (Jandairis)\nLaodicea in Syria (Latakia)\nSalamias (Salamiyah)\nSeleucia PieriaAncient episcopal sees of the late Roman province of Syria Secunda (II) listed in the Annuario Pontificio as titular sees:[16]Apamea in Syria, the Metropolitan Archdiocese\nArethusa (Al-Rastan)\nBalanea (Baniyas)\nEpiphania in Syria (Hama)\nLarissa in Syria (Shaizar)\nMariamme (Maryamin)\nRaphanea\nSeleucobelus (Seleucopolis)","title":"Episcopal sees"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=9JJdqJ8YGH8C"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-19-512332-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-512332-6"},{"link_name":"L'organisation de l'Empire romain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=u_uOAtKJ3qcC"},{"link_name":"Mommsen, Theodor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Mommsen"},{"link_name":"The History of Rome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/cu31924071192458"}],"text":"Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy A. (1998). Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. ISBN 978-0-19-512332-6.\nMarquardt, Joachim (1892). L'organisation de l'Empire romain.\nMommsen, Theodor (1886). The History of Rome. R. Bentley.","title":"Sources"}]
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[{"image_text":"The ancient city of Palmyra was an important trading center and possibly Roman Syria's most prosperous city","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/The_Scene_of_the_Theater_in_Palmyra.JPG/220px-The_Scene_of_the_Theater_in_Palmyra.JPG"},{"image_text":"The Roman empire in the time of Hadrian (ruled 117–138 AD), showing, in western Asia, the imperial province of Syria (Syria/Lebanon), with four legions deployed in 125 AD. (During the Principate)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Roman_Empire_125.png/250px-Roman_Empire_125.png"},{"image_text":"20 square meter Byzantine era mosaic found in Maryamin, Syria, currently located in the Hama museum","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Mosaic_of_the_Female_Musicians.jpg/220px-Mosaic_of_the_Female_Musicians.jpg"},{"image_text":"Church of Saint Simeon Stylites, one of the oldest surviving churches in the world","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Church_of_Saint_Simeon_Stylites_17.jpg/220px-Church_of_Saint_Simeon_Stylites_17.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"History of Syria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Syria"},{"title":"Ottoman Syria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Syria"},{"title":"Assyria (Roman province)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assyria_(Roman_province)"},{"title":"List of governors of Roman Syria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_governors_of_Syria"}]
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[{"reference":"Sicker, Martin (2001). Between Rome and Jerusalem: 300 Years of Roman-Judaean Relations. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-275-97140-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Martin_Sicker&action=edit&redlink=1","url_text":"Sicker, Martin"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=UKK4ge9FD14C&pg=PA39","url_text":"Between Rome and Jerusalem: 300 Years of Roman-Judaean Relations"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-97140-3","url_text":"978-0-275-97140-3"}]},{"reference":"Cohen, Getzel M. (3 October 2006). The Hellenistic Settlements in Syria, the Red Sea Basin, and North Africa. University of California Press. p. 40, note 63. ISBN 978-0-520-93102-2. In 194 A.D. The emperor Septimus Severus divided the province of Syria and made the northern part into a separate province called Coele Syria.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=RqdPcxuNthcC&pg=PA40","url_text":"The Hellenistic Settlements in Syria, the Red Sea Basin, and North Africa"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-93102-2","url_text":"978-0-520-93102-2"}]},{"reference":"Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford University Press. p. 1999. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_Dictionary_of_Byzantium","url_text":"Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-504652-6","url_text":"978-0-19-504652-6"}]},{"reference":"Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford University Press. p. 748. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_Dictionary_of_Byzantium","url_text":"Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-504652-6","url_text":"978-0-19-504652-6"}]},{"reference":"Howard-Johnson, James D. (2006). East Rome, Sasanian Persia and the End of Antiquity. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-86078-992-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Howard-Johnson","url_text":"Howard-Johnson, James D."},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=1U4rUaLdYnQC&pg=RA2-PA6","url_text":"East Rome, Sasanian Persia and the End of Antiquity"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86078-992-5","url_text":"978-0-86078-992-5"}]},{"reference":"Antony, Sean (2006). Muhammad and the Empires of Faith: The Making of the Prophet of Islam. University of California Press. p. 184. ISBN 978-0-520-34041-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=RSzJDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA184","url_text":"Muhammad and the Empires of Faith: The Making of the Prophet of Islam"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-34041-1","url_text":"978-0-520-34041-1"}]},{"reference":"Stoneman, Richard (1994) [1992]. Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt Against Rome. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-08315-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-08315-2","url_text":"978-0-472-08315-2"}]},{"reference":"Cohen, Getzel M. (2006). The Hellenistic Settlements in Syria, the Red Sea Basin, and North Africa. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520931022.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=RqdPcxuNthcC","url_text":"The Hellenistic Settlements in Syria, the Red Sea Basin, and North Africa"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520931022","url_text":"9780520931022"}]},{"reference":"Kennedy, David L. \"Demography, the Population of Syria and the Census of Q. Aemilius Secundus\". Academia.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.academia.edu/11730357","url_text":"\"Demography, the Population of Syria and the Census of Q. Aemilius Secundus\""}]},{"reference":"Andrade, Nathanael J., ed. (2013), \"Introduction\", Syrian Identity in the Greco-Roman World, Greek Culture in the Roman World, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 10–11, doi:10.1017/cbo9780511997808.003, ISBN 978-0-511-99780-8, retrieved 2024-02-04","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/syrian-identity-in-the-grecoroman-world/introduction/DEE9846C22F1E9B064D4AF9EFD008C0A","url_text":"\"Introduction\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9780511997808.003","url_text":"10.1017/cbo9780511997808.003"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-511-99780-8","url_text":"978-0-511-99780-8"}]},{"reference":"Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy A. (1998). Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. ISBN 978-0-19-512332-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=9JJdqJ8YGH8C","url_text":"Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-512332-6","url_text":"978-0-19-512332-6"}]},{"reference":"Marquardt, Joachim (1892). L'organisation de l'Empire romain.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=u_uOAtKJ3qcC","url_text":"L'organisation de l'Empire romain"}]},{"reference":"Mommsen, Theodor (1886). The History of Rome. R. Bentley.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Mommsen","url_text":"Mommsen, Theodor"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/cu31924071192458","url_text":"The History of Rome"}]},{"reference":"Bagnall, R., J. Drinkwater, A. Esmonde-Cleary, W. Harris, R. Knapp, S. Mitchell, S. Parker, C. Wells, J. Wilkes, R. Talbert, M. E. Downs, M. Joann McDaniel, B. Z. Lund, T. Elliott, S. Gillies (30 January 2018). \"Places: 981550 (Syria)\". Pleiades. Retrieved March 8, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://pleiades.stoa.org/places/981550","url_text":"\"Places: 981550 (Syria)\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-executive_director
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Non-executive director
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["1 Role","2 Key responsibilities","3 Negative and positive contributions","4 Audit","5 Remuneration","6 Training and education","7 Types of organisation","8 Appraisal objectives","9 See also","10 References","11 Further reading","12 External links"]
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Corporate title
A non-executive director (abbreviated to non-exec, NED or NXD), independent director or external director is a member of the board of directors of a corporation, such as a company, cooperative or non-government organization, but not a member of the executive management team. They are not employees of the corporation or affiliated with it in any other way and are differentiated from executive directors, who are members of the board who also serve, or previously served, as executive managers of the corporation (most often as corporate officers). However they do have the same legal duties, responsibilities and potential liabilities as their executive counterparts.
Non-executive directors provide independent oversight and serve on committees concerned with sensitive issues such as the pay of the executive directors and other senior managers; they are usually paid a fee for their services but are not regarded as employees.
All directors should be capable of seeing corporate and business issues in a broad perspective. Nonetheless, non-executive directors are usually chosen because of their independence and initiative, are of an appropriate caliber and have particular personal qualities.
Role
Fundamentally, the non-executive director role is to provide a creative contribution and improvement to the board by providing dispassionate and objective criticism. Their role may change depending on the organisation, though they are usually not involved in the day-to-day management of the corporation but monitor the executive activity and contribute to the development strategy.
Non-executive directors can also be referred to as external directors; they are usually people of stature and experience who can act as both a source of wise independent advice and a check on any wilder elements on a board.
According to the UK Institute of Directors, non-executive directors are expected to focus on board matters and not stray into ‘executive direction,’ thus providing an independent view of the corporation that is removed from day-to-day running. Non-executive directors, then, are appointed to bring to the board:
Independence;
Impartiality;
Wide experience;
Special knowledge;
Personal qualities.
In addition to the above five key qualities an effective non-executive director would influence the achievement of balance of the board of directors as a whole as well as commitment, perception and a broad perspective of the area or industry. More key responsibilities may include:
Contributing to the strategic direction of the corporation;
Efficiently solving problems that arise;
Communicating with third parties;
Ensuring all the audit requirements are satisfied;
Remuneration of the executive directors;
Appointing the board of directors.
Key responsibilities
Non-executive directors have responsibilities in the following areas, according to the Review of the role and effectiveness of non-executive directors (the Higgs report), published by the British government in 2003:
Strategy: Non-executive directors should constructively challenge and contribute to the development of strategy. As an external member of an organisation, the NED may have a clearer or wider view of possible factors affecting the corporation and its business environment, more-so than executive directors.
Performance: Non-executive directors should scrutinise the performance of management in meeting-agreed goals and objectives and monitoring and, where necessary, removing senior management, and in succession planning.
Risk: Non-executive directors should satisfy themselves that financial information is accurate and that financial controls and systems of risk management are robust and defensible.
People: Non-executive directors can benefit the corporation's and board's effectiveness through outside contacts and opinions. Helping the business and board connect with networks of useful people and organisations become an important function for the NED to fulfill.
NEDs should also provide independent views on:
Resources
Appointments
Standards of conduct
Boards (and the non-executive directors on them) also have a responsibility to evaluate their own performance. Reasons for undertaking a board evaluation might include:
to address specific issues
to benchmark performance against other companies
the need to ensure that the board is doing the best it can
the need to be seen to be doing something
Much has been written about how best to go about evaluating board performance and it remains a key topic of discussion.
Negative and positive contributions
The Institute of Directors in New Zealand outlines ten clear benefits that independent directors can bring to a start-up and high growth business. These are
They bring an objective viewpoint to the board
They are unlikely to have any family or majority ownership ties to the business
They can cast a critical eye over the business without preconception or prejudice
They are also able to act in the capacity of counselor, sounding board and devil's advocate
They bring a one-off business knowledge and experience in many areas
Many start-ups and high growth businesses tend to operate in a vacuum without looking at outside forces
Outside directors introduce a fresh, and usually innovative, perspective
They may compensate in some of the key areas where management may be weak
The outside director may act a bit like a consultant
They bring input and the ability to assist with objectivity
Having a non-executive director in a business may seem necessary due to the benefits having one can provide, however it is possible a NED may contribute to a dynamic of deteriorating board relationships. Executives could come to resent or be frustrated by non-executive contributions that they perceive to be either ill-informed or inappropriate. This in turn can contribute to a dynamic of deteriorating board relationships, characterized by withholding of information and mistrust. As one executive described it:"When a non-executive director displays insight and real knowledge and undertakes a role in a very serious fashion, asks brave questions, takes an interest in issues the directors know that they are going to be kept on their toes in relation to these issues, and the respect level rises. Then that person becomes an approachable person … it is actually cumulative in terms of the benefits that can come from that … it can go completely the other way because it is just, 'well, they don't know anything about the business, they had to ask the obligatory three questions' and then the respect gets lost between the parties and you do not have a relationship that is built. It gets back down to what is the ability of the person and what is driving them to become engaged … When that engagement actually adds value and can be seen to add value, then very quickly you get a dynamic where you improve the situation."
Audit
It is the duty of the whole board to ensure that a company's accounts are prepared properly. These should inform its shareholders by presenting a true and fair reflection of its actions and financial performance and all of the board should ensure that the necessary internal control systems are put into place and monitored regularly and rigorously. A non-executive director has an important part to play in fulfilling this responsibility whether or not a formal audit committee (composed of non-executive directors) of the board has been constituted.
Remuneration
According to NEDonBoard, non-executive directors typically sit on the main board and have responsibility on the board sub-committees (e.g. audit committee, risk committee, nomination committee, remuneration committee). Research points to an average remuneration of £60 to 80k for FTSE 100 NEDs and £50 to 60k for FTSE 250 NEDs. SMEs remunerate their non-executive directors at lower rates, in the £20-30k range. Most roles in the not-for-profit sector are voluntary roles. There are a few factors that determine the level of remuneration of a NED:
Size
Sector
Enterprise type
Maturity
Financial resources
Time commitment
Responsibilities including being a member of a sub-committee of the board, being the SID, the chair of the board or a sub-committee
Training and education
It is vitally important that all non-executive directors are aware of their duties and liabilities as well as developing the softer skills associated with the role such as board behaviour and effective challenge. There are a number of organisations who provide this type of training such as NEDonBoard, the Institute of Directors and Financial Times.
Types of organisation
A non-executive director can be appointed in different organisations:
The private sector
The public sector
Academic sector
Third sector
Duties depend on whether they represent the interest of shareholders, in the private sector, or the interest of the society in public organisation.
Appraisal objectives
Some organisations appraise non-executive directors on general overall performance criteria such as in the Higgs Report, whereas others in addition set specific individual objectives, which may be specifically linked to the overall organisation goals.
See also
Agency cost
Chairperson
Corporate title
Independent director
ITNEA
Managing director
References
^ a b c d e f "The role of the non-executive director" (PDF). Institute of Directors. 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 April 2015. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
^ Hayes, Keith (2014). Business Journalism: How to Report on Business and Economics. Apress. ISBN 978-1-4302-6349-4.
^ "Executive Coaching". CoachDirectors. Retrieved 2017-03-02.
^ Bott, Frank (2014). Professional Issues in Information Technology - Second edition. BCS Learning & Development Limited. ISBN 978-1-78017-180-7.
^ "Role of the Non-Executive Director". BUPA. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
^ Arnold, Glen (2013). Get Started in Shares. FT Publishing International. ISBN 978-0-273-77122-7.
^ a b c Wilson, Paul (29 March 2010). "The Increasing Importance Of Non-Executive Directors". mondaq. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
^ Colin, Barrow (2013). The 30 Day MBA, 3rd Edition. Kogan Page. ISBN 978-0-7494-6990-0.
^ "The Increasing Importance Of Non-Executive Directors". Comsure Group. 28 February 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
^ Higgs, Derek (2003-01-20). "Review of the role and effectiveness of non-executive directors" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 June 2007. Retrieved 20 October 2007.
^ "The Higgs Review summary page". Archived from the original on 30 October 2007. Retrieved 20 October 2007.
^ "How Boards Should Evaluate Their Own Performance". Harvard Business Review. 2017-03-01. Retrieved 2018-06-29.
^ "Appraising Boardroom Performance". Harvard Business Review. 1998-01-01. Retrieved 2018-06-29.
^ "How do you evaluate board performance?". 2018-04-18. Retrieved 2018-06-29.
^ "Board evaluations and effectiveness reviews". Retrieved 2018-06-29.
^ "Types of directors - Institute of Directors in New Zealand". www.iod.org.nz. Retrieved 2019-06-27.
^ a b Roberts, John (8 March 2005). "Beyond Agency Conceptions of the Work of the Non-Executive Director: Creating Accountability in the Boardroom". British Journal of Management. 16: S5–S26. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8551.2005.00444.x.
^ (Firm), Pinsent Masons (2010). The Director's Handbook. ISBN 9780749460587.
^ "The key differences between executive and non executive directors - NEDonBoard". NEDonBoard. Retrieved 2018-06-01.
^ "What can you expect as compensation for a non-executive director role - NEDonBoard". NEDonBoard.
^ "What to Expect of the NED Role, NEDonBoard". 6 June 2017. Retrieved 3 June 2017.
^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-09-24. Retrieved 2014-06-01.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
^ "Council of Governor Meeting: 16 January 2014" (PDF). Colchesterhospital.nhs.uk. Retrieved 2017-03-30.
^ "Resources and factsheets". Iod.com. Retrieved 2017-03-30.
^ Winter, A J G (12 April 2013). "PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT & APPRAISAL OF NON-EXECUTIVE DIRECTORS 2012/13 AND OBJECTIVES FOR 2013/14" (PDF). neas. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
^ "Council of Governor Meeting: 2 March 2009" (PDF). Sabp.nhs.uk. Retrieved 2017-03-30.
Further reading
Merson, Rupert (2003). Non-Executive Directors. Profile Books Ltd. ISBN 978-1-86197-499-0.
Brown, Gerry (2015). The Independent Director: The Non-Executive Director's Guide to Effective Board Presence. Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9781137480538. OCLC 933209521.
External links
NACD, US professional body for non-executive directors and board members
Institute of Directors, a UK business organisation for corporate directors, senior business leaders and entrepreneurs
Nurole, technology company operating the Nurole platform, an online global marketplace for non-executive independent director and senior executive roles
ICSA, Institute of chartered secretaries and administrators trains, informs and represents the interests of governance professionals across all sectors
30 percent club, collaborative campaign group focused on getting more women on boards
NEDonBoard, Institute of Board Members. Professional body for non-executive directors and board members
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"board of directors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Board_of_directors"},{"link_name":"corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporation"},{"link_name":"company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Company"},{"link_name":"cooperative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooperative"},{"link_name":"non-government organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-government_organization"},{"link_name":"executive directors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_director"},{"link_name":"corporate officers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_officer"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"}],"text":"A non-executive director (abbreviated to non-exec, NED or NXD), independent director or external director is a member of the board of directors of a corporation, such as a company, cooperative or non-government organization, but not a member of the executive management team. They are not employees of the corporation or affiliated with it in any other way and are differentiated from executive directors, who are members of the board who also serve, or previously served, as executive managers of the corporation (most often as corporate officers). However they do have the same legal duties, responsibilities and potential liabilities as their executive counterparts.[1][2][3]Non-executive directors provide independent oversight and serve on committees concerned with sensitive issues such as the pay of the executive directors and other senior managers; they are usually paid a fee for their services but are not regarded as employees.[4]All directors should be capable of seeing corporate and business issues in a broad perspective. Nonetheless, non-executive directors are usually chosen because of their independence and initiative, are of an appropriate caliber and have particular personal qualities.[1]","title":"Non-executive director"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Institute of Directors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Directors"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-7"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"Fundamentally, the non-executive director role is to provide a creative contribution and improvement to the board by providing dispassionate and objective criticism.[1] Their role may change depending on the organisation,[5][6] though they are usually not involved in the day-to-day management of the corporation but monitor the executive activity and contribute to the development strategy.[7]Non-executive directors can also be referred to as external directors; they are usually people of stature and experience who can act as both a source of wise independent advice and a check on any wilder elements on a board.[8]According to the UK Institute of Directors, non-executive directors are expected to focus on board matters and not stray into ‘executive direction,’ thus providing an independent view of the corporation that is removed from day-to-day running.[1] Non-executive directors, then, are appointed to bring to the board:Independence;\nImpartiality;\nWide experience;\nSpecial knowledge;\nPersonal qualities.[1][7]In addition to the above five key qualities an effective non-executive director would influence the achievement of balance of the board of directors as a whole as well as commitment, perception and a broad perspective of the area or industry. More key responsibilities may include:Contributing to the strategic direction of the corporation;\nEfficiently solving problems that arise;\nCommunicating with third parties;\nEnsuring all the audit requirements are satisfied;\nRemuneration of the executive directors;\nAppointing the board of directors.[7][9]","title":"Role"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Review of the role and effectiveness of non-executive directors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Review_of_the_role_and_effectiveness_of_non-executive_directors"},{"link_name":"British government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_government"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"succession planning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Succession_planning"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"Non-executive directors have responsibilities in the following areas, according to the Review of the role and effectiveness of non-executive directors (the Higgs report), published by the British government in 2003:[1][10][11]Strategy: Non-executive directors should constructively challenge and contribute to the development of strategy. As an external member of an organisation, the NED may have a clearer or wider view of possible factors affecting the corporation and its business environment, more-so than executive directors.\nPerformance: Non-executive directors should scrutinise the performance of management in meeting-agreed goals and objectives and monitoring and, where necessary, removing senior management, and in succession planning.\nRisk: Non-executive directors should satisfy themselves that financial information is accurate and that financial controls and systems of risk management are robust and defensible.\nPeople: Non-executive directors can benefit the corporation's and board's effectiveness through outside contacts and opinions. Helping the business and board connect with networks of useful people and organisations become an important function for the NED to fulfill.NEDs should also provide independent views on:Resources\nAppointments\nStandards of conductBoards (and the non-executive directors on them) also have a responsibility to evaluate their own performance. Reasons for undertaking a board evaluation might include:to address specific issues\nto benchmark performance against other companies\nthe need to ensure that the board is doing the best it can\nthe need to be seen to be doing somethingMuch has been written about how best to go about evaluating board performance and it remains a key topic of discussion.[12][13][14][15]","title":"Key responsibilities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-17"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-17"}],"text":"The Institute of Directors in New Zealand[16] outlines ten clear benefits that independent directors can bring to a start-up and high growth business. These areThey bring an objective viewpoint to the board\nThey are unlikely to have any family or majority ownership ties to the business\nThey can cast a critical eye over the business without preconception or prejudice\nThey are also able to act in the capacity of counselor, sounding board and devil's advocate\nThey bring a one-off business knowledge and experience in many areas\nMany start-ups and high growth businesses tend to operate in a vacuum without looking at outside forces\nOutside directors introduce a fresh, and usually innovative, perspective\nThey may compensate in some of the key areas where management may be weak\nThe outside director may act a bit like a consultant\nThey bring input and the ability to assist with objectivityHaving a non-executive director in a business may seem necessary due to the benefits having one can provide, however it is possible a NED may contribute to a dynamic of deteriorating board relationships. Executives could come to resent or be frustrated by non-executive contributions that they perceive to be either ill-informed or inappropriate. This in turn can contribute to a dynamic of deteriorating board relationships, characterized by withholding of information and mistrust.[17] As one executive described it:\"When a non-executive director displays insight and real knowledge and undertakes a role in a very serious fashion, asks brave questions, takes an interest in issues the directors know that they are going to be kept on their toes in relation to these issues, and the respect level rises. Then that person becomes an approachable person … it is actually cumulative in terms of the benefits that can come from that … it can go completely the other way because it is just, 'well, they don't know anything about the business, they had to ask the obligatory three questions' and then the respect gets lost between the parties and you do not have a relationship that is built. It gets back down to what is the ability of the person and what is driving them to become engaged … When that engagement actually adds value and can be seen to add value, then very quickly you get a dynamic where you improve the situation.\"[17]","title":"Negative and positive contributions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"text":"It is the duty of the whole board to ensure that a company's accounts are prepared properly. These should inform its shareholders by presenting a true and fair reflection of its actions and financial performance and all of the board should ensure that the necessary internal control systems are put into place and monitored regularly and rigorously. A non-executive director has an important part to play in fulfilling this responsibility whether or not a formal audit committee (composed of non-executive directors) of the board has been constituted.[18]","title":"Audit"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"text":"According to NEDonBoard, non-executive directors typically sit on the main board and have responsibility on the board sub-committees (e.g. audit committee, risk committee, nomination committee, remuneration committee).[19] Research points to an average remuneration of £60 to 80k for FTSE 100 NEDs and £50 to 60k for FTSE 250 NEDs. SMEs remunerate their non-executive directors at lower rates, in the £20-30k range. Most roles in the not-for-profit sector are voluntary roles. There are a few factors that determine the level of remuneration of a NED:[20]Size\nSector\nEnterprise type\nMaturity\nFinancial resources\nTime commitment\nResponsibilities including being a member of a sub-committee of the board, being the SID, the chair of the board or a sub-committee","title":"Remuneration"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"It is vitally important that all non-executive directors are aware of their duties and liabilities as well as developing the softer skills associated with the role such as board behaviour and effective challenge. There are a number of organisations who provide this type of training such as NEDonBoard, the Institute of Directors and Financial Times.","title":"Training and education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"text":"A non-executive director can be appointed in different organisations:The private sector\nThe public sector\nAcademic sector\nThird sectorDuties depend on whether they represent the interest of shareholders, in the private sector, or the interest of the society in public organisation.[21]","title":"Types of organisation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"text":"Some organisations appraise non-executive directors on general overall performance criteria such as in the Higgs Report,[22][23][24] whereas others in addition set specific individual objectives,[25] which may be specifically linked to the overall organisation goals.[26]","title":"Appraisal objectives"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Profile Books Ltd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Profile_Books_Ltd"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-86197-499-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86197-499-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9781137480538","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781137480538"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"933209521","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/933209521"}],"text":"Merson, Rupert (2003). Non-Executive Directors. Profile Books Ltd. ISBN 978-1-86197-499-0.\nBrown, Gerry (2015). The Independent Director: The Non-Executive Director's Guide to Effective Board Presence. Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9781137480538. OCLC 933209521.","title":"Further reading"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"Agency cost","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agency_cost"},{"title":"Chairperson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chairperson"},{"title":"Corporate title","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_title"},{"title":"Independent director","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_director"},{"title":"ITNEA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITNEA"},{"title":"Managing director","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Managing_director"}]
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[{"reference":"\"The role of the non-executive director\" (PDF). Institute of Directors. 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 April 2015. Retrieved 3 November 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150404182211/http://www.iod.com/MainWebSite/Resources/Document/roleofnxds_1006.pdf","url_text":"\"The role of the non-executive director\""},{"url":"https://www.iod.com/MainWebSite/Resources/Document/roleofnxds_1006.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Hayes, Keith (2014). Business Journalism: How to Report on Business and Economics. Apress. ISBN 978-1-4302-6349-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4302-6349-4","url_text":"978-1-4302-6349-4"}]},{"reference":"\"Executive Coaching\". CoachDirectors. Retrieved 2017-03-02.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.coachdirectors.co.uk/executive-coaching/","url_text":"\"Executive Coaching\""}]},{"reference":"Bott, Frank (2014). Professional Issues in Information Technology - Second edition. BCS Learning & Development Limited. ISBN 978-1-78017-180-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78017-180-7","url_text":"978-1-78017-180-7"}]},{"reference":"\"Role of the Non-Executive Director\". BUPA. Retrieved 3 November 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bupa.com/corporate/about-us/corporate-governance/role-of-the-non-executive-director","url_text":"\"Role of the Non-Executive Director\""}]},{"reference":"Arnold, Glen (2013). Get Started in Shares. FT Publishing International. ISBN 978-0-273-77122-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-273-77122-7","url_text":"978-0-273-77122-7"}]},{"reference":"Wilson, Paul (29 March 2010). \"The Increasing Importance Of Non-Executive Directors\". mondaq. Retrieved 3 November 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.mondaq.com/x/96906/Directors+Officers/The+Increasing+Importance+Of+NonExecutive+Directors","url_text":"\"The Increasing Importance Of Non-Executive Directors\""}]},{"reference":"Colin, Barrow (2013). The 30 Day MBA, 3rd Edition. Kogan Page. ISBN 978-0-7494-6990-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7494-6990-0","url_text":"978-0-7494-6990-0"}]},{"reference":"\"The Increasing Importance Of Non-Executive Directors\". Comsure Group. 28 February 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.comsuregroup.com/the-increasing-importance-of-non-executive-directors/","url_text":"\"The Increasing Importance Of Non-Executive Directors\""}]},{"reference":"Higgs, Derek (2003-01-20). \"Review of the role and effectiveness of non-executive directors\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 June 2007. Retrieved 20 October 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070610171658/http://www.dti.gov.uk/files/file23012.pdf","url_text":"\"Review of the role and effectiveness of non-executive directors\""},{"url":"http://www.dti.gov.uk/files/file23012.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"The Higgs Review summary page\". Archived from the original on 30 October 2007. Retrieved 20 October 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071030051641/http://www.dti.gov.uk/bbf/corp-governance/higgs-tyson/page23342.html","url_text":"\"The Higgs Review summary page\""},{"url":"http://www.dti.gov.uk/bbf/corp-governance/higgs-tyson/page23342.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"How Boards Should Evaluate Their Own Performance\". Harvard Business Review. 2017-03-01. Retrieved 2018-06-29.","urls":[{"url":"https://hbr.org/2017/03/how-boards-should-evaluate-their-own-performance","url_text":"\"How Boards Should Evaluate Their Own Performance\""}]},{"reference":"\"Appraising Boardroom Performance\". Harvard Business Review. 1998-01-01. Retrieved 2018-06-29.","urls":[{"url":"https://hbr.org/1998/01/appraising-boardroom-performance","url_text":"\"Appraising Boardroom Performance\""}]},{"reference":"\"How do you evaluate board performance?\". 2018-04-18. Retrieved 2018-06-29.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nurole.com/news_and_guides/how-to-evaluate-board-performance","url_text":"\"How do you evaluate board performance?\""}]},{"reference":"\"Board evaluations and effectiveness reviews\". Retrieved 2018-06-29.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.icaew.com/technical/corporate-governance/uk-corporate-governance/board-evaluations-and-effectiveness-reviews","url_text":"\"Board evaluations and effectiveness reviews\""}]},{"reference":"\"Types of directors - Institute of Directors in New Zealand\". www.iod.org.nz. Retrieved 2019-06-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.iod.org.nz/FirstBoards/How-to-set-up-a-board/Types-of-directors","url_text":"\"Types of directors - Institute of Directors in New Zealand\""}]},{"reference":"Roberts, John (8 March 2005). \"Beyond Agency Conceptions of the Work of the Non-Executive Director: Creating Accountability in the Boardroom\". British Journal of Management. 16: S5–S26. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8551.2005.00444.x.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-8551.2005.00444.x","url_text":"10.1111/j.1467-8551.2005.00444.x"}]},{"reference":"(Firm), Pinsent Masons (2010). The Director's Handbook. ISBN 9780749460587.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780749460587","url_text":"9780749460587"}]},{"reference":"\"The key differences between executive and non executive directors - NEDonBoard\". NEDonBoard. Retrieved 2018-06-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nedonboard.com/what-are-the-key-differences-between-executive-and-non-executive-directors/","url_text":"\"The key differences between executive and non executive directors - NEDonBoard\""}]},{"reference":"\"What can you expect as compensation for a non-executive director role - NEDonBoard\". NEDonBoard.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nedonboard.com/what-can-you-expect-as-compensation-for-a-non-executive-director-role/","url_text":"\"What can you expect as compensation for a non-executive director role - NEDonBoard\""}]},{"reference":"\"What to Expect of the NED Role, NEDonBoard\". 6 June 2017. Retrieved 3 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.thenonexecrole.nedonboard.com/","url_text":"\"What to Expect of the NED Role, NEDonBoard\""}]},{"reference":"\"Archived copy\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-09-24. Retrieved 2014-06-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150924085006/http://www.rbs.com/content/dam/rbs/Documents/about/boards-committees/Terms-and-Conditions-non-executive-directors.pdf","url_text":"\"Archived copy\""},{"url":"https://www.rbs.com/content/dam/rbs/Documents/about/boards-committees/Terms-and-Conditions-non-executive-directors.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Council of Governor Meeting: 16 January 2014\" (PDF). Colchesterhospital.nhs.uk. Retrieved 2017-03-30.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.colchesterhospital.nhs.uk/meetings_minutes/supporting_docs/january_2014/16jan14COG%20Agenda%20item%2016%20-%20Chair%20and%20NED%20Appraisals.pdf","url_text":"\"Council of Governor Meeting: 16 January 2014\""}]},{"reference":"\"Resources and factsheets\". Iod.com. Retrieved 2017-03-30.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.iod.com/Guidance/briefings/bis-board-and-director-appraisal","url_text":"\"Resources and factsheets\""}]},{"reference":"Winter, A J G (12 April 2013). \"PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT & APPRAISAL OF NON-EXECUTIVE DIRECTORS 2012/13 AND OBJECTIVES FOR 2013/14\" (PDF). neas. Retrieved 3 November 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.neas.nhs.uk/media/60190/item_9_-_perf_apr_of_neds__obj_13.pdf","url_text":"\"PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT & APPRAISAL OF NON-EXECUTIVE DIRECTORS 2012/13 AND OBJECTIVES FOR 2013/14\""}]},{"reference":"\"Council of Governor Meeting: 2 March 2009\" (PDF). Sabp.nhs.uk. Retrieved 2017-03-30.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.sabp.nhs.uk/members/about/13%20Process%20for%20NED.pdf","url_text":"\"Council of Governor Meeting: 2 March 2009\""}]},{"reference":"Merson, Rupert (2003). Non-Executive Directors. Profile Books Ltd. ISBN 978-1-86197-499-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Profile_Books_Ltd","url_text":"Profile Books Ltd"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86197-499-0","url_text":"978-1-86197-499-0"}]},{"reference":"Brown, Gerry (2015). The Independent Director: The Non-Executive Director's Guide to Effective Board Presence. Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9781137480538. OCLC 933209521.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781137480538","url_text":"9781137480538"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/933209521","url_text":"933209521"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Ramis
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Harold Ramis
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["1 Early life","2 Career","2.1 Early years","2.2 National Lampoon, SCTV, and The Top","2.3 Film career","3 Personal life","4 Illness and death","5 Awards and honors","6 Collaborations","7 Filmography","7.1 Film","7.2 Television","7.3 Acting roles","7.4 Video games","7.5 Archival appearances","8 References","9 Bibliography","10 External links"]
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American actor, comedian, and filmmaker (1944–2014)
Harold RamisRamis in 2009BornHarold Allen Ramis(1944-11-21)November 21, 1944Chicago, Illinois, U.S.DiedFebruary 24, 2014(2014-02-24) (aged 69)Glencoe, Illinois, U.S.Resting placeShalom Memorial Park, Arlington Heights, Illinois, U.S.Alma materWashington University in St. LouisOccupationsActorcomedianfilmmakerYears active1968–2010Spouses
Anne Plotkin
(m. 1967; div. 1984)
Erica Mann (m. 1989)Children4
Harold Allen Ramis (/ˈreɪmɪs/; November 21, 1944 – February 24, 2014) was an American actor, comedian, and filmmaker. His film acting roles include Egon Spengler in Ghostbusters (1984) and Ghostbusters II (1989), and as Russell Ziskey in Stripes (1981); he also co-wrote those films. As a director, his films include the comedies Caddyshack (1980), National Lampoon's Vacation (1983), Groundhog Day (1993), Analyze This (1999) and Analyze That (2002). Ramis was the original head writer of the television series SCTV, on which he also performed, as well as a co-writer of Groundhog Day and National Lampoon's Animal House (1978). The final film that he wrote, produced, directed, and acted in was Year One (2009).
Ramis's films influenced subsequent generations of comedians, comedy writers and actors. Filmmakers and actors including Jay Roach, Jake Kasdan, Adam Sandler, Judd Apatow, and Peter and Bobby Farrelly have listed his films among their favorites. Along with Danny Rubin, he won the BAFTA Award for Best Original Screenplay for Groundhog Day.
Early life
Ramis was born on November 21, 1944, in Chicago, Illinois, the son of Ruth (née Cokee) (1919–2001) and Nathan Ramis (1915–2009), who owned the Ace Food & Liquor Mart on the city's West Side. Ramis had a Jewish upbringing. In his adult life, he did not practice any religion. He graduated from Stephen K. Hayt Elementary School in June 1958 and Nicholas Senn High School in 1962, both Chicago public schools, and in 1966 from Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri, where he was a member of the Alpha Xi chapter of Zeta Beta Tau fraternity.
Afterward, Ramis worked in a mental institution in St. Louis for seven months. He later said of his time working there that it:
…prepared me well for when I went out to Hollywood to work with actors. People laugh when I say that, but it was actually very good training. And not just with actors; it was good training for just living in the world. It's knowing how to deal with people who might be reacting in a way that's connected to anxiety or grief or fear or rage. As a director, you're dealing with that constantly with actors. But if I were a businessman, I'd probably be applying those same principles to that line of work.
Career
Early years
Ramis began writing parodic plays in college, saying years later, "In my heart, I felt I was a combination of Groucho and Harpo Marx, of Groucho using his wit as a weapon against the upper classes, and of Harpo's antic charm and the fact that he was oddly sexy—he grabs women, pulls their skirts off, and gets away with it." He avoided the Vietnam War military draft by taking methamphetamine to fail his draft physical.
Following his work in St. Louis, Ramis returned to Chicago, where by 1968, he was a substitute teacher at schools serving the inner-city Robert Taylor Homes public housing development. He also became associated with the guerrilla television collective TVTV, headed by his college friend Michael Shamberg, and wrote freelance for the Chicago Daily News. "Michael Shamberg, right out of college, had started freelancing for newspapers and got on as a stringer for a local paper, and I thought, 'Well, if Michael can do that, I can do that.' I wrote a spec piece and submitted it to the Chicago Daily News, the Arts & Leisure section, and they started giving me assignments entertainment features." Additionally, Ramis had begun studying and performing with Chicago's Second City improvisational comedy troupe.
Ramis's newspaper writing led to him becoming joke editor at Playboy magazine. "I called…just cold and said I had written several pieces freelance and did they have any openings. And they happened to have their entry-level job, party jokes editor, open. He liked my stuff and he gave me a stack of jokes that readers had sent in and asked me to rewrite them. I had been in Second City in the workshops already and Michael Shamberg and I had written comedy shows in college." Ramis was eventually promoted to associate editor.
National Lampoon, SCTV, and The Top
After leaving Second City for a time and returning in 1972, having been replaced in the main cast by John Belushi, Ramis worked his way back as Belushi's deadpan foil. In 1974, Belushi brought Ramis and other Second City performers, including Ramis's frequent future collaborator Bill Murray, to New York City to work on The National Lampoon Radio Hour.
During this time, Ramis, Belushi, Murray, Joe Flaherty, Christopher Guest, and Gilda Radner starred in the revue The National Lampoon Show, the successor to National Lampoon's Lemmings. Later, Ramis became a performer on, and head writer of, the Canadian sketch-comedy television series SCTV during its first three years (1976–1979). At this juncture, SCTV was seen mainly in Canada, and also via syndication in scattered markets in the US. He was soon offered work as a writer at Saturday Night Live but chose to continue with SCTV. Characterizations by Ramis on SCTV include weaselly, corrupt and constantly sweating Dialing for Dollars host/SCTV station manager Maurice "Moe" Green, outwardly amiable (but thoroughly fascist) cop Officer Friendly, exercise guru Swami Bananananda (whose real name was Dennis Peterson), stern board chairman Allan "Crazy Legs" Hirschman and home dentist Mort Finkel. His celebrity impressions on SCTV included Kenneth Clark and Leonard Nimoy.
In 1984, Ramis executive produced a music/comedy/variety television show called The Top. The producer was Paul Flaherty and the director was David Jove. Ramis got involved after the mysterious death of his friend Peter Ivers, who had hosted Jove's underground show New Wave Theatre. He called Jove and offered to help. Flattery and Jove pitched him the idea for The Top, and Ramis was instrumental in getting it on the air.
The show was a mixture of live music, videos, and humor. Performers on the show included Cyndi Lauper, who performed "Girls Just Want to Have Fun" and "True Colors"; the Hollies, who performed "Stop in the Name of Love"; and the Romantics, who performed their two hits at the time, "Talking in Your Sleep" and "What I Like About You".
Guest stars included Rodney Dangerfield, Chevy Chase, and Dan Aykroyd. Ramis got Bill Murray to host but, because Ghostbusters filming ran late, he did not make it to the taping. Chase came out dressed as a "punk" of the time and somehow got into a physical altercation with an audience member (also a punk) during the opening monologue. He immediately left the taping. Flattery and Jove carried on with the show.
Ramis then got Andy Kaufman to fill in for Chase and recorded the host segments at a separate, later, session; it would be Kaufman's final professional appearance.
The Top aired on Friday, January 27, 1984, at 7 p.m. It scored a 7.7% rating and a 14% share. This represented a 28% rating increase and a 27% share increase over KTLA's regularly scheduled Happy Days/Laverne and Shirley.
Film career
Ramis left SCTV to pursue a film career and wrote a script with National Lampoon magazine's Douglas Kenney, which eventually became National Lampoon's Animal House. They were later joined by a third collaborator, Chris Miller. The 1978 film followed the struggle between a rowdy college fraternity house and the college dean. The film's humor was raunchy for its time. Animal House "broke all box-office records for comedies" and earned $141 million.
He also had a voice part as Zeke in the "So Beautiful & So Dangerous" segment of Heavy Metal in 1981.
Ramis next co-wrote the comedy Meatballs, starring Bill Murray. The movie was a commercial success and became the first of six film collaborations between Murray and Ramis. His third film and his directorial debut was Caddyshack, which he wrote with Kenney and Brian Doyle-Murray. It starred Chevy Chase, Rodney Dangerfield, Ted Knight, and Bill Murray. Like Ramis's previous two films, Caddyshack was a commercial success.
In 1982, Ramis was attached to direct the film adaptation of the Pulitzer Prize-winning book A Confederacy of Dunces by John Kennedy Toole. The film was to star John Belushi and Richard Pryor, but the project was aborted. In 1984, Ramis collaborated with Dan Aykroyd on the screenplay for Ghostbusters, which became one of the biggest comedy hits of all time, in which he also starred as Dr. Egon Spengler. He reprised the role for the 1989 sequel, Ghostbusters II (which he also co-wrote with Aykroyd). His later film Groundhog Day has been called his "masterpiece".
His films have been noted for attacking "the smugness of institutional life…with an impish good that is unmistakably American." They are also noted for "Ramis's signature tongue-in-cheek pep talks." Sloppiness and improv were also important aspects of his work. Ramis frequently depicted the qualities of "anger, curiosity, laziness, and woolly idealism" in "a hyper-articulate voice".
Ramis also occasionally acted in supporting roles in acclaimed films that he did not write or direct, such as James L. Brooks's Academy Award-winning As Good as It Gets (1997) and Judd Apatow's hit comedy Knocked Up (2007).
In 2004, Ramis turned down the opportunity to direct the Bernie Mac-Ashton Kutcher film Guess Who, then under the working title "The Dinner Party", because he considered it poorly written. That same year, he began filming the low-budget The Ice Harvest, "his first attempt to make a comic film noir." Ramis spent six weeks trying to get the film greenlit because he had difficulty reaching an agreement about stars John Cusack's and Billy Bob Thornton's salaries. The film received mixed reviews. In 2004, Ramis's typical directing fee was $5 million.
In an interview in the documentary American Storytellers, Ramis said he hoped to make a film about Emma Goldman (even pitching Disney with the idea of having Bette Midler star) but that none of the film studios were interested and that it would have been difficult to raise the funding.
Ramis said in 2009 that he planned to make a third Ghostbusters film for release either in mid-2011 or for Christmas 2012. A reboot to the franchise, also called Ghostbusters, was eventually made and released in 2016, directed and co-written by Paul Feig. In this film, a bronze bust of Ramis can be seen when Erin Gilbert leaves her office at Columbia University. Later, the second sequel to the original film, Ghostbusters: Afterlife, was released in 2021 and posthumously dedicated to him.
Personal life
Ramis was married twice and had four children. On July 2, 1967, he married San Francisco artist Anne Plotkin, with whom he had a daughter, Violet Ramis Stiel. Actor and Ghostbusters co-star Bill Murray is Violet's godfather. Ramis and Plotkin separated in 1984 and later divorced.
Ramis' daughter Mollie Israel (known professionally as Mollie Heckerling) was born in 1985 to him and director Amy Heckerling, while Heckerling was married to actor-director Neal Israel.
In 1989, Ramis married Erica Mann, daughter of director Daniel Mann and actress Mary Kathleen Williams. Together they had two sons, Julian Arthur and Daniel Hayes in 1990 and 1994.
Although Ramis maintained humanist beliefs, Erica's Buddhist upbringing greatly influenced his philosophies for the rest of his life, and he became friends with the Dalai Lama.
Ramis was a Chicago Cubs fan, and when he moved back from Los Angeles to Chicago in the late 1990s, he would attend games at Wrigley Field, sometimes taking part of the seventh-inning stretch of "Take Me Out to the Ball Game". His pastimes included fencing, ritual drumming, acoustic guitar, and making hats from felted fleece; additionally, he taught himself to ski by watching skiers on television.
Illness and death
A memorial to Ramis at the Firehouse, Hook & Ladder Company 8 firehouse, where Ghostbusters was filmed
In May 2010, Ramis contracted an infection that resulted in complications from autoimmune inflammatory vasculitis and lost the ability to walk. After relearning to walk he suffered a relapse of the disease in late 2011.
He died of complications of the disease on February 24, 2014, at his home on Chicago's North Shore, at age 69. A private funeral was held for him two days later with family, friends, and several collaborators in attendance, including Dan Aykroyd, Chevy Chase, Eugene Levy, Dave Thomas, David Pasquesi, Andrew Alexander, and the widows of John Belushi and Bernard Sahlins. He is buried at Shalom Memorial Park in Arlington Heights.
Upon Ramis's death, then-President Barack Obama released a statement, saying, "When we watched his movies—from Animal House and Caddyshack to Ghostbusters and Groundhog Day—we didn't just laugh until it hurt. We questioned authority. We identified with the outsider. We rooted for the underdog. And through it all, we never lost our faith in happy endings." He ended his statement by saying he hoped Ramis "received total consciousness", in reference to a line from Caddyshack.
Ramis and longtime collaborator Bill Murray had a falling out during the filming of Groundhog Day, which Ramis attributed to problems that Murray had in his own life at the time, plus creative differences between the two about the overall direction and mood of the film. They did not speak for more than 20 years. Shortly before Ramis's death, Murray, encouraged by his brother Brian Doyle-Murray, visited him to make amends with a box of doughnuts and a police escort, according to Ramis's daughter Violet. At that point, Ramis had lost most of his ability to speak, so Murray did most of the talking over several hours. Murray gave a tribute to Ramis at the 86th Academy Awards.
Stephen Colbert paid tribute to Ramis on an episode of his show The Colbert Report. Colbert said that "as a young, bookish man with glasses looking for a role model, I might have picked Harold Ramis." He ended the show by thanking him.
Awards and honors
In 2004, Ramis was inducted into the St. Louis Walk of Fame. In 2005, he received the Austin Film Festival's Distinguished Screenwriter Award. In 2010, he received a lifetime achievement award from the Chicago Improv Festival. In 2015, the Writers Guild of America posthumously honored him with their lifetime achievement award, the Laurel Award for Screenwriting Achievement.
In 2016, two years after his death, The Second City founded the Harold Ramis Film School, the first film school to focus solely on film comedy, in his honor.
The 2016 film Ghostbusters, a reboot of the series Ramis co-created and starred in, was posthumously dedicated to him. A bust of Ramis appears in the film. In the 2021 movie Ghostbusters: Afterlife, the age-progressed image of Ramis appears as the ghost of Egon Spengler; a dedication before the end credits also reads "for Harold."
On February 2, 2024, Chicago declared every February 2nd going forward to be "Harold Ramis Day".
Collaborations
Ramis frequently collaborated with director Ivan Reitman. He co-wrote National Lampoon's Animal House, which Reitman produced, then co-wrote the Reitman comedy Meatballs; he co-wrote and appeared in the Reitman films Stripes, Ghostbusters, and Ghostbusters II.
Filmography
Film
Year
Title
Director
Writer
Producer
1978
National Lampoon's Animal House
No
Yes
No
1979
Meatballs
No
Yes
No
1980
Caddyshack
Yes
Yes
No
1981
Stripes
No
Yes
No
1983
National Lampoon's Vacation
Yes
No
No
1984
Ghostbusters
No
Yes
No
1986
Back to School
No
Yes
No
Armed and Dangerous
No
Yes
No
Club Paradise
Yes
Yes
No
1988
Caddyshack II
No
Yes
No
1989
Ghostbusters II
No
Yes
No
1991
Rover Dangerfield
No
Story
No
1993
Groundhog Day
Yes
Yes
Yes
1995
Stuart Saves His Family
Yes
No
No
1996
Multiplicity
Yes
No
Yes
1999
Analyze This
Yes
Yes
No
2000
Bedazzled
Yes
Yes
Yes
2002
Analyze That
Yes
Yes
No
2005
The Ice Harvest
Yes
No
No
2009
Year One
Yes
Yes
Yes
Executive producer
The First $20 Million Is Always the Hardest (2002)
I Want Someone to Eat Cheese With (2006)
Archie's Final Project (2009)
Television
Year
Title
Director
Writer
Notes
1979
Delta House
No
Yes
Pilot episode
1982
The Rodney Dangerfield Show: It's Not Easy Bein' Me
No
Yes
2006–2010
The Office
Yes
No
4 episodes
Acting roles
Year
Title
Role
Notes
1976–1978
Second City Television
Various roles
28 episodes
1981
Stripes
Russell Ziskey
Heavy Metal
Zeke
Voice, (segment "So Beautiful and So Dangerous")
1983
Spacehunter: Adventures in the Forbidden Zone
Intercom
Voice, uncredited
National Lampoon's Vacation
Marty Moose
Voice, uncredited
1984
Ghostbusters
Dr. Egon Spengler
1987
Baby Boom
Steven Bochner
1988
Stealing Home
Alan Appleby
1989
Ghostbusters II
Dr. Egon Spengler
1993
Groundhog Day
Neurologist
1994
Airheads
Chris Moore
Love Affair
Sheldon Blumenthal
1997
As Good as It Gets
Dr. Martin Bettes
2000
High Fidelity
Rob's Dad
Deleted scenes
2002
Orange County
Don Durkett
I'm with Lucy
Jack
2006
The Last Kiss
Professor Bowler
2007
Knocked Up
Ben's Dad
Walk Hard: The Dewey Cox Story
L'Chai'm
2009
Year One
Adam
Video games
Year
Title
Voice role
Notes
2009
Ghostbusters: The Video Game
Dr. Egon Spengler
Also writer
Archival appearances
Year
Title
Role
Notes
2015
Lego Dimensions
Dr. Egon Spengler
Voice role
2019
Ghostbusters: The Video Game Remastered
Cleanin' Up the Town: Remembering Ghostbusters
Himself
Documentary film
2021
Ghostbusters: Afterlife
Dr. Egon Spengler
Digital likeness superimposed on Bob Gunton and Ivan Reitman;Also archival footage and photographs
References
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Friend, Tad (April 19, 2004). "Comedy First: How Harold Ramis's movies have stayed funny for twenty-five years". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on April 6, 2008. Retrieved August 28, 2007.
^ "Awards Database—Film: Original Screenplay". bafta.org. British Academy of Film and Television Arts. Retrieved August 16, 2017.
^ a b c "Harold Ramis Biography (1944–)". FilmReference.com. Retrieved February 24, 2014.
^ "'Ghostbusters' Actor, 'Caddyshack' Director Harold Ramis Dies at 69". Algemeiner Journal. February 24, 2014. Retrieved April 24, 2018.
^ Sacks, Ethan (February 24, 2014). "Harold Ramis dead at 69: Actor-director-writer was best remembered for 'Ghostbusters,' 'Groundhog Day'". New York Daily News. Retrieved April 24, 2018.
^ "Harold Ramis, Judd Apatow talk "Groundhog Day," Buddhism, and San Francisco in the 60s". Lion's Roar. July 18, 2016. Retrieved April 24, 2018.
^ Loerzel, Robert (April 24, 2014). "11 Questions for Harold Ramis: An Unpublished Interview". Chicago magazine. Retrieved April 24, 2018.
^ Leopold, Todd (February 24, 2014). "Harold Ramis of 'Ghostbusters,' 'Groundhog Day' fame dies". CNN.com. Retrieved February 25, 2014. Asked by The New York Times about the existential questions raised by "Groundhog Day" – and competing interpretations of the film's meaning – he mentioned that he didn't practice any religion himself.
^ Kuczynski, Alex. "Groundhog Almighty", The New York Times, December 7, 2003, via Kenyon College Department of Religious Studies
^ "Chicago Public Schools Alumni: 'Senn, Nicolas Senn High School'". Cpsalumni.org. Archived from the original on February 16, 2012. Retrieved February 24, 2014.
^ a b c Sacks, Mike. And Here's the Kicker...: Conversations with Top Humor Writers About Their Craft Archived June 19, 2009, at the Wayback Machine (Writer's Digest Books, July 2009). Online excerpt from Harold Ramis interview
^ "Zeta Beta Tau – Notable Alumni". Zeta Beta Tau Fraternity. Archived from the original on December 5, 2016. Retrieved January 1, 2014.
^ Martin, Brett (July 2009). "Harold Ramis Gets the Last Laugh". GQ: 64–67, 124–25. Archived from the original on July 1, 2009. Retrieved August 15, 2009.
^ Caldwell, Sara C., and Marie-Eve S. Kielson, So You Want to be A Screenwriter: How to Face the Fears and Take the Risks (Allworth Press, 2000), p. 75. ISBN 1-58115-062-8, ISBN 978-1-58115-062-9
^ a b Lovece, Frank, "Ramis' realm: Comedy creator surveys career from Second City to 'Year One'" Archived February 19, 2012, at the Wayback Machine, Film Journal International online, June 12, 2009
^ Patinkin, Sheldon. The Second City: Backstage at the World's Greatest Comedy Theater (Sourcebooks MediaFusion, 2000) ISBN 1-57071-561-0, ISBN 978-1-57071-561-7.
^ a b Martin, Douglas (February 24, 2014). "Harold Ramis, 69, Dies; Alchemist of the Hilarious". The New York Times. Retrieved February 25, 2014.
^ Karp, Josh (2006). A Futile and Stupid Gesture: How Doug Kenney and National Lampoon Changed Comedy Forever. Chicago Review Press. p. 219. ISBN 1-55652-602-4.
^ Caldwell, Kielson, p. 77
^ Saito, Stephen "20 Movies Not Coming Soon to a Theater Near You", Section: "A Confederacy of Dunces", Premiere, no date
^ "'Ghostbusters 3' in Theaters by Christmas 2012!". Bloody Disgusting. May 11, 2010.
^ https://www.washingtonpost.com/express/wp/2014/02/26/harold-ramis-dead-appreciation-knocked-up/
^ Wolgamott, L. Kent (April 15, 2004). "An 'exceedingly dangerous woman':Emma Goldman's story". Lincoln Journal Star. Lincoln, Nebraska. Archived from the original on June 4, 2004.
^ Abrams, Brian (December 28, 2009). "Ramis on 'Ghostbusters 3': 'Plans to Shoot Next Summer and Release in 2011'". Heeb. Archived from the original on March 29, 2010. Retrieved February 24, 2014.
^ Ramis interview, WABC-TV, via "Harold Ramis Says 'Ghostbusters 3' in 2011!". BloodyDisgustng.com. December 30, 2009. Retrieved February 24, 2014.
^ E Television Online: "Harold Ramis' Daughter Speaks Out: Stop Using My Dad as an Excuse to Hate the New 'Ghostbusters'" by John Boone July 14, 2016
^ Swartz, Tracy. "Mollie Heckerling revealed as Harold Ramis' daughter in new book". chicagotribune.com. Retrieved April 18, 2018.
^ Honan, William H. (November 23, 1991). "Daniel Mann, 79, the Director of Successful Plays and Films". The New York Times.
^ "Harold Ramis, Chicago actor, writer and director, dead at 69". Chicago Tribune. February 24, 2014.
^ Bacon, Shane (February 24, 2014). "Remembering Harold Ramis and "Caddyshack"". Yahoo!. Retrieved February 24, 2014.
^ a b Caro, Mark. "Harold Ramis, Chicago actor, writer and director, dead at 69". Chicago Tribune. Archived from the original on February 25, 2014. Retrieved February 24, 2014.
^ Harold Ramis ancestry.com
^ "Statement from the President on the Passing of Harold Ramis". whitehouse.gov. February 25, 2014. Retrieved July 17, 2016 – via National Archives.
^ Jordan Zakarin (February 25, 2014). "President Obama Makes 'Caddyshack' Joke in Tribute to Harold Ramis". TheWrap. Retrieved July 17, 2016.
^ Boone, Brian (June 6, 2018). "How Harold Ramis and Bill Murray Ended Their Feud and Other Things We Learned in This Memoir". Vulture. Retrieved June 6, 2018.
^ Wakeman, Gregory (September 23, 2014). "How Groundhog Day Ruined Bill Murray And Harold Ramis' Partnership". Retrieved May 28, 2015.
^ McCarthy, Sean L. (February 25, 2014). "Stephen Colbert and Jon Stewart pay tribute to the late great Harold Ramis". The Comic's Cosmic. Retrieved July 7, 2019.
^ "St. Louis Walk of Fame Inductees: Harold Ramis". Stlouiswalkoffame.org. Archived from the original on December 28, 2008. Retrieved February 24, 2014.
^ "Austin Film Festival Past Award Recipients". AustinFilmFestival.com. Archived from the original on August 15, 2012. Retrieved February 24, 2014.
^ Palmer, J. H. (March 30, 2010). "Chicago Improv Festival April 19–25". Gapers Block. Retrieved June 3, 2021.
^ "Harold Ramis Honored by Writers Guild with Screen Laurel Award". Variety. Retrieved January 19, 2014.
^ Anderson, Melissa (July 10, 2016). "Busted Flat: All-Too-Normal Activity Dominates the 'Ghostbusters' Remake". The Village Voice. Retrieved August 14, 2017.
^ Lewis, Hilary (July 15, 2016). "'Ghostbusters' Co-Writer Reveals Stories Behind Cameos, Kate McKinnon's Character". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved June 3, 2021.
^ Brayson, Johnny (July 14, 2016). "'Ghostbusters' Finds Ways To Honor Harold Ramis". Bustle. Retrieved June 3, 2021.
^ "'Groundhog Day' cast reunites in Chicago, city proclaims Feb. 2 as 'Harold Ramis Day'". ABC7 Chicago. February 2, 2024.
^ Cast of 'Groundhog Day' reunites at Navy Pier for first time since movie's 1993 debut (33min Video). NBC Chicago. February 2, 2024.
^ Parker, Ryan (November 22, 2021). "Harold Ramis' Daughter Reflects on 'Ghostbusters: Afterlife' and Her Beloved, Iconic Father". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved November 27, 2021.
Bibliography
Ramis Stiel, Violet (2018). Ghostbuster's Daughter: Life with My Dad, Harold Ramis. Penguin. ISBN 9780735217898.
External links
Harold Ramis at IMDb
Harold Ramis at Find a Grave
Henkel, Guido. "Anatomy of a Comedian: Harold Ramis", DVD Review, August 6, 1999
Garfinkel, Perry. "And If He Sees His Shadow...", Lion's Roar
Meatballs Movie Website
The films of Harold Ramis, Hell Is For Hyphenates, April 30, 2014
vteFilms directed by Harold Ramis
Caddyshack (1980)
National Lampoon's Vacation (1983)
Club Paradise (1986)
Groundhog Day (1993)
Stuart Saves His Family (1995)
Multiplicity (1996)
Analyze This (1999)
Bedazzled (2000)
Analyze That (2002)
The Ice Harvest (2005)
Year One (2009)
vteGhostbustersFeature films
Ghostbusters (1984)
Ghostbusters II (1989)
Ghostbusters (2016)
Afterlife (2021)
Frozen Empire (2024)
Television
The Real Ghostbusters (1986–1991)
episodes
Extreme Ghostbusters (1997)
Characters
Peter Venkman
Ray Stantz
Egon Spengler
Winston Zeddemore
Janine Melnitz
Slimer
Stay Puft Marshmallow Man
Music
Ghostbusters (1984)
Theme song
Ghostbusters II
"On Our Own"
Ghostbusters (2016)
"Good Girls"
"Girls Talk Boys"
Afterlife
Frozen Empire
Video games
Ghostbusters (1984)
The Real Ghostbusters (1987)
Ghostbusters II (PC)
Ghostbusters II (NES)
Ghostbusters (1990)
New Ghostbusters II
The Real Ghostbusters (1993)
The Video Game (2009)
Sanctum of Slime (2011)
Ghostbusters (2013)
Ghostbusters (2016)
Spirits Unleashed (2022)
Rise of the Ghost Lord (2023)
Comics
The Real Ghostbusters (1998)
Legion (2004)
Infestation (2011)
Transformers/Ghostbusters (2019)
Crossover (2020–2022)
Back in Town (2024)
Related
Ghostheads
Ghost Corps
Proton pack
Ectomobile
Role-playing game
Pinball machine
Cartoon All-Stars to the Rescue
The Earth Day Special
Casper
Zuul
Lego Ghostbusters
Firehouse, Hook & Ladder Company 8
The Ghost Busters
Category
vteBAFTA Award for Best Original Screenplay1983–2000
Paul D. Zimmerman (1983)
Woody Allen (1984)
Woody Allen (1985)
Woody Allen (1986)
David Leland (1987)
Shawn Slovo (1988)
Nora Ephron (1989)
Giuseppe Tornatore (1990)
Anthony Minghella (1991)
Woody Allen (1992)
Harold Ramis and Danny Rubin (1993)
Quentin Tarantino and Roger Avary (1994)
Christopher McQuarrie (1995)
Mike Leigh (1996)
Gary Oldman (1997)
Andrew Niccol (1998)
Charlie Kaufman (1999)
Cameron Crowe (2000)
2001–present
Jean-Pierre Jeunet and Guillaume Laurant (2001)
Pedro Almodóvar (2002)
Tom McCarthy (2003)
Charlie Kaufman (2004)
Paul Haggis and Bobby Moresco (2005)
Michael Arndt (2006)
Diablo Cody (2007)
Martin McDonagh (2008)
Mark Boal (2009)
David Seidler (2010)
Michel Hazanavicius (2011)
Quentin Tarantino (2012)
Eric Warren Singer and David O. Russell (2013)
Wes Anderson and Hugo Guinness (2014)
Tom McCarthy and Josh Singer (2015)
Kenneth Lonergan (2016)
Martin McDonagh (2017)
Deborah Davis and Tony McNamara (2018)
Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won (2019)
Emerald Fennell (2020)
Paul Thomas Anderson (2021)
Martin McDonagh (2022)
Justine Triet and Arthur Harari (2023)
vteLondon Film Critics' Circle Award for Screenwriter of the Year1980–2000
Steve Tesich (1980)
Colin Welland (1981)
Costa-Gavras and Donald E. Stewart (1982)
Ruth Prawer Jhabvala (1983)
Philip Kaufman (1984)
Alan Bennett (1985)
Woody Allen (1986)
Alan Bennett (1987)
David Mamet (1988)
Christopher Hampton (1989)
Woody Allen (1990)
David Mamet (1991)
Michael Tolkin (1992)
Harold Ramis and Danny Rubin (1993)
Quentin Tarantino (1994)
Paul Attanasio (1995)
Joel Coen and Ethan Coen (1996)
Curtis Hanson and Brian Helgeland (1997)
Andrew Niccol (1998)
Alan Ball (1999)
Charlie Kaufman (2000)
2001–present
Joel Coen and Ethan Coen (2001)
Andrew Bovell (2002)
John Collee and Peter Weir (2003)
Charlie Kaufman (2004)
Paul Haggis and Bobby Moresco (2005)
Peter Morgan (2006)
Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck (2007)
Simon Beaufoy (2008)
Jesse Armstrong, Simon Blackwell, Armando Iannucci, and Tony Roche (2009)
Aaron Sorkin (2010)
Asghar Farhadi (2011)
Michael Haneke (2012)
Joel Coen and Ethan Coen (2013)
Wes Anderson (2014)
Tom McCarthy and Josh Singer (2015)
Kenneth Lonergan (2016)
Martin McDonagh (2017)
Deborah Davis and Tony McNamara (2018)
Noah Baumbach (2019)
Chloé Zhao (2020)
Ryusuke Hamaguchi and Takamasa Oe (2021)
Martin McDonagh (2022)
Justine Triet and Arthur Harari (2023)
vteLaurel Award for Screenwriting Achievement1950s
Sonya Levien (1953)
Dudley Nichols (1954)
Robert Riskin (1955)
Julius Epstein & Philip Epstein and Albert Hackett & Frances Goodrich (1956)
Charles Brackett & Billy Wilder (1957)
John Lee Mahin (1958)
Nunnally Johnson (1959)
1960s
Norman Krasna (1960)
George Seaton (1961)
Philip Dunne (1962)
Joseph L. Mankiewicz (1963)
John Huston (1964)
Sidney Buchman (1965)
Isobel Lennart (1966)
Richard Brooks (1967)
Casey Robinson (1968)
Carl Foreman (1969)
1970s
Dalton Trumbo (1970)
James Poe (1971)
Ernest Lehman (1972)
William Rose (1973)
Paddy Chayefsky (1974)
Preston Sturges (1975)
Michael Wilson (1976)
Samson Raphaelson (1977)
Edward Anhalt (1978)
Neil Simon (1979)
1980s
Billy Wilder & I. A. L. Diamond (1980)
Ben Hecht (1981)
Paul Osborn (1982)
Lamar Trotti (1983)
Melville Shavelson, Jack Rose, Norman Panama, and Melvin Frank (1984)
William Goldman (1985)
Waldo Salt (1986)
Woody Allen (1987)
Irving Ravetch & Harriet Frank Jr. (1988)
Ring Lardner Jr. (1989)
1990s
Donald Ogden Stewart (1990)
Alvin Sargent (1991)
Frank Pierson (1992)
Horton Foote (1993)
Ruth Prawer Jhabvala (1994)
Charles Bennett (1995)
Daniel Taradash (1996)
Robert Towne (1997)
Bo Goldman (1998)
Paul Schrader (1999)
2000s
Jean-Claude Carrière (2000)
Betty Comden and Adolph Green (2001)
Blake Edwards (2002)
Mel Brooks (2003)
John Michael Hayes (2004)
David Mamet (2005)
Lawrence Kasdan (2006)
Robert Benton (2007)
Budd Schulberg (2008)
No award (2009)
2010s
Barry Levinson (2010)
Steven Zaillian (2011)
Eric Roth (2012)
Tom Stoppard (2013)
Paul Mazursky (2014)
Harold Ramis (2015)
Elaine May (2016)
Oliver Stone (2017)
James L. Brooks (2018)
Lowell Ganz and Babaloo Mandel (2019)
2020s
Nancy Meyers (2020)
No award (2021)
No award (2022)
Charlie Kaufman (2023)
Authority control databases International
FAST
ISNI
VIAF
WorldCat
National
Norway
Spain
France
BnF data
Germany
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Artists
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IdRef
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"/ˈreɪmɪs/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"Egon Spengler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egon_Spengler"},{"link_name":"Ghostbusters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghostbusters"},{"link_name":"Ghostbusters II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghostbusters_II"},{"link_name":"Stripes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stripes_(film)"},{"link_name":"comedies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comedy_film"},{"link_name":"Caddyshack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caddyshack"},{"link_name":"National Lampoon's Vacation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Lampoon%27s_Vacation"},{"link_name":"Groundhog Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groundhog_Day_(film)"},{"link_name":"Analyze This","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analyze_This"},{"link_name":"Analyze That","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analyze_That"},{"link_name":"SCTV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_City_Television"},{"link_name":"National Lampoon's Animal House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_House"},{"link_name":"Year One","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Year_One_(film)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-newyorker-1"},{"link_name":"Jay Roach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jay_Roach"},{"link_name":"Jake Kasdan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jake_Kasdan"},{"link_name":"Adam Sandler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Sandler"},{"link_name":"Judd Apatow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judd_Apatow"},{"link_name":"Peter and Bobby Farrelly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farrelly_brothers"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-newyorker-1"},{"link_name":"Danny Rubin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danny_Rubin"},{"link_name":"BAFTA Award for Best Original Screenplay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BAFTA_Award_for_Best_Original_Screenplay"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Harold Allen Ramis (/ˈreɪmɪs/; November 21, 1944 – February 24, 2014) was an American actor, comedian, and filmmaker. His film acting roles include Egon Spengler in Ghostbusters (1984) and Ghostbusters II (1989), and as Russell Ziskey in Stripes (1981); he also co-wrote those films. As a director, his films include the comedies Caddyshack (1980), National Lampoon's Vacation (1983), Groundhog Day (1993), Analyze This (1999) and Analyze That (2002). Ramis was the original head writer of the television series SCTV, on which he also performed, as well as a co-writer of Groundhog Day and National Lampoon's Animal House (1978). The final film that he wrote, produced, directed, and acted in was Year One (2009).Ramis's films influenced subsequent generations of comedians, comedy writers and actors.[1] Filmmakers and actors including Jay Roach, Jake Kasdan, Adam Sandler, Judd Apatow, and Peter and Bobby Farrelly have listed his films among their favorites.[1] Along with Danny Rubin, he won the BAFTA Award for Best Original Screenplay for Groundhog Day.[2]","title":"Harold Ramis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chicago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago"},{"link_name":"Illinois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illinois"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-filmref-3"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-newyorker-1"},{"link_name":"Jewish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jew"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Nicholas Senn High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senn_High_School"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Washington University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_University_in_St._Louis"},{"link_name":"St. Louis, Missouri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Louis,_Missouri"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-newyorker-1"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sacks-11"},{"link_name":"Zeta Beta Tau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeta_Beta_Tau"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sacks-11"}],"text":"Ramis was born on November 21, 1944, in Chicago, Illinois,[3] the son of Ruth (née Cokee) (1919–2001) and Nathan Ramis (1915–2009), who owned the Ace Food & Liquor Mart on the city's West Side.[1] Ramis had a Jewish upbringing.[4][5][6][7] In his adult life, he did not practice any religion.[8][9] He graduated from Stephen K. Hayt Elementary School in June 1958 and Nicholas Senn High School in 1962, both Chicago public schools,[10] and in 1966 from Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri,[1][11] where he was a member of the Alpha Xi chapter of Zeta Beta Tau fraternity.[12]Afterward, Ramis worked in a mental institution in St. Louis for seven months. He later said of his time working there that it:…prepared me well for when I went out to Hollywood to work with actors. People laugh when I say that, but it was actually very good training. And not just with actors; it was good training for just living in the world. It's knowing how to deal with people who might be reacting in a way that's connected to anxiety or grief or fear or rage. As a director, you're dealing with that constantly with actors. But if I were a businessman, I'd probably be applying those same principles to that line of work.[11]","title":"Early life"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"parodic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parody"},{"link_name":"Groucho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groucho_Marx"},{"link_name":"Harpo Marx","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harpo_Marx"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-newyorker-1"},{"link_name":"Vietnam War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_War"},{"link_name":"military draft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_draft"},{"link_name":"methamphetamine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methamphetamine"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GQcs-13"},{"link_name":"Robert Taylor Homes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Taylor_Homes"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"guerrilla television","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerrilla_television"},{"link_name":"TVTV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TVTV_(video_collective)"},{"link_name":"Michael Shamberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Shamberg"},{"link_name":"Chicago Daily News","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Daily_News"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fji-15"},{"link_name":"Second City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Second_City"},{"link_name":"improvisational comedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Improvisational_comedy"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Playboy magazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Playboy"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sacks-11"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fji-15"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT_obit-17"}],"sub_title":"Early years","text":"Ramis began writing parodic plays in college, saying years later, \"In my heart, I felt I was a combination of Groucho and Harpo Marx, of Groucho using his wit as a weapon against the upper classes, and of Harpo's antic charm and the fact that he was oddly sexy—he grabs women, pulls their skirts off, and gets away with it.\"[1] He avoided the Vietnam War military draft by taking methamphetamine to fail his draft physical.[13]Following his work in St. Louis, Ramis returned to Chicago, where by 1968, he was a substitute teacher at schools serving the inner-city Robert Taylor Homes public housing development.[14] He also became associated with the guerrilla television collective TVTV, headed by his college friend Michael Shamberg, and wrote freelance for the Chicago Daily News. \"Michael Shamberg, right out of college, had started freelancing for newspapers and got on as a stringer for a local paper, and I thought, 'Well, if Michael can do that, I can do that.' I wrote a spec piece and submitted it to the Chicago Daily News, the Arts & Leisure section, and they started giving me assignments [for] entertainment features.\"[15] Additionally, Ramis had begun studying and performing with Chicago's Second City improvisational comedy troupe.[16]Ramis's newspaper writing led to him becoming joke editor at Playboy magazine.[11] \"I called…just cold and said I had written several pieces freelance and did they have any openings. And they happened to have their entry-level job, party jokes editor, open. He liked my stuff and he gave me a stack of jokes that readers had sent in and asked me to rewrite them. I had been in Second City in the workshops already and Michael Shamberg and I had written comedy shows in college.\"[15] Ramis was eventually promoted to associate editor.[17]","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"John Belushi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Belushi"},{"link_name":"Bill Murray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Murray"},{"link_name":"The National Lampoon Radio Hour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_National_Lampoon_Radio_Hour"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-newyorker-1"},{"link_name":"Joe Flaherty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Flaherty"},{"link_name":"Christopher Guest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Guest"},{"link_name":"Gilda Radner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilda_Radner"},{"link_name":"The National Lampoon Show","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_National_Lampoon_Show"},{"link_name":"National Lampoon's Lemmings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Lampoon%27s_Lemmings"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"SCTV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_City_Television"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Saturday Night Live","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturday_Night_Live"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT_obit-17"},{"link_name":"Dialing for Dollars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialing_for_Dollars"},{"link_name":"Kenneth Clark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_Clark"},{"link_name":"Leonard Nimoy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Nimoy"},{"link_name":"David Jove","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Jove"},{"link_name":"Peter Ivers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Ivers"},{"link_name":"New Wave Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Wave_Theatre"},{"link_name":"Cyndi Lauper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyndi_Lauper"},{"link_name":"Girls Just Want to Have Fun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girls_Just_Want_to_Have_Fun"},{"link_name":"True Colors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/True_Colors_(Cyndi_Lauper_song)"},{"link_name":"the Hollies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hollies"},{"link_name":"Stop in the Name of Love","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stop_in_the_Name_of_Love"},{"link_name":"the Romantics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Romantics"},{"link_name":"Talking in Your Sleep","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talking_in_Your_Sleep_(The_Romantics_song)"},{"link_name":"What I Like About You","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_I_Like_About_You_(The_Romantics_song)"},{"link_name":"Rodney Dangerfield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodney_Dangerfield"},{"link_name":"Dan Aykroyd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dan_Aykroyd"},{"link_name":"Bill Murray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Murray"},{"link_name":"Andy Kaufman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andy_Kaufman"},{"link_name":"Happy Days","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happy_Days"},{"link_name":"Laverne and Shirley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laverne_and_Shirley"}],"sub_title":"National Lampoon, SCTV, and The Top","text":"After leaving Second City for a time and returning in 1972, having been replaced in the main cast by John Belushi, Ramis worked his way back as Belushi's deadpan foil. In 1974, Belushi brought Ramis and other Second City performers, including Ramis's frequent future collaborator Bill Murray, to New York City to work on The National Lampoon Radio Hour.[1]During this time, Ramis, Belushi, Murray, Joe Flaherty, Christopher Guest, and Gilda Radner starred in the revue The National Lampoon Show, the successor to National Lampoon's Lemmings.[18] Later, Ramis became a performer on, and head writer of, the Canadian sketch-comedy television series SCTV during its first three years (1976–1979).[19] At this juncture, SCTV was seen mainly in Canada, and also via syndication in scattered markets in the US. He was soon offered work as a writer at Saturday Night Live but chose to continue with SCTV.[17] Characterizations by Ramis on SCTV include weaselly, corrupt and constantly sweating Dialing for Dollars host/SCTV station manager Maurice \"Moe\" Green, outwardly amiable (but thoroughly fascist) cop Officer Friendly, exercise guru Swami Bananananda (whose real name was Dennis Peterson), stern board chairman Allan \"Crazy Legs\" Hirschman and home dentist Mort Finkel. His celebrity impressions on SCTV included Kenneth Clark and Leonard Nimoy.In 1984, Ramis executive produced a music/comedy/variety television show called The Top. The producer was Paul Flaherty and the director was David Jove. Ramis got involved after the mysterious death of his friend Peter Ivers, who had hosted Jove's underground show New Wave Theatre. He called Jove and offered to help. Flattery and Jove pitched him the idea for The Top, and Ramis was instrumental in getting it on the air.The show was a mixture of live music, videos, and humor. Performers on the show included Cyndi Lauper, who performed \"Girls Just Want to Have Fun\" and \"True Colors\"; the Hollies, who performed \"Stop in the Name of Love\"; and the Romantics, who performed their two hits at the time, \"Talking in Your Sleep\" and \"What I Like About You\".Guest stars included Rodney Dangerfield, Chevy Chase, and Dan Aykroyd. Ramis got Bill Murray to host but, because Ghostbusters filming ran late, he did not make it to the taping. Chase came out dressed as a \"punk\" of the time and somehow got into a physical altercation with an audience member (also a punk) during the opening monologue. He immediately left the taping. Flattery and Jove carried on with the show.Ramis then got Andy Kaufman to fill in for Chase and recorded the host segments at a separate, later, session; it would be Kaufman's final professional appearance.The Top aired on Friday, January 27, 1984, at 7 p.m. It scored a 7.7% rating and a 14% share. This represented a 28% rating increase and a 27% share increase over KTLA's regularly scheduled Happy Days/Laverne and Shirley.","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"National Lampoon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Lampoon_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"Douglas Kenney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Kenney"},{"link_name":"National Lampoon's Animal House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_House"},{"link_name":"Chris Miller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Miller_(writer)"},{"link_name":"college fraternity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_fraternity"},{"link_name":"college dean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dean_(education)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-newyorker-1"},{"link_name":"Heavy Metal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_Metal_(film)"},{"link_name":"Meatballs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meatballs_(film)"},{"link_name":"Bill Murray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Murray"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-newyorker-1"},{"link_name":"Caddyshack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caddyshack"},{"link_name":"Brian Doyle-Murray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Doyle-Murray"},{"link_name":"Chevy Chase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevy_Chase"},{"link_name":"Rodney Dangerfield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodney_Dangerfield"},{"link_name":"Ted Knight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ted_Knight"},{"link_name":"Pulitzer Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize"},{"link_name":"A Confederacy of Dunces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Confederacy_of_Dunces"},{"link_name":"John Kennedy Toole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Kennedy_Toole"},{"link_name":"John Belushi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Belushi"},{"link_name":"Richard Pryor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Pryor"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Dan Aykroyd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dan_Aykroyd"},{"link_name":"Ghostbusters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghostbusters"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Ghostbusters II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghostbusters_II"},{"link_name":"Groundhog Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groundhog_Day_(film)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-newyorker-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-newyorker-1"},{"link_name":"James L. Brooks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_L._Brooks"},{"link_name":"Academy Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_Award"},{"link_name":"As Good as It Gets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/As_Good_as_It_Gets"},{"link_name":"Judd Apatow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judd_Apatow"},{"link_name":"Knocked Up","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knocked_Up"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Bernie Mac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernie_Mac"},{"link_name":"Ashton Kutcher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashton_Kutcher"},{"link_name":"Guess Who","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guess_Who_(film)"},{"link_name":"The Ice Harvest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ice_Harvest"},{"link_name":"greenlit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenlight"},{"link_name":"John Cusack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Cusack"},{"link_name":"Billy Bob Thornton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy_Bob_Thornton"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-newyorker-1"},{"link_name":"Emma Goldman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emma_Goldman"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Ghostbusters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghostbusters_(2016_film)"},{"link_name":"Paul Feig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Feig"},{"link_name":"Columbia University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_University"},{"link_name":"Ghostbusters: Afterlife","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghostbusters:_Afterlife"}],"sub_title":"Film career","text":"Ramis left SCTV to pursue a film career and wrote a script with National Lampoon magazine's Douglas Kenney, which eventually became National Lampoon's Animal House. They were later joined by a third collaborator, Chris Miller. The 1978 film followed the struggle between a rowdy college fraternity house and the college dean. The film's humor was raunchy for its time. Animal House \"broke all box-office records for comedies\" and earned $141 million.[1]He also had a voice part as Zeke in the \"So Beautiful & So Dangerous\" segment of Heavy Metal in 1981.Ramis next co-wrote the comedy Meatballs, starring Bill Murray. The movie was a commercial success and became the first of six film collaborations between Murray and Ramis.[1] His third film and his directorial debut was Caddyshack, which he wrote with Kenney and Brian Doyle-Murray. It starred Chevy Chase, Rodney Dangerfield, Ted Knight, and Bill Murray. Like Ramis's previous two films, Caddyshack was a commercial success.In 1982, Ramis was attached to direct the film adaptation of the Pulitzer Prize-winning book A Confederacy of Dunces by John Kennedy Toole. The film was to star John Belushi and Richard Pryor, but the project was aborted.[20] In 1984, Ramis collaborated with Dan Aykroyd on the screenplay for Ghostbusters, which became one of the biggest comedy hits of all time, in which he also starred as Dr. Egon Spengler.[21] He reprised the role for the 1989 sequel, Ghostbusters II (which he also co-wrote with Aykroyd). His later film Groundhog Day has been called his \"masterpiece\".[1]His films have been noted for attacking \"the smugness of institutional life…with an impish good [will] that is unmistakably American.\" They are also noted for \"Ramis's signature tongue-in-cheek pep talks.\" Sloppiness and improv were also important aspects of his work. Ramis frequently depicted the qualities of \"anger, curiosity, laziness, and woolly idealism\" in \"a hyper-articulate voice\".[1]Ramis also occasionally acted in supporting roles in acclaimed films that he did not write or direct, such as James L. Brooks's Academy Award-winning As Good as It Gets (1997) and Judd Apatow's hit comedy Knocked Up (2007).[22]In 2004, Ramis turned down the opportunity to direct the Bernie Mac-Ashton Kutcher film Guess Who, then under the working title \"The Dinner Party\", because he considered it poorly written. That same year, he began filming the low-budget The Ice Harvest, \"his first attempt to make a comic film noir.\" Ramis spent six weeks trying to get the film greenlit because he had difficulty reaching an agreement about stars John Cusack's and Billy Bob Thornton's salaries. The film received mixed reviews. In 2004, Ramis's typical directing fee was $5 million.[1]In an interview in the documentary American Storytellers, Ramis said he hoped to make a film about Emma Goldman (even pitching Disney with the idea of having Bette Midler star)[23] but that none of the film studios were interested and that it would have been difficult to raise the funding.Ramis said in 2009 that he planned to make a third Ghostbusters film for release either in mid-2011[24] or for Christmas 2012.[25] A reboot to the franchise, also called Ghostbusters, was eventually made and released in 2016, directed and co-written by Paul Feig. In this film, a bronze bust of Ramis can be seen when Erin Gilbert leaves her office at Columbia University. Later, the second sequel to the original film, Ghostbusters: Afterlife, was released in 2021 and posthumously dedicated to him.","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-filmref-3"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-newyorker-1"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Ghostbusters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghostbusters"},{"link_name":"Bill Murray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Murray"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-newyorker-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-newyorker-1"},{"link_name":"Amy Heckerling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amy_Heckerling"},{"link_name":"Neal Israel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neal_Israel"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Daniel Mann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Mann"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-filmref-3"},{"link_name":"humanist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanism"},{"link_name":"Buddhist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist"},{"link_name":"Dalai Lama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalai_Lama"},{"link_name":"Chicago Cubs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Cubs"},{"link_name":"Wrigley Field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrigley_Field"},{"link_name":"seventh-inning stretch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seventh-inning_stretch"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-newyorker-1"}],"text":"Ramis was married twice and had four children. On July 2, 1967,[3] he married San Francisco artist Anne Plotkin, with whom he had a daughter, Violet Ramis Stiel.[1][26] Actor and Ghostbusters co-star Bill Murray is Violet's godfather.[1] Ramis and Plotkin separated in 1984 and later divorced.[1]Ramis' daughter Mollie Israel (known professionally as Mollie Heckerling) was born in 1985 to him and director Amy Heckerling, while Heckerling was married to actor-director Neal Israel.[27]In 1989, Ramis married Erica Mann, daughter of director Daniel Mann and actress Mary Kathleen Williams.[28] Together they had two sons, Julian Arthur and Daniel Hayes in 1990 and 1994.[3]Although Ramis maintained humanist beliefs, Erica's Buddhist upbringing greatly influenced his philosophies for the rest of his life, and he became friends with the Dalai Lama.Ramis was a Chicago Cubs fan, and when he moved back from Los Angeles to Chicago in the late 1990s, he would attend games at Wrigley Field, sometimes taking part of the seventh-inning stretch of \"Take Me Out to the Ball Game\".[29][30] His pastimes included fencing, ritual drumming, acoustic guitar, and making hats from felted fleece; additionally, he taught himself to ski by watching skiers on television.[1]","title":"Personal life"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Harold_Ramis_memorial.jpg"},{"link_name":"Firehouse, Hook & Ladder Company 8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firehouse,_Hook_%26_Ladder_Company_8"},{"link_name":"Ghostbusters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghostbusters_(franchise)"},{"link_name":"autoimmune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autoimmune_disease"},{"link_name":"inflammatory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflammation"},{"link_name":"vasculitis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasculitis"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chicagotribuneobit-31"},{"link_name":"North Shore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Shore_(Chicago)"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chicagotribuneobit-31"},{"link_name":"Dan Aykroyd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dan_Aykroyd"},{"link_name":"Chevy Chase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevy_Chase"},{"link_name":"Eugene Levy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugene_Levy"},{"link_name":"Dave Thomas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave_Thomas_(actor)"},{"link_name":"David Pasquesi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Pasquesi"},{"link_name":"Andrew Alexander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Alexander_(producer)"},{"link_name":"John Belushi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Belushi"},{"link_name":"Bernard Sahlins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Sahlins"},{"link_name":"Arlington Heights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arlington_Heights,_Illinois"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Barack Obama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barack_Obama"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Bill Murray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Murray"},{"link_name":"Groundhog Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groundhog_Day_(film)"},{"link_name":"Brian Doyle-Murray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Doyle-Murray"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"86th Academy Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/86th_Academy_Awards"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"Stephen Colbert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Colbert"},{"link_name":"The Colbert Report","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Colbert_Report"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"}],"text":"A memorial to Ramis at the Firehouse, Hook & Ladder Company 8 firehouse, where Ghostbusters was filmedIn May 2010, Ramis contracted an infection that resulted in complications from autoimmune inflammatory vasculitis and lost the ability to walk. After relearning to walk he suffered a relapse of the disease in late 2011.[31]He died of complications of the disease on February 24, 2014, at his home on Chicago's North Shore, at age 69.[31] A private funeral was held for him two days later with family, friends, and several collaborators in attendance, including Dan Aykroyd, Chevy Chase, Eugene Levy, Dave Thomas, David Pasquesi, Andrew Alexander, and the widows of John Belushi and Bernard Sahlins. He is buried at Shalom Memorial Park in Arlington Heights.[32]Upon Ramis's death, then-President Barack Obama released a statement, saying, \"When we watched his movies—from Animal House and Caddyshack to Ghostbusters and Groundhog Day—we didn't just laugh until it hurt. We questioned authority. We identified with the outsider. We rooted for the underdog. And through it all, we never lost our faith in happy endings.\"[33] He ended his statement by saying he hoped Ramis \"received total consciousness\", in reference to a line from Caddyshack.[34]Ramis and longtime collaborator Bill Murray had a falling out during the filming of Groundhog Day, which Ramis attributed to problems that Murray had in his own life at the time, plus creative differences between the two about the overall direction and mood of the film. They did not speak for more than 20 years. Shortly before Ramis's death, Murray, encouraged by his brother Brian Doyle-Murray, visited him to make amends with a box of doughnuts and a police escort, according to Ramis's daughter Violet. At that point, Ramis had lost most of his ability to speak, so Murray did most of the talking over several hours.[35] Murray gave a tribute to Ramis at the 86th Academy Awards.[36]Stephen Colbert paid tribute to Ramis on an episode of his show The Colbert Report. Colbert said that \"as a young, bookish man with glasses looking for a role model, I might have picked Harold Ramis.\" He ended the show by thanking him.[37]","title":"Illness and death"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"St. Louis Walk of Fame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Louis_Walk_of_Fame"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Austin Film Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austin_Film_Festival"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Writers Guild of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writers_Guild_of_America"},{"link_name":"Laurel Award for Screenwriting Achievement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurel_Award_for_Screenwriting_Achievement"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"The Second City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Second_City"},{"link_name":"Ghostbusters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghostbusters_(2016_film)"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"Ghostbusters: Afterlife","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghostbusters:_Afterlife"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"}],"text":"In 2004, Ramis was inducted into the St. Louis Walk of Fame.[38] In 2005, he received the Austin Film Festival's Distinguished Screenwriter Award.[39] In 2010, he received a lifetime achievement award from the Chicago Improv Festival.[40] In 2015, the Writers Guild of America posthumously honored him with their lifetime achievement award, the Laurel Award for Screenwriting Achievement.[41]In 2016, two years after his death, The Second City founded the Harold Ramis Film School, the first film school to focus solely on film comedy, in his honor.The 2016 film Ghostbusters, a reboot of the series Ramis co-created and starred in, was posthumously dedicated to him.[42] A bust of Ramis appears in the film.[43][44] In the 2021 movie Ghostbusters: Afterlife, the age-progressed image of Ramis appears as the ghost of Egon Spengler; a dedication before the end credits also reads \"for Harold.\"On February 2, 2024, Chicago declared every February 2nd going forward to be \"Harold Ramis Day\".[45][46]","title":"Awards and honors"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ivan Reitman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Reitman"},{"link_name":"National Lampoon's Animal House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_House"},{"link_name":"Meatballs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meatballs_(film)"},{"link_name":"Stripes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stripes_(film)"},{"link_name":"Ghostbusters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghostbusters"},{"link_name":"Ghostbusters II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghostbusters_II"}],"text":"Ramis frequently collaborated with director Ivan Reitman. He co-wrote National Lampoon's Animal House, which Reitman produced, then co-wrote the Reitman comedy Meatballs; he co-wrote and appeared in the Reitman films Stripes, Ghostbusters, and Ghostbusters II.","title":"Collaborations"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The First $20 Million Is Always the Hardest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_First_$20_Million_Is_Always_the_Hardest"},{"link_name":"I Want Someone to Eat Cheese With","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Want_Someone_to_Eat_Cheese_With"},{"link_name":"Archie's Final Project","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archie%27s_Final_Project"}],"sub_title":"Film","text":"Executive producerThe First $20 Million Is Always the Hardest (2002)\nI Want Someone to Eat Cheese With (2006)\nArchie's Final Project (2009)","title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Television","title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Acting roles","title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Video games","title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Archival appearances","title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Penguin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penguin_Random_House"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780735217898","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780735217898"}],"text":"Ramis Stiel, Violet (2018). Ghostbuster's Daughter: Life with My Dad, Harold Ramis. Penguin. ISBN 9780735217898.","title":"Bibliography"}]
|
[{"image_text":"A memorial to Ramis at the Firehouse, Hook & Ladder Company 8 firehouse, where Ghostbusters was filmed","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Harold_Ramis_memorial.jpg/220px-Harold_Ramis_memorial.jpg"}]
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[{"reference":"Friend, Tad (April 19, 2004). \"Comedy First: How Harold Ramis's movies have stayed funny for twenty-five years\". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on April 6, 2008. Retrieved August 28, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tad_Friend","url_text":"Friend, Tad"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080406021902/http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2004/04/19/040419fa_fact3?currentPage=all","url_text":"\"Comedy First: How Harold Ramis's movies have stayed funny for twenty-five years\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_Yorker","url_text":"The New Yorker"},{"url":"http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2004/04/19/040419fa_fact3?currentPage=all","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Awards Database—Film: Original Screenplay\". bafta.org. British Academy of Film and Television Arts. Retrieved August 16, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://awards.bafta.org/award/1994/film/original-screenplay","url_text":"\"Awards Database—Film: Original Screenplay\""}]},{"reference":"\"Harold Ramis Biography (1944–)\". FilmReference.com. Retrieved February 24, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.filmreference.com/film/53/Harold-Ramis.html","url_text":"\"Harold Ramis Biography (1944–)\""}]},{"reference":"\"'Ghostbusters' Actor, 'Caddyshack' Director Harold Ramis Dies at 69\". Algemeiner Journal. February 24, 2014. Retrieved April 24, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.algemeiner.com/2014/02/24/'ghostbusters'-actor-'caddyshack'-director-harold-ramis-dies-at-69/","url_text":"\"'Ghostbusters' Actor, 'Caddyshack' Director Harold Ramis Dies at 69\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algemeiner_Journal","url_text":"Algemeiner Journal"}]},{"reference":"Sacks, Ethan (February 24, 2014). \"Harold Ramis dead at 69: Actor-director-writer was best remembered for 'Ghostbusters,' 'Groundhog Day'\". New York Daily News. Retrieved April 24, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nydailynews.com/2014/02/24/harold-ramis-dead-at-69-actor-director-writer-was-best-remembered-for-ghostbusters-groundhog-day/","url_text":"\"Harold Ramis dead at 69: Actor-director-writer was best remembered for 'Ghostbusters,' 'Groundhog Day'\""}]},{"reference":"\"Harold Ramis, Judd Apatow talk \"Groundhog Day,\" Buddhism, and San Francisco in the 60s\". Lion's Roar. July 18, 2016. Retrieved April 24, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.lionsroar.com/harold-ramis-judd-apatow-talk-groundhog-day-and-buddhism/","url_text":"\"Harold Ramis, Judd Apatow talk \"Groundhog Day,\" Buddhism, and San Francisco in the 60s\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lion%27s_Roar_(magazine)","url_text":"Lion's Roar"}]},{"reference":"Loerzel, Robert (April 24, 2014). \"11 Questions for Harold Ramis: An Unpublished Interview\". Chicago magazine. Retrieved April 24, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.chicagomag.com/arts-culture/February-2014/Harold-Ramis-Q-A/","url_text":"\"11 Questions for Harold Ramis: An Unpublished Interview\""}]},{"reference":"Leopold, Todd (February 24, 2014). \"Harold Ramis of 'Ghostbusters,' 'Groundhog Day' fame dies\". CNN.com. Retrieved February 25, 2014. Asked by The New York Times about the existential questions raised by \"Groundhog Day\" – and competing interpretations of the film's meaning – he mentioned that he didn't practice any religion himself.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cnn.com/2014/02/24/showbiz/movies/obit-harold-ramis/","url_text":"\"Harold Ramis of 'Ghostbusters,' 'Groundhog Day' fame dies\""}]},{"reference":"\"Chicago Public Schools Alumni: 'Senn, Nicolas Senn High School'\". Cpsalumni.org. Archived from the original on February 16, 2012. Retrieved February 24, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120216193821/http://www.cpsalumni.org/honor_roll/jan/01/2008/harold-ramis","url_text":"\"Chicago Public Schools Alumni: 'Senn, Nicolas Senn High School'\""},{"url":"http://www.cpsalumni.org/honor_roll/jan/01/2008/harold-ramis","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Zeta Beta Tau – Notable Alumni\". Zeta Beta Tau Fraternity. Archived from the original on December 5, 2016. Retrieved January 1, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161205230940/http://www.zbt.org/who-we-are/notable-alumni.html","url_text":"\"Zeta Beta Tau – Notable Alumni\""},{"url":"http://www.zbt.org/who-we-are/notable-alumni.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Martin, Brett (July 2009). \"Harold Ramis Gets the Last Laugh\". GQ: 64–67, 124–25. Archived from the original on July 1, 2009. 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|
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And Here's the Kicker...: Conversations with Top Humor Writers About Their Craft"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090619080734/http://www.andheresthekicker.com/ex_harold_ramis.php","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161205230940/http://www.zbt.org/who-we-are/notable-alumni.html","external_links_name":"\"Zeta Beta Tau – Notable Alumni\""},{"Link":"http://www.zbt.org/who-we-are/notable-alumni.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090701134936/http://men.style.com/gq/features/full?id=content_9558&pageNum=5","external_links_name":"\"Harold Ramis Gets the Last Laugh\""},{"Link":"http://men.style.com/gq/features/full?id=content_9558&pageNum=5","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.filmjournal.com/filmjournal/content_display/esearch/e3idff59d66183db8680e5f9b5f083fa8ab?pn=1","external_links_name":"\"Ramis' realm: Comedy creator surveys career from Second City to 'Year 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Louis Walk of Fame Inductees: Harold Ramis\""},{"Link":"http://www.stlouiswalkoffame.org/inductees/harold-ramis.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120815044949/http://www.austinfilmfestival.com/festivalandconference/conference/award-recipients/","external_links_name":"\"Austin Film Festival Past Award Recipients\""},{"Link":"http://www.austinfilmfestival.com/festivalandconference/conference/award-recipients/","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://gapersblock.com/ac/2010/03/30/chicago-improv-festival-april-19-25/","external_links_name":"\"Chicago Improv Festival April 19–25\""},{"Link":"https://variety.com/2015/film/news/harold-ramis-writers-guild-screen-laurel-award-1201403973/","external_links_name":"\"Harold Ramis Honored by Writers Guild with Screen Laurel Award\""},{"Link":"https://www.villagevoice.com/2016/07/10/busted-flat-all-too-normal-activity-dominates-the-ghostbusters-remake/","external_links_name":"\"Busted 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